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11,031,224 | ACCEPTED | Electrical circuit apparatus and methods for assembling same | An electrical circuit apparatus (300) that includes: a substrate (330) having a ground layer (336), at least one thermal aperture (332), and at least one solder aperture (334); a heat sink (310); and an adhesive layer (320) for mechanically coupling the heat sink to the ground layer of the substrate such that at least a portion of the at least one substrate thermal aperture overlaps the heat sink, the adhesive layer having at least one thermal aperture (322) and at least one solder aperture (324), wherein aligning the at least one substrate solder aperture with the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture and aligning the at least one substrate thermal aperture with the at least one adhesive layer thermal aperture enables solder wetting in a predetermined area between the heat sink and the ground layer of the substrate. | 1-16. (canceled) 17. A method for assembling an electrical circuit apparatus comprising a substrate having a top side, a ground layer, at least one thermal aperture, and at least one solder aperture, a heat sink, and an adhesive layer having at least one thermal aperture and at least one solder aperture, said method comprising the steps of: a) aligning the at least one substrate solder aperture with the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture and aligning the at least one substrate thermal aperture with the at least one adhesive layer thermal aperture; b) mechanically coupling said heat sink to the ground layer of said substrate using said adhesive layer such that at least a portion of said at least one substrate thermal aperture overlaps said heat sink; c) filling at least a portion of said at least one adhesive layer solder aperture and at least a portion of said at least one substrate thermal aperture with solder; and d) performing a process for solder wetting, wherein the aligning of the at least one substrate solder aperture with the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture and the aligning of the at least one substrate thermal aperture with the at least one adhesive layer thermal aperture causes said solder to flow from the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture to a predetermined area between said heat sink and the ground layer of said substrate. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein said electrical circuit apparatus further comprises a device, and wherein said method further comprises the step after step c) of mounting said device onto the topside of said substrate such that at least a portion of said device covers at least a portion of said at least one substrate thermal aperture and such that said device is coupled to said heat sink via at least a portion of said at least one substrate thermal aperture. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein said device is coupled to said substrate and said heat sink and said solder wetting occurs during a single pass solder reflow process. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein said solder reflow process uses a no-lead solder. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein said solder reflow process uses a leaded solder. 22. The method of claim 17, wherein at least a portion of the steps of said method are performed as part of an automated process. 23. The method of claim 17, wherein at least a portion of the steps of said method are performed manually. 24-37. (canceled) 38. A method for assembling an electrical circuit apparatus comprising a substrate having a top side, a ground layer, and at least one solder aperture, a heat sink, and an adhesive layer having at least one solder aperture, said method comprising the steps of: a) aligning the at least one substrate solder aperture with the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture; b) mechanically coupling said heat sink to the ground layer of said substrate using said adhesive layer; c) filling at least a portion of said at least one adhesive layer solder aperture with solder; and d) performing a process for solder wetting, wherein the aligning of the at least one substrate solder aperture with the at least one adhesive layer solder aperture causes said solder to flow from said at least one adhesive layer solder aperture to a predetermined area between said heat sink and the ground layer of said substrate. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein said electrical circuit apparatus further comprises a device, and wherein said method further comprises the step after step c) of mounting said device onto the topside of said substrate. 40. The method of claim 39, wherein said device is coupled to said substrate and said solder wetting occurs during a single pass solder reflow process. 41. The method of claim 40, wherein said solder reflow process uses a no-lead solder. 42. The method of claim 40, wherein said solder reflow process uses a leaded solder. 43. The method of claim 38, wherein at least a portion of the steps of said method are performed as part of an automated process. 44. The method of claim 38, wherein at least a portion of the steps of said method are performed manually. 45. The method of claim 38, wherein said substrate further comprises at least one venting hole, and step a) further comprises aligning said at least one venting hole with said at least one adhesive layer solder aperture. 46-49. (canceled) | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is related to the following U.S. application commonly owned together with this application by Motorola, Inc.: Ser. No. ______, filed Oct. 2, 2003, titled “Electrical Circuit Apparatus and Method for Assembling Same” by Waldvogel, et al. (attorney docket no. CM06195G). FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to methods and electrical circuit apparatus, wherein components are mounted to a circuit board. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION When constructing power amplifiers various components must be mounted to a circuit board or substrate. Many of these components are mounted to a top side of the circuit board using a known solder reflow process. For instance, a load resistor having at least one input terminal and having a ground portion or flange may be mounted to the top side of the circuit board. When mounting a load resistor to a circuit board, three factors must be balanced. First, the load resistor must have a proper and sufficient electrical connection to the circuit board, wherein the input terminals are soldered to the top side of the circuit board and the ground flange is sufficiently coupled to a heat sink that is typically soldered locally to the underside of the circuit board in an area primarily surrounding the load resistor. In addition, a sufficient thermal conduction path must be established between the load resistor and the heat sink. Moreover, load resistors are typically made of a ceramic material, which presents a thermal expansion mismatch between the load resistor and the heat sink since the heat sink typically has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than the ceramic load resistor. This CTE mismatch can result in local distortion or warping of the circuit board after assembly. Solder joint reliability can also be significantly degraded in a thermal cycling application. Other components that are mounted to the top side of the circuit board such as, for instance, an inductor coil may require an electrical isolation from a heat sink located below the component. These types of components may have both input and output terminals that are coupled to the top side of the circuit board, have heat dissipation needs and require a thermal conduction path to the heat sink below, but require an electrical isolation from the heat sink. There are a number of methods used for mounting devices such as load resistors and inductor coils to a circuit board, including a hybrid manufacturing process using fixtures (i.e., a one pass solder reflow process) and a two pass solder reflow process. The hybrid manufacturing process is typically associated with ceramic circuit boards and possibly with carrier plates that serve as heat sinks. Due to the fragility of the substrate, large fixtures are usually required for its alignment and protection during processing. The use of fixtures usually forces manual processing. One disadvantage of the hybrid manufacturing process is that it is more costly than other manufacturing methods primarily due to the added cost of the fixtures used in the process and also due to the need for a number of manual steps that generate a lower production throughput. An additional disadvantage is that manufacturing with fixtures produces a significant variation in part placement and solder attachment due to fixture tolerances or due to fixture degradation with repeated use. Turning now to the two pass solder reflow process. During the first pass of the solder reflow process, a plurality of heat sinks are locally coupled to the ground layer of a circuit board in areas primarily surrounding where power components will be mounted. Thereafter, solder is placed in strategic areas on the board, and a plurality of components, including RF transistors, load resistors and inductor coils, are mounted onto and soldered to the board in a second pass of the reflow solder process. A primary disadvantage of the two pass reflow process is that it requires one high-temperature reflow pass with a high melting temperature solder alloy, and a second subsequent reflow pass with a lower melting temperature solder allow. The first pass exposes the circuit board to high temperature, which can result in damage such as distortion. The requirement of two independent passes with different solder temperature settings limits manufacturing throughput. The two pass approach also does not lend itself well to no-lead solder because the first temperature needed to attach the heat sinks would have to exceed the elevated no-lead solder reflow temperature. This is a significant disadvantage because no-lead solder attachment may likely become a key product differentiator in the near future since some markets, especially European markets, are moving toward requiring no-lead solder attachment. In addition, neither the hybrid manufacturing process nor the two pass solder reflow process addresses the thermal expansion mismatch issues that arise when mounting devices such as ceramic load resistors to a circuit board. Thus, there exists a need for a cost effective method and electrical circuit apparatus wherein: components may be mounted to a circuit board without the need for fixtures; the process for assembling the electrical circuit apparatus is compatible with a single pass solder reflow process that is compatible with, but is not limited to no-lead solder; and any thermal expansion mismatch problems in the electrical circuit apparatus are addressed and, when possible, minimized. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES A preferred embodiment of the invention is now described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying figures in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus including a heat sink, an adhesive layer, a substrate, and a ceramic device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates an assembled topside view of electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 4 prior to solder wetting; FIG. 6 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 4 subsequent to solder wetting; FIG. 7 illustrates an X-Ray image of an assembled electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention after device population and reflow soldering; FIG. 8 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus including a heat sink, an adhesive layer, a substrate, and a device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates an assembled topside view of electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 11 prior to solder wetting; and FIG. 13 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 11 subsequent to solder wetting. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT While this invention is susceptible of embodiments in many different forms, there are shown in the figures and will herein be described in detail specific embodiments, with the understanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as an example of the principles of the invention and not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments shown and described. Further, the terms and words used herein are not to be considered limiting, but rather merely descriptive. It will also be appreciated that for simplicity and clarity of illustration, elements shown in the figures have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements are exaggerated relative to each other. Further, where considered appropriate, reference numerals have been repeated among the figures to indicate corresponding elements. The present invention includes a method and electrical circuit apparatus, wherein components may be mounted to a circuit board. In a first aspect of the invention, a device is mounted to the top side of the circuit board and has a primary heat extraction area that may be grounded. FIG. 1 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a circuit board or substrate 100 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, substrate 100 is an organic circuit board such as a printed circuit board (PCB). However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that other substrates (ceramic, for example) may be incorporated. Substrate 100 includes a ground layer (not shown), which may comprise a bottom side of the substrate or may, alternatively, exist internal to the top side and the bottom side of the substrate. The ground layer is typically comprised of copper, which may be coated or plated with a variety of protective layers (e.g., organic surface coating, tin, nickel or gold). Substrate 100 may include pads 10 and 20 for enabling a component to be mounted on the topside of substrate 100. For instance, where a load resistor having at least one input terminal and a ground flange is being mounted to substrate 100, the input terminals may be coupled to the substrate at one pad 10, and the ground flange may be coupled to the substrate at the other pad 20. Substrate 100 further includes at least one but typically a plurality of, thermal apertures (commonly referred to as thermal vias) 40, that are electrically and thermally conducting cut-outs extending through the substrate, for instance through pad 20, and by which a component may be coupled both electrically and thermally to a heat sink below for grounding of the component and for heat dissipation of the component. In one embodiment, a device such as a load resistor may be coupled to the heat sink via thermal apertures 40. However, it is appreciated that the device may be any device that is mounted in one region of the substrate, i.e., the top side of the substrate, but that can also be coupled to the heat sink below the substrate such as, for instance, surface mount transistors or chip capacitors. Substrate 100 further includes solder apertures 30 that are cut-outs extending through the substrate for accommodating solder addition prior to solder wetting. Solder wetting is defined as the flow of molten solder due to surface tension forces along a surface or multiple surfaces away from the initial area of solder addition. The solder may be in the form of paste, pellets, etc., and may be leaded or no-lead solder. The placement, size and dimensions of the solder apertures 30 are predetermined and assist in causing solder wetting in a predetermined area, for instance, between a heat sink and the ground layer of the substrate 100. FIG. 1 illustrates two oval shaped solder apertures 30. The placement, size and dimensions of solder apertures 30 are exemplary for optimal solder wetting beneath a load resistor. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that depending upon the particular component being mounted and the desired area for solder wetting, there may be more or fewer solder apertures in other locations on the substrate and having other sizes and dimensions. FIG. 2 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer 200 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Adhesive layer 200 corresponds to substrate portion 100 of FIG. 1 and is used for mechanically coupling at least a portion of one heat sink to the ground layer of substrate 100 such that at least a portion of thermal apertures 40 overlap the heat sink. Adhesive layer 200 is typically comprised of a flexible material with adhesive and cohesive properties that are stable over the high temperature of the reflow soldering process. The material is typically electrically non-conducting but may also be a conducting material. In one embodiment, the material is a flexible, pressure sensitive acrylic adhesive. In another embodiment, a flexible liquid or film adhesive requiring a curing process (e.g., elevated temperature) may be used. Adhesive layer 200 may be manufactured having a predetermined thickness, the purpose of which will be discussed below. Adhesive layer 200 includes at least one thermal aperture 240, wherein at least portion of the thermal aperture 240 is located beneath pad 20 of substrate 100 and also beneath at least a portion of a device mounted on top of substrate 100. Thermal aperture 240 is likewise a cut-out that extends through the adhesive layer and that has a size and dimensions that enables sufficient coupling between the device and the heat sink but that provides electrical isolation where needed between the device and the heat sink. Adhesive layer 200 further includes solder apertures 230 that correspond to solder apertures 30 in substrate 100. Solder apertures 230 are cut-outs that likewise extend through adhesive layer 200 for accommodating solder prior to solder wetting. At least one venting feature or aperture 250, which is an additional cut out in the adhesive layer, may be added in conjunction solder apertures 230. Venting feature 250 is typically located on a predetermined area of the adhesive layer 200 for enabling solder volatiles to escape for optimal solder wetting. The placement, size and dimensions of solder apertures 230 are predetermined and may have portions that are essentially the same size and dimensions as that of solder apertures 30 in the substrate so that the aligning of—solder apertures 30 with solder apertures 230, and the aligning of thermal apertures 40 with thermal aperture 240 provides for a precise cavity for guiding and controlling solder wetting from the solder apertures (30,230) to a predetermined area, for instance, between a heat sink and the ground layer of substrate 100. The venting feature 250 has no corresponding aperture in the substrate and functions to permit volatiles trapped within solder to escape during solder wetting. As such, the venting features typically extend to the edge of the heat sink after attachment. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, there is only one venting feature 250 illustrated, and it is located adjacent to the adhesive layer thermal aperture 240. However, it is appreciated that additional venting features may be used. Moreover, the size, dimension, number and placement of the venting features may be determined, for instance, as a function of the desired solder wetting between the substrate ground layer and the heat sink and as a function of the edge of the heat sink relative to the solder apertures 230 and the thermal aperture 240. The venting feature in this embodiment is an aperture through the adhesive layer, but it is understood that the venting feature may be one or more holes in the substrate as described by reference to FIGS. 8 and 10. The adhesive layer may, thus, be die-cut from an adhesive film or adhesive coated film for repeatability in producing the desired thickness and shape of the adhesive layer. FIG. 3 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus 300 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Circuit apparatus 300 includes a heat sink 310, an adhesive layer 320, a substrate portion 330, and a device 340. Heat sink 310 may be comprised of a suitable high thermal conductive material such as, for instance, copper or aluminum, that allows wetting of solder and attachment of adhesive materials selected for the circuit apparatus assembly process. However, in another embodiment of the present invention, heat sink 310 may be comprised of a material having a coefficient of thermal expansion (“CTE”) that is essentially matched to that of device 340 to minimize thermal expansion differences between device 340 and the heat sink 310. Heat sink 310 has two primary sides 312 and 314. At side 312: substrate portion 330 is attached using adhesive layer 320; device 340 is coupled using solder; and heat is input into heat sink 310 for dissipation. The opposite side 314 is the primary region of heat extraction from circuit apparatus 300, as well as the primary mounting surface for circuit apparatus 300. In one embodiment, the size of the heat sink is larger than that of the heat dissipating device (e.g., device 340), such that desirable heat spreading can be achieved. Adhesive layer 320 is in accordance with the adhesive layer as described by reference to FIG. 2. Accordingly, adhesive layer 320 includes a thermal aperture 322, solder apertures 324, and a venting feature 350. Substrate portion 330 is in accordance with the substrate portion as described by reference to FIG. 1. Accordingly, substrate portion 330 includes thermal apertures 332, solder apertures 334, and a ground layer 336. Substrate 330 also typically includes a plurality of pads 338 on the topside of the substrate onto which the device 340 may be coupled and through which the substrate thermal apertures may extend. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, ground layer 336 comprises the bottom side of substrate 330. However, it is realized that ground layer 336 may be internal to substrate 330, wherein substrate 330 would further include a recess for exposing the ground layer, the recess typically having dimensions that are slightly larger than that of heat sink 310. Finally, device 340 may comprise at least one input terminal 342 and a ground portion or flange 346. In one embodiment, device 340 is a load resistor. However, it is appreciated that device 340 may also be any device that is mounted on the top side of the substrate portion 330 but that may also be coupled to the heat sink 310. It is also appreciated that the load resistor is typically a ceramic device consisting of materials such as aluminum oxide, beryllium oxide or aluminum nitride having a low CTE, typically in the range 4 to 9 ppm/° C. Accordingly, in another aspect of the present invention heat sink 310 may be selected having a material with a CTE that essentially matches that of the ceramic load resistor to minimize thermal expansion mismatch between the component and the heat sink. The above-described elements of circuit apparatus 300 may be assembled as follows in accordance with the present invention. Adhesive layer 320 is aligned with substrate 330 such that adhesive layer thermal aperture 322 is aligned with substrate thermal apertures 332 and adhesive layer solder apertures 324 are aligned with substrate solder apertures 334. Heat sink 310 is mechanically coupled to the ground layer 336 of substrate 330 using adhesive layer 320, such that heat sink 310 is aligned with substrate 330 and at least a portion of thermal apertures 322 and 332 overlap heat sink 310. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3, heat sink 310 is coupled locally to substrate 330 in an area that completely surrounds device 340 for providing an optimal thermal conduction path. Solder is placed on the substrate pads (and thereby on at least a portion of the substrate thermal apertures), and into at least a portion of the adhesive layer solder apertures 324 for subsequent solder wetting to couple the device input terminals 342 to the substrate pads and to couple the device flange 346 to the heat sink 310, thereby grounding the device 340. Typically, solder paste is screen-printed on the substrate pads and into the solder apertures 324. However, in other embodiments, other forms of solder, e.g., solder pellets or pre-forms, may be implemented. It is further appreciated that during solder addition, solder may also be added to at least a portion of the substrate solder apertures 334. In fact, typically both the substrate and adhesive layer solder apertures (324,334) are filled during solder addition. The device 340 is mounted onto the topside of substrate 330 such that at least one input terminal 342 comes into contact with the solder on the corresponding pad on the topside of substrate 330 and at least a portion of the device flange 346 covers at least a portion of substrate thermal apertures 332. Population of the substrate 330 with the device 340 may be done manually, but is typically done using an automated process for efficiency and cost effectiveness during the manufacturing process. The populated substrate 330 may be placed in a reflow oven and thereafter cooled, wherein: a solder connection between the device inputs terminal 342 and the corresponding substrate pad is completed; solder wets through a least a portion of the substrate thermal apertures 332; and solder wets from the solder apertures (324,334) into the cavity between the ground layer 336 and the heat sink 310 to complete the grounding and thermal coupling of device 340. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the steps of the method according to the present invention described above may be performed as part of an automated process, and ideally all of the steps are so performed. However, it is realized that any of the above described steps in various combinations may be performed manually or as part of an automated process. Mechanical attachment of the heat sink to the substrate prior to reflow eliminates the need for fixtures to hold the heat sink in place during the surface mount technology (SMT) processing and adds robustness during the assembly process for handling of the circuit apparatus assembly. Assembly of the electrical circuit apparatus may be performed during a single pass reflow process for the thermal coupling and device grounding and topside SMT attachment, thereby lending itself well with the use of no-lead solder or leaded solder. The adhesive layer solder apertures, the substrate ground layer and the wettable heat sink surface promote wetting of solder from the solder apertures to areas of critical thermal transfer and RF grounding during reflow. High surface energy surfaces above (substrate ground layer) and below (heat sink) promote the wetting of solder to the open space between the two wettable surfaces. These surfaces also provide ideal adhesive bonding surfaces yielding high adhesion strength between the heat sink and the substrate. During solder addition, solder fills many of the substrate thermal apertures for subsequent solder wetting to produce a good thermal conduction path from the device to the heat sink, as well as a sufficient ground connection. Use of a film adhesive with controlled thickness produces a highly repeatable separation, resulting in lower variation of this critical dimension for the manufacturing process. A venting feature may be created by extending the adhesive cut-out to the edge of the circuit board or through at least one venting hole formed in the circuit board. This venting feature further promotes optimal solder filling in the separation by allowing solder paste volatiles to escape. The size and shape of the solder apertures for the paste also defines the volume of molten solder to fill the separation and is easily controlled to optimize thermal coupling and RF grounding. The combination of this control of solder volume and the termination of the region of two high surface energy surfaces created by the cut-outs in the adhesive restricts the flow of molten solder to the region of interest. The resulting ground layer-to-heat sink solder connection produces repeatable thermal and RF ground paths from the load resistor to the heat sink, wherein the ground paths are directly beneath the body of the device for optimal electrical performance. A high thermal conductivity, low CTE heat sink is used in the electrical circuit apparatus to manage the power dissipation needs of the ceramic load resistor while also minimizing thermal expansion differences with the low CTE ceramic load resistor. Since the bulk of the attachment of the heat sink to the substrate is accomplished using a low-stiffness adhesive, thermal expansion differences between the heat sink and matching components on top of the substrate ( e.g., ceramic components, such as RF matching capacitors, that have a much lower coefficient of thermal expansion than the heat sink) are decoupled, thus improving the reliability of the components and corresponding solder joints. Moreover, the thermal apertures enable a good thermal conduction path between the ground flange of the device and the heat sink. FIG. 3, for simplicity, illustrates a portion of a substrate having one component mounted thereon using methods described above in accordance with the present invention. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that a substrate typically has a plurality of components. Those of ordinary skill in the art will further realize that although FIG. 3 illustrates heat sink 310 being coupled locally to substrate 330 beneath only one device 340, typically heat sink 310 is coupled locally beneath a plurality of devices for efficiency in manufacturing and to minimize manufacturing costs. In addition, FIG. 3 only shows one heat sink being coupled to substrate 330. However, it is appreciated that a plurality of heat sinks may be coupled to the substrate. FIG. 4 illustrates an assembled topside view of an electrical circuit apparatus 400, in accordance with the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 3, subsequent to a solder paste screening and device population but prior to solder wetting. Illustrated in FIG. 4 is the topside of a device 410 that has been mounted onto a substrate 414, wherein the at least one device input terminal 420 has made contact with the solder on a pad (not shown) on the top side of the substrate 414, and a ground flange (not shown) has made contact with solder on another substrate pad 430 on the topside of the substrate 414. Also illustrated are two solder apertures 440 that have been filled with solder using known methods, and a cross-section line labeled A-A illustrates a cross-sectional area of the electrical circuit apparatus 400 that will be discussed in detail by reference to FIGS. 5 and 6. FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus 400 illustrated in FIG. 4 prior to solder wetting. This cross-sectional view illustrates a device 510 having at least one input terminal 514 and a ground flange 532 coupled to pads 522 on a substrate 524 via a solder layer 520. At least a portion of ground flange 532 is mounted over a plurality of thermal apertures 564 that extend through substrate 524. A ground layer 528 of substrate 524 is mechanically coupled to a heat sink 550 via an adhesive layer 540, wherein the adhesive layer 540 creates a precise cavity 544 between the ground layer 528 and heat sink 550. Further illustrated is solder 560 that has been added using known methods into a solder aperture 570. FIG. 6 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus 400 illustrated in FIG. 4 subsequent to solder wetting. Those elements that are identical to the elements illustrated in FIG. 5 are correspondingly identically labeled in FIG. 6 and for the sake of brevity are not described again here. FIG. 6, however, further illustrates solder wetting 610 of solder 520 into at least a portion of the thermal apertures and of solder from solder aperture 570 into an area between the ground layer 528 of the substrate 524 and the heat sink 550, for thermal coupling and grounding between the device flange 532 and the heat sink 550, directly beneath the body of device 510. FIG. 7 illustrates an X-Ray image of an assembled electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with the present invention after device population and reflow soldering. This X-Ray image clearly shows how solder has wetted from solder apertures 710 and within thermal apertures 720 to produce ideal solder connections between the ground layer of the substrate and the heat sink and between the ground flange of the device and the heat sink in an area directly beneath the body of the device. A number of exemplary advantages over the prior art can be realized using the method and electrical circuit apparatus of the present invention, wherein power devices may be mounted to a circuit board. These advantages include, but are not limited to: (1) minimization of thermal mismatch problems by matching the CTE of, for instance, a load resistor and the heat sink; (2) a good thermal path from the bottom of the device, though a plurality of thermal apertures, to a heat sink directly below; (3) repeatable solder attachment of the ground layer of the circuit board to the heat sink, directly under the device; (4) mechanical attachment of the heat sink to the circuit board to add robustness to assembly for handling and subsequent module assembly; (5) elimination of the need for fixtures in a one-step or single pass reflow soldering process that lends itself to no-lead solder or leaded solder; and (6) solder attachment for thermal management and for RF grounding can be accomplished during SMT attachment of other components to the circuit board without requiring additional process steps. In another aspect of the present invention, a device is mounted to the top side of a circuit board and requires heat dissipation via a heat sink mounted below the circuit board but also requires electrical isolation from the heat sink. FIG. 8 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a circuit board or substrate 800 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, substrate 800 is an organic circuit board such as a printed circuit board (PCB). However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that other substrates (ceramic, for example) may be incorporated. Substrate 800 includes a ground layer (not shown), which may comprise a bottom side of the substrate or may, alternatively, exist internal to the top side and the bottom side of the substrate. The ground layer is typically comprised of copper, which may be coated or plated with a variety of protective layers (e.g., organic surface coating, tin, nickel or gold). Substrate 800 may also include pads 820 for enabling a component to be mounted on the topside of substrate 800. For instance, where an inductor coil having at least one input terminal and at least one output terminal is being mounted to substrate 800, the input terminals may be coupled to the substrate at one pad 820, and the output terminals may be coupled to the substrate at the other pad 820. Substrate 800 further includes solder apertures 830 that are cut-outs extending through the substrate for accommodating solder addition prior to solder wetting. The placement, size and dimensions of the solder apertures 830 are predetermined and assist in causing solder wetting in a predetermined area, for instance, between a heat sink and the ground layer of the substrate 800. FIG. 8 illustrates two oval shaped solder apertures 830. The placement, size and dimensions of solder apertures 830 are exemplary for optimal solder wetting beneath an inductive coil. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that depending upon the particular component being mounted and the desired area for solder wetting, there may be more or fewer solder apertures in other locations on the substrate and having other sizes and dimensions. Substrate 800 may also include one or more venting holes 840 extending through the substrate and located in predetermined areas on the substrate. The venting holes 840 promote optimal solder wetting between the ground layer of the substrate and a heat sink by allowing solder volatiles to escape during solder reflow. FIG. 8 illustrates two circular shaped venting holes. However, it is appreciated that there may be more or fewer venting holes having different sizes, shapes, dimensions and locations on the substrate depending on the desired area of solder wetting. Moreover, it is appreciated that the venting of solder volatiles may, likewise, be accomplished using one or more venting apertures in the adhesive layer as described above by reference to FIGS. 2 and 3. FIG. 9 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer 900 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Adhesive layer 900 corresponds to substrate portion 800 of FIG. 8 and is used for mechanically coupling at least a portion of one heat sink to the ground layer of substrate 800. Adhesive layer 900 is typically comprised of a flexible material with adhesive and cohesive properties that are stable over the high temperature of the reflow soldering process. The material is typically electrically non-conducting but may also be a conducting material. In one embodiment, the material is a flexible, pressure sensitive acrylic adhesive. In another embodiment, a flexible liquid or film adhesive requiring a curing process (e.g., elevated temperature) may be used. Adhesive layer 900 may be manufactured having a predetermined thickness. Adhesive layer 900 includes solder apertures 930 that correspond to solder apertures 830 and venting holes 840 in substrate 800. Solder apertures 930 are cut-outs that likewise extend through adhesive layer 900 for accommodating solder prior to solder wetting. The placement, size and dimensions of solder apertures 930 are predetermined so that the aligning of solder apertures 830 and venting holes 840 with solder apertures 930 provides for a precise cavity for guiding and controlling solder wetting from the solder apertures (830,930) to a predetermined area, for instance, between a heat sink and the ground layer of substrate 800. The adhesive layer may, thus, be die-cut from an adhesive film or adhesive coated film for repeatability in producing the desired thickness and shape of the adhesive layer. FIG. 10 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus 1000 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Circuit apparatus 1000 includes a heat sink 1010, an adhesive layer 1020, a substrate portion 1030, and a device 1040. Heat sink 1010 is comprised of a suitable high thermal conductive material such as, for instance, copper or aluminum, that allows wetting of solder and attachment of adhesive materials selected for the circuit apparatus assembly process. Heat sink 1010 has two primary sides 1012 and 1014. At side 1012: substrate portion 1030 is attached using adhesive layer 1020; device 1040 is attached using solder; and heat is input into heat sink 1010 for dissipation. The opposite side 1014 is the primary region of heat extraction from circuit apparatus 1000, as well as the primary mounting surface for circuit apparatus 1000. In one embodiment, the size of the heat sink is larger than that of the heat dissipating device (e.g., device 1040), such that desirable heat spreading can be achieved. Adhesive layer 1020 is in accordance with the adhesive layer as described by reference to FIG. 9. Accordingly, adhesive layer 1020 includes solder apertures 1024. Substrate portion 1030 is in accordance with the substrate portion as described by reference to FIG. 8. Accordingly, substrate portion 1030 includes venting holes 1032, solder apertures 1034, and a ground layer 1036. Substrate 1030 also typically includes a plurality of pads 1036 on the topside of the substrate onto which the device 1040 may be coupled. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10, ground layer 1036 comprises the bottom side of substrate 1030. However, it is realized that ground layer 1036 may be internal to substrate 1030, wherein substrate 1030 would further include a recess for exposing the ground layer, the recess typically having dimensions that are slightly larger than that of heat sink 1010. Finally, device 1040 may comprise at least one input terminal 1042 and at least one output terminal 1044. Device 1040 may be, for instance, an inductive coil or any device that is mounted to the top side substrate portion 1030 and that requires thermal coupling with heat sink 1010 but that further requires an electrical isolation from heat sink 1010. The above-described elements of circuit apparatus 1000 may be assembled as follows in accordance with the present invention. Adhesive layer 1020 is aligned with substrate 1030 such that solder apertures 1024 are aligned with solder apertures 1034 and with venting holes 1032. Heat sink 1010 is mechanically coupled to the ground layer 1036 of substrate 1030 using adhesive layer 1020, such that it is aligned with substrate 1030. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 10, heat sink 1010 is coupled locally to substrate 1030 in an area that completely surrounds device 1040 for providing an optimal thermal conduction path. Solder is placed on the substrate pads and into at least a portion of the adhesive layer solder apertures 1024 for subsequent solder wetting to couple the device input and output terminals (1042, 1044) to the pads, to couple the ground layer 1036 to the heat sink 1010 and to produce thermal coupling of device 1040. Typically, solder paste is screen-printed on the substrate pads and into the adhesive layer solder apertures 1024. However, in other embodiments, other forms of solder, e.g., solder pellets or pre-forms, may be implemented. It is further appreciated that during solder addition, solder may also be added to at least a portion of the substrate solder apertures 1034. In fact, typically both the substrate and adhesive layer solder apertures (1024, 1034) are filled during solder addition. Device 1040 is mounted onto the topside of substrate 1030 such that at least one input terminal 1042 comes into contact with the solder on the corresponding pads on the topside of substrate 1030 and at least one output terminal 1044 comes into contact with the solder on the corresponding pads on the topside of substrate 1030. Population of the substrate 1030 with the device 1040 may be done manually, but is typically done using an automated process for efficiency and cost effectiveness during the manufacturing process. The populated substrate 1030 may be placed in a reflow oven and thereafter cooled, wherein a solder connection between the device terminals (1042, 1044) and the pads is completed and solder wets from the solder apertures (1024, 1034) into the cavity between the ground layer 1036 and the heat sink 1010 to produce a thermal path between device 1040 and heat sink 1010. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the steps of the method according to the present invention described above may be performed as part of an automated process, and ideally all of the steps are so performed. However, it is realized that any of the above described steps in various combinations may be performed manually or as part of an automated process. Mechanical attachment of the heat sink to the substrate prior to reflow eliminates the need for fixtures to hold the heat sink in place during the SMT processing and adds robustness during the assembly process for handling of the circuit apparatus assembly. Assembly of the electrical circuit apparatus may be performed during a single pass reflow process for the thermal coupling and topside SMT attachment, thereby lending itself well with the use of no-lead solder or leaded solder. The adhesive layer solder apertures, the substrate ground layer and the wettable heat sink surface promote wetting of solder from the solder apertures to areas of critical thermal coupling during reflow. High surface energy surfaces above (substrate ground layer) and below (heat sink) promote the wetting of solder to the open space between the two wettable surfaces. These surfaces also provide ideal adhesive bonding surfaces yielding high adhesion strength between the heat sink and the substrate. Use of a film adhesive with controlled thickness produces a highly repeatable separation, resulting in lower variation of this critical dimension for the manufacturing process. A venting feature may be created by extending the adhesive cut-out region to the edge of the circuit board or through at least one venting hole formed in the circuit board. This feature further promotes optimal solder filling in the separation by allowing solder paste volatiles to escape during reflow. The size and shape of the solder apertures for the paste also defines the volume of molten solder to fill the separation and is easily controlled to optimize heat transfer. The combination of this control of solder volume and the termination of the region of two high surface energy surfaces created by the cut-outs in the adhesive restricts the flow of molten solder to the region of interest. The resulting ground layer-to-heat sink solder connection produces a repeatable thermal path from the heat dissipation component to the heat sink. Since the bulk of the attachment of the heat sink to the substrate is accomplished using a low-stiffness adhesive, thermal expansion differences between the heat sink and matching components on top of the substrate ( e.g., ceramic components, such as RF matching capacitors, that have a much lower coefficient of thermal expansion than the heat sink) are decoupled, thus improving the reliability of the components and corresponding solder joints. Moreover, the thermal apertures enable a good thermal conduction path between the bottom of the device and the heat sink. FIG. 10, for simplicity, illustrates a portion of a substrate having one component mounted thereon using methods described above in accordance with the present invention. However, those of ordinary skill in the art will realize that a substrate typically has a plurality of components mounted thereon and includes, for instance, power components, ceramic load resistors, inductive coils and other components. Thus, in another aspect of the present invention, an electrical circuit apparatus may have heat sinks incorporated therein having different CTE values. For instance at least one heat sink having a low CTE may be coupled to the substrate beneath a low-CTE component such as, for instance, a ceramic load resistor, and at least one heat sink having a higher CTE may be coupled to the substrate under another high-CTE component such as, for instance, a radio frequency (“RF”) or power transistor. Those of ordinary skill in the art will further realize that although FIG. 10 illustrates heat sink 1010 being coupled locally to substrate 1030 beneath only one device 1040, typically heat sink 1010 is coupled locally beneath a plurality of devices for efficiency in manufacturing and to minimize manufacturing costs. In addition, FIG. 10 only shows one heat sink being coupled to substrate 1030. However, it is appreciated that a plurality of heat sinks may be coupled to the substrate. FIG. 11 illustrates an assembled topside view of an electrical circuit apparatus 1100, in accordance with the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 10, subsequent to a solder paste screening and device population but prior to solder wetting. Illustrated in FIG. 11 is the topside of a device 1110 that has been mounted onto a substrate 1114, wherein the topside of at least one device input terminal 1120 and at least one device output terminal 1130 have made contact with the solder on the input and output pads (not shown) on the topside of the substrate 1114. Also illustrated are two venting holes 1150, two solder apertures 1140 that have been filled with solder using known methods, and a cross-section line labeled A-A that illustrates a cross-sectional area of the electrical circuit apparatus 1100 that will be discussed in detail by reference to FIGS. 12 and 13. FIG. 12 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus 1100 illustrated in FIG. 11 prior to solder wetting. This cross-sectional view illustrates at least one output terminal 1216 of a device coupled to a pad 1222 on a substrate 1224 via a solder layer 1220. A ground layer 1228 of substrate 1224 is mechanically coupled to a heat sink 1250 via an adhesive layer 1240, wherein the adhesive layer 1240 creates a precise cavity 1244 between the ground layer 1228 and heat sink 1250. Further illustrated is a venting hole 1280 and solder 1260 that has been added, using known methods, into a solder aperture 1270. FIG. 13 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus 1100 illustrated in FIG. 11 subsequent to solder wetting. Those elements that are identical to the elements illustrated in FIG. 12 are correspondingly identically labeled in FIG. 13 and for the sake of brevity are not described again here. FIG. 13, however, further illustrates solder wetting 1310 from solder aperture 1270 toward venting hole 1280 in an area between the ground layer 1228 of the substrate 1224 and the heat sink 1250, for thermal coupling of the device to heat sink 1250. A number of exemplary advantages over the prior art can be realized using the method and electrical circuit apparatus of the present invention, wherein power devices may be mounted to a circuit board. These advantages include, but are not limited to: (1) minimization of CTE mismatch problems, for instance, between ceramic capacitors and the heat sink, by using a flexible, low-stiffness adhesive; (2) repeatable solder attachment of the ground layer of the circuit board to the heat sink directly under the device; (3) electrical isolation of device terminals from ground, i.e., the heat sink; (4) mechanical attachment of the heat sink to the circuit board to add robustness to assembly for handling and subsequent module assembly; (5) elimination of the need for fixtures in a one-step or single pass reflow soldering process that lends itself to no-lead solder or leaded solder; and (6) solder attachment for thermal management can be accomplished during SMT attachment of other components to the circuit board without requiring additional process steps. While the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, additional advantages and modifications will readily occur to those skilled in the art. The invention, in its broader aspects, is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus, and illustrative examples shown and described. Various alterations, modifications and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art in light of the foregoing description. Thus, it should be understood that the invention is not limited by the foregoing description, but embraces all such alterations, modifications and variations in accordance with the spirit and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>When constructing power amplifiers various components must be mounted to a circuit board or substrate. Many of these components are mounted to a top side of the circuit board using a known solder reflow process. For instance, a load resistor having at least one input terminal and having a ground portion or flange may be mounted to the top side of the circuit board. When mounting a load resistor to a circuit board, three factors must be balanced. First, the load resistor must have a proper and sufficient electrical connection to the circuit board, wherein the input terminals are soldered to the top side of the circuit board and the ground flange is sufficiently coupled to a heat sink that is typically soldered locally to the underside of the circuit board in an area primarily surrounding the load resistor. In addition, a sufficient thermal conduction path must be established between the load resistor and the heat sink. Moreover, load resistors are typically made of a ceramic material, which presents a thermal expansion mismatch between the load resistor and the heat sink since the heat sink typically has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) than the ceramic load resistor. This CTE mismatch can result in local distortion or warping of the circuit board after assembly. Solder joint reliability can also be significantly degraded in a thermal cycling application. Other components that are mounted to the top side of the circuit board such as, for instance, an inductor coil may require an electrical isolation from a heat sink located below the component. These types of components may have both input and output terminals that are coupled to the top side of the circuit board, have heat dissipation needs and require a thermal conduction path to the heat sink below, but require an electrical isolation from the heat sink. There are a number of methods used for mounting devices such as load resistors and inductor coils to a circuit board, including a hybrid manufacturing process using fixtures (i.e., a one pass solder reflow process) and a two pass solder reflow process. The hybrid manufacturing process is typically associated with ceramic circuit boards and possibly with carrier plates that serve as heat sinks. Due to the fragility of the substrate, large fixtures are usually required for its alignment and protection during processing. The use of fixtures usually forces manual processing. One disadvantage of the hybrid manufacturing process is that it is more costly than other manufacturing methods primarily due to the added cost of the fixtures used in the process and also due to the need for a number of manual steps that generate a lower production throughput. An additional disadvantage is that manufacturing with fixtures produces a significant variation in part placement and solder attachment due to fixture tolerances or due to fixture degradation with repeated use. Turning now to the two pass solder reflow process. During the first pass of the solder reflow process, a plurality of heat sinks are locally coupled to the ground layer of a circuit board in areas primarily surrounding where power components will be mounted. Thereafter, solder is placed in strategic areas on the board, and a plurality of components, including RF transistors, load resistors and inductor coils, are mounted onto and soldered to the board in a second pass of the reflow solder process. A primary disadvantage of the two pass reflow process is that it requires one high-temperature reflow pass with a high melting temperature solder alloy, and a second subsequent reflow pass with a lower melting temperature solder allow. The first pass exposes the circuit board to high temperature, which can result in damage such as distortion. The requirement of two independent passes with different solder temperature settings limits manufacturing throughput. The two pass approach also does not lend itself well to no-lead solder because the first temperature needed to attach the heat sinks would have to exceed the elevated no-lead solder reflow temperature. This is a significant disadvantage because no-lead solder attachment may likely become a key product differentiator in the near future since some markets, especially European markets, are moving toward requiring no-lead solder attachment. In addition, neither the hybrid manufacturing process nor the two pass solder reflow process addresses the thermal expansion mismatch issues that arise when mounting devices such as ceramic load resistors to a circuit board. Thus, there exists a need for a cost effective method and electrical circuit apparatus wherein: components may be mounted to a circuit board without the need for fixtures; the process for assembling the electrical circuit apparatus is compatible with a single pass solder reflow process that is compatible with, but is not limited to no-lead solder; and any thermal expansion mismatch problems in the electrical circuit apparatus are addressed and, when possible, minimized. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES <EOH>A preferred embodiment of the invention is now described, by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying figures in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus including a heat sink, an adhesive layer, a substrate, and a ceramic device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 illustrates an assembled topside view of electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 4 prior to solder wetting; FIG. 6 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 4 subsequent to solder wetting; FIG. 7 illustrates an X-Ray image of an assembled electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention after device population and reflow soldering; FIG. 8 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of a portion of a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates a topside view of a schematic diagram of an adhesive layer in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates an exploded view of electrical circuit apparatus including a heat sink, an adhesive layer, a substrate, and a device in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates an assembled topside view of electrical circuit apparatus in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 11 prior to solder wetting; and FIG. 13 illustrates a cross-sectional view at a section A-A of the electrical circuit apparatus illustrated in FIG. 11 subsequent to solder wetting. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050107 | 20060704 | 20050609 | 62458.0 | 0 | ABOAGYE, MICHAEL | ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT APPARATUS AND METHODS FOR ASSEMBLING SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,298 | ACCEPTED | System for improving antibiotic use in acute care hospitals | The present invention provides systems and methods for improving the administration and usage of antibiotic/antimicrobial regimens. The method and system of the invention includes (a) establishing a multidisciplinary antimicrobial treatment team; (b) obtaining patient data; (c) reviewing patient data for sub-optimal antibiotic regimens and when necessary, conferring if MATT members regarding regimen recommendations; (d) generating reports with recommendations for optimal antibiotic regimens based on the review of the patient data. | 1. A method for establishing at least one preferred antibiotic regimen for a patient, wherein the method comprises the steps of: (a) obtaining data regarding the patient; and (b) analyzing the data obtained in step (a) to ascertain the at least one preferred antibiotic regimen, wherein the analyzing in step (b) comprises at least one of the following: (i) review of the data by a member of a multidisciplinary team established for this purpose; (ii) taking into consideration information stored in a program storage device; or (iii) implementing a computer program; wherein said method farther comprises communicating to a clinician who will administer the preferred antibiotic regimen, via a predetermined preferred communication modality, the at least one preferred antibiotic regimen. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein steps (a) and (b) are conducted in a computing environment. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the multidisciplinary team comprises members selected from the group consisting of: an infectious diseases specialist, an infectious diseases-trained pharmacist, a microbiology laboratory liaison, an infection control liaison, and a nursing services liaison. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the multidisciplinary team performs any one or combination of the following functions: systemic reviews of hospital patient antibiotic profiles; daily rounding of patients in the intensive care unit; systemic review of microbiology reports; review of antibiotic regimens of all patients with white cell count of more than 17,000; and review of antibiotic regimens of all patients receiving targeted antibiotics. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the communication modality takes into consideration at least one factor selected from the group consisting of: time of communication, form of communication, and form of report provided. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the form of communication is selected from the group consisting of: written communication, telephonic communication, electronic communication, and personal communication. 7. The method of claim 1, comprising obtaining data selected from the group consisting of: clinical data regarding the patient, microbiology data of the patient's infection, patient laboratory or culture results; patient medication administration profiles; data regarding hospital ecology; data regarding antibiotic prescriptions and adverse drug reactions, data regarding infection source or location; data regarding hospital antibiotic resistance patterns, data regarding physician requests for antibiotic recommendations, overall hospital antibiotic usage patterns, and data regarding references from which the recommendation is generated. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the clinical data regarding the patient is any one or combination of the following: patient height, patient weight, appearance of wounds, presence of important medical conditions that may affect antimicrobial selection, congestive heart failure, insufficiency or an acute decrease in urine output, hematological disorders, and important medical conditions that may affect the likely microbiology of a patient's infection. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein communicating the preferred antibiotic regimen is performed at times selected from the group consisting of: a time at which the physician has determined that antimicrobial therapy is necessary and at least one antibiotic regimen is to be chosen; a time at which a new, clinically important change in patient condition is observed; a time at which the patient's microbial regimen can be safely simplified or streamlined; and a time at which a potential adverse reaction by the patient to an antibiotic has been identified. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the communication of the preferred antibiotic regimen comprises any one or combination of the following: patient clinical data; a listing of preferred antibiotic regimens; a description of rationale for the preferred antibiotic regimens; a patient summary; specific doses of antibiotic(s) to be administered to the patient; alternative prescriptions; and references supporting the rationale. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein step (b) is performed by an Early ID system. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the Early ID system comprises specially trained, registered nurses who collect clinical patient data to assist the multidisciplinary team in making recommendations to the physician. 13. An information processing system for establishing at least one antibiotic regimen to a patient, wherein said system comprises: (a) a computing device comprising a display, a central processing unit (CPU), operating system software, memory for storing data, a user interface, and input/output capability for reading and writing data; (b) a database comprising patient records; and (c) computer program code for: 1) recording information regarding physician preferences regarding communication modality; 2) recording and compiling data; 3) analyzing the compiled data; 4) generating a report based on the analysis, wherein said report includes at least one recommendation of optimal antibiotic regimens to be administered to the patient; and 5) disseminating the report to the physician in compliance with the preferred communication modality. wherein said computing device executes said computer code to allow interactive user communication. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the recorded and compiled data is selected from the group consisting of: clinical data regarding the patient, microbiology data of the patient's infection, patient laboratory or culture results; patient medication administration profiles; data regarding hospital ecology; data regarding antibiotic prescriptions and adverse drug reactions, data regarding infection source or location; data regarding hospital antibiotic resistance patterns, data regarding physician requests for antibiotic recommendations, overall hospital antibiotic usage patterns, and data regarding references from which the recommendation is generated. 15. The system of claim 13, wherein the computer code further provides analysis of antibiotic usage and based on analyzed antibiotic usage, generates a report wherein antibiotics are cycled or mixed to prevent stereotypical use of an antibiotic. 16. A computer program product recorded on computer readable media for generating at least one recommended antibiotic regimen, comprising: (a) computer readable media for providing a patient database comprising patient clinical records; (b) computer readable media for providing a graphical user interface (GUI); (c) computer readable media for providing the capability to allow data input; (d) computer readable media for providing interactive icons to allow entering and editing of said input data; and (e) computer readable media for generating a report by analyzing said input data, wherein said computer readable meadia for generating a report provides the capability to allow verifying and editing of said report. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO A RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/534,649, filed Jan. 6, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Infectious diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality and contribute substantially to health care costs in the United States. Infections account for approximately 30% of hospital admissions. In particular, septicemia, pneumonia, acute respiratory infections, cellulitis, and abscesses account for a substantial number of hospital admissions. Ranked fifth as an underlying cause of death in 1980, infectious diseases have risen to the third-ranked cause of death in the last several years, just behind cardiovascular disease and malignancies. An estimated 26-53% of hospitalized patients receive at least one antibiotic. Kunin, C. M., “Problems in antibiotic usage,” in Mandell G. L. et al. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 427-34 (1989); Maki, D. G. and A. Schuna, “A study of antimicrobial misuse in a university hospital,” Am. J. Med. Sci., 275:271-82 (1978); and Bryan, C. S. et al., “Analysis of 1,186 episodes of gram-negative bacteremia in non-university hospitals: the effect of antimicrobial therapy,” Rev Infect Dis, 5:629-36 (1983). Timely and appropriate antibiotic administration improves survival in patients with serious infections. Pestotnik, S. L. et al., “Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: clinical and financial outcomes,” Ann Intern Med., 124:884-90 (1996); Evans, R. S. et al., “Improving empiric antibiotic selection using computer decision support,” Arch Intern Med., 154:878-84 (1994). Unfortunately, antimicrobial therapy for these patients is often inappropriate. Errors in dosing and selection of antimicrobial therapy are common. For example, it is estimated that 22-40% of antibiotic prescriptions are incorrect. Yu, V. L. et al., “Antimicrobial selection by computer,” JAMA, 242:1279-82 (1979); Dunagan, W. C. et al., “Antimicrobial misuse in patients with positive blood cultures,” Am J Med, 87:253-9 (1989); and Byl, B. et al., “Risk factors for inappropriate antimicrobial therapy of bacteremia, relation to the outcome,” in Program and abstracts of the 38th interscience conference on antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy,” Wash., D.C., American Society for Microbiology, (1998). Such inappropriate therapy is associated with increased patient mortality, adverse drug reactions, increased hospital costs, and emergence of multiple drug-resistant bacteria. The major cause of inappropriate antibiotic therapy is the complexity of the prescribing process. There are more than 90 parental and oral antibiotics from which to choose. When prescribing antibiotics, clinicians must consider a bewildering array of data including an antibiotic's pharmacokinetic profile, relative efficacy, toxicities, local resistance patterns, drug-drug interactions, patient allergies, and drug costs. Other considerations are the site of infection, likely microorganisms present and their usual antimicrobial sensitivity patterns, patient alterations in renal, cardiac, and hepatic function; and the severity of the patient's illness. Therefore, it is difficult for clinicians who are not extensively trained in the administration of antimicrobial agents to make correct choices. A number of approaches to solving the problem of suboptimal antibiotic therapy have been attempted, including formulary restriction, drug utilization review, rapid reporting of culture and susceptibility reports, computer-based decision support, and pharmacy intervention programs. Pestonik, S. L. et al., “Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: clinical and financial outcomes,” Ann Intern Med., 124:884-90 (1996); Lesar T. S. and L. L. Briceland,” Survey of antibiotic control policies in university-affiliated teaching institutions,” Ann Pharmacother, 30:31-4 (1996); Rifenburg, R. P. et al., “Benchmark analysis of strategies hospitals use to control antimicrobial expenditures,” Am Health-Syst Pharm, 53(17):2054-62 (1996); Goldman, D. A. et al., “Strategies to prevent and control the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in hospitals,” JAMA, 276:234-40 (1996); Quintiliani, R. et al., “Economic impact of streamlining antibiotic administration,” Am J Med, 82(suppl 4A):391-4 (1987); and Doem, G. V. et al., “Clinical impact of rapid in vitro susceptibility testing and bacterial identification,” J Clin Microbiol, 32:1757-62 (1994). Formulary changes within a drug class seldom produce meaningful differences in patient disease outcomes, and restrictive formularies achieve only modest cost savings by themselves. Drug utilization reviews seldom affect outcomes because they occur long after the prescribing event. Sophisticated computerized decision-support programs can be effective but are expensive and not available for general use. Rapid microbiology reports may result in savings but only partly address the problem of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy. In another large, prospective, observational study, it was reported that mortality was nearly halved when appropriate antibiotics were administered. Leibovici, L. et al., “Monotherapy versus β-lactam-aminoglycoside combination treatment for gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective, observational study,” Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41:1127-33 (1997). It would follow that any system that would improve antibiotic selection would improve sepsis mortality. In 1988, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) developed guidelines for improving the use of antimicrobials in hospitals. The society suggested the creation of antimicrobial teams to improve antimicrobial use. See Marr, J. J. et al., “Guidelines for Improving the use of antimicrobial agents in hospitals: a statement by the Infectious Diseases Society of America,” J Infect Dis, 159-593-4 (1989). Prohibitive factors such as associated expenses, time, manpower, and equipment necessary to plan and implement such teams have prevented hospital administrators from further developing the teams to their potential. Although systems to improve antibiotic use, such as those described above, have been applied in many hospitals all over the world, the vast majority of these systems have failed to substantially improve antimicrobial usage. The reasons for the failures are myriad. Even if these teams are funded and implemented, the difficulty remains in the timing of the delivery of information from these teams to the clinician at the actual time of antibiotic prescription. Generally speaking, these systems are heavy handed and slow, and are often antagonistic to the physician. In general, these teams have not achieved their potential results largely due to clinician resistance to pharmacy recommendations because they are often clinically irrelevant or delayed. A randomized study performed at Alachua General Hospital in Gainesville, Fla. (see Gums, J. G., Yancey R. W. et al., “A Randomized, Prospective Study Measuring Outcomes after Antibiotic Therapy Intervention by a Multidisciplinary Consult Team,” Pharmacotherapy, 19(12):1369-1377 (1999)) demonstrated that optimizing antibiotic use results in more rapid patient discharge and improved survival. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that a high level of physician acceptance (86%) could be obtained if multidisciplinary team advice was carefully crafted and monitored to be clinically relevant and timely. In this study, a team consisting of an infectious diseases specialist, a specially trained pharmacist, and the microbiology laboratory, was assembled to determine if the multidisciplinary team approach to antimicrobial usage would improve patient outcomes. Specifically, the team was assigned to address antimicrobial usage in a select patient population receiving suboptimal intravenous antibiotics after the initial prescription. The study results revealed that a team approach would be useful in reducing costs associated with intervention and length of stay on a case-by-case basis. There was no discussion, however, as to how to implement the team approach in the hospital as a whole, of using the team in the actual time of the antibiotic prescriptions, nor of using the comprehensive process to control resistant bacteria. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The subject invention provides systems and methods for improving antibiotic/antimicrobial administration and usage. The systems and methods are designed for use in an organizational environment, in particular, in a healthcare-related entity. The systems and methods of the invention comprise: (a) a multidisciplinary antimicrobial therapy team (MATT); (b) compilation and analysis of clinical patient data; (c) compilation and analysis of hospital ecology; (d) generation of at least one report including recommendations regarding optimal antibiotic therapy regimens; and (e) dissemination of the report to a physician utilizing a communication mode selected by the physician. Accordingly, the present invention uses a multidisciplinary team approach to antimicrobial/antibiotic usage on a case-by-case basis as well as on a global level. In general, multidisciplinary team members (i.e., pharmacist, infectious diseases specialist, and microbiologist) are responsible for such tasks as, and not limited to, identifying those patients whose current antimicrobial/antibiotic regimens are sub-optimal, providing data regarding antimicrobial/antibiotic resistance; and suggesting optimal antimicrobial regimens to be administered. In particular, the system of the subject invention achieves improved antimicrobial/antibiotic administration and usage by facilitating rapid communication of useful recommendations to the healthcare provider from multidisciplinary team members. The system achieves a more comprehensive improvement in antimicrobial usage patterns by ensuring antibiotic usage is monitored starting from the physicians' initial antibiotic prescription and by providing recommendations to the physician in an easy to accept, convenient manner. In one embodiment, the decision for the appropriate antibiotic/antimicrobial regimen to be administered to a patient is made by a physician/clinician. According to the present invention, the decision making process is improved through enhancements in the information and in the speed in which the information is provided to the physician/clinician. These enhancements are achieved, at least in part, by the cooperative efforts between the multidisciplinary team members to pool and interpret the necessary information for the physician/clinician and to communicate rapidly and efficiently the enhanced information. Introducing such cooperative efforts in a computerized environment further enhances the quality of information and speed of information disseminated to the physician. Such enhanced communication and information enables the physician to make consistently better choices in prescribing antimicrobials/antibiotics than previously allowed. In another embodiment, the decision for the appropriate antibiotic/antimicrobial to be administered to a patient is made automatically using the systems and methods of the invention. In a related embodiment, the most optimal antibiotic regimen recommended by the systems and methods of the invention is selected and automatically administered to a patient, without physician input. As a result of the implementation of the system of the subject invention, improvements in healthcare can be achieved. These improvements can include, but are not limited to, improved patient recovery, shorter hospital stays, reduced costs of treatment, and a reduction in drug-resistant pathogens. In carrying out the above objectives of the present invention, a method is provided for analyzing patient data to detect sub-optimal antibiotic regimens. The method includes the steps of establishing a multidisciplinary team for addressing patient antibiotic regimens; reviewing patient cultures and analyzing patient data after the patient has initiated an antibiotic regimen, determining preferred antibiotic regimens based on the analysis; generating at least one report with the recommended preferred antibiotic regimens; and communicating the report to the attending physician in accordance with the attending physician's communication preferences. In a preferred embodiment, communication between the team members, in particular with the physician, occurs rapidly so as to effectively provide antimicrobial/antibiotic therapy for the individual patient. Most preferably, communication between team members occurs at the moment of the initial antibiotic prescription or at the moment in which new information is available regarding the current prescription. The system is designed to improve antimicrobial use not in just the individual patient but also system wide. As the system begins to generally affect hospital-wide antibiotic usage, it will then begin to affect the hospital-wide occurrence of resistant bacteria. The system provides opportunity for anti-microbial cycling or mixing, which are systems to prevent the stereotypical use of the same antibiotics over and over in the same hospital or ward. Antimicrobial cycling has been demonstrated to be an effective method to reduce the occurrence of individual strains of resistant bacteria (White, Jr, et. al., “Effects of requiring prior authorization for selected antimicrobials; expenditures, susceptibilities, and clinical outcomes,” Clin Infect Dis, 25:230-9 (1997) and Gerding et. al., “Aminoglycoside resistance and aminoglycoside usage: ten years of experience in one hospital,” Antimicrob Agents and Chemoth, 35:1284-90 (1991)). However anti-microbial cycling is cumbersome to administer and may not be effective for the more general problem of bacterial resistance in the hospital. Antibiotic mixing is a system by which equally efficacious antibiotic classes are randomly assigned to individual patients to prevent the encouragement of resistant bacterial clones. Mathematical models predict that antimicrobial mixing may be a more effective means for controlling resistant bacteria (Bergstrom, Conn., Proc Nat Acad Sciences, 101; 36:13285-13290). The systems and methods of the invention provide a means to conveniently provide both anti-microbial cycling and anti-microbial mixing in the hospital, a capability provided by no other previous simple programs. In certain embodiments of the invention, antibiotic mixing and antibiotic cycling are taken into account when analyzing data and generating the recommended antibiotic regimens. Unlike previous attempts to improve antibiotic usage in hospitals, the system of the subject invention improves general treatment of infections by the very educational nature of communications between key individuals in the acute care setting. As physicians gain comfort, acceptance, and understanding of the system of the invention, the hospital gains more control of general antibiotic usage, preventing the proliferation of resistant bacteria. The educational nature of the subject invention further improves the general treatment of infections by improving early detection and treatment of serious infections, improving patient survival, and shortening patient length of stay. Unlike other antimicrobial control and stewardship programs, the system of the invention does not attempt to dictate to physicians/clinicians their antimicrobial choice, but merely to educate physicians regarding hospital ecology and antimicrobial pharmacokinetics as they relate to the individual patient. The information is presented in such a way to be of obvious and immediate clinical relevance at the point of usage. In one embodiment, the system provides for the installation within the hospital of a means to quickly detect patients who may need: antibiotics; a change in antibiotics; or an evaluation of possible sepsis (also referred to herein as the ‘Early ID’ system). It has been repeatedly demonstrated, and is generally accepted, that earlier administration of appropriate antibiotics results in better outcomes in infected patients. The Early ID system of the invention does not wait for the physician to review new culture results or for the physician to recognize that the patient has had a change in his clinical status indicating a new or deteriorating infection. Rather, the Early ID system of the invention trains nurses and pharmacist to gather data and interpret it for the physician/clinician in advance of visitation and review of a patient's clinical condition (also known to the skilled artisan as “rounds” or “rounding of patient”) and quickly transmits the interpretation from the nurses/pharmacist to the physician/clinician as soon as the new information or interpretation is available. Another embodiment of the subject invention includes a program storage device (Sepsis Tree Decision Support Program and Database) readable by a machine (such as a computer) and tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform the method steps of the invention. These method steps are carried out as follows: collection (such as by automated interface with the hospital information system and/or by direct clinical data entry by trained bedside nurses) of patient data (e.g., microbiology cultures, fever patterns); selectively sorting the patient data as to their seriousness or priority; printing out patient data reports to a member of the multidisciplinary team responsible for analysis; if a preferred antibiotic regimen is available and communication via the machine is appropriate, entering recommendations into the machine; and transferring the recommendations to the physician/clinician by the method preferred by the individual physician. In certain embodiments, the program storage device performs the step of analyzing the patient data and providing reports to MATT and/or the physician regarding recommendations for optimal antibiotic regimens. A key feature of the system is the individualized means of reporting recommendations to the physicians. Each individual physician has a preferred means of receiving reports on patient data and recommended antibiotic regimens and the system makes efforts to tailor the means of communication to the individual physician's preferences, better assuring a positive response to information. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a diagram representing the overall system structure of one embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides systems and methods for reliable and rapid administration of effective antimicrobial/antibiotic therapeutic regimens to patients for improving patient outcomes, and for discouraging the development of resistant microbial strains. The systems and methods of the invention are preferably implemented in one of a variety of known general purpose or special purpose computing system environments. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that any of a variety of components and interconnections are well-known, and details concerning the construction need not be disclosed in connection with the present invention. In one embodiment, a method in a computing environment for affecting therapeutically effective antibiotic/antimicrobial regimens is provided. Methods of the invention include the following steps: (a) establishing a multidisciplinary antimicrobial therapy team (MATT); (b) obtaining patient data relevant to the patient's proposed or current antibiotic treatment regimen; (c) reviewing patient data and researching preferred antibiotic/antimicrobial therapy regimens based on the patient's data and hospital ecology (d) generating a report with recommendations for antibiotic regimens based on the review of the patient data; and (e) disseminating the findings and recommendations regarding the antibiotic regimen to the patient's attending physician along with a rationale for the recommendation (the educational component). The present invention facilitates communication between a physician/clinician and a multidisciplinary team of individuals; communication between individuals within a multidisciplinary team; as well as communication between such teams in an organizational structure, to detect sub-optimal antibiotic regimens and identify/recommend optimal, or at least improve, antibiotic regimens to be administered to a patient. In a preferred embodiment, the systems and methods of the invention include the step of establishing communication protocols in which communication between team members and the physician are customized to an individual physician's/clinician's preferences. For example, where a physician prefers information/data be relayed via the Internet, protocols are established in which team members electronically transmit information/data regarding antimicrobial usage to the attending physician. In another example, where the physician prefers telephonic or oral communication, protocols are established in which team members provide information/data to the physician either via the telephone or in person. By customizing communication channels based on physician preferences, information/data between team members are efficiently compiled, transmitted, and assimilated to ensure comprehensive analysis and disclosure of antimicrobial/antibiotic usage. Communications by the system of the invention with the physician/clinician occur during 4 possible stages in the patient's clinical course: (a) the point at which the physician/clinician has determined that antimicrobial therapy is necessary and a specific antibiotic regimen is to be chosen; (b) the point in which a new, clinically important change in condition (i.e., that which would necessarily change antimicrobial therapy) or microbiology laboratory report is made available (e.g., a new positive blood culture or a new microbiology sensitivity report); (c) the point at which the patient's antimicrobial regimen can be safely simplified or streamlined; and/or (d) a potential adverse reaction by the patient to an antibiotic has been identified. In one embodiment, a means for monitoring antibiotic/antimicrobial usage patterns in the hospital in the form of a database and a means for correlating that database with hospital bacterial resistance patterns are provided in the systems and methods of the invention. As used herein, the terms “antimicrobial” and “antibiotic” are used interchangeably. The terms antimicrobial or antibiotic describe a substance that can kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. The term “patient,” as used herein, describes an organism, including mammals, to which antibiotic treatment with the systems and methods of the invention are provided. Mammalian species that benefit from the disclosed systems and methods for improving antibiotic usage include, and are not limited to, humans, apes, chimpanzees, orangutans, moneys; and domesticated animals (i.e., pets) such as dogs, cats, mice, rats, guinea pigs, and hamsters. The terms “physician” and “clinician” are used interchangeably. The terms physician or clinician describe an individual who provides health care to a patient. Examples of physicians or clinicians of the invention include, but are not limited to, an individual who has a medical doctorate, a nurse, a nurse practitioner, a physician's assistant, and the like. A hospital-based application of a method for administering preferred antibiotic regimens to patients is illustrated in FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, a multidisciplinary antimicrobial therapy team (MATT) is established 1. The MATT includes individuals who contribute to the process of identifying preferred antibiotic regimens for patients. In one embodiment, the MATT includes individuals with specialized knowledge relating to microbiology, pharmaceuticals, infectious diseases, and medical treatment. A program storage device, such as a Sepsis Tree decision-support program 2, is the means by which data input by the physician 3 and/or clinician 5 or MATT team member 1 are collated and analyzed to generate recommended antimicrobial regiments 4, preferably in order of most preferred to lease preferred (but acceptable) regimens. In certain embodiments, the Sepsis Tree decision-support program can analyze data regarding patient renal function, patient allergies, hospital antibiotic/antimicrobial resistance patterns and provide recommended antimicrobial regimens based on empiric sepsis category and appropriate standards for antibiotic rotation. In certain embodiments, the physician 3 can enter patient-specific clinical data for an individual patient (such as renal function or allergies) into the program storage device. In other embodiments, the MATT team members can provide data regarding the microbiology of the patient's infection, clinical data regarding patients (i.e., in an intensive care unit or ICU), data regarding patient laboratory or culture results, data regarding antibiotic prescriptions, data regarding hospital antibiotic resistance patterns, and data regarding references from which recommendations are derived, into the program storage device. Early ID nurses, who include trained registered nurses, also provide clinical patient data to the program storage device, including data regarding new septic patients or new positive blood cultures. In one embodiment, a report 4 is communicated to a physician/clinician, wherein the report contains clinical data and a listing of preferred antibiotic/antimicrobial regimens along with the rationale behind why the regimens are preferred. In certain embodiments, the report can include patient summary, specific doses of antibiotic(s) to be administered to the patient, alternative prescriptions, rationale for recommended antibiotic regimen, and references supporting the rationale. The report is preferably rapidly communicated to the physician/clinician in a manner preferred by the physician/clinician (i.e., via text message on a beeper). Various forms of data can be provided to systems and methods of the invention. Such data (or input) can include new microbiology reports; Early ID nurse information on a specific patient's clinical status (such as a change in clinical condition that might indicate a new infection; or an adverse drug reaction); laboratory data (such as patients with new onset leukocytosis; patients with new onset of abnormal renal function or liver function tests); patient medication administration profiles; physician/clinician requests for antibiotic/antimicrobial recommendations; overall hospital antibiotic usage patterns; and adverse antibiotic drug reactions (such as Clostridium difficile enterocolitis of drug-induced allergic rashes). In certain embodiments, a clinician or an Early ID nurse inputs into a program storage device data that cannot be obtained from hospital patient information systems and must be obtained clinically: Such data can include, but are not limited to, nosocomial versus community acquired infection; description of the patient history of possible antibiotic allergies; identification of likely infection source or location (if known) of the infection source; indication that infection source is unknown; and reasoning for why a new antibiotic regimen recommendation is being requested (such as current antibiotic failure; new infection identified; adverse drug reaction; or presence of certain clinical symptoms e.g., dysuria). Additional data input into a program storage device are obtained either via hospital patient information system or clinician input. Such data can include, but are not limited to, patient height and weight; appearance of wounds; presence of important medical conditions that may affect antimicrobial selection; congestive heart failure; renal insufficiency or an acute decrease in urine output; hematological disorders e.g., leucopenia or thrombocytopenia; important medical conditions that may affect the likely microbiology of an individual patient's infection e.g., diabetes, post operative condition, steroid therapy, mechanical ventilation, HIV, and the like; and shock. In certain embodiments, MATT members provide data input into a program storage device. Data provided by MATT members include, but are not limited to, antibiotic-drug interactions with the individual patient's current medications as assessed by the MATT pharmacists; microbiology reports; interpretation of culture results (such as contaminated blood culture versus true positive, interpretation of central line tip cultures where the culture report represents colonization versus true infection, and the like); drug of choice given the final identification and sensitivities of infecting bacteria; recommendations of duration of antibiotic therapy based upon the clinical situation; antibiotic streamlining programs; oral medications programs; appropriateness of duration of intravenous antibiotics for bacteremias and endocarditis; adjustments in antibiotic cycling and mixing capabilities, based on hospital epidemiology; and limitation of specific antibiotics based on hospital epidemiology. The systems and methods of the invention also provide various forms of data output including, but not limited to: (a) a Sepsis Tree generated report to the clinician in a timely and individually preferred manner; and (b) updated antibiotic regimens as the result of reassessment of sepsis tree antibiotic selection criteria and mixing or cycling parameters based upon hospital antibiotic usage patterns and microbial resistance patterns. In certain embodiments, a report can be generated in a non-computerized environment. For example, the program storage device merely provides a repository for the various forms of data to be provided to the systems and methods of the invention. MATT members can perform the analysis and generate by hand a report for dissemination to the physician. Such noncomputer-generated reports are provided by the MATT members for use in hospitals without computerized information systems or that have incompatible information systems. In other embodiments, the systems and methods for establishing patient antibiotic regimens can be provided in a computerized environment. In a preferred embodiment, the system of the invention includes: (a) a central server that interfaces with hospital information systems, including computerized patient medication profiles and patient laboratory values; (b) physician or clinician input capability at the sites of patient care, where the input capability can include an easy to use web browser interface and a means for rapid generation of full recommendation; and/or (c) output capability to provide reports to a MATT pharmacist; a MATT physician supervisor; clerical desks of patient care areas; and/or clinicians, via preferred communication modes (such as telephone, facsimile, electronic mail, wireless text messaging, e.g., Blackberry). The output reports of the computerized systems and methods of the invention can include information regarding: (a) antibiotic regimen recommendations; (b) 1-5 potential antibiotic regimens in order of preference; (c) brief clinical summary of patient and parameters that effect antibiotic selection; (d) rationale for the suggested regimen; and (e) references from the medical literature. The output function of the invention preferably includes the capability of providing reports: (a) with random or nonrandom assignment of order of preference of equally efficacious antimicrobial regimens based on hospital epidemiological considerations; (b) on pre-printed order sheet that is signature ready; (c) that are transmitted to the clinician by selected method; (d) of a summary of activity reports; (e) of recommendation acceptance rate by clinicians; (f) including antibiotic prescription/order forms; (g) of antibiotic utilization patterns by clinician, ward, or diagnosis; (h) of adverse drug reactions to antibiotics; (i) of time from antimicrobial prescription to actual administration to the patient; (j) of frequency of the various types of recommendations; and (k) of the correlation of inventive system activity with hospital microbial resistance patterns. MATT, in accordance with the subject invention, preferably performs any one or combination of the following functions in the systems and methods of the invention: (a) systematic reviews of hospital patient antibiotic profiles; (b) daily rounding of patients with MATT infectious diseases physician in the ICU; (c) systematic review of all microbiology reports as soon as they are made available; (d) review of the antibiotic regimens of all patients with a white cell count of more than 17,000; and (e) review antibiotic regimens of all patients receiving specific targeted antibiotics. In one embodiment, an Early ID system of the invention provides a means for rapid detection of patients who need antibiotics, a change in antibiotics, or an evaluation of possible sepsis. The Early ID system is implemented to preferably improve outcomes of patients with infections by reliably delivering to the patients the best available antibiotics with all possible speed. As noted above, current clinical systems await review by a patient's physician, who would then recognize the importance of a change in the patient's clinical condition or the importance of a new culture report. The Early ID system preferably utilizes specially trained, registered nurses to collect patient clinical data to assist the MATT in making timely recommendations to clinicians so as to by-pass current clinical systems. According to the subject invention, an Early ID system can be established by training a select group of hospital nurses (such as registered nurses) to be Early ID nurses 5. Such Early ID nurses are preferably available 24 hours a day/7 days a week. More preferably, one or two Early ID nurses are available at all times. In certain embodiments, Early ID nurses perform a variety of functions other than collecting patient data including, but not limited to, assisting pharmacists and bedside nurses with interpretation of infection related clinical findings; collecting and entering data in a program storage device such as the Sepsis Tree decision-support database; and interacting with the MATT pharmacists. In accordance with the subject invention, the Early ID nurse gathers data for input into a program storage device. Such data can be gathered from communication with bedside nurses to help interpret the importance of a new culture report or a change in clinical status of the patient or from personal identification of a problem potentially warranting a new antibiotic prescription. Once the Early ID nurse identifies a situation that might warrant an antibiotic regimen recommendation using the systems and methods of the invention, the Early ID nurse contacts the MATT pharmacist and/or the MATT infectious diseases physician. If the MATT member determines that a new prescription is necessary, data is entered into the Sepsis Tree support unit to generate a recommendation. New recommendation of antimicrobial therapy, generated in a computerized or non-computerized environment, is transmitted to the attending physician so that the patient's problem is addressed quickly and with few errors. In certain embodiments, the systems and methods of the invention include the step of updating the preferred antibiotic/antimicrobial regimen. The updating step of the invention can include reassessment of patient data relevant to the current antibiotic regimen; reviewing patient data and researching preferred antibiotic therapy regimens based on the patient's data; reviewing hospital ecology; and updating the antibiotic regimen for the patient. Contemplated individuals that can be included in a MATT include, but are not limited to, an infectious diseases specialist; an infectious diseases-trained pharmacist; a microbiology laboratory liaison; an infection control liaison; and a nursing services liaison. The infectious diseases specialist, which can include a knowledgeable physician, will preferably have oversight and training responsibilities over the other members of the MATT (such as training of an Early ID nursing team). The infectious diseases specialist also educates and interacts with clinicians. The infectious diseases-trained pharmacist preferably receives data from the microbiology laboratory, Early ID nurses, and clinicians. The data is analyzed by the infectious diseases-trained pharmacist, who can then generate, with the assistance of a program storage device (such as the Sepsis Tree Decision Support Program and Database), a report communicating antibiotic/antimicrobial regimen recommendations and hospital antibiotic/antimicrobial usage reports. In certain embodiments, the infectious diseases-trained pharmacist alters the program storage device (such as the Sepsis Tree database and decision-support program and database) parameters according to hospital needs as determined by the MATT. More preferably, the infectious diseases-trained pharmacist monitors hospital antibiotic/antimicrobial usage patterns and provides strategies for improving the speed and accuracy of antibiotic administration to the patient. The microbiology laboratory liaison preferably facilitates the accurate and rapid transfer of microbiology data to the MATT. The microbiology laboratory liaison also alters microbiology laboratory reports to improve the physician's/clinician's ability to interpret data correctly. The infection control liaison preferably monitors hospital bacterial resistance profiles. More preferably, the infection control liaison informs MATT regarding changes in hospital microbial resistance patterns so as to enable appropriate selection of a therapeutically effective antimicrobial regimen to be delivered to a given patient. The nursing services liaison preferably assists in the selection and training of Early ID nurses. More preferably, the nursing services liaison provides oversight of Early ID nursing team and ensures the availability of Early ID nurses to physicians/clinicians. Even more preferably, the nursing service liaison trains bedside nurses in the usage of the Early ID nurses. Once the MATT has been established 1, protocols are developed, including methods of communication between the physician/clinician and other MATT members. Preferably, communication channels are customized to a physician's preference in communication modality (i.e., a system of the invention preferably records an individual physician's preferences as to how he or she would like to receive reports). Non-limiting examples of communication modalities that can be selected by a physician include time of communication such as, morning, evening, specific days of the week (as well as different systems for night time coverage or for covering physicians); form of communication such as written (i.e., print out at a nursing station), telephonic, electronic (i.e., facsimile, electronic mail, next messaging, PDA wireless), and personal communication (i.e., in person with oral report); and the form of report provided (i.e., detailed analysis; summarization; inclusion of specific citations, etc.). In certain embodiments, physicians are provided the capability of supplying electronic signatures so as to minimize delays in initiating antibiotic regimens as well as to ensure rapid selection and administration of the most optimal antimicrobial regimens. In certain embodiments, the physician is responsible for determining the antibiotic regimen to be administered to an individual patient. In other embodiments, the most preferred antibiotic regimen recommended by either MATT analysis or by a program storage device is administered to an individual patient. In one embodiment, the physician can provide bedside or laboratory information to a program storage device, including suggestions regarding the appropriateness of the current antimicrobial regimen (i. e., that the regimen is or is not optimal). Once a report is provided to a physician, the physician can either supply a signature, signaling acceptance of the recommended antibiotic regimen or refrain from signing the report in order to signal a rejection of the MATT or Sepsis Tree generated recommendations. In certain embodiments, a physician signature may be requested for an antibiotic order form generated by the Sepsis Tree program. Information from a physician can be provided as feedback to a MATT supervising physician regarding the utility, quality, and format of the sepsis Tree/MATT generated reports. In certain embodiments, a physician can directly initiate a new Sepsis Tree recommendation for a patient by requesting Sepsis Tree suggestions or by entering data directly into the Sepsis Tree input system. In certain embodiments, the system of the invention is brought into being in stages or even gradually in an acute care setting. In such instances, physicians/clinicians are provided time and opportunity to learn to trust the recommendations of the system and therefore the earliest communications must be of the most obviously clinically helpful types. As the clinicians learn to trust the quality of the communications, they will begin to seek them. They may wish to add patient data themselves and receive recommendations directly from the program. Or they may request that a recommendation be generated for them. Therefore, the system of the invention has flexibility as to who may initiate the antimicrobial recommendation process. The process for an individual patient prescribing event may also be initiated by a MATT—such as by bedside nursing interaction or a MATT—microbiology interaction and then transmitted to the physician/clinician. Patient data is then obtained using the established protocols. The patient data is then analyzed and, when appropriate, discussed amongst necessary MATT members. MATT members responsible for reporting the results of the analysis then decide, based on the patient data, whether the antibiotic regimen is sub-optimal. Should the antibiotic regimen be considered optimal, no further steps are taken by the MATT members at that time. However, if the patient's antibiotic regimen is sub-optimal, a report is generated with recommendations for improved antibiotic regimens and distributed to the physician per the physician's desired method of communication. Contemplated protocols to be established amongst the MATT members include, but are not limited to, channels of communication amongst MATT members, including physician preferred method of communication and methods of communication between microbiology, pharmacy, and medical staff; classification and prioritization of patient data; and speed of dissemination of recommendations. The organizational entity (i.e., hospital) will also establish a means for continuous education programs for team members and other healthcare individuals. The hospital first develops education protocols and compiles a database of intervention and most productive efforts. This database is used in the publication and/or dissemination of information/data regarding antimicrobial usage to other team members and healthcare personnel. The information is also used for JCAHO review. The educational protocols are periodically reviewed for effectiveness and revised when necessary. In a preferred embodiment, the report generated based on the patient data is comprehensive, addressing all antibiotic use and related epidemiology. More preferably, the report is based on known (and trusted) resources. The present invention can use general purpose or special purpose computer hardware, including programmable logic devices, to create a computer system or computer sub-system embodying and/or implementing the method of the invention. An apparatus for implementing the invention may be one or more processing systems including, but not limited to, a central processing unit (CPU), memory devices, storage devices, communication links and devices, servers, I/O devices, or any sub-components of one or more processing systems, including software, firmware, hardware or any combination or subset thereof, which embody the invention. User input may be received from the keyboard, mouse, pen, voice, graphical user interface (such as a touch screen), or any other means by which a human can input data into a computer, including through other programs such as application programs. The current invention also allows transfer of information (such as patient data, data on hospital ecology, or reports) to other computers, for example, using an interface such as PALM™ Corporation's HOTSYNC™ capability. However, other techniques for communicating with other computing platforms can be used, including, for example: infrared, universal serial bus, RS-232, Ethernet, and RF communication methods. In addition, information transfer may be accomplished by various intermediate memory storage devices, such as memory cards, diskettes, or PCMCIA cards. Using HOTSYNC for example, users can both write information to and read information from another computer. To transfer information, the user installs the PDA in a HOTSYNC cradle, exits the invention's program, and presses the HOTSYNC button provided on the PDA. By performing a HOTSYNC, the patient database is automatically transferred to the host computer. After the information is transferred to another computer, the information can be imported into a word processing program for further editing and, preferably, formatted for entry into standard medical logs. Based on the foregoing specification, the invention may be implemented using computer programming or engineering techniques including computer software, firmware, hardware or any combination or subset thereof. Any such resulting program, having computer-readable code means, may be embodied or provided within one or more computer-readable media, thereby making a computer program product, i.e., an article of manufacture, according to the invention. The computer readable media may be, for instance, a fixed (hard) drive, diskette, optical disk, magnetic tape, semiconductor memory such as read-only memory (ROM), etc., or any transmitting/receiving medium such as the Internet or other communication network or link. The article of manufacture containing the computer code may be made and/or used by executing the code directly from one medium, by copying the code from one medium to another medium, or by transmitting the code over a network. In one embodiment, a computer program product for providing recommendations for optimal antibiotic regiments is provided, where the product includes: computer readable media for providing a patient database comprising patient clinical records; computer readable media for providing a graphical user interface (GUI); computer readable media for providing the capability to allow data input; computer readable media for providing interactive icons to allow entering and editing of said input data; and computer readable media for generating a report by analyzing said input data, wherein said computer readable media for generating a report provides the capability to allow verifying and editing of said report. In another embodiment, patient data relevant to antibiotic regimen regulation (i.e., microbiology cultures) is entered automatically, or manually, into a database in a computer system accessible to all members of the MATT. Patient data may be entered immediately or at a specified time based on protocols established by members of the MATT or by the organizational entity. Once patient data has been entered, it is selectively sorted (i.e., by seriousness, priority, patient). For example, patients with infections classified by the MATT members as “serious” are immediately made available to the members of the MATT responsible for review and analysis of patient data. After analyzing the patient data and, when necessary, discussing the patient data with relevant MATT members, a report is generated that is provided to the physician with recommendations for a preferred antibiotic regimen. Significant decreases in length of stay, patient charges, and hospital costs can be achieved using the MATT of the subject invention. Therapeutic benefit is achieved through MATT member compliance and through the comprehensive, multidisciplinary nature of consults. The skilled artisan would readily recognize that there may be multiple preferred antibiotic/antimicrobial regimens available for any one patient case. Thus, in general, interventions are not considered unless a notable improvement in patient status is expected to result from the change in antimicrobial therapy. The multidisciplinary service of the invention functions as an ally in the therapeutic process by facilitating physician consultation with regard to a patient's case. Accordingly, the invention provides an aid to the physician in the decision making process regarding the antibiotic regimen to be administered to a patient. In accordance with the invention, it is contemplated that the multidisciplinary nature of the interventions accounts for high physician compliance. In essence, the report provided to the physician is a timely expert opinion presented in a nonconfrontational manner by at least one MATT member (i.e., a pharmacist) after analysis has been performed, preferably amongst all of the MATT member). This comprehensive approach creates a useful tool for making complex decisions regarding antimicrobial therapy. Through this team effort, physicians receive the latest microbiology data or interpretation of likely microbiology in the clinical syndrome, including recommendations for treatment. In certain instances, it is contemplated that such information will be provided to the physician prior to physician solicitation (such as via the Early ID system). A further benefit of the present invention is physician education. Physicians implement new prescribing practices in response to reports provided in accordance with the present invention. Thus, institutional antimicrobial therapy is improved with relatively few reports generated by a MATT. Because it has been observed that physicians will generally accept suggestions from the MATT members, the present invention improves antimicrobial therapy. It is contemplated that the present invention, if applied generally and continually, could help rotate antibiotics systematically and minimize selection of resistant bacteria Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)). This degree of control of antimicrobial therapy could be applied to epidemics of resistant bacteria and improve hospital-wide sepsis-associated mortality. The present invention is also cost-effective because it applies existing resources from medical staff, pharmacy, and microbiology laboratory and reallocates a percentage of their time to providing patient care from a multidisciplinary approach. Much of hospital antibiotic use is empiric; that is, drug choice is based on the clinical syndrome and expected microbiology of the infection rather than on individual culture results. The present invention provides significant benefit to empiric antibiotic therapy selection. Recommendations regarding empiric therapy require more thorough knowledge of infectious syndromes than does merely matching culture results with an antibiotic. Because empiric therapy consults are more difficult than culture-driven consults, a thorough discussion between MATT members, as contemplated by the present invention, can be applied to complex consults and interventions that clinical pharmacists are usually reluctant to attempt without full discussion with infectious disease specialists. Following is an example that illustrates procedures for practicing the invention. This example should not be construed as limiting. EXAMPLE In accordance with the present invention, the following steps can be implemented in one embodiment: i. Assessing the hospital or healthcare center, including targeting problems areas of antibiotic use, establishing the rate of infectious diseases of interest, and identifying antibiotic/antimicrobial resistant organisms; ii. Establishing benchmarks (length of stay, credit for each day saved, credit for reduced pharmacy costs, credit for reducing surgical infections); iii. Establishing case finding methods for the MATT members; iv. Establishing communication and data collection systems, including the preferred method for communicating with specific attending physicians; v. Establishing a MATT; vi. Establishing and implementing protocols, including MATT and attending physician communication regarding patient cases. In certain embodiments of the invention, any one or combination of the following steps are also performed in order to promote optimal administration of antimicrobial/antibiotic therapeutic regimens: vii. Improving surgical infection rate by timing prophylactic antibiotics and optimizing preparation procedures; viii. Controlling the proliferation of antibiotic/antimicrobial resistant organisms by antibiotic rotations; ix. Educating pharmacists and appropriate physicians to enable the perpetuation of the system and method of the invention; x. Compiling information for JCAHO reviews; xi. Compiling in a database the effects of certain types of interventions and most productive efforts; xii. Publishing or disseminating results and some aspects of techniques; and xiii. Continuously educating physicians and pharmacists. All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification. It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Infectious diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality and contribute substantially to health care costs in the United States. Infections account for approximately 30% of hospital admissions. In particular, septicemia, pneumonia, acute respiratory infections, cellulitis, and abscesses account for a substantial number of hospital admissions. Ranked fifth as an underlying cause of death in 1980, infectious diseases have risen to the third-ranked cause of death in the last several years, just behind cardiovascular disease and malignancies. An estimated 26-53% of hospitalized patients receive at least one antibiotic. Kunin, C. M., “Problems in antibiotic usage,” in Mandell G. L. et al. Principles and practice of infectious diseases, 3 rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 427-34 (1989); Maki, D. G. and A. Schuna, “A study of antimicrobial misuse in a university hospital,” Am. J. Med. Sci., 275:271-82 (1978); and Bryan, C. S. et al., “Analysis of 1,186 episodes of gram-negative bacteremia in non-university hospitals: the effect of antimicrobial therapy,” Rev Infect Dis, 5:629-36 (1983). Timely and appropriate antibiotic administration improves survival in patients with serious infections. Pestotnik, S. L. et al., “Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: clinical and financial outcomes,” Ann Intern Med., 124:884-90 (1996); Evans, R. S. et al., “Improving empiric antibiotic selection using computer decision support,” Arch Intern Med., 154:878-84 (1994). Unfortunately, antimicrobial therapy for these patients is often inappropriate. Errors in dosing and selection of antimicrobial therapy are common. For example, it is estimated that 22-40% of antibiotic prescriptions are incorrect. Yu, V. L. et al., “Antimicrobial selection by computer,” JAMA, 242:1279-82 (1979); Dunagan, W. C. et al., “Antimicrobial misuse in patients with positive blood cultures,” Am J Med, 87:253-9 (1989); and Byl, B. et al., “Risk factors for inappropriate antimicrobial therapy of bacteremia, relation to the outcome,” in Program and abstracts of the 38 th interscience conference on antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy ,” Wash., D.C., American Society for Microbiology, (1998). Such inappropriate therapy is associated with increased patient mortality, adverse drug reactions, increased hospital costs, and emergence of multiple drug-resistant bacteria. The major cause of inappropriate antibiotic therapy is the complexity of the prescribing process. There are more than 90 parental and oral antibiotics from which to choose. When prescribing antibiotics, clinicians must consider a bewildering array of data including an antibiotic's pharmacokinetic profile, relative efficacy, toxicities, local resistance patterns, drug-drug interactions, patient allergies, and drug costs. Other considerations are the site of infection, likely microorganisms present and their usual antimicrobial sensitivity patterns, patient alterations in renal, cardiac, and hepatic function; and the severity of the patient's illness. Therefore, it is difficult for clinicians who are not extensively trained in the administration of antimicrobial agents to make correct choices. A number of approaches to solving the problem of suboptimal antibiotic therapy have been attempted, including formulary restriction, drug utilization review, rapid reporting of culture and susceptibility reports, computer-based decision support, and pharmacy intervention programs. Pestonik, S. L. et al., “Implementing antibiotic practice guidelines through computer-assisted decision support: clinical and financial outcomes,” Ann Intern Med., 124:884-90 (1996); Lesar T. S. and L. L. Briceland,” Survey of antibiotic control policies in university-affiliated teaching institutions,” Ann Pharmacother, 30:31-4 (1996); Rifenburg, R. P. et al., “Benchmark analysis of strategies hospitals use to control antimicrobial expenditures,” Am Health - Syst Pharm, 53(17):2054-62 (1996); Goldman, D. A. et al., “Strategies to prevent and control the emergence and spread of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms in hospitals,” JAMA, 276:234-40 (1996); Quintiliani, R. et al., “Economic impact of streamlining antibiotic administration,” Am J Med, 82(suppl 4A):391-4 (1987); and Doem, G. V. et al., “Clinical impact of rapid in vitro susceptibility testing and bacterial identification,” J Clin Microbiol, 32:1757-62 (1994). Formulary changes within a drug class seldom produce meaningful differences in patient disease outcomes, and restrictive formularies achieve only modest cost savings by themselves. Drug utilization reviews seldom affect outcomes because they occur long after the prescribing event. Sophisticated computerized decision-support programs can be effective but are expensive and not available for general use. Rapid microbiology reports may result in savings but only partly address the problem of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy. In another large, prospective, observational study, it was reported that mortality was nearly halved when appropriate antibiotics were administered. Leibovici, L. et al., “Monotherapy versus β-lactam-aminoglycoside combination treatment for gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective, observational study,” Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 41:1127-33 (1997). It would follow that any system that would improve antibiotic selection would improve sepsis mortality. In 1988, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) developed guidelines for improving the use of antimicrobials in hospitals. The society suggested the creation of antimicrobial teams to improve antimicrobial use. See Marr, J. J. et al., “Guidelines for Improving the use of antimicrobial agents in hospitals: a statement by the Infectious Diseases Society of America,” J Infect Dis, 159-593-4 (1989). Prohibitive factors such as associated expenses, time, manpower, and equipment necessary to plan and implement such teams have prevented hospital administrators from further developing the teams to their potential. Although systems to improve antibiotic use, such as those described above, have been applied in many hospitals all over the world, the vast majority of these systems have failed to substantially improve antimicrobial usage. The reasons for the failures are myriad. Even if these teams are funded and implemented, the difficulty remains in the timing of the delivery of information from these teams to the clinician at the actual time of antibiotic prescription. Generally speaking, these systems are heavy handed and slow, and are often antagonistic to the physician. In general, these teams have not achieved their potential results largely due to clinician resistance to pharmacy recommendations because they are often clinically irrelevant or delayed. A randomized study performed at Alachua General Hospital in Gainesville, Fla. (see Gums, J. G., Yancey R. W. et al., “A Randomized, Prospective Study Measuring Outcomes after Antibiotic Therapy Intervention by a Multidisciplinary Consult Team,” Pharmacotherapy, 19(12):1369-1377 (1999)) demonstrated that optimizing antibiotic use results in more rapid patient discharge and improved survival. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that a high level of physician acceptance (86%) could be obtained if multidisciplinary team advice was carefully crafted and monitored to be clinically relevant and timely. In this study, a team consisting of an infectious diseases specialist, a specially trained pharmacist, and the microbiology laboratory, was assembled to determine if the multidisciplinary team approach to antimicrobial usage would improve patient outcomes. Specifically, the team was assigned to address antimicrobial usage in a select patient population receiving suboptimal intravenous antibiotics after the initial prescription. The study results revealed that a team approach would be useful in reducing costs associated with intervention and length of stay on a case-by-case basis. There was no discussion, however, as to how to implement the team approach in the hospital as a whole, of using the team in the actual time of the antibiotic prescriptions, nor of using the comprehensive process to control resistant bacteria. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The subject invention provides systems and methods for improving antibiotic/antimicrobial administration and usage. The systems and methods are designed for use in an organizational environment, in particular, in a healthcare-related entity. The systems and methods of the invention comprise: (a) a multidisciplinary antimicrobial therapy team (MATT); (b) compilation and analysis of clinical patient data; (c) compilation and analysis of hospital ecology; (d) generation of at least one report including recommendations regarding optimal antibiotic therapy regimens; and (e) dissemination of the report to a physician utilizing a communication mode selected by the physician. Accordingly, the present invention uses a multidisciplinary team approach to antimicrobial/antibiotic usage on a case-by-case basis as well as on a global level. In general, multidisciplinary team members (i.e., pharmacist, infectious diseases specialist, and microbiologist) are responsible for such tasks as, and not limited to, identifying those patients whose current antimicrobial/antibiotic regimens are sub-optimal, providing data regarding antimicrobial/antibiotic resistance; and suggesting optimal antimicrobial regimens to be administered. In particular, the system of the subject invention achieves improved antimicrobial/antibiotic administration and usage by facilitating rapid communication of useful recommendations to the healthcare provider from multidisciplinary team members. The system achieves a more comprehensive improvement in antimicrobial usage patterns by ensuring antibiotic usage is monitored starting from the physicians' initial antibiotic prescription and by providing recommendations to the physician in an easy to accept, convenient manner. In one embodiment, the decision for the appropriate antibiotic/antimicrobial regimen to be administered to a patient is made by a physician/clinician. According to the present invention, the decision making process is improved through enhancements in the information and in the speed in which the information is provided to the physician/clinician. These enhancements are achieved, at least in part, by the cooperative efforts between the multidisciplinary team members to pool and interpret the necessary information for the physician/clinician and to communicate rapidly and efficiently the enhanced information. Introducing such cooperative efforts in a computerized environment further enhances the quality of information and speed of information disseminated to the physician. Such enhanced communication and information enables the physician to make consistently better choices in prescribing antimicrobials/antibiotics than previously allowed. In another embodiment, the decision for the appropriate antibiotic/antimicrobial to be administered to a patient is made automatically using the systems and methods of the invention. In a related embodiment, the most optimal antibiotic regimen recommended by the systems and methods of the invention is selected and automatically administered to a patient, without physician input. As a result of the implementation of the system of the subject invention, improvements in healthcare can be achieved. These improvements can include, but are not limited to, improved patient recovery, shorter hospital stays, reduced costs of treatment, and a reduction in drug-resistant pathogens. In carrying out the above objectives of the present invention, a method is provided for analyzing patient data to detect sub-optimal antibiotic regimens. The method includes the steps of establishing a multidisciplinary team for addressing patient antibiotic regimens; reviewing patient cultures and analyzing patient data after the patient has initiated an antibiotic regimen, determining preferred antibiotic regimens based on the analysis; generating at least one report with the recommended preferred antibiotic regimens; and communicating the report to the attending physician in accordance with the attending physician's communication preferences. In a preferred embodiment, communication between the team members, in particular with the physician, occurs rapidly so as to effectively provide antimicrobial/antibiotic therapy for the individual patient. Most preferably, communication between team members occurs at the moment of the initial antibiotic prescription or at the moment in which new information is available regarding the current prescription. The system is designed to improve antimicrobial use not in just the individual patient but also system wide. As the system begins to generally affect hospital-wide antibiotic usage, it will then begin to affect the hospital-wide occurrence of resistant bacteria. The system provides opportunity for anti-microbial cycling or mixing, which are systems to prevent the stereotypical use of the same antibiotics over and over in the same hospital or ward. Antimicrobial cycling has been demonstrated to be an effective method to reduce the occurrence of individual strains of resistant bacteria (White, Jr, et. al., “Effects of requiring prior authorization for selected antimicrobials; expenditures, susceptibilities, and clinical outcomes,” Clin Infect Dis, 25:230-9 (1997) and Gerding et. al., “Aminoglycoside resistance and aminoglycoside usage: ten years of experience in one hospital,” Antimicrob Agents and Chemoth, 35:1284-90 (1991)). However anti-microbial cycling is cumbersome to administer and may not be effective for the more general problem of bacterial resistance in the hospital. Antibiotic mixing is a system by which equally efficacious antibiotic classes are randomly assigned to individual patients to prevent the encouragement of resistant bacterial clones. Mathematical models predict that antimicrobial mixing may be a more effective means for controlling resistant bacteria (Bergstrom, Conn., Proc Nat Acad Sciences, 101; 36:13285-13290). The systems and methods of the invention provide a means to conveniently provide both anti-microbial cycling and anti-microbial mixing in the hospital, a capability provided by no other previous simple programs. In certain embodiments of the invention, antibiotic mixing and antibiotic cycling are taken into account when analyzing data and generating the recommended antibiotic regimens. Unlike previous attempts to improve antibiotic usage in hospitals, the system of the subject invention improves general treatment of infections by the very educational nature of communications between key individuals in the acute care setting. As physicians gain comfort, acceptance, and understanding of the system of the invention, the hospital gains more control of general antibiotic usage, preventing the proliferation of resistant bacteria. The educational nature of the subject invention further improves the general treatment of infections by improving early detection and treatment of serious infections, improving patient survival, and shortening patient length of stay. Unlike other antimicrobial control and stewardship programs, the system of the invention does not attempt to dictate to physicians/clinicians their antimicrobial choice, but merely to educate physicians regarding hospital ecology and antimicrobial pharmacokinetics as they relate to the individual patient. The information is presented in such a way to be of obvious and immediate clinical relevance at the point of usage. In one embodiment, the system provides for the installation within the hospital of a means to quickly detect patients who may need: antibiotics; a change in antibiotics; or an evaluation of possible sepsis (also referred to herein as the ‘Early ID’ system). It has been repeatedly demonstrated, and is generally accepted, that earlier administration of appropriate antibiotics results in better outcomes in infected patients. The Early ID system of the invention does not wait for the physician to review new culture results or for the physician to recognize that the patient has had a change in his clinical status indicating a new or deteriorating infection. Rather, the Early ID system of the invention trains nurses and pharmacist to gather data and interpret it for the physician/clinician in advance of visitation and review of a patient's clinical condition (also known to the skilled artisan as “rounds” or “rounding of patient”) and quickly transmits the interpretation from the nurses/pharmacist to the physician/clinician as soon as the new information or interpretation is available. Another embodiment of the subject invention includes a program storage device (Sepsis Tree Decision Support Program and Database) readable by a machine (such as a computer) and tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform the method steps of the invention. These method steps are carried out as follows: collection (such as by automated interface with the hospital information system and/or by direct clinical data entry by trained bedside nurses) of patient data (e.g., microbiology cultures, fever patterns); selectively sorting the patient data as to their seriousness or priority; printing out patient data reports to a member of the multidisciplinary team responsible for analysis; if a preferred antibiotic regimen is available and communication via the machine is appropriate, entering recommendations into the machine; and transferring the recommendations to the physician/clinician by the method preferred by the individual physician. In certain embodiments, the program storage device performs the step of analyzing the patient data and providing reports to MATT and/or the physician regarding recommendations for optimal antibiotic regimens. A key feature of the system is the individualized means of reporting recommendations to the physicians. Each individual physician has a preferred means of receiving reports on patient data and recommended antibiotic regimens and the system makes efforts to tailor the means of communication to the individual physician's preferences, better assuring a positive response to information. | 20050106 | 20101214 | 20050818 | 94514.0 | 0 | DEJONG, ERIC S | SYSTEM FOR IMPROVING ANTIBIOTIC USE IN ACUTE CARE HOSPITALS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,343 | ACCEPTED | Motor control apparatus for adjusting target rotation speed of motor in accordance with current condition of motor load | A motor control apparatus, for controlling an electric motor to move a control object from a current position to a target position, estimates a condition of a load currently being applied to the motor (e.g., whether it is a positive or a negative load) based on the current position of the control object and predetermined data that relate positions of the control object to load conditions, and adjusts a target value of motor rotation speed in accordance with the estimation results. | 1. A motor control apparatus for controlling an electric motor to apply motive force for changing a position of a control object from a current position to a target position, comprising: load estimation means for estimating a condition of a load that is currently being applied to said motor; and target rotation speed adjustment means for adjusting a target value of rotation speed of said motor in accordance with an estimation result obtained by said load estimation means. 2. A motor control apparatus according to claim 1, comprising: position detection means for detecting said current position of said control object; and load relationship data providing means for providing load relationship data indicative of a relationship between respective positions of said control object, as detected by said position detection means, and corresponding values of said load. 3. A motor control apparatus according to claim 2, wherein said load relationship data providing means comprise memory means having said load relationship data stored therein. 4. A motor control apparatus according to claim 3, wherein said load relationship data are established and fixedly stored in said memory means prior to a commencement of utilization of said apparatus. 5. A motor control apparatus according to claim 2, comprising means for detecting a change of said load from a first condition to a second condition, as a transient variation in a rate of change of position of said control object, and for registering a value of said control object position at which said transient variation occurs; said registered value being subsequently utilized as a part of said load relationship data. 6. A motor control apparatus according to claim 5, said target position of said control object being one of a plurality of stable halting points of said control object, wherein said control apparatus comprises means for registering a current position of said control object, while rotation of said motor is halted, as a corresponding one of said stable halting points. 7. A motor control apparatus according to claim 5, wherein said first condition and second condition of said load comprise respectively opposite directions in which said load is applied to said motor. 8. A motor control apparatus according to claim 1, comprising means for detecting when said control object has entered a range of positions thereof in which a difference between a current position of said control object and said target position is less than a predetermined threshold value, during said changing of position of said control object, and for reducing said target value of rotation speed when it is detected that said control object is within said range. 9. A motor control apparatus according to claim 1 wherein said control object is an output shaft that is driven by said motor through a rotation transmission system, and said current position and target position are respective rotation angles of said output shaft. 10. A motor control apparatus according to claim 9 wherein said output shaft is coupled to a component part of a shift position switching apparatus of an automatic transmission of a vehicle, for effecting changeover of a shift position of said automatic transmission by actuating said component part. 11. A motor control apparatus according to claim 1 wherein said control object is a component part of a shift position switching apparatus of an automatic transmission of a vehicle, and wherein changes in position of said component part are performed to effect changeover of a shift position of said automatic transmission. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is based on and incorporates herein by reference Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-003759 filed on Jan. 9, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Application The present invention relates to a motor control apparatus for a system in which a control object is driven from a current actuation position to a target position by the motive force of an electric motor 2. Description of Prior Art In recent years, there has been an increasing trend in the field of automobile technology towards replacing mechanical systems by systems which are electrically driven, i.e., by electric motors. This is done for reasons such as reduction of the amount of space required, ease of assembly, ease of system control, etc. This is exemplified in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2002-323127, whereby an automatic transmission apparatus (referred to in the following simply as automatic transmission) of a vehicle is actuated to establish respective shift positions such as the drive (D) shift position, etc., through being driven by an electric motor (hereinafter referred to simply as a motor). The motor shaft is coupled through a speed reduction mechanism to an output shaft, which drives a shift position switching mechanism that directly acts on the automatic transmission to effect changeover from one shift position (i.e., shift range) to another. The motor is provided with an encoder for detecting the rotation angle of the motor shaft. When changeover of the shift position is to be performed, the motor shaft is rotated to a target value of rotation angle (expressed as a target count value of output pulses produced by the encoder) that corresponds to a target shift position. This is described in pages 3, 4 of the above-mentioned prior art patent. However if it is attempted to more rapidly execute a shift position changeover by increasing the motor rotation speed, overshoot of a target rotation angle of the motor shaft (corresponding to the target shift position) may occur, due to the inertia of the rotor of the motor. Hence, the motor may not become halted at the required target rotation angle. In order to be able to satisfy both the requirements for high speed of rotation of the motor and accuracy of halting the rotation the assignees of the present invention have previously proposed, in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2002-177739, an apparatus whereby it is determined that a motor is operating in an acceleration range, after driving of the motor has commenced, when a deviation of a detected rotation angle of the motor (obtained as a count value of a number of pulses produced from an encoder) from a target rotation angle (i.e., target count value of encoder pulses) is higher than a predetermined threshold value, while it is determined that the motor is operating in a deceleration range when the deviation is lower than the threshold value. During operation in the acceleration range, a high value is set for the target rotation speed, so that the motor will be driven to attain a high speed of rotation, while during operation in the deceleration range, a low value is set for the target rotation speed, so that the motor can be accurately halted at a target rotation angle. However in a system in which the load imposed on a motor may vary while the motor is being driven, it is necessary to set the target rotation speed at a sufficiently low value with regard to these variations in the load. Hence, the motor operation cannot be optimized with respect to achieving a high speed of rotation. For example, in the case of a motor-driven shift position switching apparatus for the automatic transmission of a vehicle, when changeover is performed from the P (parking) shift position to the D (drive) shift position, it is necessary for the motor to effect the changeover in the sequence: P shift position→R (reverse) shift position→N (neutral) shift position→D shift position A detent mechanism is provided, for retaining the automatic transmission in the selected shift position. When changeover is performed for example from the P to the D shift position, then immediately before a catch member of the detent mechanism attains a tip of a circumferentially protruding portion of a detent lever, the load on the motor increases substantially. As the catch member moves over successive ones of these protruding portions of the detent lever, large variations occur in the level of motor load, i.e., with the load first increasing (as a positive-direction load) and then becoming inverted in direction (a negative-direction load), as such a protruding portion is moved over. Hence if the target rotation speed of the motor is set in accordance with the difference between the detected rotation angle and the target rotation angle of the motor, without considering the variations in motor load, then the drive torque provided by the motor may be insufficient, when the level of motor load reaches a high level. Thus it is necessary to set a low value for the target rotation speed of the motor, in order to ensure that there will be sufficient drive torque at all times, so that an optimally high speed of rotation cannot be utilized for the motor. Furthermore, when the motor is operating under a low level of load, the drive torque may be excessively high, so that stable control cannot be achieved. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an objective of the present invention to overcome the above problems of the prior art by providing a motor control apparatus whereby stable control of the motor and a high speed of actuation of a control object can both be achieved, even when there are substantial variations in the level of motor load while the motor is being driven. To achieve the above objectives, according to a first aspect, the invention provides a motor control apparatus for controlling an electric motor to apply motive force for changing a position of a control object from a current position to a target position, with the apparatus comprising load estimation means for estimating a condition of a load that is currently being driven by the motor and target rotation speed adjustment means for altering a target value of rotation speed of the motor in accordance with the estimation. The “load condition” may simply express the direction in which a load is currently being applied to the motor, i.e., a positive load which is applying a torque to the motor shaft acting in the opposite direction to the motor rotation direction, or a negative load, which is applying a torque to the motor shaft acting in the same direction as the motor rotation direction. The control object whose position is detected may actually be an intermediate control object, i.e., an output shaft that is driven by the motor through a rotation transmission system, with the output shaft being coupled to move a final control object. In that case, the aforementioned current position and target position will be respective rotation angles of the output shaft. Such a motor control apparatus may further comprise position detection means for detecting the current position of the control object; and load relationship data providing means, for providing load relationship data indicative of a relationship between respective positions of the control object and corresponding values of the load. The load relationship providing means can be a memory in which load relationship data have been fixedly stored at the time of assembly of a system which is to utilize the motor control apparatus, e.g., with the data being obtained based on design data for that system. Alternatively, such load relationship data can be derived by the motor control apparatus itself during actual operation. In that case the motor control apparatus can include means for detecting a change of the motor load from a first condition to a second condition (while the position of the control object is being changed), with the change in motor load being detected as a transient variation in the rate of change of position of the control object while it is being moved from a current position to a target position, and with each such transient variation being detected as a transient variation in the rate of change of an output signal produced by the position detection means. Each position of the control object at which such a transient variation is detected can be registered, e.g., by being stored in a non-volatile memory, so that the position of the control object at which a change occurs from the first to the second load condition is thereby learned. Typically, the target position of the control object will be one of a plurality of stable halting points of the control object, e.g., at which movement of the control object is restrained by the action of a detent mechanism. In that case the control apparatus can be provided with means for registering the current position of the control object (when the motor rotation is halted) as a corresponding one of the stable halting points. From another aspect, a motor control apparatus according to the present invention may include means for detecting (while the control object is being moved towards a target position) when the control object has entered a range of positions in which the difference between the current position of the control object and the target position is less than a predetermined threshold value. This signifies that it will soon be necessary to halt the motion of the control object, at its target position. Hence, in order to enable this halting to be accurately performed, the apparatus reduces the target value of motor speed when it is detected that the control object has entered such a range of positions. The invention can for example be advantageously applied to a shift position switching apparatus of an automatic transmission of a vehicle, for controlling change of positions of a motor-driven component part of the shift position switching apparatus to thereby effect changeover of shift positions (i.e., shift ranges) of the automatic transmission. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an oblique view of a shift position switching apparatus for a vehicle automatic transmission, controlled by a first embodiment of a motor control apparatus; FIG. 2 shows a general block diagram of an overall control system incorporating the shift position switching control apparatus of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a diagram for describing position relationships between respective holding recesses formed in a detent lever and a catch member of a detent spring mechanism; FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C are diagrams illustrating variations in motor load that occur during a shift position changeover operation, and corresponding changes in a target value of motor rotation speed; FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of processing executed by a load estimation routine of the first embodiment; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of processing executed by a target motor rotation speed setting routine of the first embodiment; FIG. 7 is a flow diagram of processing executed by a load inversion position learning routine of a second embodiment; and FIG. 8 is a graph showing the relationship between the output voltage of an output shaft rotation sensor and successive values of rotation angle of the detent lever, attached to the output shaft, during a shift position changeover operation with the second embodiment. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS First Embodiment First and second embodiments of a motor control apparatus will be described in the following, each of which is applied to a motor 13 that drives a shift position switching mechanism of the automatic transmission of a vehicle, as illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. In the following, it should be understood that terms such as “rotation of the motor 13” and “rotation angle of the motor 13” are used for brevity of description, in referring to rotation of the shaft of the motor 13, and to an angular position attained by the shaft of the motor 13. FIG. 2 conceptually illustrates an overall system for controlling an automatic transmission, with the overall system incorporating a shift position switching control apparatus 32 which, in conjunction with a shaft encoder 31 and a output shaft sensor 16, constitutes the first embodiment. The overall system includes an automatic transmission 12 that is directly controlled by a shift position switching mechanism 11, with the shift position switching mechanism 11 being operated by the motor 13, which is controlled by the shift position switching control apparatus 32. The shift position switching mechanism 11 is used to control changing of the automatic transmission 12 between respective shift positions, i.e., a parking position (P), a reverse position (R), a neutral position (N) and a drive position (D). The motor 13 is a synchronous motor, which will be assumed to be a switched reluctance (hereinafter SR) type of motor in this embodiment. It is also assumed that the motor 13 of this embodiment has two separate stator windings, that are driven as respectively separate systems by corresponding motor drive circuits 34, 35 of the shift position switching control apparatus 32, however the invention is equally applicable to various other types of motor. The motor 13 is provided internally with a speed reduction mechanism 14, coupled between the shaft of the SR motor 13 and the shift position switching mechanism 11. The shaft sensor 16 serves to detect the rotation angle of an output shaft 15 of the speed reduction mechanism 14. As shown in FIG. 1, the output shaft 15 has a detent lever 18 fixedly attached thereto, for adjusting the lateral position of a spool valve member 24 to thereby adjust a degree of opening of a manual valve 17, which is within an oil pressure circuit (i.e., hydraulic circuit) of the automatic transmission 12, so that the shift position that is current set for the automatic transmission is determined by the lateral position of the spool valve member 24. An L-shaped parking rod 19 is attached to the detent lever 18, and a conical member 20 that is mounted on the tip of parking rod 19 engages with a lock lever 21. The lock lever 21 serves to lock and unlock a parking gear 23, being rotated about a shaft 22 as a center of rotation, to thereby be moved upward or downward, and so moved towards or away from the parking gear 23, in accordance with the position of the conical member 20. The parking gear 23 is fixedly mounted on the shaft of the automatic transmission 12. When the parking gear 23 is locked by the action of the lock lever 21, the rear road wheels of the vehicle are prevented from rotation, so that the vehicle will not move when the automatic transmission is set at the parked (P) position. The detent lever 18 is coupled to the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17, such that when the shaft 15 and the detent lever 18 are rotated together by the SR motor 13 (acting through the speed reduction mechanism 14), the lateral position of the spool valve member 24 is changed accordingly, and the shift position of the automatic transmission 12 is thereby changed, i.e., to the parking position (P), reverse position (R), neutral position (N) or drive position (D). The detent lever 18 is formed with four holding recesses, referred to in the following as the holding recesses 25, for holding the spool valve member 24 in a position corresponding to the shift position that is selected, while rotation of the motor 13 is halted. A detent spring 26, which holds the detent lever 18 at a position corresponding to the selected shift position, is fixed to the manual valve 17, and a catch member 27 that is provided at the tip of the detent spring 26 engages in one of the holding recesses 25 of the detent lever 18 that corresponds to the selected shift position, so that the detent lever 18 is held at a rotation angle corresponding to that selected shift position, and the spool valve member 24 is thereby held at a position corresponding to the selected shift position. In the case of the parking (P) shift position, the parking rod 19 is moved to become adjacent to the lock lever 21, and a wide-diameter portion of the conical member 20 presses upward against the lock lever 21, so that the protruding portion 21a of the lock lever 21 engages with the parking gear 23, thereby locking the parking gear 23 in place. In that way, the shaft of the automatic transmission 12, i.e., the drive shaft of the vehicle, is held in a locked condition, so that the vehicle is held in the parking condition. When any shift position other than the P shift position is selected, the parking rod 19 is moved away from the lock lever 21, so that the wide-diameter portion of the conical member 20 is moved back from the lock lever 21, and the lock lever 21 thereby becomes lowered. As a result, the protruding portion 21a of the lock lever 21 becomes separated from the parking gear 23, so that the locked condition of the parking gear 23 is released. The shaft of the automatic transmission 12 can then rotate, so that the vehicle can be driven. The shaft sensor 16 is made up of a rotation sensor such as a potentiometer, producing an output voltage that changes linearly in accordance with changes in the angular position of the output shaft 15 of the speed reduction mechanism 14 of the SR motor 13, and hence in accordance with changes in the position to which the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17 is actuated, with that position determining the current shift position of the automatic transmission. Hence, the output voltage from the shaft sensor 16, indicating the rotation angle of the shaft 15, also serves to indicate whether the automatic transmission 12 is currently set to the parking position (P), reverse position (R), neutral position (N) or drive position (D). As shown in FIG. 2, the SR motor 13 is provided with an encoder 31, for detecting the angular position of the rotor (not shown in the drawings) of the SR motor 13. The encoder 31 of this embodiment will be assumed to be a magnetic type of rotary encoder, which outputs three trains of pulse signals (designated as the phase A, phase 8, and phase Z pulse signals, respectively) that are synchronized with the rotation of the rotor of the motor 13 (referred to in the following simply as the rotation of the motor 13), and supplies these signals to the shift position switching control apparatus 32. The ECU 33 of the shift position switching control apparatus 32 performs counting on successive rising edges and falling edges of the phase A and phase B pulse signals from the encoder 31, and controls the motor drive circuits 34, 35 to energize respective (U, V, W) phase windings of the motor 13 at appropriate timings and in an appropriate sequence for producing motor rotation in the required direction. The current direction of rotation of the shaft of the SR motor 13 is judged by the shift position switching control apparatus 32 based on the order in which the phase A and phase B control signals are being generated by the ECU 33. The rotation direction of the motor 13 that is the direction for effecting change from the P to the D shift position of the automatic transmission will be referred to as the forward rotation direction of the motor 13. When forward rotation of the motor 13 occurs, a count value of pulses received from the encoder 31 is decremented by the ECU 33. Conversely, in the case of reverse-direction rotation (the direction for effecting change from the D to the P shift position of the automatic transmission), a count of received pulses is successively decremented. In that way, since the relationship between the count value of received encoder pulses and corresponding rotation angles of the shaft of the SR motor 13 is held fixed, irrespective of whether the SR motor 13 performs forward or reverse rotation, the rotation angle of the motor shaft can be detected based on the count value irrespective of whether the motor shaft is rotated in the forward or the reverse direction. The phase Z pulse signal that is produced by the encoder 31 is used by the ECU 33 to detect when the motor shaft attains a reference angular position. In the following description of first and second embodiments, the function of a motor control apparatus is to determine the actuation position of the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17, to thereby determine the shift position that is set for the automatic transmission. With these embodiments, the (angular) position of the output shaft 15, which actuates the spool valve member 24, is detected and utilized for position control purposes, and so the output shaft 15 can be considered to constitute a “control object”, as set out in the appended claims. However it would be equally possible to provide an arrangement for detecting the (lateral) position of the spool valve member 24 and perform control in accordance with the detection results, in which case the spool valve member 24 would constitute the actual “control object” as set out in the appended claims. When the vehicle driver operates the shift lever (not shown in the drawings) of the automatic transmission 12 to change the shift position, a signal (not shown in the drawings) is thereby inputted to the ECU 33 indicating the specified shift position, i.e., as a target shift position. In response, the ECU 33 sets a target rotation angle for the motor 13 (as a target count value of encoder pulses) in accordance with the target shift position, and begins to energize the motor 13 with feedback control applied such that when the detected rotation angle (i.e., encoder pulse count value) coincides with the target rotation angle for the motor 13, rotation of the motor 13 is halted. While the feedback control is being applied, the ECU 33 successively estimates the level of load being that is currently being driven by the motor 13 (as described hereinafter), and sets corresponding successive values of a target rotation speed of the motor 13 in accordance with the respectively estimated values of load. In doing this, the ECU 33 detects when the motor 13 enters a range of operation, referred to in the following as a “deceleration range”, in which the deviation between the detected rotation angle and the target rotation angle of the motor 13 is lower than a predetermined threshold value, and in which the target rotation speed of the motor 13 is set to a low value, in order to enable the motor rotation to be accurately halted when the target rotation speed and detected rotation speed of the motor coincide. In addition, the ECU 33 acquires the value of output voltage being produced by the output shaft sensor 16, to judge the current rotation angle of the output shaft 15 (and thereby judge the degree of actuation of the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17), and so judge whether the shift position that is currently established is identical to the target shift position, to determine whether it is necessary to begin (or continue with) a shift position changeover operation. It should be noted that it would be equally possible to configure the ECU 33 whereby a corrected value of target rotation angle for the motor 13 is derived while a changeover operation is in progress, with the correction being applied in accordance with the difference between the current rotation angle and target rotation angle of the output shaft 15, so that the target rotation angle can be set under a condition in which backlash in the rotation transmission system (i.e., speed reduction mechanism 14) does not affect the relationship between angular positions of the shaft of the motor 13 and the output shaft 15. The method whereby the value of load being applied to the motor 13 is estimated will be described in the following. As shown in FIG. 1, the shift position switching mechanism 11 includes a detent mechanism 28, for retaining a shift position that has been set for the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17 (i.e., after rotation of the motor 13 has been halted). The shape of a peripheral portion of the detent lever 18 of the detent mechanism 28 is illustrated in FIG. 3. This is formed with radially outwardly protruding portions 29, referred to in the following as detent protrusions, with each adjacent pair of the detent protrusions 29 enclosing a holding recess 25 that corresponds to a specific one of the shift positions. While the motor 13 is not being driven, the catch member 27 is retained in one of the holding recesses 25 by the force applied by the detent spring 26. Thus for example when changeover is performed from the P to the D shift position, the catch member 27 must move successively over each of three of the detent protrusions 29, while being urged towards the detent lever 18 by the action of the detent spring 26. While the catch member 27 is moving upward (i.e., where “up” signifies a radially outward direction with respect to the rotation axis of the output shaft 15) along a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, a positive direction of load is imposed on the motor 13, due to the force exerted by the detent spring 26. When the catch member 27 reaches the apex of a detent protrusion 29, the level of load is determined only by the friction between the catch member 27 and the detent lever 18. While the catch member 27 is moving downward along a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, a negative direction of load is imposed on the motor 13. That is to say, the force exerted by the detent spring 26 results in a torque being applied to the output shaft 15 acting in the same direction as the direction of rotation of the output shaft 15. Hence, there is a sudden large amount of change in the load of the motor 13 as the catch member 27 moves from one side to another side of an apex of a detent protrusion 29. This is illustrated in FIGS. 4A to 4C. As shown in FIG. 4A, when the catch member 27 moves from the holding recess 25 corresponding to the P shift position to the holding recess 25 corresponding to the R shift position, the motor load first has a positive direction, as described above, then falls to zero (as the holding recess 25 reaches the apex of the detent protrusion 29 located between the holding recesses 25 at the P and R positions), then has a negative direction, as the catch member 27 moves from that apex position to the holding recess 25 of the R shift position. FIG. 4B is a simplified load torque characteristic diagram for the motor 13, corresponding to FIG. 4A. In FIG. 4B, the circular black dots correspond to the respective innermost parts of the holding recesses 25, while the black triangular symbols correspond to the respective apexes of the detent protrusions 29. With this embodiment, the ECU 33 includes a memory (not shown in the drawings) having load relationship data held fixedly stored therein, which have been established based on design data for the shift position switching mechanism 11 during manufacture, e.g., at the stage of assembly. The load relationship data express the relationship between respective rotation angles of the detent lever 18 (i.e., of the output shaft 15) and corresponding positions of the holding recesses 25 and detent protrusions 29, and thereby express the relationship between the rotation angles of the detent lever 18 and corresponding values relating to load (e.g., as illustrated in FIG. 4B, corresponding directions of load) applied to the motor 13. With this first embodiment, during rotation of the motor 13, the rotation angle of the detent lever 18 is detected by the output shaft sensor 16 and is used in conjunction with the stored load relationship data to judge whether the catch member 27 is currently moving upward along a sloping face of the detent protrusion 29 (so that a positive direction of load is being applied to the motor 13) or is moving downward along such a sloping face (so that a negative direction of load is being applied to the motor 13). In FIGS. 4A, 4B, 4C it is assumed that shift position changeover is performed from the P to the D shift position, so that forward rotation of the motor 13 occurs (i.e., anticlockwise rotation of the detent lever 18, as viewed in FIG. 3). If the changeover were to be performed from the D to the P position, so that reverse-direction rotation of the motor 13 occurs, the positive and negative polarities of the respective regions in the torque characteristics of FIGS. 4A, 4B would be the opposite of those shown in FIGS. 4A, 4B. The ECU 33 executes the load estimation routine shown in FIG. 5 to judge whether the load that is currently being imposed on the motor 13 acts in a positive or a negative direction. In addition, the ECU 33 executes a target motor rotation speed setting routine shown in FIG. 6, to set a target value of motor rotation speed, designated as Vtg, in accordance with the level of motor load. More specifically, in executing this routine, the ECU 33 determines the target motor rotation speed Vtg in accordance with whether the motor is currently operating under a positive load, as described above, and also judges whether the deviation |θtg−θ| between the detected motor rotation angle θ and the target value of motor rotation angle θtg is below a predetermined deceleration range judgment threshold value K, to thereby determine whether the motor rotation has progressed to reach a deceleration range, in which the rotation is to be halted. If the motor 13 is found to be operating within the deceleration range, then the value of target motor rotation speed Vtg is lowered. These routines will be described in more detail in the following. Load Estimation Routine The load estimation routine of FIG. 5 is executed periodically while the motor 13 is being driven, for example with these executions being synchronized with the A phase and B phase signals of the shaft encoder 31. Firstly in step 101, the rotation angle θ of the detent lever 18 (i.e., the rotation angle of the output shaft 15) is acquired using the output shaft sensor 16, then step 102 is executed in which a decision is made as to whether the direction of rotation of the motor 13 is positive (corresponding to the direction of rotation for performing changeover from the P to the D shift position) or negative. If the direction of rotation is positive then step 103 is executed, in which a decision is made as to whether the current rotation angle θ of the detent lever 18 is within a range whereby a positive load is being applied to the motor 13, i.e., the catch member 27 of the detent spring 26 is moving up (where “up” is as defined hereinabove) a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29 during forward direction rotation of the motor 13. This is done by judging whether any one of the following conditions is satisfied: θp<θ<θpr; θr<θ<θrn; θn<θ<θnd. With this embodiment, the aforementioned load relationship data are constituted by respective values for θp, θpr, θr, θrn, θn, θnd and θd, which are shown in FIG. 3. Here, θp corresponds to the lowest part of the holding recess 25 for the P shift position, θpr corresponds to the position of the apex of the detent protrusion 29 located between the P and R positions, θr corresponds to the lowest part of the holding recess 25 for the R shift position, θrn corresponds to the position of the apex of the detent protrusion 29 located between the R and N positions, θn corresponds to the lowest part of the holding recess 25 for the N shift position, θnd corresponds to the position of the apex of the detent protrusion 29 that is located between the N and D positions, and θd corresponds to the lowest part of the holding recess 25 for the D shift position. If there is a YES decision in step 103, then since this indicates that the catch member 27 is climbing up a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, processing proceeds to step 104, in which it is judged that the direction of load applied to the motor 13 is positive. If there is a NO decision in step 103, then since this indicates that the catch member 27 is sliding down a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, processing proceeds to step 105, in which it is judged that a negative direction of load is being applied to the motor 13. If it is found in step 102 that the motor 13 is rotating in the negative direction (the direction for performing changeover from the D to the P shift position), processing proceeds to step 106, in which a decision is made as to whether the current rotation angle θ of the detent lever 18 is within a range whereby the catch member 27 of the detent spring 26 is moving up a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29 (so that the direction of load on the motor 13 is positive) during the negative-direction rotation of the motor 13. This is done by judging whether any one of the following conditions is satisfied: θpr<θ<θr; θrn<θ<θn; θnd<θ<θd. If there is a YES decision in step 106, then since this indicates that the catch member 27 is climbing up a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, processing proceeds to step 107, in which it is judged that the direction of load is positive. If there is a NO decision in step 106, then since this indicates that the catch member 27 is sliding down a sloping face of a detent protrusion 29, processing proceeds to step 108, in which it is judged that the load direction is negative. Target Motor Rotation Speed Setting Routine The target motor rotation speed setting routine shown in FIG. 6 is executed periodically while the motor 13 is being driven, for example with these executions being synchronized with the A phase and B phase signals of the shaft encoder 31. Firstly in step 201, a decision is made as to whether a positive direction of load is currently applied to the motor 13, with that decision being based on the results obtained by a preceding execution of the load estimation routine of FIG. 5. If the load direction is found to be positive, processing proceeds to step 202, in which a target value of motor rotation speed is set. That target value is selected as being within an intermediate range of motor speed, in which the motor 13 can generate a high level of torque, and is assumed to be 1200 rpm with this embodiment. In that way it can be ensured that the motor 13 generates sufficient torque for the catch member 27 to climb to the apex of a detent protrusion 29. If it is found in step 201 that the load direction is negative, processing proceeds to step 203, in which a high value of target rotation speed (in this example, 2000 rpm) is set for the motor 13. Following either of steps 202, 203, step 204 is executed in which a decision is made as to whether the deviation |θtg−θ| between the detected motor rotation angle θ and the target value of motor rotation angle θtg is below a deceleration range judgment threshold value K, to thereby determine whether the motor rotation has progressed to reach a deceleration range in which the rotation is to be halted. If it is judged that |θtg−θ|≧K, then execution of this routine is terminated. If it is judged that |θtg−θ|<K then step 205 is executed, in which a low value of target rotation speed (in this example, 500 rpm) is set for the motor 13. This ensures that the motor 13 can be accurately halted at the target rotation angle θtg. It should be noted that it would be equally possible to base the decision as to whether the motor 13 is operating in a deceleration range upon whether the deviation |θtg−θ| between the rotation angle θ of the detent lever 18 (i.e., detected rotation angle of the output shaft 15) and the target rotation angle θtg of the detent lever 18 (corresponding to the target shift position) is below a predetermined deceleration range judgment threshold value. With the first embodiment described above, information relating to the value of load applied to the motor 13 is estimated while the motor is being driven, and the target value of motor rotation speed Vtg is adjusted in accordance with the estimation results. Hence, even if the load imposed on the motor 13 varies substantially in magnitude and/or direction as the motor 13 is being driven, appropriate values for Vtg can be successively set, in accordance with the variations in load. As a result, stable control of the motor can be achieved together with a high speed of actuating the control object that is driven by the motor. With the first embodiment, the level of load of the motor 13 is estimated based on the rotation angle of the output shaft 15 (detected using the output shaft sensor 16) in conjunction with the predetermined load relationship data, so that the embodiment has the advantage that it is unnecessary to provide any additional device such as a load sensor for the purpose of estimating the load condition of the motor. Hence, such a motor control apparatus can be implemented at low cost. The rotation angle of the motor 13 is converted into a rotation angle of the output shaft 15 (i.e., rotation angle of the detent lever 18) by being transferred through a rotation transmission system such as the speed reduction mechanism 14. There is some degree of backlash in various components of such a rotation transmission system, e.g., due to spaces between meshing teeth of gears within the speed reduction mechanism 14. In addition, from considerations of ease of assembly, at the stage of manufacture, there will be some amount play in a coupling between an outer end of the shaft of the motor 13 and the output shaft 15. The combination of these will be referred to as the backlash in the rotation transmission system. As a result, when the motor 13 is driving the output shaft 15 for rotation and the direction of the load applied to the output shaft 15 becomes inverted (as described above), the relationship between the respective rotation angles of the shaft of the motor 13 and the output shaft 15 will become incorrect due to the effects of the backlash in the rotation transmission system. Hence, if the load that is currently applied to the motor 13 were to be estimated based upon rotation angle values for the detent lever 18 (i.e., the output shaft 15) that are derived from the detected rotation angle of the motor 13, errors might occur in the load estimates. However with the first embodiment, since the load condition is estimated based upon the rotation angle of the output shaft 15 as detected using the output shaft sensor 16, the estimated values of rotation angle of the detent lever 18 are unaffected by the backlash in the rotation transmission system. Hence the condition of load that is currently applied to the motor 13 can be accurately estimated, unaffected by the backlash, by using the aforementioned stored load relationship data in conjunction with the detected rotation angle of the output shaft 15. It should be noted that if the invention were to be applied to system having only a small amount of backlash in the rotation transmission system, so that the shaft of the motor 13 and the output shaft 15 rotate substantially together at all times, it would be possible to estimate the load on the motor based on the detected rotation angle of the motor 13 in conjunction with the load relationship data. Second Embodiment With the first embodiment described above, data expressing rotation angles of the detent lever 18 at which inversions of the direction of load of the motor 13 occur and rotation angles corresponding to the shift positions (i.e., the angular positions θp, θpr, θr, θrn, θn, θnd, θd shown in FIG. 3) are stored beforehand in a memory as load relationship data, and used in conjunction with the detected rotation angle of the detent lever 18 as described above, to judge whether the direction of load applied to the motor 13 is positive or negative (i.e., to judge whether the catch member 27 is currently climbing up a sloping peripheral face of the detent lever 18, or sliding down such a sloping face). With the first embodiment, such load relationship data are prepared beforehand at the stage or manufacture, based upon design information, etc. A second embodiment will be described, referring to FIGS. 7 and 8, whereby the angular positions of the detent lever 18 at which the load direction becomes inverted are learned (i.e., are detected and then stored in a non-volatile memory) by the motor control apparatus during its operation. While the motor 13 is halted, the catch member 27 of the detent spring 26 is engaged in a lowermost portion of one of the holding recesses 25 of the detent lever 18 (corresponding to the currently set shift position). In that condition, with the second embodiment, the respective angular positions of the detent lever 18 at which the catch member 27 is engaged in these lowermost portions of the holding recesses 25 (these portions being referred to in the following as “stable halting points” for the respective shift positions) are learned by the system. For example, when the detent lever 18 is halted at the P shift position, the rotation angle of the detent lever 18 at that time (as detected by using the output shaft sensor 16) is learned, to be stored in a memory (not shown in the drawings) of the ECU 33 as the stable halting point of the P shift position. The respective stable halting points for the R, N and D shift positions are similarly learned. In addition with this embodiment, while the motor 13 is being driven, the amount of backlash in the rotation transmission system is used in the process of learning the respective rotation angles θpr, θrn, θnd at which the catch member 27 attains the apexes of the detent protrusions 29 that are located: (a) between the stable halting points of the P and R shift positions, (b) between the stable halting points of the R and N shift positions, and (c) between the stable halting points of the N and D shift positions. As described above, when the catch member 27 moves over one of these apexes of a detent protrusion 29, the direction of the load applied to the motor becomes inverted. Immediately after the inversion of load direction occurs, the output shaft 15 momentarily enters a condition of free rotation in relation to the shaft of the motor 13, due to the backlash in the rotation transmission system. The rate of rotation of the output shaft 15 thereby abruptly increases during a brief interval (due to the torque being applied to the detent lever 18 by the detent spring 26, acting through the catch member 27) until the backlash is taken up. The detent lever 18 then again becomes driven by the motor 13 (assisted by the torque applied from the detent spring 26, as a negative direction of load). As a result, there is an abrupt change in rate of variation of the output voltage produced by the output shaft sensor 16 at each occurrence of load direction inversion, with the magnitude of that change being determined by the amount of backlash. This is illustrated in FIG. 8, showing the relationship between the output voltage from the output shaft sensor 16 and values of rotation angle of the detent lever 18, for the case of changeover from the P to the D shift position. As shown, a transient change occurs in the rate of variation of the detection voltage of the output shaft sensor 16 each time the catch member 27 moves over an apex of a detent protrusion 29, due to a sudden change in rotation speed of the detent lever 18. The respective rotation angles θpr, θrn, θnd of the detent lever 18, at which these transient changes in the rate of variation of the detection voltage produced by the output shaft sensor 16 occur, are detected and stored in a memory, i.e., are learned, by the ECU 33 of this embodiment. This learning is performed by executing the load inversion position learning routine shown in FIG. 7, which is executed periodically at regular intervals, so long as the ECU 33 is in operation. Firstly, in step 301 a decision is made as to whether the motor 13 is being driven. If the rotation of the motor 13 is currently halted, then a decision is made in a series of steps 309 to 312 as to which of the shift positions (P, R, N, D) is currently set. If it is judged in step 309 that the currently set shift position is P, then processing proceeds to step 312 in which the rotation angle θ of the output shaft 15, detected by means of the output shaft sensor 16, is learned as the stable halting point θp for the P shift position. The respective stable halting points θr, θn and θd for the R, N and D shift positions are each learned in the same manner, in steps 314 to 316 respectively. If it is found in step 301 that the motor 13 is currently being driven, then processing proceeds to step 302, in which a decision is made as to whether the rotation speed of the detent lever 18 is higher than a predetermined decision value Ks. As described above, when the output shaft 15 becomes momentarily uncoupled from the shaft of the motor 13 due to the effect of backlash, at a point when the direction of load becomes inverted as described above, there is an abrupt change in the rotation speed of the output shaft 15, with a corresponding abrupt change in the rate of variation of the output voltage from the output shaft sensor 16. It is an occurrence of such a change in the rate of variation of the output voltage of the output shaft sensor 16 that is judged by step 302. If that condition is not detected, i.e., the catch member 27 is not currently moving over the apex of a detent protrusion 29 (a NO decision), then execution of this routine is ended. If there is a YES decision in step 302, so that it is known that the catch member 27 is currently passing over the apex of one of the detent protrusions 29, then one or more of a series of steps 303 to 304 are executed, to judge which of the detent protrusions 29 is currently being traversed by the catch member 27. More specifically, a decision is made as to which pair of stable halting points are located on opposing sides of the detent protrusion 29 that is currently being traversed by the catch member 27. If for example it is judged in step 303 that the detent protrusion 29 is at a rotation angle θ which meets the condition θp≦θ≦θr, then processing proceeds to step 306, in which it is judged that (i.e., learned that) the current rotation angle of the output shaft 15 correspond to the position θpr of the detent protrusion 29 that is located between the P and R stable halting points. Similarly, if it is judged in step 304 that the detected detent protrusion 29 is located at a position θ which meets the condition θr≦θθn, then processing proceeds to step 307, in which it is judged that the current rotation angle of the output shaft 15 corresponds to the position θrn of the detent protrusion 29 that is located between the R and N stable halting points, and if it is judged in step 305 that the detected detent protrusion 29 is located at a position θ which meets the condition θn≦θ≦θd, then processing proceeds to step 308, in which it is judged that the current rotation angle of the output shaft 15 corresponds to the position θnd of the detent protrusion 29 that is located between the N and D stable halting points. The angular positions θp, θpr, θr, θrn, θn, θnd and θd which are thereby learned are stored in a non-volatile type of rewritable memory (not shown in the drawings) of the ECU 33. With the second embodiment, the load estimation routine of FIG. 5 and the target motor rotation speed setting routine of FIG. 6 are executed in the same way as described hereinabove for the first embodiment. However data expressing the angular positions θp, θpr, θr, θrn, θn, θnd and θd, used in steps 103 and 106 of FIG. 5, are read out from the aforementioned non-volatile type rewritable memory, having been previously learned by the processing described above. With the second embodiment, a set of values for the load inversion positions and a set of values of the respective stable halting points of the various shift positions of the automatic transmission are learned by the system itself. Hence, even if there are variations between such sets of values for different shift position switching apparatuses, due to manufacturing deviations etc., or if variations in the values arise due to wear of mechanical components during the operating lifetime of a system, such variations will not adversely affect the operation of the motor control apparatus, since the angular values for the load inversion positions and stable halting points are derived by learning processing performed by the motor control apparatus, which can be repeated whenever necessary. Hence, accurate estimation of motor load and stable operation of the motor control apparatus can be ensured, even under long-term use. With the second embodiment, the processing described above for learning the positions θpr, θrn and θrd of specific detent protrusions 29 that are each located between a pair of shift positions is performed based on changes in the rate of change of the output voltage produced by the output shaft sensor 16, indicative of changes in the speed of rotation of the output shaft 15. However it would be possible to perform that learning processing by detecting the positions of these detent protrusions 29 based upon changes in the rotation speed of the motor 13, i.e., as expressed by changes in the frequency of the pulses generated by the shaft encoder 31. These rotation speed changes will occur during each of the aforementioned brief intervals when the motor shaft momentarily ceases to drive the detent lever 18, due to the effects of backlash as described above, as the motor load changes from a positive to a negative direction. Also, with the first and second embodiments described above, the rotation angle of the output shaft 15 (and hence, the detent lever 18) is detected, by means of the output shaft sensor 16. However it would be equally possible to utilize detection of the position of the final control object, i.e., the spool valve member 24 of the manual valve 17, by providing a suitable arrangement for detecting the lateral position of the spool valve member 24 and producing a corresponding detection signal. The essential point is that it is necessary to detect motion (angular or lateral) of either the output shaft 15 or of a component, such as the spool valve member 24, which moves together with the output shaft 15. The above embodiments have been described for application to an automatic transmission having P, R, N, and D shift positions. However the invention would be equally applicable to a shift position switching mechanism of an automatic transmission that also has a low (L) shift position, or only two shift positions, P and NotP. It should be noted also that a motor control apparatus according to the present invention is not limited in application to an SR motor which actuates an automatic transmission shift position switching mechanism, and would be applicable to controlling SR motors or other types of motors used in various other applications. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of Application The present invention relates to a motor control apparatus for a system in which a control object is driven from a current actuation position to a target position by the motive force of an electric motor 2. Description of Prior Art In recent years, there has been an increasing trend in the field of automobile technology towards replacing mechanical systems by systems which are electrically driven, i.e., by electric motors. This is done for reasons such as reduction of the amount of space required, ease of assembly, ease of system control, etc. This is exemplified in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2002-323127, whereby an automatic transmission apparatus (referred to in the following simply as automatic transmission) of a vehicle is actuated to establish respective shift positions such as the drive (D) shift position, etc., through being driven by an electric motor (hereinafter referred to simply as a motor). The motor shaft is coupled through a speed reduction mechanism to an output shaft, which drives a shift position switching mechanism that directly acts on the automatic transmission to effect changeover from one shift position (i.e., shift range) to another. The motor is provided with an encoder for detecting the rotation angle of the motor shaft. When changeover of the shift position is to be performed, the motor shaft is rotated to a target value of rotation angle (expressed as a target count value of output pulses produced by the encoder) that corresponds to a target shift position. This is described in pages 3, 4 of the above-mentioned prior art patent. However if it is attempted to more rapidly execute a shift position changeover by increasing the motor rotation speed, overshoot of a target rotation angle of the motor shaft (corresponding to the target shift position) may occur, due to the inertia of the rotor of the motor. Hence, the motor may not become halted at the required target rotation angle. In order to be able to satisfy both the requirements for high speed of rotation of the motor and accuracy of halting the rotation the assignees of the present invention have previously proposed, in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2002-177739, an apparatus whereby it is determined that a motor is operating in an acceleration range, after driving of the motor has commenced, when a deviation of a detected rotation angle of the motor (obtained as a count value of a number of pulses produced from an encoder) from a target rotation angle (i.e., target count value of encoder pulses) is higher than a predetermined threshold value, while it is determined that the motor is operating in a deceleration range when the deviation is lower than the threshold value. During operation in the acceleration range, a high value is set for the target rotation speed, so that the motor will be driven to attain a high speed of rotation, while during operation in the deceleration range, a low value is set for the target rotation speed, so that the motor can be accurately halted at a target rotation angle. However in a system in which the load imposed on a motor may vary while the motor is being driven, it is necessary to set the target rotation speed at a sufficiently low value with regard to these variations in the load. Hence, the motor operation cannot be optimized with respect to achieving a high speed of rotation. For example, in the case of a motor-driven shift position switching apparatus for the automatic transmission of a vehicle, when changeover is performed from the P (parking) shift position to the D (drive) shift position, it is necessary for the motor to effect the changeover in the sequence: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? P shift position→R (reverse) shift position→N (neutral) shift position→D shift position in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? A detent mechanism is provided, for retaining the automatic transmission in the selected shift position. When changeover is performed for example from the P to the D shift position, then immediately before a catch member of the detent mechanism attains a tip of a circumferentially protruding portion of a detent lever, the load on the motor increases substantially. As the catch member moves over successive ones of these protruding portions of the detent lever, large variations occur in the level of motor load, i.e., with the load first increasing (as a positive-direction load) and then becoming inverted in direction (a negative-direction load), as such a protruding portion is moved over. Hence if the target rotation speed of the motor is set in accordance with the difference between the detected rotation angle and the target rotation angle of the motor, without considering the variations in motor load, then the drive torque provided by the motor may be insufficient, when the level of motor load reaches a high level. Thus it is necessary to set a low value for the target rotation speed of the motor, in order to ensure that there will be sufficient drive torque at all times, so that an optimally high speed of rotation cannot be utilized for the motor. Furthermore, when the motor is operating under a low level of load, the drive torque may be excessively high, so that stable control cannot be achieved. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an objective of the present invention to overcome the above problems of the prior art by providing a motor control apparatus whereby stable control of the motor and a high speed of actuation of a control object can both be achieved, even when there are substantial variations in the level of motor load while the motor is being driven. To achieve the above objectives, according to a first aspect, the invention provides a motor control apparatus for controlling an electric motor to apply motive force for changing a position of a control object from a current position to a target position, with the apparatus comprising load estimation means for estimating a condition of a load that is currently being driven by the motor and target rotation speed adjustment means for altering a target value of rotation speed of the motor in accordance with the estimation. The “load condition” may simply express the direction in which a load is currently being applied to the motor, i.e., a positive load which is applying a torque to the motor shaft acting in the opposite direction to the motor rotation direction, or a negative load, which is applying a torque to the motor shaft acting in the same direction as the motor rotation direction. The control object whose position is detected may actually be an intermediate control object, i.e., an output shaft that is driven by the motor through a rotation transmission system, with the output shaft being coupled to move a final control object. In that case, the aforementioned current position and target position will be respective rotation angles of the output shaft. Such a motor control apparatus may further comprise position detection means for detecting the current position of the control object; and load relationship data providing means, for providing load relationship data indicative of a relationship between respective positions of the control object and corresponding values of the load. The load relationship providing means can be a memory in which load relationship data have been fixedly stored at the time of assembly of a system which is to utilize the motor control apparatus, e.g., with the data being obtained based on design data for that system. Alternatively, such load relationship data can be derived by the motor control apparatus itself during actual operation. In that case the motor control apparatus can include means for detecting a change of the motor load from a first condition to a second condition (while the position of the control object is being changed), with the change in motor load being detected as a transient variation in the rate of change of position of the control object while it is being moved from a current position to a target position, and with each such transient variation being detected as a transient variation in the rate of change of an output signal produced by the position detection means. Each position of the control object at which such a transient variation is detected can be registered, e.g., by being stored in a non-volatile memory, so that the position of the control object at which a change occurs from the first to the second load condition is thereby learned. Typically, the target position of the control object will be one of a plurality of stable halting points of the control object, e.g., at which movement of the control object is restrained by the action of a detent mechanism. In that case the control apparatus can be provided with means for registering the current position of the control object (when the motor rotation is halted) as a corresponding one of the stable halting points. From another aspect, a motor control apparatus according to the present invention may include means for detecting (while the control object is being moved towards a target position) when the control object has entered a range of positions in which the difference between the current position of the control object and the target position is less than a predetermined threshold value. This signifies that it will soon be necessary to halt the motion of the control object, at its target position. Hence, in order to enable this halting to be accurately performed, the apparatus reduces the target value of motor speed when it is detected that the control object has entered such a range of positions. The invention can for example be advantageously applied to a shift position switching apparatus of an automatic transmission of a vehicle, for controlling change of positions of a motor-driven component part of the shift position switching apparatus to thereby effect changeover of shift positions (i.e., shift ranges) of the automatic transmission. | 20050110 | 20060711 | 20050714 | 95619.0 | 0 | SMITH, TYRONE W | MOTOR CONTROL APPARATUS FOR ADJUSTING TARGET ROTATION SPEED OF MOTOR IN ACCORDANCE WITH CURRENT CONDITION OF MOTOR LOAD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,414 | ACCEPTED | System and method for battery calibration in portable computing devices | Described is a method which includes a step of initiating a calibration state of a battery status system. The calibration state including charging a battery to a first threshold value; discharging the battery to a second threshold value; and calibrating the battery status system based on the first and second threshold values. Subsequently, the method includes a step of exiting the calibration state. Described is also a portable computing device which includes invades a battery; a controller; and an application executed on the controller for performing calibration of a battery status system of the battery. The application drives the battery to a threshold state and performs the calibration when the battery reaches the threshold state. | 1. A method, comprising: initiating a calibration state of a battery status system, the calibration state including, charging a battery to a first threshold value; discharging the battery to a second threshold value; and calibrating the battery status system based on the first and second threshold values; and exiting the calibration state. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the battery status system is a coulomb counting system. 3. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: indicating to a user that the calibration state is one of recommended and required. 4. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: connecting the battery to an external power source prior to initiating the calibration state. 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the battery is charged by the external power source. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein discharging the battery includes removing an external power source from the battery. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein discharging the battery includes powering at least one peripheral which derives power from the battery. 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein discharging the battery includes disabling an auto-disable mechanism of the battery. 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein the first threshold value is fully charged. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the second threshold value is fully discharged. 11. A portable computing device, comprising: a battery; a controller; and an application executed on the controller for performing calibration of a battery status system of the battery, wherein the application drives the battery to a threshold state and performs the calibration when the battery reaches the threshold state. 12. The portable computing device according to claim 11, wherein the battery status system is a coulomb counting system. 13. The portable computing device according to claim 11, wherein the controller is one of a microcontroller and a complex finite state machine integrated circuit. 14. The portable computing device according to claim 11, wherein the threshold state is a full charge of the battery. 15. The portable computing device according to claim 14, wherein the battery is driven to the full charge by connection to an external power source. 16. The portable computing device according to claim 11, wherein the threshold state is full discharge of the battery. 17. The portable computing device according to claim 16, wherein the battery is driven to the full discharge by one of powering at least one peripheral of the device and disabling an auto-disable mechanism of the device. 18. The portable computing device according to claim 11, wherein the battery comprises one of Li ions, Li polymers, NiCad and NiMh. 19. A battery pack, comprising: a battery; a controller; and an application executed on the controller for performing calibration of a battery status system of the battery, wherein the application drives the battery to a threshold state and performs the calibration when the battery reaches the threshold state. 20. The battery pack according to claim 19, wherein the battery status system is a coulomb counting system. 21. The battery pack according to claim 19, wherein the controller is one of a microcontroller and a complex finite state machine integrated circuit. 22. The battery pack according to claim 19, wherein the threshold state is a full charge of the battery. 23. The battery pack according to claim 22, wherein the battery is driven to the full charge by connection to an external power source. 24. The battery pack according to claim 19, wherein the threshold state is full discharge of the battery. 25. The battery pack according to claim 24, wherein the battery is driven to the full discharge by one of powering at least one peripheral of the device and disabling an auto-disable mechanism of the device. 26. The battery pack according to claim 19, wherein the battery comprises one of Li ions, Li polymers, NiCad and NiMh. | BACKGROUND Many portable computing devices are capable of wireless connection to a computer network, such as the Internet, a local network, a corporate network and others. As a result, these devices do not require any wired connections to carry out their functions (e.g., email, web browsing, etc.). Batteries, particularly rechargeable batteries, are commonly used to power the devices, since they provide complete freedom of movement to the users of these devices. Alternatively, power adapters may be used to power the devices using electrical sockets. However, this approach requires tethering the devices to a stationary power supply with cords, reducing portability and usefulness. These devices typically include a user-viewable screen which includes a battery status display that provides the user with an estimation of a remaining life of the battery. The remaining battery life is based on a battery capacity which is calculated by using a coulomb-counting system (“CCS”) which measures a current flow into and out of the battery and integrates the current flow over time. The battery capacity is calculated and recorded by electronics disposed within a battery pack. Over time, however, the calculation introduces an error which may get so large that performance of the device is adversely affected (e.g., reduction in battery life, data loss, memory corruption, etc.). Thus, the calculation may need to be calibrated at a regular interval. However, the calibration is typically performed only when the battery reaches a threshold state (e.g., full charge and then full discharge). Thus, the user has the burden of ensuring that the battery reaches the threshold state so that the CCS may be re-calibrated. The batteries used in these devices are typically composed of a natural substance (e.g., Li-ion, Li-polymer, NiCad, NiMh). Over time, the natural substance will age and breakdown chemically, thereby reducing effective capacity of the battery. Without performing the calibration at regular intervals, the device typically does not account for this aging and the chemical breakdown that occurs therewith. Thus, the device may inaccurately display the remaining battery life to the user. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention related to a method which includes a step of initiating a calibration state of a battery status system. The calibration state including charging a battery to a first threshold value; discharging the battery to a second threshold value; and calibrating the battery status system based on the first and second threshold values. Subsequently, the method includes a step of exiting the calibration state. The present invention also relates to a portable computing device which includes a battery; a controller; and an application executed on the controller for performing calibration of a battery status system of the battery. The application drives the battery to a threshold state and performs the calibration when the battery reaches the threshold state. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a front view of an exemplary embodiment of portable computing device according to the present invention. FIG. 2 shows an exemplary embodiment of a battery pack according to the present invention. FIG. 3 shows an exemplary embodiment of a method employing a calibration system according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention may be further understood with reference to the following description and the appended drawings, wherein like elements are referred to with the same reference numerals. As shown in FIG. 1, the present invention may be utilized by a portable computing device 10 (e.g., cell phone, PDA, laptop, handheld PC, scanner, interrogator, etc.). The device 10 may include a casing 15 which houses internal electronics of the device 10 and provides protection against impacts and corruption from environmental agents (e.g., dust, liquids, etc.). The casing 15 may be composed of any suitable material which would provide such protection (e.g., plastics, polymers, etc.). The device 10 may further include a display screen 20, a control element 25 and a data entry element 30. The display screen 20 (e.g., liquid crystal display) may present text and/or image data to a user of the device 10. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the image data may include still images (e.g., photos, jpegs, gifs) and/or dynamic images (e.g., video, animation, streaming content). The control element 25 may include one or more buttons, dials, depressable regions and/or joysticks that allow the user to operate the device 10. For example, the device 10 may include a “menu” button which, when pressed, presents a list of options (e.g., phonebook, calendar, settings, etc.) on the display screen 20. The data entry element 30 may include an alpha-numeric keypad (not shown) which would allow the user to enter text that may be simultaneously shown on the display screen 20. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the above description of the device 10 is merely illustrative of an exemplary portable computing device. For example, the device 10 may not include the control element 25 and/or the data entry element 30, but may include a further embodiment of the display screen 20 in which it functions as a touch-screen. That is, the user may operate the device 10 and/or enter data by manually depressing portions of the screen 20 with an instrument (e.g., stylus) or a finger. Thus, the present invention may be implemented on any portable computing device and is not limited to the particular exemplary embodiments described herein. The device 10 may further include a microphone 35 and a speaker 40. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the microphone 35 may be used to receive sound emitted by the user during, for example, a phone call or a voice recording. The speaker 40 may be used to emit sound (e.g., phone call, playback of voice recording, playback of sound accompanying a video, music, incoming call, dial tone, etc.). An antenna 45 may be disposed on the device 10 to facilitate transmission/reception of a wireless signal to/from the device 10. For example, the device 10 may be connected to a wireless network (e.g, WLAN, WWAN, WPAN, etc.) through which the device 10 may communicate with further electronic devices connected to the network. The device 10 may further include a port 50 which may receive a jack connected to an external power source (e.g., AC, external battery). For example, the device 10 may be connected to the external power source when charging either through the jack or while in a charging cradle (not shown). According to the present invention, the display screen 20 may further include a battery status indicator 55 which displays a remaining battery life of a battery 60, shown in FIG. 2. As would be understood by those of skill in the art, the battery 60 is preferably rechargeable (e.g., Li-ion, Li-polymer, NiCad, NiMh). As used herein, the term “battery” may refer to any power source typically used in portable computing devices. For example, the battery may also be referred to as a battery cell. The indicator 55 may display the remaining battery life as a series of bars. For example, the indicator 55 may be completely filled with bars when the battery 60 is fully charged, whereas only a single bar may appear when the battery 60 has been nearly fully discharged. Other types of indicators may also be used (e.g., a percentage of battery life remaining, etc.). The indicator 55 may be important to the user, because complete or near complete discharge of the battery 60 may cause the device 10 to disable itself (i.e., shutdown until connected to the power source), which, in turn, may cause loss and/or corruption of data stored in a volatile memory of the device 10. As shown in FIG. 2, the battery 60 may be housed within a battery pack 65. As stated above with regard to the casing 15, the battery pack 65 may be manufactured such that it protects the battery 60 and internal electronics therein from damage due to impact and/or environmental agents. Those of skill in the art would understand that the battery pack 65 may be removably or non-removably attached to the device 10. Thus, the battery 60 may be charged in several different modes. In one embodiment, the port 50 may receive the jack which is connected to the external power source. In a further embodiment, the device 10 may be placed in the charging cradle which is connected to the external power source. In these embodiments, the battery pack 65 may remain attached to the device 10. However, a further charging cradle may receive only the battery pack 65 after it has been removed from the device 10. In this embodiment, leads 70,75 attached to the battery pack 65 may contact a portion of the cradle that transfers power from the external power source to the battery 60. As understood by those skilled in the art, the battery pack 65 may include a further lead which provides for communication between the device 10 and the battery pack 65. The battery pack 65 may further include a controller 80. In one embodiment, the controller 80 is a microcontroller or a complex finite state machine integrated circuit which may contain components that typically comprise the controller 80 (e.g., a CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports, timers). As understood by those skilled in the art, the microcontroller may be designed to control a particular task within a system or an embedded system. The controller 80 may implement a battery status system, such as a coulomb-counting system (“CCS”) which calculates capacity of the battery 60 by measuring current flow into and out of the battery 60 and integrating the current flow over time. The present invention is described with respect to the CCS, but, those of skill in the art will understand that any battery status system which requires calibration may be successfully implemented according to the disclosure herein. The battery pack 65 which includes the controller 80 may be referred to as a “smart battery,” because, the controller 80 may perform a calibration of the CCS. According to the present invention, calibration of the CCS may result in an accurate display of battery capacity, prolonged battery life and/or data preservation. The calibration may be performed when the battery 60 reaches a threshold state (e.g., fully or nearly fully charged and then fully or nearly fully discharged). As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the user may determine when the battery 60 has reached the threshold state. For example, if the device 10 is equipped with an automatic disabling mechanism that turns the device 10 off when the battery 60 is completely or nearly completely discharged, the user may decide to charge the battery 60. However, though the user thinks the device 10 has reached the threshold state, the user may be wrong, because conventional auto-disable mechanisms turn off the device when the battery is at a lower capacity (e.g., 10% remaining) but not fully discharged. Thus, the calibration may not be performed. Without performing the calibration, the CCS may introduce an error that accumulates over time and adversely affects performance of the device 10 (e.g., reduction in battery life, data loss/corruption). According to the present invention, an application is provided that may cause the battery 60 to initiate a calibration state thereby reaching the threshold state, and thus, performing the calibration of the CCS and removing the error associated with the user determination. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the application may be implemented in software or hardware in the device 10 and/or the controller 80. An exemplary embodiment of a method 100 according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 3. In step 105, a calibration state is initiated by triggering the application. Prior to initiation of the calibration state, the device 10 may indicate to the user that calibration is required/recommended based on a time of a prior calibration and/or the above-mentioned error has caused the CCS to become inaccurate to a point that the user loses productivity. However, the calibration state may be initiated even if the device 10 does not indicate that the calibration is required/recommended. For example, the user may believe that the device 10 is falsely or inaccurately reporting the battery capacity or that the device 10 is disabling prematurely. The user may trigger the application manually by, for example, pressing one or more buttons on the device 10 and/or touching an icon on the display screen 20 with a finger or the stylus. In a further exemplary embodiment, the application may be triggered automatically. For example, the device 10 may be programmed to trigger the application at a certain time (e.g., overnight, after a period of non-use) or when the battery 60 is completely or nearly completely discharged. In yet a further exemplary embodiment, the device 10 may display a message to the user on the display screen 20 indicating that calibration has not been performed for a prolonged period of time. Thus, the user may trigger the application, and/or the device 10 may be configured to trigger the application automatically if the user does not manually trigger the application after a predetermined number of days or times the message is displayed. In one exemplary embodiment, the application may not be triggered unless the device 10 is connected to the external power source. Thus, the application may determine whether the device 10 is connected to the external power source before proceeding with the method 100. In a further exemplary embodiment, the user may be prompted to connect the device 10 the external power source. For example, the display screen 20 may show a prompt which indicates that the calibration state is about to begin, and thus, the user may connect the device 10 to the external power source, otherwise any data in a volatile memory of the device 10 may be lost or corrupted while or after the application executes. In step 110, the battery 60 is charged to a fully charged or nearly fully charged state. The application may be configured to determine when the battery 60 has reached the threshold state. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, the battery 60 is preferably charged to the threshold state at which the calibration is performed. The battery 60 may be charged by the external power source according to the methods described above (i.e., jack, device charging cradle, battery charging cradle, etc.). In step 115, the battery 60 is fully or nearly fully discharged. That is, the battery 60 may be driven to the threshold state. Prior to discharging the battery 60, the external power source may be removed or disabled, thereby allowing the battery 60 to discharge faster. To further accomplish the faster discharge, the application may “turn on” one or more peripherals (e.g., backlight, display screen 20, vibrate motor, ringer, allow a microprocessor to run at full speed, set a radio to fully drain the battery 60, etc.). As would be understood by those of skill in the art, the device 10 is preferably put in a highest power state, in which the battery 60 is being discharged at a fastest possible rate. Furthermore, the application may disable an auto-disable mechanism of the device 10. For example, the device 10 may typically shut-down (“turn off”) when the battery 60 has been fully or nearly fully discharged. The application may disable and/or prevent the auto-disable mechanism from executing. As understood by those skilled in the art, the device 10 may remain connected to the external power source while being discharged. For example, it may be disadvantageous to deprive the device 10 of power completely, because data in the volatile memory of the device 10 may be lost and/or corrupted. Therefore, the device 10 may be sustained by the external power source while the battery has been fully discharged. In step 120, the application determines whether the battery 60 has reached the threshold state (i.e., fully or nearly fully discharged). If the battery 60 has not reached the threshold state, the application continues to discharge the battery 60 until the threshold state is reached. If the battery 60 has reached the threshold state, the calibration of the CCS is performed, as seen in step 125. Once the calibration has been performed, the application may restore the device 10 to a pre-calibration mode. That is, the application may turn off the peripherals, enable the charger and/or enable the auto-disable mechanism. Furthermore, the device 10 may indicate to the user via, for example, a message on the display screen 20, an LED or a sound that the CCS has been calibrated and/or that the battery 60 is being charged by the external power source. As would be understood by those skilled in the art, a further exemplary embodiment of the method 100 according to the present invention may include discharging the battery 60 to the threshold state (i.e., fully or nearly fully discharged) and performing calibration. Then, the battery 60 may be charged to the threshold state (i.e., fully or nearly fully charged) and the calibration performed. That is, the charging and discharging steps may occur in any order. In a further exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the device 10 may indicate an age of the battery 60 and/or that the battery 60 is beyond its useful life (i.e., will not hold the charge, is too rapidly discharged). That is, for example, Lithium ions that comprise the battery 60 experience a chemical breakdown over time, which reduces the effective capacity of the battery 60. The device 10 may not be aware of the full effect of the breakdown if the calibration is not performed at regular intervals. As such, this indication may occur, for example, when the calibration state is initiated, during the calibration state and/or after the calibration state has finished. The present invention has been described with reference to the device 10, the battery 60, and the application. Accordingly, various modifications and changes may be made to the embodiments without departing from the broadest spirit and scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims that follow. The specification and drawings, accordingly, should be regarded in an illustrative rather than restrictive sense. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Many portable computing devices are capable of wireless connection to a computer network, such as the Internet, a local network, a corporate network and others. As a result, these devices do not require any wired connections to carry out their functions (e.g., email, web browsing, etc.). Batteries, particularly rechargeable batteries, are commonly used to power the devices, since they provide complete freedom of movement to the users of these devices. Alternatively, power adapters may be used to power the devices using electrical sockets. However, this approach requires tethering the devices to a stationary power supply with cords, reducing portability and usefulness. These devices typically include a user-viewable screen which includes a battery status display that provides the user with an estimation of a remaining life of the battery. The remaining battery life is based on a battery capacity which is calculated by using a coulomb-counting system (“CCS”) which measures a current flow into and out of the battery and integrates the current flow over time. The battery capacity is calculated and recorded by electronics disposed within a battery pack. Over time, however, the calculation introduces an error which may get so large that performance of the device is adversely affected (e.g., reduction in battery life, data loss, memory corruption, etc.). Thus, the calculation may need to be calibrated at a regular interval. However, the calibration is typically performed only when the battery reaches a threshold state (e.g., full charge and then full discharge). Thus, the user has the burden of ensuring that the battery reaches the threshold state so that the CCS may be re-calibrated. The batteries used in these devices are typically composed of a natural substance (e.g., Li-ion, Li-polymer, NiCad, NiMh). Over time, the natural substance will age and breakdown chemically, thereby reducing effective capacity of the battery. Without performing the calibration at regular intervals, the device typically does not account for this aging and the chemical breakdown that occurs therewith. Thus, the device may inaccurately display the remaining battery life to the user. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention related to a method which includes a step of initiating a calibration state of a battery status system. The calibration state including charging a battery to a first threshold value; discharging the battery to a second threshold value; and calibrating the battery status system based on the first and second threshold values. Subsequently, the method includes a step of exiting the calibration state. The present invention also relates to a portable computing device which includes a battery; a controller; and an application executed on the controller for performing calibration of a battery status system of the battery. The application drives the battery to a threshold state and performs the calibration when the battery reaches the threshold state. | 20050107 | 20090217 | 20070920 | 73789.0 | H02J700 | 0 | TSO, EDWARD H | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR BATTERY CALIBRATION IN PORTABLE COMPUTING DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H02J | 2,005 |
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11,031,424 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for magnifying computer screen display | A screen magnification tool to scale the content of a computer display screen by distinguishing text and non-text elements of the content and applying different scaling methods to the text and non-text elements. Information about the text elements is stored in a database. Other embodiments are also described. | 1. A computer-readable medium containing instructions that, when executed by a computer including a processor, a memory, and a display device, cause the processor to perform operations comprising: receiving a first subroutine call to draw a non-text element on a display device; drawing the non-text element into a shadow area; receiving a second subroutine call to draw a text element on the display device; storing the text element in a storage area; composing a first zoom bit map containing a first portion of the shadow area and a first rendering of the text element in the storage area; passing the first zoom bit map to a video driver for outputting on the display device; composing a second zoom bit map containing a second portion of the shadow area and a second rendering of the text element in the storage area; and passing the second zoom bit map to the video driver for outputting on the display device. 2. The computer-readable medium of claim 1, containing instructions that, when executed by the computer, cause the processor to perform further operations comprising selecting a magnification level to control the composing and rendering operations. 3. The computer-readable medium of claim 1, containing instructions that, when executed by the computer, cause the processor to perform further operations comprising selecting a two-dimensional coordinate of a point within the first portion of the shadow area. 4. The computer-readable medium of claim 1 wherein the first and second renderings of the text element are produced by increasing a font size of the text element by a magnification level and causing the text element to be rasterized at an effective font size. 5. A computer-readable medium containing instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to perform operations comprising: in response to receiving a drawing command that normally causes non-text elements to be drawn, drawing the non-text elements into a shadow area; in response to receiving a drawing command that normally causes text elements to be drawn, storing the text elements in a database; and producing a screen image by rasterizing text elements stored in the database according to a set of screen parameters and combining the rasterized text elements with a portion of the shadow area containing the non-text elements. 6. The computer-readable medium of claim 5, wherein the screen image is a first screen image produced by rasterizing text elements stored in the database according to a first set of screen parameters and combining the rasterized text elements with a first portion of the shadow area, the medium containing instructions that, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to perform further operations comprising: producing a second screen image by rasterizing text elements stored in the database according to a second set of screen parameters and combining the rasterized text elements with a second portion of the shadow area. 7. The computer-readable medium of claim 5 wherein rasterizing text elements comprises scaling a character of an outline font to a calculated size and activating pixels according to a location of the pixels relative to the scaled character. 8. The computer-readable medium of claim 5 wherein the set of screen parameters includes a magnification level, the computer-readable medium containing instructions that, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to perform further operations comprising altering a magnification level in the set of screen parameters. 9. The computer-readable medium of claim 5 wherein the set of screen parameters includes a pan origin, the computer-readable medium containing instructions that, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to perform further operations comprising altering a pan origin in the set of screen parameters. 10. The computer-readable medium of claim 9 wherein altering the pan origin is performed in response to an input of a user of the processor. 11. A method comprising: receiving through a first subroutine call a first plurality of parameters describing a first desired modification of a display presented by a screen device, where the first desired modification does not include rendering at least one character; storing information about the first desired modification in a first memory location; receiving through a second subroutine call a second plurality of parameters describing a second desired modification of the display presented by the screen device, where the second desired modification is rendering at least one character; storing the at least one character in a second memory location; producing an image according to a set of display parameters, the image composed of at least a portion of the information in the first memory location and a pixel map created by rasterizing the at least one character in the second memory location according to the set of display parameters; and displaying the image on the screen device. 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising: altering the set of display parameters; repeating the rendering operation according to the altered set of display parameters; and repeating the displaying operation. 13. An article of manufacture comprising: a screen magnification tool to scale an entire content being displayed on a computer screen by distinguishing text and non-text elements in the content and applying different scaling methods to said text and non-text elements so that the text elements are displayed in accordance with information stored in a database. 14. The article of manufacture of claim 13, wherein said text elements comprise menu items, icon names, window titles, and text presented by applications. 15. The article of manufacture of claim 14, wherein said text presented by applications is text presented by inactive applications. | BACKGROUND Some embodiments of this invention concern the preparation of magnified images for presentation on a computer display, where textual information present in the magnified image has superior contrast and improved letter shapes, and is generally more legible. Other embodiments are also described. Computer displays are commonplace, and are used to present a wide range of textual and graphical information. The active portion of a display is typically rectangular and substantially planar. An array of colored spots, or pixels (for “picture elements”), is usually used to present the data. A process known as rasterization is performed to convert data to be displayed from its native format into an appropriate array of pixels to be included on the display. The native format may be, for example, endpoints of line segments, parameterized curves, and text encoded according to a standard such as ASCII or Unicode. In accordance with common software engineering practice, the term “pixel” will be used herein to refer to both the colored spot visible on a display screen and the representation in computer memory of data which, when operated on by the appropriate combination of hardware and software, will cause the colored spot to appear on a display screen. Pixels on a display can often be displayed in varying color or brightness, but cannot be displaced from the points of the array These points are regularly spaced in X and Y directions at an interval known as the display's resolution. Resolutions are often measured in dots per inch, or DPI. Ordinary display screens generally have a resolution between a few tens and a few hundreds of dots per inch. Screens intended for viewing from a greater distance may have pixels that are physically larger, but at the intended viewing distance, the larger pixels may subtend a similar visual angle as the smaller pixels of an ordinary screen (when viewed from a shorter distance). Large and small screens, viewed from the intended distance, can therefore provide an overall similar impression for the viewer. Because pixels are at fixed locations on the screen, it is often impossible to rasterize a line or curve in such a way that pixels lying precisely on the intended path can be selected for activation. When no pixel lies exactly on the path, one or more of the nearest pixels are generally selected for activation during rasterization. The selected pixel may be set to a different color or brightness to improve the overall appearance of the rasterized path; this technique is known as anti-aliasing. However, the selection of pixels that are off the true path results in a rasterized image that contains errors and distortions. Since pixels are usually quite small, the errors are also negligible in most cases, but they can become important in some circumstances. Paths with features that are smaller than a single pixel, or complicated features that must be rasterized and represented by only a few pixels, are especially susceptible to distortion during rasterization. Display of text data presents particular problems in this regard: characters are often displayed at a height of only ten or twelve pixels, and many letters have small features that are very important in helping a reader to distinguish similar shapes. (Consider, for example, the differences between the letters O and Q and the numeral 0.) Various techniques have been developed to improve readability of text presented at modest sizes, since the alternate approach of simply making the text larger has the detriment of reducing the amount of information that can be presented simultaneously on a screen. Currently, most text presented on display screens is drawn using either a bitmap font or an outline font. A bitmap font is a collection of characters pre-rasterized at a height of a particular number of pixels; the bitmaps are often carefully tuned to be legible at that size. Unfortunately, since screen resolutions and therefore pixel sizes vary over a moderate range, text presented using bitmap characters will also vary in size. This is unacceptable in many common situations, such as in a “what-you-see-is-what-you-get” (WYSIWYG) text editor. Furthermore, bitmap fonts do not scale smoothly at other than integral magnifications (that is, magnifications by a factor of a whole number such as 2, 3 or 4), and even at integral magnifications, the characters often become difficult to read. Outline fonts, by contrast, contain characters described as collections of lines and curves. The collections are represented in measurement-independent coordinates, so they can be scaled smoothly to any desired size. After scaling, the characters can be rasterized and displayed. This method works well for all but very small text sizes, and is in wide use. Information to be presented on a computer display is often prepared by an application program. Information from a number of different applications is commonly presented simultaneously on a single display. In a common arrangement, each application is unaware of the others, and simply transmits its own display requests to one or more separate software tasks that receive all the requests and manage allocation of portions of the physical display so that each application can present some of its information. In this common arrangement, the applications convert their high-level information into requests to draw on the screen, but are unconcerned with the conversion of the requests into pixels on the display, while the display manager receives a sequence of drawing requests and causes the appropriate pixels to be activated but is unaware of the high-level information that the drawing requests represent. If it is desired to magnify the image displayed on a screen, as done by conventional screen-magnifier software tools used by the visually impaired, each displayed pixel is magnified and then a portion of the magnified image is re-sampled to obtain new pixel values for display. Unfortunately, this approach magnifies any errors that occurred during the rasterization of the original drawing requests, and the particular susceptibility of text to rasterization errors may cause magnified text to become ugly and even illegible. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention are illustrated by way of example and not by way of limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements. It should be noted that references to “an” or “one” embodiment in this disclosure are not necessarily to the same embodiment, and such references mean “at least one.” FIG. 1 shows an outline of a character, and the same character rasterized at two different resolutions. FIG. 2 shows a word printed in outline, anti-aliased bitmap, and bitmap fonts; each word is magnified a number of times to show the effect of error accumulations. FIG. 3 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes involved in producing a typical computer display. FIGS. 4a and 4b show the effect of an application-provided magnification function. FIG. 5 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes involved in producing an image for computer display according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 provides greater detail concerning one of the elements of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 shows one way that a portion of a screen may be selected for magnification. FIG. 8 shows a comparison between the results of two conventional methods of producing a magnified screen display and an embodiment of the invention disclosed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an outline of an ampersand character 100, and the same character converted to an array of pixels at two different ratios of character size to pixel size (110, 120). At the lower ratio 110, the character is rasterized into a 12×11 array of pixels; while at the higher ratio 120, the character is rasterized into a 24×22 array of pixels. A comparison of the two characters shows that the larger pixels 111 (relative to the size of the character) of the lower-resolution rasterization produce a poorer approximation of the outlined character than do the smaller pixels 121 of the higher-resolution rendering. The errors between the desired outline and the activated pixels are more pronounced in the lower-resolution version, but even the higher-resolution pixel map contains areas inside the outline that are not filled, and areas outside the outline that contain portions of activated pixels. The errors arise because many pixels do not lie entirely inside or outside the outline. For those pixels, a heuristic is used to determine whether or not the pixel should be activated. For example, a pixel might be activated if at least 50% of the pixel's area lies within the outline. Alternatively, a pixel might be shaded so that its color, brightness or saturation is proportional to the amount of the pixel's area that lies within the outline. Note that most errors cause the boundaries of the displayed character to vary by less than a pixel's dimension from the true outline. This is true regardless of the size of the pixel relative to the size of the character. Thus, rendering errors may be reduced by rendering the character at the largest practical ratio between the size of the outline and the size of the pixel. However, rendering text at a multiple of the final resolution and then scaling down to the final resolution (a technique known as super-sampling) requires additional memory and processing time, and may not produce commensurate improvements in legibility as compared with other heuristics for rendering text. For most purposes, the “largest practical ratio” is simply the final desired pixel resolution. FIG. 2 shows a word printed at 12 points in an outline font 201a, an anti-aliased font 202a, and a bitmap font 203a. Below each of those, the same word is printed at successively larger magnifications. It is apparent that only the outline font can be magnified smoothly; the anti-aliased and bitmap fonts contain rasterizing errors that, although invisible or inoffensive at the small size, become increasingly pronounced at larger sizes (202b-e, 203b-e), and result in impaired legibility despite the larger size. FIG. 3 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes typically involved in producing an image for presentation on a computer display. Application programs 301 and 302 issue requests 305 and 306 to draw information on the screen. In this flowchart, the requests are shown as simple subroutine calls that are eventually received by operating system (OS) 310. In some systems, the requests may be transmitted through an interprocess communication mechanism to a different application program running on the same computer, or over a wired or wireless network to a program running on a different computer. The receiver of the drawing requests usually manages the allocation of pixels on the screen and prevents one application from disturbing another application's display, but is unaware of the high-level information that the drawing requests represent. This division of functions between application program and display manager has proven to be useful and flexible, but has the disadvantage that there is no convenient way to work backwards from pixels on the screen to determine what high-level information, or even what drawing request, caused the pixel to be activated. Any information about the true path sought to be represented by a drawing request is lost during rasterization; the pixels no longer contain error information to show how far they are from the true path. In the illustrated system, OS 310 passes the drawing requests to a chain of cooperating software and hardware modules represented by elements 360 and 370. Software modules in this chain are often referred to as “drivers,” and so the chain may be called the “video driver chain.” The software and/or hardware modules rasterize the requests and prepare a pixel map for display. Eventually, video hardware 370 produces a signal, such as a VGA signal, that is sent to the display screen 380. The signal causes the screen to present an approximation of the drawings requested by the application programs. FIGS. 4a and 4b show the effect of a document magnification function in a display screen window, such as is often provided by an individual application program. In FIG. 4a, a word processor document is shown at its default “100%” size. FIG. 4b shows the same document magnified in a “500%” view. However, although the document text is larger, the menu titles and program control icons indicated in area 400a are not magnified along with the text. Instead, the titles and icons are displayed at the same size (400b). Thus, while the magnification function that may be provided by an individual application program is useful for some purposes, it does not help a visually-impaired person who cannot make out the menu titles and icons. Furthermore, some applications provide no magnification function whatsoever. An alternate method of producing an enlarged display is useful in this regard. FIG. 5 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes involved in producing an image for a computer display according to an embodiment of the invention. Application programs 501 and 502 issue requests 505 and 506 to draw information on the screen. In the illustrated embodiment, the requests are made by simple subroutine calls that are eventually received by operating system 510. In other embodiments, the requests may be transmitted through interprocess communication to a different application program running on the same computer, or over a wired or wireless network to a program running on a different computer. The requests are passed to a chain of cooperating software and hardware modules 520, 550, 570 and 580, which perform operations detailed below. Where the OS is software produced by Microsoft Corporation, the chain of cooperating modules can be manipulated with functions provided by the Driver Chain Manager (DCM) libraries. When a DCM-enabled module (or set of modules) is inserted into the chain of cooperating modules, it (or they) will receive function calls including, for example, DrvTextOut( ): a command to draw standard text on the screen, DrvBitBlt( ): a command to draw standard graphics (i.e. non-text elements) on the screen, and DrvCopyBits( ): a command to perform standard copies to the screen. These function calls are “hooks” that a module can use to trigger special processing in response to graphic operations requested by an upper-layer entity (e.g. application programs 501 and 502 or OS 510). Once inserted into the driver chain, modules implementing an embodiment of the invention can perform the following operations. Data collector 520 separates requests to draw text from requests to draw other figures and stores information about the requests in database 530. Data collected may include the location, color, transparency, and extent of the figure to be drawn. In the case of requests to draw text, data collector 520 also stores information such as the requested font, size, and orientation, as well as the requested text itself. The text is typically represented by bytes or words in ASCII, Unicode, or another common encoding system, and stored in that format, or in an equivalent encoded form. The data collector may also cause non-text drawing requests to be rasterized into shadow area 540. The shadow area may be separate from the pixel map that video hardware 580 converts to a signal and transmits to display screen 590, so that changes to the shadow area are not immediately reflected on the screen. Database 530 can be any memory or disk structure in which information can be stored for later retrieval. It need not be a full-featured relational database with search, statistics, and other advanced capabilities. The term “database” as used herein simply means a storage area where data can be stored for future use. Compositor 550 takes information from database 530, pixels from shadow area 540, and a set of parameters 555 communicated from a control application 503, and composes a zoom pixel map 560. The parameters include magnifications, translations, and other alterations (such as color or contrast changes) that may have been requested by the computer's user. These parameters control the composition and rendering of the zoom pixel map 560. The zoom pixel map is made available to the remaining modules in the driver chain, graphics software 570 and video hardware 580. The latter modules (570 and 580) represent the video driver chain before it is augmented by modules 520 and 550 (and associated elements 530, 540 and 560), which implement an embodiment of the invention. Since the zoom pixel map contains the magnified, translated, and otherwise altered image, the signal eventually produced by the video hardware will cause the display screen to present the modified image. FIG. 6 provides another conceptual flowchart that details the functions performed by the compositor. First, this subsystem obtains zoom, pan, and other parameters from sources including an application program designed to control the display magnification system (600). The zoom (or magnification) parameter controls the level of magnification to be applied to the shadow area before it is sent to the remainder of the video output chain. If the magnification is greater than one, then the shadow area will be larger than the space available on the physical display screen, and so only a portion of the shadow area can be presented. This portion is called the viewport. To select the viewport, pan coordinates are used. The two-dimensional pan coordinates locate a point of the shadow area that will be present on the final display screen. Often, this point will be one of the four corners of the rectangular viewport, but any other point may be used instead. For example, the pan coordinates may select the center of the viewport, instead of one of the corners. One intuitive method of permitting the user to select the viewport is to connect the pan coordinates to the movement of an input device such as a mouse. When the user moves the mouse, the viewport is shifted so that the mouse cursor always remains within its boundaries. The zoom and pan parameters are sufficient to allow the compositor to select a portion of the shadow area (610). This portion is magnified in accordance with the zoom parameter and re-sampled at the physical screen pixel dimensions (620) to produce a zoom pixel map. The magnification and re-sampling may incorporate anti-aliasing or other techniques to improve the clarity of the image. Note that the shadow area does not contain active pixels corresponding to text drawn by application program requests, and therefore the magnification does not introduce the sorts of errors that render such text less legible or illegible. Instead, once the zoom pixel map is prepared, the text strings stored in the database are rasterized or rendered directly into the map in loop 630. For each string, an effective font size (taking into account the originally-requested font size and the magnification factor) is calculated (632) and then the text is rendered in the requested font, color, location, and orientation (635). If the requested font is an outline font, then rendering the text involves scaling the character outlines to the effective font size and activating pixels lying within the scaled outlines. After this loop completes, the zoom pixel map contains an image suitable for display (640). The image combines the magnified viewport with the rasterized text. According to this embodiment of the invention, all the elements of the displayed image are magnified (including items such as command icons), and all text elements are rasterized directly at their final display sizes, rather than being rasterized at a smaller size and then magnified. Therefore, errors in the rendering of text are limited to the smallest number of screen pixels possible given the combination of font (outline or bitmap), text size, and use of appearance-improving techniques such as sub-pixel hinting and font anti-aliasing. Furthermore, another display of a different viewport or magnification of the same overall display can be prepared according to an embodiment of this invention, and that second display will also have any errors in the rendering of text minimized as described above. In this manner, the visual quality and legibility of text is greatly improved under arbitrary magnifications. FIG. 7 shows a full-screen display 700 with several applications visible, including calculator 701, web browser 702, electronic mail client 703, and screen magnification control application 704. Some computer systems distinguish between “active” and “inactive” applications; an “active” application is the one with which the user is currently interacting. However, both active and inactive applications may produce output to be displayed on the screen. Magnified images 710 and 720 show the magnified contents of two different viewports; in 710, an area near the top left of the full-screen display has been selected and displayed at 2.5 times magnification, while in 720, an area near the lower right of the display has been selected. Note that magnified viewports show enlarged versions of all the displayed information, and not just the information related to the active application. The screen magnification control application 704 may permit the user to set (or change) display parameters such as the magnification level, display contrast, colors, and cursor shape. FIG. 8 shows a comparison between the method of one embodiment of the present invention and two conventional methods of displaying magnified screen contents. 800 shows the full screen display, while 810 shows a portion magnified by simple pixel scaling, and 820 shows the same portion magnified by pixel scaling with smoothing applied. Neither 810 nor 820 incorporate separate text handling, so distortions in text resulting from magnifying errors in the characters rendered at an unmagnified size are apparent. Note particularly the text near the mouse cursor. In 810, the large blocks of the magnified pixels are clearly apparent. In 820, the text is somewhat easier to read because a smoothing algorithm has been applied, but the edges of the letters are still uneven. Magnified portion 830 shows the same area with text rendered separately at the magnified size, according to an embodiment of the method herein disclosed. Note that the letters near the cursor (as well as other letters visible on the screen) are smooth and well-proportioned. The improvement in text quality is readily apparent. An embodiment of the invention may be a machine-readable medium having stored thereon instructions which cause a processor to perform operations as described above. In other embodiments, the operations might be performed by specific hardware components that contain hardwired logic. Those operations might alternatively be performed by any combination of programmed computer components and custom hardware components. A machine-readable medium may include any mechanism for storing or transmitting information in a form readable by a machine (e.g., a computer), including but not limited to Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROMs), Read-Only Memory (ROMs), Random Access Memory (RAM), Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM), and a transmission over the Internet. The applications of the present invention have been described largely by reference to specific examples and in terms of particular allocations of functionality to certain hardware and/or software components. However, those of skill in the art will recognize that magnified displays can also be produced by software and hardware that distribute the functions of embodiments of this invention differently than herein described. Such variations and implementations are understood to be apprehended according to the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Some embodiments of this invention concern the preparation of magnified images for presentation on a computer display, where textual information present in the magnified image has superior contrast and improved letter shapes, and is generally more legible. Other embodiments are also described. Computer displays are commonplace, and are used to present a wide range of textual and graphical information. The active portion of a display is typically rectangular and substantially planar. An array of colored spots, or pixels (for “picture elements”), is usually used to present the data. A process known as rasterization is performed to convert data to be displayed from its native format into an appropriate array of pixels to be included on the display. The native format may be, for example, endpoints of line segments, parameterized curves, and text encoded according to a standard such as ASCII or Unicode. In accordance with common software engineering practice, the term “pixel” will be used herein to refer to both the colored spot visible on a display screen and the representation in computer memory of data which, when operated on by the appropriate combination of hardware and software, will cause the colored spot to appear on a display screen. Pixels on a display can often be displayed in varying color or brightness, but cannot be displaced from the points of the array These points are regularly spaced in X and Y directions at an interval known as the display's resolution. Resolutions are often measured in dots per inch, or DPI. Ordinary display screens generally have a resolution between a few tens and a few hundreds of dots per inch. Screens intended for viewing from a greater distance may have pixels that are physically larger, but at the intended viewing distance, the larger pixels may subtend a similar visual angle as the smaller pixels of an ordinary screen (when viewed from a shorter distance). Large and small screens, viewed from the intended distance, can therefore provide an overall similar impression for the viewer. Because pixels are at fixed locations on the screen, it is often impossible to rasterize a line or curve in such a way that pixels lying precisely on the intended path can be selected for activation. When no pixel lies exactly on the path, one or more of the nearest pixels are generally selected for activation during rasterization. The selected pixel may be set to a different color or brightness to improve the overall appearance of the rasterized path; this technique is known as anti-aliasing. However, the selection of pixels that are off the true path results in a rasterized image that contains errors and distortions. Since pixels are usually quite small, the errors are also negligible in most cases, but they can become important in some circumstances. Paths with features that are smaller than a single pixel, or complicated features that must be rasterized and represented by only a few pixels, are especially susceptible to distortion during rasterization. Display of text data presents particular problems in this regard: characters are often displayed at a height of only ten or twelve pixels, and many letters have small features that are very important in helping a reader to distinguish similar shapes. (Consider, for example, the differences between the letters O and Q and the numeral 0.) Various techniques have been developed to improve readability of text presented at modest sizes, since the alternate approach of simply making the text larger has the detriment of reducing the amount of information that can be presented simultaneously on a screen. Currently, most text presented on display screens is drawn using either a bitmap font or an outline font. A bitmap font is a collection of characters pre-rasterized at a height of a particular number of pixels; the bitmaps are often carefully tuned to be legible at that size. Unfortunately, since screen resolutions and therefore pixel sizes vary over a moderate range, text presented using bitmap characters will also vary in size. This is unacceptable in many common situations, such as in a “what-you-see-is-what-you-get” (WYSIWYG) text editor. Furthermore, bitmap fonts do not scale smoothly at other than integral magnifications (that is, magnifications by a factor of a whole number such as 2, 3 or 4), and even at integral magnifications, the characters often become difficult to read. Outline fonts, by contrast, contain characters described as collections of lines and curves. The collections are represented in measurement-independent coordinates, so they can be scaled smoothly to any desired size. After scaling, the characters can be rasterized and displayed. This method works well for all but very small text sizes, and is in wide use. Information to be presented on a computer display is often prepared by an application program. Information from a number of different applications is commonly presented simultaneously on a single display. In a common arrangement, each application is unaware of the others, and simply transmits its own display requests to one or more separate software tasks that receive all the requests and manage allocation of portions of the physical display so that each application can present some of its information. In this common arrangement, the applications convert their high-level information into requests to draw on the screen, but are unconcerned with the conversion of the requests into pixels on the display, while the display manager receives a sequence of drawing requests and causes the appropriate pixels to be activated but is unaware of the high-level information that the drawing requests represent. If it is desired to magnify the image displayed on a screen, as done by conventional screen-magnifier software tools used by the visually impaired, each displayed pixel is magnified and then a portion of the magnified image is re-sampled to obtain new pixel values for display. Unfortunately, this approach magnifies any errors that occurred during the rasterization of the original drawing requests, and the particular susceptibility of text to rasterization errors may cause magnified text to become ugly and even illegible. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>Embodiments of the invention are illustrated by way of example and not by way of limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which like references indicate similar elements. It should be noted that references to “an” or “one” embodiment in this disclosure are not necessarily to the same embodiment, and such references mean “at least one.” FIG. 1 shows an outline of a character, and the same character rasterized at two different resolutions. FIG. 2 shows a word printed in outline, anti-aliased bitmap, and bitmap fonts; each word is magnified a number of times to show the effect of error accumulations. FIG. 3 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes involved in producing a typical computer display. FIGS. 4 a and 4 b show the effect of an application-provided magnification function. FIG. 5 shows a conceptual flowchart of the processes involved in producing an image for computer display according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 provides greater detail concerning one of the elements of FIG. 5 . FIG. 7 shows one way that a portion of a screen may be selected for magnification. FIG. 8 shows a comparison between the results of two conventional methods of producing a magnified screen display and an embodiment of the invention disclosed herein. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050106 | 20090127 | 20060706 | 92958.0 | G06K940 | 1 | PATEL, KANJIBHAI B | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MAGNIFYING COMPUTER SCREEN DISPLAY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06K | 2,005 |
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11,031,475 | ACCEPTED | Ceramic composite body of silicon carbide/boron nitride/carbon | A ceramic composite body comprising sintered silicon carbide as major phase, dispersed boron nitride/carbon granules as minor phase, and the boron nitride/carbon granules comprise hexagonal phase boron nitride powders bonded together by glassy carbon. The composite body contains at least 3 weight percent of boron nitride, the average size of the boron nitride granules is greater than 10 micrometers, and the shape of majority of the granules is irregular. The composite body of high boron nitride loading can be further processed to improve mechanical and thermal properties by filling the porosity with glassy carbon, obtained from carbonizing glassy carbon precursor. The composite material exhibits superior thermal and tribological characteristics than monolithic silicon carbide. | 1. A ceramic composite body comprising (a) sintered silicon carbide matrix (b) between 3 to 20 weight percent of dispersed boron nitride/carbon granules comprising hexagonal boron nitride powder bonded together by carbon. 2. The composite body of claim 1, wherein the average size of the boron nitride/carbon granules is greater than 10 micrometers. 3. The composite body of claim 1, wherein the shape of the boron nitride/carbon granules is highly irregular. 4. The composite body of claim 1, wherein the carbon in the boron nitride/carbon granules is glassy carbon. 5. The composite body of claim 1, wherein the composite material has a theoretical density of at least 80 percent determined by the rule of the mixture. 6. The composite body of claim 1, wherein the composite body comprises between 0.5 to 5 weight percent of sintering aids, selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, beryllium, carbon, compounds thereof and mixtures thereof 7. A ceramic composite body comprising (a) sintered silicon carbide matrix (b) at least 10 weight percent of dispersed boron nitride/carbon granules comprising hexagonal boron nitride powder bonded together by carbon. wherein the inter-connected porosities are filled with glassy carbon. 8. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the average size of the boron nitride/carbon granules is greater than 10 micrometers. 9. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the shape of the boron nitride/carbon granules is highly irregular. 10. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the carbon in the boron nitride/carbon granules is glassy carbon. 11. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the glassy carbon in the inter-connected porosities is derived from carbonizing impregnated glassy carbon precursors such as furfuryl alcohol resin, furan resin of liquid phenolic resin. 12. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the composite material has a theoretical density of at least 80 percent determined by the rule of the mixture. 13. The composite body of claim 7, wherein the composite body comprises between 0.5 to 5 weight percent of sintering aids, selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, beryllium, carbon, compounds thereof and mixtures thereof. 14. A raw batch for producing sintered silicon carbide/boron nitride/carbon composite body comprising: (a) silicon carbide, (b) sintering aids, (c) binders, (d) lubricants and (c) boron nitride granules comprising hexagonal phase boron nitride powders mixed with at least 5 weight percent of carbon precursor. 15. The raw batch of claim 14, wherein the sintering aids are selected from the group consisting of boron, aluminum, beryllium, carbon, compounds thereof and mixtures thereof. 16. The raw batch of claim 14, wherein the binder is phenolic resin. 17. The raw batch of claim 14, wherein the lubricant is oleic acid. 18. The raw batch of claim 14, wherein the carbon precursor is selected from phenolic resin, furan resin and furfuryl alcohol resin. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to the field of silicon carbide composite materials and more specifically to a dense sintered silicon carbide composite body containing hexagonal phase boron nitride and carbon. 2. Description of the Related Art Silicon carbide is an excellent material for mechanical and chemical applications. The physical and chemical properties of sintered silicon carbide include extreme hardness, high strength at room and elevated temperatures, low thermal expansion coefficient, good thermal shock resistance, good oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance. These characteristics render silicon carbide to be used extensively in demanding applications, such as components for gas turbines, chemical pump seals and bearings, anti-wearing nozzles, high temperature furnace fixtures, etc. Despite the superior physical and chemical characteristics, the brittleness nature of sintered silicon carbide and lack of self lubricity, which often leads to catastrophic failure in critical applications, severely limits its application as an engineering material. To overcome such drawbacks, there have been a number of investigations into making silicon carbide-boron nitride composite materials that retain silicon carbide's exceptional resistance to oxidation and heat, high strength, extreme hardness and chemical inertness, and in the same time, provide better thermal shock resistance, improve toughness and self-lubricity. With its superior adherence and thermo-chemical stability, hexagonal boron nitride powder retains its ability to lubricate under the most severe environments. It exhibits excellent resistance to oxidation, chemical attacks and high temperature stability up to 3000° C. Boron nitride has an oxidation threshold of approximately 850° C. and, even up to 1000° C., the rate of reaction is negligible. Incorporation of boron nitride into silicon carbide matrix enhances the resulting composite's thermal shock resistance, provides self-lubricity in tribological applications at room and elevated temperatures, improves machinability and toughness. However, due to extreme inertness nature of boron nitride, incorporating meaningful amount of boron nitride into any engineering ceramics matrix, such as silicon carbide, silicon nitride or aluminum oxide, and still achieving high densities therefore maintaining composite material's physical integrity, has not been very successful. Hence, these materials invariably are prepared by hot pressing, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,954,483, U.S. Pat. No. 4,304,870 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,324,694. But hot pressing is an extremely expensive process and is only useful for producing simple shapes and has very limited commercial applications. Other methods of processing such material include in-situ reaction sintering, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,764,974 and reaction bonding, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,398,991. But these processes have severe limitations too. Reaction sintering is a slow and costly chemical process, and is not suitable for mass production. Reaction bonding results in a composite body that contains free silicon, thus limits its high temperature applications and has poor corrosion resistance. To take full advantage of lubricating capability of boron nitride in silicon carbide body, the end products, such as seals or bearings, are usually machined to a very smooth surface, and in many cases, to mirror finish. It becomes very critical whether boron nitride inclusions in the sintered body can be retained on the surface during these material removal processes. Furthermore, the end products are often used in the most severe environments, subjecting to extreme heat, pressure, high speed erosion and chemical attack, therefore retaining boron nitride inclusions on the rubbing surface become even more difficult. Thus the bonding between powders that make up the granules, and the bonding of granules to the silicon carbide matrix become critical. U.S. Pat. No. 6,774,073 describes a process that uses temporary fugitive binder, such as polyvinyl alcohol, to prepare a dry lubricant(graphite) and fugitive binder mixture that is essentially spherical in shape, and then mix with silicon carbide. But such approach has severe consequences, during sintering, the fugitive binders evaporate, leaving no bonding force between the fine dry lubricant powders that make up the granules, and between the granules and the silicon carbide matrix. This is further illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 5,395,807, wherein fugitive polymer spheres are used to create “controlled porosity” in sintered silicon carbide, and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,567, wherein polypropylene beads are used to create open porosities. Other important factors are the shape and surface morphology of boron nitride granules. During machining process to prepare the end use of the composite body, granules that have smooth surfaces are most likely to be pulled out of the matrix, while irregular, multi-faceted granules that have strong bonding within powders that make up granules are more likely to remain in the matrix and provide long term lubricating effects. Thus, there exists a need for a dense silicon carbide body containing substantial amount of boron nitride that can be simply pressureless sintered. Furthermore, boron nitride incorporated should have good adhesion in the sintered body, thus during manufacturing process, or in actual rubbing applications under severe conditions, surface boron nitride can be retained. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention disclosed and claimed herein comprises a composite body of silicon carbide having carbon-bonded, hexagonal phase boron nitride granules dispersed throughout. Boron nitride loadings as high as 30 weight percent, can be incorporated into silicon carbide without detrimental effects on the sintered body. The processes for producing such a composite body include preparing boron nitride granules containing glassy carbon precursors, preparing a premix of silicon carbide containing typical sintering aids such as boron carbide and binder such as phenolic resin. The premix of silicon carbide and boron nitride granules are mixed thoroughly and then pressed to shape, sintered to form desired composite body. The process for preparing boron nitride granules includes mixing boron nitride powder with glassy carbon precursors such as phenolic resin, furfuryl alcohol resin or furan resin, drying and curing the mixtures, crushing, milling and screening to obtain the desired size of granules. In one aspect, the sintered composite body contains substantial amount of boron nitride, has high density and strength, and is impervious. In another aspect, the composite body contains large amount of boron nitride and exhibits good lubricity and dry running capability, but may be slightly porous. The porous body can be further impregnated with glassy carbon precursor, such as furfuryl alcohol resin, furan resin, and liquid phenolic resin to close the inter-connected porosities. The impregnated body is cured and carbonized to temperatures above 600° C., further enhancing mechanical, chemical and tribological characteristics. The impregnation and carbonization process can be repeated until the composite material becomes impervious. The size of the boron nitride/carbon granules in the sintered body is between 10 to 400 micrometers, and the shape of the granules is highly irregular. The rough surface of the granule, combined with strong bonding of glassy carbon, helps retaining boron nitride on the surface of composite body during material making and during actual rubbing applications. The composite material has a density of at least 80 percent of theoretical density, as determined by the rule of mixture for a composite material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic flow diagram illustrating the process for producing a composite body according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is an optical photomicrograph taken at 150×, of a polished surface of as-sintered, impervious composite body in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 3 is an optical photomicrograph taken at 150×, of a polished surface of a composite body, wherein the inter-connected porosities are filled with glassy carbon, according to the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT(S) According to the present invention, substantial amount of hexagonal phase boron nitride powders can be incorporated into a silicon carbide body. Furthermore, to produce such a body, a simple, pressureless sintering process is utilized. The existence of boron nitride in the sintered body is in granular form, comprising boron nitride powders bonded together by strong glassy carbon. The shape of the boron nitride/carbon granules is highly irregular, with multi-faceted surface morphology to help locking boron nitride in the composite body. Two methods of introducing glassy carbon to the system are disclosed. One is to prepare boron nitride/glassy carbon precursor mixture prior to adding to silicon carbide premix. The other method, used when the as-sintered body contains small amount of inter-connected porosity, is to impregnate the sintered body with liquid glassy carbon precursor, such as furfuryl alcohol resin, furan resin and phenolic resin, and then carbonize the resulting body. The composite body thus produced has a number of characteristics superior than monolithic silicon carbide, including self-lubricity, better thermal shock resistance, toughness and machinability. Comparing with sintered silicon carbide/graphite composite materials, the composite body of present invention is more suitable for high temperature structural and tribological applications, especially under vacuum, oxidizing, or/and extreme pressure. The composite body comprises silicon carbide and typical sintering aids such as boron and carbon, and between 3 to 40 weight percent of boron nitride. The percentage ratio of boron nitride and silicon carbide can be tailored to achieve specific characteristics of the resulting composite body. Higher boron nitride content leads to lower strength, but better lubricity and dry running survivability. However, to maintain a minimum strength, the composite body should have a density of at least 80 percent of the theoretical density and preferably 90 percent. Referring to FIG. 1, an exemplary method for producing a silicon carbide composite body containing boron nitride/carbon will be described in detail. Silicon carbide premix and boron nitride granules are prepared separately, using different processes. They are mixed thoroughly together in various proportions, using a V-shape blender, and then pressed to shape using die pressing or isostatic pressing. The shaped body is heated in an oven to about 600° C., under inert atmosphere such as nitrogen or argon, to carbonize the glassy carbon precursor into carbon. Next, the composite body is sintered in a high temperature vacuum sintering furnace at temperatures above 2100° C., under inert atmosphere such as argon or helium. To achieve the object of the present invention, boron nitride powder is encapsulated in glassy carbon precursor, such as phenolic resin, furan resin, or furfuryl alcohol resin, forming boron nitride/resin granules, prior to mixing with silicon carbide. There are several advantages of using boron nitride/resin granules instead of virgin boron nitride powders. First, it helps dispersing boron nitride into silicon carbide by modifying non wetting and graphitic nature of boron nitride powders, thus a more uniform and dense green body can be obtained. The second advantage is that upon heating, resin decomposes at low temperatures into glassy carbon, bonding boron nitride powders together, forming strong granules in the sintered body that will withstand high speed, high pressure rubbing during critical high temperature applications. Another advantage is that glassy carbon precursors are thermal setting resins, once set, they are extremely hard and brittle, and during crushing and milling, they tend to break into particles that are highly irregular and have very rough surface. This increases the possibilities that boron nitride granules will remain on the surface of the sintered body. Lastly, when resin carbonizes into carbon, there is about sixty volume percent shrinkage associated with the conversion, and it occurs at low temperatures well below densification temperatures of silicon carbide, therefore creating sufficient voids in between boron nitride granules and silicon carbide matrix, facilitating the densification of the silicon carbide matrix which occurs at higher temperatures. Glassy carbon derives from thermal set resin has outstanding physical and mechanical properties. Glassy carbon is a form of pure carbon produced by thermal decomposition of a three-dimensionally cross-linked polymer. It has a high flexural strength. The zero open porosity gives a low permeability to gases. Glassy carbon has excellent resistance to a wide range of aggressive chemical environments. In the composite body of the present invention, resin to glassy carbon conversion is under less than ideal conditions, since boron nitride is dispersed in the resin and the granules are confined in a ceramic matrix. Inevitably, the resulting glassy carbon is less dense than monolithic glassy carbon. Nevertheless, it still provides strong bonding between boron nitride powders. This is similar to the bonding in mechanical carbon graphite, which is used extensively as good self lubricating rubbing materials. To prepare boron nitride granules, hexagonal phase boron nitride powder is carefully selected. High temperature synthesized boron nitride, which has high degree of crystallinity and high purity, is preferred. These powders exhibit low coefficient of friction, good oxidation resistance and high temperature resistance. Boron nitride powder can be obtained from a number of commercial sources, including General Electric Company's Advanced Ceramic Division, and Saint Gobain's Boron Nitride Division. Glassy carbon precursor, such as liquid phenloic resin, furfuryl alcohol resin or furan resin, can be mixed with born nitride powder directly. Suitable solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, can also be added during mixing to facilitate dispersing boron nitride powder. When solid resin is used, such as powdered phenolic resin, the resin is first dissolved in organic solvent such as alcohol or acetone, and then boron nitride powder is added to form a slurry, typically at 40 percent solid loading. The mixture is then ball milled. The slurry is subsequently dried, typical in a vacuum drying oven, to temperatures above curing temperature of the resin, typically at 150° C. The dried agglomerates are then crushed, milled using a high speed hammer mill, then sieved through a screen, typically 100 mesh, to form granules. The weight percent of the resin in the boron nitride granules is higher than 5 percent, typically higher than 10 percent, sufficient to encapsulate boron nitride powders. The shape of the resulting granules is highly irregular, after crushing and milling extremely hard agglomerates formed during curing. The size of the boron nitride granules is preferably smaller than 150 micrometers, larger granules in sizes up to 400 micrometers can also be used. Granules larger than 400 micrometers are not suitable since they will cause lamination and poor densification. Granules smaller than the size of the silicon carbide grains, typically 10 micrometers, are not suitable either, since they have minimum effects on the characteristics of the sintered body. The preparation of silicon carbide premix for sintering is a well known art. For the present invention, the formulation includes sub-micrometer alpha phase silicon carbide powder, boron carbide powder as sintering aid, phenolic resin as binder and carbon source, and oleic acid as die lubricant. Beta phase or combination of alpha and beta phase silicon carbide powders can also be used. The particle size of silicon carbide powder must be very small, with average size below 2 micrometers, preferably below 1 micrometer, and surface area above 5 square meters per gram. The silicon carbide powder must also be at least 97 percent pure, free from major metallic impurities and low in oxygen content. Typically, boron carbide is used as sintering aid for solid state sintering of silicon carbide, other known sintering aids include aluminum, beryllium and compounds thereof. The amount of sintering aids needed is usually between 0.5 to 5 weight percent. Carbon is also known to be a necessary aid in promoting sintering, reducing surface oxygen on fine silicon carbide powders. Phenolic resin is generally used as a preferred binder and carbon source, upon heating it decomposes into free carbon on the surface of silicon carbide powders. Solid or liquid phenolic resin, or mixture thereof, can be used. The amount of phenolic resin needed depends on the oxygen content of silicon carbide powder, and 3 to 10 weight percent is usually sufficient. The preparation of silicon carbide premix follows a typical engineering ceramic process. Silicon carbide powder, boron carbide powder, phenolic resin, oleic acid is mixed with distilled water or organic solvent such as ethanol to form a slurry, typically at 40 percent solid loading, then ball milled to produce a well dispersed slurry. To minimize contamination, the ball mill is lined with rubber and the balls used for milling are silicon carbide. The slurry is subsequently dried, either by spray drying or pan drying in an oven, then sized through a screen, typically 100 mesh, to form the powder premix The next step in the process is to form a green body. Premix of silicon carbide and boron nitride granules are mixed thoroughly in a blender, typically a V-shape blender, then molded into a desired shape, using die-pressing or isostatic pressing. The ratio of silicon carbide premix and boron nitride/resin granules can be tailored to achieve specific characteristics of desired sintered composite body. Typically, at least 3 weight percent of boron nitride/resin granules are added to silicon carbide premix, preferably 10 weight percent and above is used to ensure that enhanced thermal and tribological properties of the sintered body will be achieved. The formed green body can be machined prior to sintering, using varieties of tools such as lathe or mill. Referring to FIG. 1, the next step in the process is to carbonize the glassy carbon precursor. During carbonizing, both temperature and atmosphere in the furnace must be carefully controlled. The green body must be heated in an inert atmosphere, such as nitrogen, argon or helium to prevent oxidation of carbon or silicon carbide, and the heating rate should be no more than 1 degree Celsius per minute to minimize micro-cracking, thus forming a strong glassy carbon between boron nitride powders. The peak temperature for carbonization is preferably 600° C. The carbonized green body is then sintered in a vacuum sintering furnace. Typical sintering cycle of making monolithic silicon carbide can be used. The heating rate depends on the size of the parts, and typically, an eight hour cycle to about 2100° C. is used. The sintering atmosphere can be vacuum, full or partial pressure of argon or helium, and partial pressure of the inert atmosphere is preferred. The usual holding time at the peak sintering temperature is one hour. Both density and water absorption are measured on the sintered body. Density is calculated by measuring weight and volume. Water absorption is calculated by measuring wet weight of the sintered body after boiling in water for 30 minutes. The percent water pick-up is a good indicator of the open porosity of the sintered body. As shown in the following examples, sintered body containing up to 10 weight percent of boron nitride/carbon shows no water absorption, hence the sintered body has no open porosity. When high degree of self-lubricity is desired, high boron nitride content, typically more than 10 percent, can be used and relatively dense body can be obtained. The small amount of open porosities in the sintered body can be filled up by vacuum-pressure impregnation, using liquid glassy carbon precursor, such as furfuryl alcohol resin, furan resin and phenolic resin. Typically, the as-sintered body is placed in a pressure tank and evacuated to a vacuum level lower than ltorr, and then liquid resin is introduced into the tank, totally immerse the composite body and the tank is pressurized to about 100 psi and kept under pressure for a period of time. The impregnated body can be carbonized to further improve the temperature capability, and the process can be repeated if necessary until the sintered body is impervious. EXAMPLE 1 Control Experiment 1 A premix for making sintered silicon carbide was made according to the following composition: Ingredient Weight Percent Silicon carbide 91.2 Boron carbide 0.8 Phenolic resin 5.0 Oleic acid 3.0 The silicon carbide used was high purity, sub-micron sinterable powder, obtained from Xinfang Abrasives Company, China. The average particle size of the powder was about 0.7 micrometer. The as-received silicon carbide contained about 0.8 weight percent of boron carbide sintering aids already added in the powder. The powder was mixed proportionally with phenolic resin, oleic acid and distilled water to form slurry containing 40 percent solids, and then milled for 4 hours in a rubber lined ball mill using silicon carbide balls. The slurry was then spray dried into moldable granules. The spray-dried silicon carbide powder was pressed to shape in a die, under a pressure of 12 ton per square inch, and then the green body was cured at 150° C. for 4 hours, heated in a furnace to 600° C. at a heating rate of 60° C. per hour under nitrogen flow, to decompose the temporary binders and carbonize phenolic resin. The pre-fired body is then sintered in a vacuum sintering furnace, to temperatures up to 2100° C. over a period of 8 hours, under argon atmosphere. After sintering, the ceramic body density was calculated by measuring weight and volume to be 3.15 g/cc, which corresponds to about 98% of theoretical density of silicon carbide(3.21 g/cc), thus it was established that the silicon carbide premix as prepared is highly sinterable. EXAMPLE 2 Control Experiment 2 Hexagonal phase boron nitride powder, grade CTL30, was obtained from Saint Gobain Advanced Ceramics Corporation. The average size of the powder was 10.3 micrometers and the maximum size was 62.0 micrometers. The powder contained less than one percent oxygen. The spray-dried silicon carbide premix prepared in Example 1 and as-received boron nitride powder, in various ratios, was mixed thoroughly in a per square inch, and then the green body was cured at 150° C. for 4 hours, heated in a furnace to 600° C. at a heating rate of 60° C. per hour under nitrogen flow, to decompose the temporary binders and carbonize phenolic resin. The pre-fired body is then sintered in a vacuum sintering furnace, to temperatures up to 2100° C. over a period of 8 hours, under argon atmosphere. After sintering, the composite ceramic body density was calculated by measuring weight and volume. Samples were boiled in hot water for 30 minutes, and then weighted to measure the water absorption. The following table shows the results: BN Weight Percent Density, g/cc Water Absorption, % 5 3.01 0 10 2.89 0 15 2.74 0.2 20 2.61 5 The results shown above clearly demonstrated the advantages of present invention. Samples prepared using boron nitride/resin granules achieved very high densities at high boron nitride loadings. Samples containing as high as 10 weight percent boron nitride/carbon granules had no open porosity, measured by the water absorption method, and the resulting sintered composite body had high strength and excellent polish ability. FIG. 2 is an optical photomicrograph taken at 150 magnifications, of a polished surface of as-sintered, impervious composite body containing 10 weight percent boron nitride/carbon granules evenly incorporated into the matrix. The photomicrograph clearly indicated the silicon carbide matrix was highly dense, and there is no evidence of micro-cracking or laminations. The shape of the boron nitride/carbon granules was highly irregular, defined by sharp and multi-faceted edges shown on the cross-section. EXAMPLE 4 A composite body was prepared using identical process as in Example 3, except the weight percent of the resin-boron nitride granules in the raw batch was 20 weight percent. The resulting composite body had a density of 2.61 g/cc and water adsorption of 5 percent. To fill the open porosity in the body, the composite body was placed in a pressure tank, vacuumed to 1 torr and then filled with furfuryl alcohol resin, pressurized to 100 psi using compressed air, and kept under pressure for 24 hours. The impregnated body picked up 4.2 percent furfuryl alcohol resin, measured by the weight gained. The resulting body was cured in an air convection oven at 150° C. for 4 hours, heated in a furnace to 600° C. at a rate of 60° C. pre hour under nitrogen flow to carbonize the furfuryl alcohol resin. FIG. 3 is an optical photomicrograph taken at 150 magnifications, of a polished surface of the composite body, wherein the inter-connected porosity is filled with glassy carbon. The photomicrograph clearly indicated the silicon carbide matrix filled with small amount of glassy carbon was highly dense, and there is no evidence of micro-cracking or laminations. The shape of the boron nitride/carbon granules was highly irregular, defined by sharp and multi-faceted edges shown on the cross-section. The invention is not to be limited by what has been shown and described in detail, except as indicated in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to the field of silicon carbide composite materials and more specifically to a dense sintered silicon carbide composite body containing hexagonal phase boron nitride and carbon. 2. Description of the Related Art Silicon carbide is an excellent material for mechanical and chemical applications. The physical and chemical properties of sintered silicon carbide include extreme hardness, high strength at room and elevated temperatures, low thermal expansion coefficient, good thermal shock resistance, good oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance. These characteristics render silicon carbide to be used extensively in demanding applications, such as components for gas turbines, chemical pump seals and bearings, anti-wearing nozzles, high temperature furnace fixtures, etc. Despite the superior physical and chemical characteristics, the brittleness nature of sintered silicon carbide and lack of self lubricity, which often leads to catastrophic failure in critical applications, severely limits its application as an engineering material. To overcome such drawbacks, there have been a number of investigations into making silicon carbide-boron nitride composite materials that retain silicon carbide's exceptional resistance to oxidation and heat, high strength, extreme hardness and chemical inertness, and in the same time, provide better thermal shock resistance, improve toughness and self-lubricity. With its superior adherence and thermo-chemical stability, hexagonal boron nitride powder retains its ability to lubricate under the most severe environments. It exhibits excellent resistance to oxidation, chemical attacks and high temperature stability up to 3000° C. Boron nitride has an oxidation threshold of approximately 850° C. and, even up to 1000° C., the rate of reaction is negligible. Incorporation of boron nitride into silicon carbide matrix enhances the resulting composite's thermal shock resistance, provides self-lubricity in tribological applications at room and elevated temperatures, improves machinability and toughness. However, due to extreme inertness nature of boron nitride, incorporating meaningful amount of boron nitride into any engineering ceramics matrix, such as silicon carbide, silicon nitride or aluminum oxide, and still achieving high densities therefore maintaining composite material's physical integrity, has not been very successful. Hence, these materials invariably are prepared by hot pressing, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,954,483, U.S. Pat. No. 4,304,870 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,324,694. But hot pressing is an extremely expensive process and is only useful for producing simple shapes and has very limited commercial applications. Other methods of processing such material include in-situ reaction sintering, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,764,974 and reaction bonding, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,398,991. But these processes have severe limitations too. Reaction sintering is a slow and costly chemical process, and is not suitable for mass production. Reaction bonding results in a composite body that contains free silicon, thus limits its high temperature applications and has poor corrosion resistance. To take full advantage of lubricating capability of boron nitride in silicon carbide body, the end products, such as seals or bearings, are usually machined to a very smooth surface, and in many cases, to mirror finish. It becomes very critical whether boron nitride inclusions in the sintered body can be retained on the surface during these material removal processes. Furthermore, the end products are often used in the most severe environments, subjecting to extreme heat, pressure, high speed erosion and chemical attack, therefore retaining boron nitride inclusions on the rubbing surface become even more difficult. Thus the bonding between powders that make up the granules, and the bonding of granules to the silicon carbide matrix become critical. U.S. Pat. No. 6,774,073 describes a process that uses temporary fugitive binder, such as polyvinyl alcohol, to prepare a dry lubricant(graphite) and fugitive binder mixture that is essentially spherical in shape, and then mix with silicon carbide. But such approach has severe consequences, during sintering, the fugitive binders evaporate, leaving no bonding force between the fine dry lubricant powders that make up the granules, and between the granules and the silicon carbide matrix. This is further illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 5,395,807, wherein fugitive polymer spheres are used to create “controlled porosity” in sintered silicon carbide, and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,567, wherein polypropylene beads are used to create open porosities. Other important factors are the shape and surface morphology of boron nitride granules. During machining process to prepare the end use of the composite body, granules that have smooth surfaces are most likely to be pulled out of the matrix, while irregular, multi-faceted granules that have strong bonding within powders that make up granules are more likely to remain in the matrix and provide long term lubricating effects. Thus, there exists a need for a dense silicon carbide body containing substantial amount of boron nitride that can be simply pressureless sintered. Furthermore, boron nitride incorporated should have good adhesion in the sintered body, thus during manufacturing process, or in actual rubbing applications under severe conditions, surface boron nitride can be retained. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention disclosed and claimed herein comprises a composite body of silicon carbide having carbon-bonded, hexagonal phase boron nitride granules dispersed throughout. Boron nitride loadings as high as 30 weight percent, can be incorporated into silicon carbide without detrimental effects on the sintered body. The processes for producing such a composite body include preparing boron nitride granules containing glassy carbon precursors, preparing a premix of silicon carbide containing typical sintering aids such as boron carbide and binder such as phenolic resin. The premix of silicon carbide and boron nitride granules are mixed thoroughly and then pressed to shape, sintered to form desired composite body. The process for preparing boron nitride granules includes mixing boron nitride powder with glassy carbon precursors such as phenolic resin, furfuryl alcohol resin or furan resin, drying and curing the mixtures, crushing, milling and screening to obtain the desired size of granules. In one aspect, the sintered composite body contains substantial amount of boron nitride, has high density and strength, and is impervious. In another aspect, the composite body contains large amount of boron nitride and exhibits good lubricity and dry running capability, but may be slightly porous. The porous body can be further impregnated with glassy carbon precursor, such as furfuryl alcohol resin, furan resin, and liquid phenolic resin to close the inter-connected porosities. The impregnated body is cured and carbonized to temperatures above 600° C., further enhancing mechanical, chemical and tribological characteristics. The impregnation and carbonization process can be repeated until the composite material becomes impervious. The size of the boron nitride/carbon granules in the sintered body is between 10 to 400 micrometers, and the shape of the granules is highly irregular. The rough surface of the granule, combined with strong bonding of glassy carbon, helps retaining boron nitride on the surface of composite body during material making and during actual rubbing applications. The composite material has a density of at least 80 percent of theoretical density, as determined by the rule of mixture for a composite material. | 20050107 | 20070123 | 20060713 | 83183.0 | C04B35565 | 0 | GROUP, KARL E | CERAMIC COMPOSITE BODY OF SILICON CARBIDE/BORON NITRIDE/CARBON | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | C04B | 2,005 |
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11,031,513 | ACCEPTED | Systems and methods for rapidly changing the solution environment around sensors | The invention provides microfluidic systems for altering the solution environment around a nanoscopic or microscopic object, such as a sensor, and methods for using the same. The invention also provides a system and methods for modulating, controlling, preparing, and studying receptors. | 1. A method for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising: a) providing a substrate, the substrate comprising: a chamber comprising a cell-based biosensor, the cell-based biosensor comprising a receptor which is activated by an agonist or a receptor which is inactivated by an antagonist; and a plurality of delivery channels delivering one or more of sample, agonist, antagonist, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate aqueous stream into the chamber; and (b) sequentially exposing the biosensor to a fluid stream from two or more outlets. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the chamber comprises a buffer, at least one agonist, at least one antagonist, at least one sample, or a combination thereof. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing is selectively exposing the biosensor to a selected concentration of sample. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing is selectively for a selected time. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising providing to the channels one or more buffers. 6. The method of claim 1, fuirther comprising exposing the biosensor to the one or more buffers. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing the biosensor to one or more buffers is interspersed between the exposing to one or more samples. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash period. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing to one or more buffers is a rest period. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash and a rest period. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein a rest period in buffer is between a series of sample exposures and interdigitated by one or more wash periods in buffer. 12. The method of claim 1, comprising selectively exposing the biosensor to streams of buffer and sample. 13. The method of claim 1, comprising selectively exposing the biosensor to alternating streams of buffer and sample. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations. 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations 18. The method of any of claims 16 or 17, wherein the receptors are exposed to washing solution after ascending or descending exposures of modulator. 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the agent is a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the method for studying is a method for studying the memory properties of a receptor. 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the memory functions are short-term, medium-term, or long-term memory functions. 22. The method of claim 1, wherein the effects of a drug on memory properties of a biosensor are studied. 23. The method of claim 1, wherein the exposing further comprises producing pressure drops across one or more channels. 24. The method of claim 1, wherein the same sample is provided to a plurality of channels. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein different concentrations of the sample are provided to the plurality of channels. 26. The method of claim 25, further comprising generating a dose-response curve for the sample. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the cell-based biosensor comprises a patch-clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction. 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the patch-clamped cell is positioned relative to the outlets using a patch clamp pipette coupled or connected to a positioner. 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the sample is an agonist. 30. The method of claim 26, wherein the sample is an antagonist. 31. The method of claim 26, wherein the sample is a candidate molecule. 32. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell-based biosensor comprises an ion-channel. 33. The method of claim 1, wherein the receptor comprises a G-protein coupled receptor. 34. The method of claim 1, wherein the cell-based biosensor comprises a recombinantly expressed receptor. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the recombinantly expressed receptor is an orphan receptor. 36. The method of claim 26, wherein the response is determined by measuring cell surface area. 37. The method of claim 26, wherein the response is determined by measuring an electrical property of the cell-based biosensor. 38. The method of claim 26, wherein the sample is a modulator of neurotransmitter release. 39. The method of claim 26, wherein the response is determined by measuring ion-channel permeability properties. 40. A method of preparing a receptor in a discrete kinetic state, comprising: sequentially exposing a cell-based biosensor to two or more concentrations of modulator, and alternating resting and washing periods between exposures to modulator, wherein the sequential exposure arrests the biosensor in a pre-determined kinetic state. 41. A method of claim 40, wherein the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes. 42. The method of claim 40, wherein the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to about 60 minutes. 43. The method of claim 40, wherein the wherein the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes. 44. The method of claim 40, wherein the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to the death of the cell. 45. The method of claim 40, wherein the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes. 46. The method of claim 40, wherein the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to about 60 minutes. 47. The method of claim 40, wherein the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes. 48. The method of claim 40, wherein the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to the death of the cell. 49. The method of claim 40, wherein the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes. 50. The method of claim 40, wherein the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to about 60 minutes. 51. The method of claim 40, wherein the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes. 52. The method of claim 40, wherein the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to the death of the cell. 53. A method of claim 40, further comprising determining the molecular memory of a biosensor. 54. A method of claim 40, wherein the molecular memory is determined by measuring a dose response of the modulator. 55. A method of claim 40, further comprising providing a system comprising: a substrate for changing a solution environment around a sensor, the substrate comprising a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet; and a scanning mechanism for selectively exposing a sensor to a fluid stream from an outlet. 56. A method of claim 40, wherein increasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. 57. A method of claim 40, wherein decreasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. 58. A method of claim 40, wherein the modulator is a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/356,377, filed Feb. 12, 2002, and to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/345,107, filed: Jan. 15, 2003. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to systems and methods for rapid and programmable delivery of aqueous or other liquid streams to a sensor, such as a cell-based biosensor. In particular, the invention provides methods for modulating and studying receptor protein function and a method for preparing such receptors in different states. It also relates to utilization of the ability to prepare receptors in different states, in particular, memory functions in receptor proteins. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Of mammalian tissues, the central nervous system is one of the most complex, both in terms of structure and function. The brain has an incredible capacity for executing a multitude of computational tasks and possesses several intricate forms of memory mechanisms. Understanding the function of a variety of CNS processes in the healthy and diseased brain has been one of the most intensively studied by mankind but is still not well-established and understood. Ion-channels are important therapeutic targets. Neuronal communication, heart function, and memory all critically rely upon the function of ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion-channels. In addition, a broad range of chronic and acute pathophysiological states in many organs such as the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and brain involve ion channels. Indeed, many existing drugs bind receptors directly or indirectly connected to ion-channels. For example, anti-psychotic drugs interact with receptors involved in dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Because of the importance of ion-channels as drug targets, there is a need for methods which enable high throughput screening (HTS) of compounds acting on ligand-gated and voltage-gated channels (see e.g., Sinclair et al., 2002, Anal. Chem. 74: 6133-6138). However, existing HTS drug discovery systems targeting ion channels generally miss significant drug activity because they employ indirect methods, such as raw binding assays or fluorescence-based readouts. Although as many as ten thousand drug leads can be identified from a screen of a million compounds, identification of false positives and false negatives can still result in a potential highly therapeutic blockbuster drug being ignored, and in unnecessary and costly investments in false drug leads. Patch clamp methods are superior to any other technology for measuring ion channel activity in cells, and can measure currents across cell membranes in ranges as low as picoAmps (see, e.g., Neher and Sakmann, 1976, Nature 260: 799-802; Hamill, et al., 1981, Pflugers Arch 391: 85-100; Sakmann and Neher, 1983, In Single-Channel Recording pp. 37-52, Eds. B. Sakmann and E. Neher. New York and London, Plenum Press, 1983). However, patch clamp methods generally have not been the methods of choice for developing HTS platforms. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention provides microfluidic systems for altering the solution environment around a nanoscopic or microscopic object, such as a sensor, and methods for using the same. The invention can be applied in any sensor technology in which the sensing element needs to be exposed rapidly, sequentially, and controllably, to a large number of different solution environments (e.g., greater than 10 and preferably, greater than about 96 different environments) whose characteristics may be known or unknown. In contrast to prior art microfluidic systems, the interval between sample deliveries is minimized, e.g., on the order of microseconds and seconds, permitting rapid analysis of compounds (e.g., drugs). According to one aspect, the invention provides a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors. The system comprises a substrate for changing a solution environment around a sensor, the substrate comprising a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet; and a scanning mechanism for selectively exposing a sensor to a fluid stream from an outlet, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. According to another aspect, the invention provides, a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising an open-volume chamber for receiving a sensor; and a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate fluid stream into the chamber, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. According to yet another aspect, the invention provides a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising a substrate for changing a solution environment around a sensor, the substrate comprising a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate fluid stream to a sensor; and a processor for controlling delivery of fluid from each channel to the sensor, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. In one aspect, at least one channel is in communication with a reservoir. In a related aspect, a system has a plurality of buffer reservoirs and sample reservoirs. In another related aspect, each reservoir is in communication with a different channel. In yet another related aspect, the system has alternating sample and buffer reservoirs. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for applying positive or negative pressure to the reservoir. In one aspect, the scanning mechanism comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels. In another aspect, the system further comprises at least one drain channel communicating with the chamber. According to one aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for holding a sensor, which is coupled or connected to a positioner for positioning the sensor in proximity to an outlet of a channel. In a related aspect, the mechanism for holding the sensor comprises a mechanism for holding a cell. In another related aspect, the sensor comprises a cell or a portion of a cell. Another related aspect provides, a cell as a patch clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction. Yet another relates aspect provides, a cell or portion of the cell comprises an ion channel. Still another related aspect provides a cell or portion of a cell is selected from cultured cell, a bacterial cell, a protist cell, a yeast cell, a plant cell, an insect cell, an avian cell, an amphibian cell, a fish cell, a mammalian cell, an oocyte, a cell expressing a recombinant nucleic acid, and a cell from a patient with a pathological condition. According to one aspect, the cell or portion of the cell is positioned in proximity to the outlet of a channel using a positioner. In one aspect, the system further comprises a sensor selected from a surface plasmon energy sensor; an FET sensor; an ISFET; an electrochemical sensor; an optical sensor; an acoustic wave biosensor; a sensor comprising a sensing element associated with a Quantum Dot particle; a polymer-based biosensor; and an array of biomolecules immobilized on a substrate. In a related aspect, wherein the system comprises a plurality of sensors. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels in the substrate for selectively exposing a cell in a well to a fluid stream from a selected channel. In another aspect, the system further comprises a scanning mechanism for selectively exposing a sensor to a fluid stream from an outlet. In related aspect, the scanning mechanism comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels in the substrate sequentially. In another aspect, the system further comprises a processor in communication with the scanning mechanism. In a related aspect, the processor controls one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, pause intervals at a channel and pressure changes across one or more channels. In another related aspect, the processor controls the exposure time. In another aspect, the system further comprises a detector in communication with the sensor for detecting the responses of a sensor in the chamber. In a related aspect, the detector communicates with a processor comprising a data acquisition system. According to one aspect, each of the channels of the system is adapted to deliver a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. In one aspect, the system is interfaced to a fluid delivery system operably linked to a micropump for pumping fluids from the fluid delivery system into one or more reservoirs of the substrate. In a related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of sequentially delivering different types of samples and/or buffer to the one or more reservoirs. In another related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of programmably delivering a selected volume or concentration of sample or buffer to at least one reservoir. In yet another related aspect, the system has alternating sample and buffer reservoirs. In another related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of programmably delivering a selected volume or concentration of sample or buffer to at least one reservoir at a selected time interval. In another aspect, the system further comprises at least one output channel for removing fluid from the system. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for delivering positive or negative pressure to at least one of the channels. In a related aspect, the mechanism for delivering pressure is in communication with a processor. In one aspect, the substrate comprises a material selected from a crystalline semiconductor material; silicon; silicon nitride; Ge, GaAs; metals; Al, Ni; glass; quartz; crystalline insulator; ceramics; plastics; an elastomeric material; silicone; EPDM; Hostaflon; a polymer; a fluoropolymer; Teflon®; polymethylmethacrylate; polydimethylsiloxane; polyethylene; polypropylene; polybutylene; polymethylpentene; polystyrene; polyurethane; polyvinyl chloride; polyarylate; polyarylsulfone; polycaprolactone; polyestercarbonate; polyimide; polyketone; polyphenylsulfone; polyphthalamide; polysulfone; polyamide; polyester; epoxy polymer; thermoplastic; an organic material; an inorganic material; combinations thereof. In one aspect, the substrate is three-dimensional and at least two of the channels lie at least partially in different planes. In one aspect, the invention provides a substrate comprises an open-volume chamber for the sensor, and a plurality of channels. Each channel comprises an outlet for delivering a substantially separate aqueous or other liquid stream into the chamber. In one aspect, the outlets are substantially parallel, i.e., arrayed linearly in a single plane. The dimensions of the outlets can vary; however, in one aspect, where the sensor is a biological cell, the diameter of each of the outlets is, preferably, at least about the diameter of the cell. Preferably, a plurality, if not all, of the channels programmably deliver a fluid stream into the chamber. In a preferred aspect, each channel of the substrate comprises at least one inlet for receiving solution from a reservoir, conforming in geometry and placement on the substrate to the geometry and placement of wells in a multi-well plate. For example, the substrate can comprise 96-1024 reservoirs, each connected to an independent channel on the substrate. Preferably, the center-to-center distance of each reservoir corresponds to the center-to-center distance of wells in an industry standard microtiter or multi-well plate. In a further aspect, the substrate comprises one or more treatment chambers or microchambers for delivering a treatment to a cell placed within the treatment chamber. The treatment can comprise exposing the cell to a chemical or compound, (e.g. drugs or dyes, such as calcium ion chelating fluorogenic dyes), exposing the cell to an electrical current (e.g., electroporafion, electrofusion, and the like), or exposing the cell to light (e.g., exposure to a particular wavelength of light). A treatment chamber can be used for multiple types of treatments which may be delivered sequentially or simultaneously. For example, an electrically treated cell also can be exposed to a chemical or compound and/or exposed to light. Treatment can be continuous over a period of time or intermittent (e.g., spaced over regular or irregular intervals). The cell treatment chamber can comprise a channel with an outlet for delivering a treated cell to the sensor chamber or directly to a mechanism for holding the cell connected to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner or nanopositioner) for positioning the cell within the chamber. Preferably, the base of the sensor chamber is optically transmissive and in one aspect, the system further comprises a light source (e.g., such as a laser) in optical communication with the open volume chamber. The light source can be used to continuously or intermittently expose the sensor to light of the same or different wavelengths. The sensor chamber and/or channels additionally can be equipped with control devices. For example, the sensor chamber and/or channels can comprise temperature sensors, pH sensors, and the like, for providing signals relating to chamber and/or channel conditions to a system processor. The sensor chamber can be adapted for receiving a variety of different sensors. In one aspect, the sensor comprises a cell or a portion of a cell (e.g., a cell membrane fraction). In another aspect, the cell or cell membrane fraction comprises an ion channel, including, but not limited to, a presynaptically-expressed ion channel, a ligand-gated channel, a voltage-gated channel, and the like. In a further aspect, the cell comprises a receptor, such as a G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR), or an orphan receptor for which no ligand is known, or a receptor comprising a known ligand. A cultured cell can be used as a sensor and can be selected from the group consisting of CHO cells, NIH-3T3 cells, and HEK-293 cells, and can be recombinantly engineered to express a sensing molecule such as an ion channel or receptor. Many other different cell types also can be used, which can be selected from the group consisting of mammalian cells (e.g., including, but not limited to human cells, primate cells, bovine cells, swine cells, other domestic animals, and the like); bacterial cells; protist cells; yeast cells; plant cells; invertebrate cells, including insect cells; amphibian cells; avian cells; fish; and the like. A cell membrane fraction can be isolated from any of the cells described above, or can be generated by aggregating a liposome or other lipid-based particle with a sensing molecule, such as an ion channel or receptor, using methods routine in the art. The cell or portion of the cell can be positioned in the chamber using a mechanism for holding the cell or cell portion, such as a pipette (e.g., a patch clamp pipette) or a capillary connected to a positioner (e.g., such as a micropositioner or nanopositioner or micromanipulator), or an optical tweezer. Preferably, the positioner moves the pipette at least in an x-, y-, z-, direction. Alternatively or additionally, the positioner may rotate the pipette. Also, preferably, the posifioner is coupled to a drive unit which communicates with a processor, allowing movement of the pipette to be controlled by the processor. In one aspect, the base of the chamber comprises one or more depressions and the cell or portion of the cell is placed in a depression which can be in communication with one or more electrodes (e.g., the sensor can comprise a planar patch clamp chip). Non-cell-based sensors also can be used in the system. Suitable non-cell based sensors include, but are not limited to: a surface plasmon energy sensor; an FET sensor; an ISFET; an electrochemical sensor; an optical sensor; an acoustic wave sensor; a sensor comprising a sensing element associated with a Quantum Dot particle; a polymer-based sensor; a single molecule or an array of molecules (e.g., nucleic acids, peptides, polypeptides, small molecules, and the like) immobilized on a substrate. The sensor chamber also can comprise a plurality of different types of sensors, non-cell based and/or cell-based. A sensor substrate can be affixed to the base of the chamber or the substrate can simply be placed on the base of the chamber. Alternatively, the base of the chamber itself also can serve as the sensor substrate and one or more sensing elements can be stably associated with the base using methods routine in the art. In one aspect, sensing elements are associated at known locations on a substrate or on the base of the sensor chamber. However, an object placed within a chamber need not be a sensor. For example, the object can be a colloidal particle, beads, nanotube, a non-sensing molecule, silicon wafer, or other small elements. The invention also provides a system comprising a substrate, which comprises at least one chamber for receiving a cell-based biosensor, a plurality of channels, at least one cell storage chamber and at least one cell treatment chamber. Preferably, each channel comprises an outlet for delivering a fluid stream into the chamber, and the cell treatment chamber is adapted for delivering an electrical current to a cell placed within the cell treatment chamber. In one aspect, the cell treatment chamber further comprises a channel with an outlet for delivering a cell to the sensor chamber for receiving the cell-based biosensor. The system can be used to rapidly, programmably, and sequentially, change the solution environment around a cell which has been electroporated and/or electrofused, and/or otherwise treated within the cell treatment chamber. Alternatively, or additionally, the sensor chamber also can be used as a treatment chamber and in one aspect, the sensor chamber is in electrical communication with one or more electrodes for continuously or intermittently exposing a sensor to an electric field. In one aspect, a system according to the invention further comprises a scanning mechanism for scanning the position of a sensor relative to the outlets of the channels. The scanning mechanism can translate the substrate relative to a stationary sensor, or can translate the sensor relative to a stationary substrate, or can move both sensor and substrate at varying rates and directions relative to each other. In one aspect, the sensor is positioned relative to an outlet using a mechanism for holding the sensor (e.g., such as a pipette or capillary) coupled to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner or nanopositioner or micromanipulator). Thus, the positioner can be used to move the sensor across a plurality of fluid streams exiting the outlets of the channels by moving the mechanism for holding the sensor. Alternatively, or additionally, scanning also can be regulated by producing pressure drops sequentially across adjacent microchannels. Preferably, the scanning mechanism is in communication with a processor and translation occurs in response to instructions from the processor (e.g., programmed instructions or instructions generated as a result of a feedback signal). In one aspect, the processor controls one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, and number of scans. Thus, the system can be used to move nanoscopic and microscopic objects in a chamber to user-selected, or system-selected coordinates, for specified (e.g., programmable) lengths of time. Preferably, the system processor also can be used to locate the position of one or more objects in the chamber, e.g., in response to previous scanning actions and/or in response to optical signals from the objects detected by the system detector. In one aspect, the system further comprises a user device in communication with the processor which comprises a graphical user display for interfacing with a user. For example, the display can be used to display coordinates of object(s) within the chamber, or optical data or other data obtained from the chamber. The invention additionally provides a substrate comprising a chamber for receiving a cell-based biosensor, which comprises a receptor or ion channel. In one aspect, the system sequentially exposes a cell-based biosensor for short periods of time to one or several ligands which binds to the receptor/ion channel and to buffer without ligand for short periods of time through interdigitated channels of the substrate. For example, selective exposure of a cell biosensor to these different solution conditions for short periods of time can be achieved by scanning the cell-based biosensor across interdigitated channels, which alternate delivery of one or several ligands and buffer. The flow of buffer and sample solution in each microfluidic channel is preferably a steady state flow at constant velocity. However, in another aspect, the system delivers pulses (e.g., pulsatile on/off flow) of buffer to a receptor through a superfusion capillary positioned in proximity to both the cell-based biosensor or other type of sensor and to an outlet through which a fluid is streaming. For example, the system can comprise a mechanism for holding the sensor, which is coupled to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner, nanopositioner, micromanipulator, etc.) for positioning the c sensor in proximity to the outlet and a capillary comprising an outlet in sufficient proximity to the mechanism for holding the sensor to deliver a buffer from the capillary to the sensor. A scanning mechanism can be used to move both the capillary and sensor simultaneously, to maintain the appropriate proximity of the capillary to the sensor. The capillary also can be coupled to a pumping mechanism to provide pulsatile delivery of buffer to the sensor. In another aspect, the flow rate of buffer from the one or more superfusion capillaries in proximity to one or more sensors can be higher or lower than the flow rate of fluid from the channels. The invention further provides a substrate, which comprises a circular chamber for receiving a sensor, comprising a cylindrical wall and a base. In one aspect, the substrate comprises a plurality of channels comprising outlets whose openings are radially disposed about the circumference of the wall of the chamber (e.g., in a spokes-wheel configuration), for delivering samples into the chamber. Preferably, the substrate also comprises at least one output channel for draining waste from the chamber. In one aspect, at least one additional channel delivers buffer to the chamber. Preferably, the angle between the at least one additional channel for delivering buffer and the output channel is greater than 10°. More preferably, the angle is greater than 90°. The channel “spokes” may all lie in the same plane, or at least two of the spokes may lie in different planes. Rapid, programmed, sequential exchange of solutions in the chamber is used to alter the solution environment around a sensor placed in the chamber and multiple output channels can be provided in this configuration. For example, there may be an output channel for each channel for delivering sample/buffer. The number of channels for delivering also can be varied, e.g., to render the substrate suitable for interfacing with an industry standard microtiter plate. For example, there may be 96 to 1024 channels for delivering samples. In another aspect, there may be an additional, equal number of channels for delivering buffer (e.g., to provide interdigitating fluid streams of sample and buffer). The invention also provides a multi-layered substrate for changing the solution environment around a sensor, comprising: a first substrate comprising channels for delivering fluid to a sensor; a filter layer for retaining one or more sensors which is in proximity to the first substrate; and a second substrate comprising a waste reservoir for receiving fluid from the filter layer. One or more sensors can be provided between the first substrate and the filter layer. In one aspect, at least one of the sensors is a cell. Preferably, the system further comprises a mechanism for creating a pressure differential between the first and second substrate to force fluid flowing from channels in the first substrate through the filter and into the waste reservoir, i.e., providing rapid fluid exchange through the filter (i.e., sensor) layer. The invention additionally provides a substrate, which comprises a chamber for receiving a sensor, a first channel comprising an outlet intersecting with the chamber, and a plurality of sample delivery channels intersecting with the first channel. The first channel also is connected to a buffer reservoir (e.g., through a connecting channel). In one aspect, the longitudinal axes of the sample delivery channels are parallel with respect to each other, but are angled with respect to the longitudinal axis of the first channel (e.g., providing a “fish bone” shape). Rapid flow of solution through the first channel and/or sample channels can be achieved through a positive pressure mechanism in communication with the buffer reservoir and/or sample channels. Passive one-way valves can be provided at the junction between sample delivery channels and the first channel to further regulate flow rates. In one aspect, at least one of the sample reservoirs is sealed by a septum which can comprise a needle or tube inserted therein. The invention further provides a substrate, which comprises a chamber for receiving a sensor, a plurality of delivery channels comprising outlets for feeding sample or buffer into the chamber, and a plurality of drain channels comprising inlets opposite the outlets of the delivery channels. The longitudinal axes of the delivery channels can be in the same, or a different plane, from the longitudinal axes of the drain channels. In one aspect, the plurality of drain channels is on top of the plurality of inlet channels (i.e., the substrate is three-dimensional). Any of the systems described above can further comprise a pressure control device for controlling positive and negative pressure applied to at least one microchannel of the substrate. In systems where substrates comprise both delivery channels as well as output channel(s), the system preferably further comprises a mechanism for applying a positive pressure to at least one delivery channel while applying a negative pressure to at least one output channel. Preferably, hydrostatic pressure at at least one of the channels can be changed in response to a feedback signal received by the processor. The system can thus regulate when, and through which channel, a fluid stream is withdrawn from the chamber. For example, after a defined period of time, a fluid stream can be withdrawn from the chamber through the same channel through which it entered the system or through a different channel. When a drain channel is adjacent to a delivery channel, the system can generate a U-shaped fluid stream, which can efficiently recycle compounds delivered through delivery channels. As described above, multiple delivery channel configurations can be provided: straight, angled, branched, fish-bone shaped, and the like. In one aspect, each delivery channel comprises one or more intersecting channels whose longitudinal axes are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the delivery channels. In another aspect, each delivery channel comprises one or more intersecting channels whose longitudinal axes are at an angle with respect to the delivery channel. In general, any of the channel configurations described above are interfaceable with containers for delivering samples to the reservoirs or sample inlets (e.g., through capillaries or tubings connecting the containers with the reservoirs/inlets). In one aspect, at least one channel is branched, comprising multiple inlets. Preferably, the multiple inlets interface with a single container. However, multiple inlets also may interface with several different containers. Further, any of the substrates described above can be interfaced to a multi-well plate (e.g., a microtiter plate) through one or more external tubings or capillaries. The one or more tubings or capillaries can comprise one or more external valves to control fluid flow through the tubings or capillaries. In one aspect, a plurality of the wells of the multi-well plates comprise known solutions. The system also can be interfaced with a plurality of microtiter plates; e.g., the plates can be stacked, one on top of the other. Preferably, the system further comprises a micropump for pumping fluids from the wells of a microtiter plate or other suitable container(s) into the reservoirs of the substrate. More preferably, the system programmably delivers fluids to selected channels of the substrate through the reservoirs. In one aspect, a system according to the invention further comprises a detector in communication with a sensor chamber for detecting sensor responses. For example, the detector can be used to detect a change in one or more of: an electrical, optical, or chemical property of the sensor. In one aspect, in response to a signal from the detector, the processor alters one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, and pressure on one or more channels. In another embodiment, the invention presents a method for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising providing a substrate, the substrate comprising a chamber comprising a cell-based biosensor comprising a receptor which is activated by an agonist; and a plurality of delivery channels delivering agonist, antagonist, or both agonist and antagonist, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate aqueous or other liquid stream into the chamber; and sequentially exposing the biosensor to a fluid stream from two or more outlets. According to one aspect, the chamber comprises at least one of a buffer, a sample, an agonist, anantagonist, or a combination thereof. In one aspect, the exposing is selectively exposing the biosensor to a selected concentration of a sample. In a related aspect, the exposing is selectively for a selected time. In another aspect, the system further comprises providing to the channels one or more buffers. In yet another aspect, the system further comprises exposing the biosensor to the one or more buffers. According to a related aspect, the exposing the biosensor to one or more buffers is interspersed between the exposing to one or more samples. In another related aspect, the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash period. In yet another related aspect, the exposing to one or more buffers is a rest period. In still another aspect, the system further comprises the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash and a rest period. In one aspect, a rest period in buffer is between a series of sample exposures and interdigitated by one or more wash periods in buffer. In another aspect, selectively exposing the biosensor to streams of buffer and sample. According to a related aspect, selectively exposing the biosensor to alternating streams of buffer and sample. In another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations. In another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations. In a related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations. In yet another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations. In yet another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to washing solution after ascending or descending exposures of modulator. In another aspect, the agent is selected from a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. According to one aspect, the method for studying is a method for studying the memory properties of a receptor. According to another aspect, the memory functions are short-term, medium-term, or long-term memory functions. In a related aspect, the effects of a drug on memory properties of a biosensor are studied. In another aspect, the exposing step is performed by moving the substrate or a sensor or both the substrate and the sensor relative to at least one channel outlet. In a related aspect, both the substrate and sensor are moved independently of each other. In another related aspect, the exposing further comprises producing pressure drops across one or more channels. According to one aspect, the same sample is provided to a plurality of channels. In a related aspect, different concentrations of the sample are provided to the plurality of channels. In another aspect, the system further comprises generating a dose-response curve for the sample. In one aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a patch-clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction. In a related aspect, the patch-clamped cell is positioned relative to the outlets using a patch clamp pipette coupled or connected to a positioner. According to one aspect, the sample is an agonist. In a related aspect, the sample is an antagonist. In another aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises an ion-channel. In a related aspect, the receptor comprises a G-protein coupled receptor. In another related aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a recombinantly expressed receptor. In still another related aspect, the recombinantly expressed receptor is an orphan receptor. In one aspect, the response to the sample is determined by measuring cell surface area. In a related aspect, the response is determined by measuring an electrical property of the cell-based biosensor. In another related aspect, the response is determined by measuring ion-channel permeability properties. In another aspect, the sample is a modulator of neurotransmitter release. According to another embodiment, a method of preparing a receptor in a discrete kinetic state is presented. The method comprises sequentially exposing a cell-based biosensor to two or more concentrations of modulator, and alternating resting and washing periods between exposures to modulator, wherein the sequential exposure arrests the biosensor in a pre-determined kinetic state. According to one aspect, the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In a related aspect, the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In another related aspect, the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In another aspect, the system further comprises determining the molecular memory of a biosensor. In a related aspect, the molecular memory is determined by measuring a dose response of the modulator. In another aspect, the system further comprises providing a system of claim 1. In another aspect, increasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. In related aspect, decreasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. In one aspect, wherein the modulator is selected from a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. The invention also provides a method for changing an aqueous or other liquid solution environment locally around a nanoscopic or microscopic object (e.g., such as a sensor). The method comprises providing a substrate, which comprises an open volume chamber comprising a nanoscopic or microscopic object and an aqueous or other liquid fluid. The substrate further comprises a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet intersecting with the open volume chamber. Substantially separate aqueous streams of fluid are delivered into the open volume chamber, at least two of which comprise different fluids. Preferably, fluid streams exiting from the at least two adjacent channels are collimated and laminar within the open volume. However, the system can comprise sets of channels (at least two adjacent channels) wherein at least one set delivers collimated laminar streams, while at least one other set delivers non-collimated, non-laminar streams. In one aspect, the streams flow at different velocities. Fluid can be delivered from the channels to the chamber by a number of different methods, including by electrophoresis and/or by electroosmosis and/or by pumping. In one aspect, the longitudinal axes of the channels are substantially parallel. The channels can be arranged in a linear array, in a two-dimensional array, or in a three-dimensional array, can comprise treatment chambers, sensor chambers, reservoirs, and/or waste channels, and can be interfaced with container(s) or multi-well plate(s) as described above. In one aspect, output channels can overly input channels (i.e., in a three-dimensional configuration). Preferably, the longitudinal axis of at least one output or drain channel is parallel, but lying in a different plane, relative to the longitudinal axis of at least one input channel. By applying a positive pressure to an input channel at the same time that a negative pressure is applied to an adjacent output or drain channel, a U-shaped fluid stream can be generated within the chamber. In this way, an object within the chamber can be exposed to a compound in a fluid stream from an inlet channel which can, for example, be recycled by being withdrawn from the chamber through the adjacent output or drain channel. The U-shaped fluid streams can, preferably, be used to create local well-defined regions of fluid streams with specific composition in a large-volume reservoir or open volume. Preferably, the object is scanned sequentially across the at least two aqueous fluid streams, thereby altering the aqueous solution environment around the object. Scanning can be performed by moving the substrate and/or the object, or, can be mediated by pressure drops applied to the channels. The open volume chamber can comprise a plurality of objects; preferably, each object is scanned across at least two streams. Scanning can be performed by a scanning mechanism controlled by a processor as described above. The open volume can, additionally have inlets and outlets for adding and withdrawal of solution. For example, fresh buffer solution can be added to the recording chamber by using a peristaltic pump. In one aspect, the method further comprises modifying one or more scanning parameters, such as the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, and pressure across one or more channels. Scanning parameters can be modified in response to a feedback signal, such as a signal relating to the response of an object to one or more of aqueous streams. Scanning also can be coordinated with other system operations. For example, in a system comprising a cell-based biosensor, scanning can be coordinated with exposure of the biosensor to an electrical current, i.e., inducing pore formation in a cell membrane of the biosensor, as the biosensor is scanned past one or more sample outlets. Hydrostatic pressure at one or more channels also can be varied by the processor according to programmed instructions and/or in response to a feedback signal. In one aspect, hydrostatic pressure at each of the plurality of channels is different. In another aspect, the viscosity of fluids in at least two of the channels is different. In yet another aspect, fluid within at least two of the channels are at a different temperature. In a further aspect, the osmolarity of fluid within at least two of the channels is different. In a still further aspect, the ionic strength of fluid within at least two of the channels is different. Fluid in at least one of the channels also can comprise an organic solvent. By changing these parameters at different outlets, sensor responses can be optimized to maximize sensitivity of detection and minimize background. In some aspects, parameters also can be varied to optimize certain cell treatments being provided (e.g., such as electroporation or electrofusion). The invention also provides a method for rapidly changing the solution environment around a nanoscopic or microscopic object, which comprises rapidly exchanging fluid in a sensor chamber comprising the nanoscopic or microscopic object. In one aspect, fluid exchange in the chamber occurs within less than about I minute, preferably, with less than about 30 seconds, less than about 20 seconds, less than about 10 seconds, less than about 5 seconds, or less than about I second. In another aspect, fluid exchange occurs within milliseconds. In another aspect fluid exchange occurs within nanoseconds. In one aspect, the method comprises providing a chamber comprising the object (which may be a sensor or even a single molecule), wherein the chamber comprises a plurality of inlet channels for delivering a fluid into the chamber and a plurality of outlet channels for draining fluid from the chamber. Preferably, the longitudinal axes of the drain channels are at an angle with respect to the longitudinal axes of the delivery channels. In one aspect, the longitudinal axis of at least one drain channel is ≧90° with respect to the longitudinal axis of a delivery channel. Preferably, the angle is about 1800 . Fluid entering the chamber is withdrawn from the chamber after a predetermined period of time or in response to a feedback signal. By controlling the velocity of fluid flow through the inlet channels and the output or drain channels, complete exchange of fluid in the chamber can occur in less than about 30 seconds, and preferably, in milliseconds. Preferably, the velocity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In one aspect, the hydrostatic pressure of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In another aspect, the viscosity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In still another aspect, the osmolarity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In a further aspect, the ionic strength of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In yet a further aspect, the channels at an angle with respect to each other comprise different organic solvents. The chamber can be circular, comprising a cylindrical wall and a base and the outlets can be radially disposed around the circumference of the wall, i.e., in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional spokes-wheel configuration. Other configurations are also possible. For example, each delivery channel can comprise an intersecting inlet channel whose longitudinal axis is perpendicular to the delivery channel. The method can generally be used to measure responses of a cell or portion thereof to a condition in an aqueous environment, by providing a cell or portion thereof in the chamber of any of the substrates described above, exposing the cell or portion thereof to one or more aqueous streams for creating the condition, and detecting and/or measuring the response of the cell or portion thereof to the condition. For example, the condition may be a chemical or a compound to which the cell or portion thereof is exposed and/or can be the osmolarity and/or ionic strength and/or temperature and/or viscosity of a solution in which the cell or portion thereof is bathed. The composition of the bulk solution in the sensor chamber in any of the substrates described above can be controlled, e.g., to vary the ionic composition of the sensor chamber or to provide chemicals or compounds to the solution. For example, by providing a superfusion system in proximity to the sensor chamber, a chemical or a compound, such as a drug, can be added to the sensor chamber during the course of an experiment. In one aspect, exposure of the cell or portion thereof to the condition occurs in the sensor chamber. However, alternatively, or additionally, exposure of the cell or portion thereof to the condition can occur in a microchamber which connects to the sensor chamber via one or more channels. The cell or portion thereof can be transferred to the sensor chamber in order to measure a response induced by changing the conditions around the cell. In one aspect, the invention also provides a method for generating an activated receptor or ion channel in order to detect or screen for antagonists. The method comprises delivering a constant stream of an agonist to a cell-based biosensor in a sensor chamber through a plurality of microchannels feeding into the sensor chamber (e.g., using any of the substrates described above). Preferably, the cell-based biosensor expresses receptor/ion channel complexes which do not desensitize or which desensitize very slowly. Exposure of the biosensor to the agonist produces a measurable response, such that the receptor is activated each time it passes a microchannel delivering agonist. Preferably, a plurality of the agonist delivering microchannels also comprise antagonist whose presence can be correlated with a decrease in the measurable response (e.g., antagonism) when the cell-based biosensor passes by these microchannels. In one aspect, a plurality of microchannels comprises equal amounts of agonist but different concentrations of antagonist. Inhibition of the measurable response can thus be correlated with the presence of a particular dose of antagonist. In another aspect, a plurality of microchannels comprise equal amounts of agonist, but one or more, and preferably all of the plurality of microchannels, comprises different kinds of antagonists. In this way the activity of particular types of antagonists (or compounds suspected of being antagonists) can be monitored. In one aspect, a periodically re-sensitized receptor is provided using the superfusion system described above to deliver pulses of buffer to the cell-based biosensor, to thereby remove any bound agonist or modulator desensitizing the receptor, before the receptor is exposed to the next channel outlet containing agonists or receptor modulators. In detection of antagonists, the pulsated superfusion system can also periodically remove the constantly applied agonist. A transient peak response (which is desensitized to a steady state response) is generated when the re-sensitized biosensor is exposed to the agonist. The generation of this peak response can provide a better signal-to-noise ratio in detection of antagonists. In another aspect, ion-channels in a cell-based biosensor are continuously activated or periodically activated by changing the potential across the cell-membrane. This provides a sensor for detection of compounds or drugs modulating voltage-dependent ion-channels. Responses measured by the systems or methods will vary with the type of sensor used. When a cell-based biosensor is used, the agonist-, antagonist-, or modulator-induced changes of the following parameters or cell properties can be measured: cell surface area, cell membrane stretching, ion-channel permeability, release of internal vesicles from a cell, retrieval of vesicles from a cell membrane, levels of intracellular calcium, ion-channel induced electrical properties (e.g., current, voltage, membrane capacitance, and the like), optical properties, or viability. In one aspect, the sensor comprises at least one patch-clamped cell. For example, the method can be performed by combining the system with a traditional patch clamp set-up. Thus, a cell or cell membrane fraction can be positioned appropriately relative to channel outlets using a patch clamp pipette connected to a positioner such as a micropositioner or nanopositioner. Alternatively, a patch-clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction can be positioned in a depression in the base of the chamber, which is in communication with one or more electrodes (e.g., providing a patch clamp chip). The systems and methods according to the invention can be used to perform high throughput screening for ion channel ligands and for drugs or ligands which act directly or indirectly on ion channels. However, more generally, the systems and methods can be used to screen for compounds/conditions, which affect any extracellular, intracellular, or membrane-bound target(s). Thus, the systems and methods can be used to characterize, for example, the effects of drugs on cell. Examples of data that can be obtained for such purposes according to the present invention includes but is not limited to: dose response curves, IC50 and EC50 values, voltage-current curves, on/off rates, kinetic information, thermodynamic information, etc. Thus, the system can, for example, be used to characterize if an ion channel or receptor antagonists is a competitive or non-competitive inhibitor. The systems and methods according to the invention also can be used for toxicology screens, e.g., by monitoring cell viability in response to varying kinds or doses of compound, or in diagnostic screens. The method can also be used to internalize drugs, in the cell cytoplasm, for example, using electroporation to see if a drug effect is from interaction with a cell membrane bound outer surface receptor or target or through an intracellular receptor or target. It should be obvious to those of skill in the art that the systems according to the invention can be used in any method in which an object would benefit from a change in solution environment, and that such methods are encompassed within the scope of the instant invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES The objects and features of the invention can be better understood with reference to the following detailed description and accompanying drawings. The Figures are not to scale. FIGS. 1A and 1B show a schematic of a system according to one aspect of the invention showing integration of a microfluidic chip with patch clamp recordings of ion channel activity. FIG. 1A is a perspective view of a microfluidic chip in which a cell is positioned in proximity to microchannel outlets of the chip using a patch clamp micropipette connected to a positioner. Figure 1B is a side view, partially in section, of Figure 1A. Figure 1C is a side view, partially in section, of a chip-based patch clamp system. In operation, the chip is preferably covered. FIGS. 2A-C show top views of different embodiments of microfluidic chips according to aspects of the invention illustrating exemplary placements of reservoirs for interfacing with 96-well plates. FIG. 2A shows a chip comprising ligand reservoirs (e.g., the reservoirs receive samples of ligands from a 96-well plate). FIG. 2B shows a chip comprising alternating or interdigitating ligand and buffer reservoirs (e.g., every other reservoir receives samples of ligands from one 96-well plate, while the remaining reservoirs receive samples of buffer from another 96-well plate). As shown in FIG. 2C, additional reservoirs can be placed on chip for the storage and transfer of cells or other samples of interest. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a kit in accordance with one aspect of the invention illustrating a process for dispensing fluids from 96-well plates onto a microfluidic chip comprising interdigitating reservoirs using automated array pipettors and cell delivery using a pipette. FIGS. 4A-C comprise a top view of a microfluidic chip structure for HTS of drugs according to one aspect of the invention, for scanning a sensor such as a patch-clamped cell or cells across interdigitated ligand and buffer streams. FIG. 4A depicts the overall chip structure for both a 2D and 3D microfluidic system. FIG. 4B shows an enlarged view of the reservoirs of the chip and their individual connecting channels. FIG. 4C shows an enlarged view of interdigitating microchannel whose outlets intersect with the sensor chamber of the chip. FIG. 5A schematically depicts a top view of the interdigitating channels of a microfluidic chip, with a patch-clamped cell being moved past the outlets of the channels. FIGS. 5B and 5C depict side views of alternate embodiments of the outlets and microchannels. FIG. 5B and 5C are side views showing a 2D and 3D microfluidic chip design, respectively. FIG. 5D is a perspective view of a 3D chip design according to one aspect of the invention, in which the chip comprises a bottom set and top set of channels. FIG. 5E is a side view of FIG. 5D, showing fluid flow can be controlled through pressure differentials so that fluid flowing out of a channel in the bottom set will make a “U-turn” into an overlying channel. FIG. 5F is a top view of FIG. 5D and shows cell scanning across the “U-turn” fluid streams. FIG. 6A is a perspective view showing a 3D array of microchannel outlet arrangements for increased throughput in HTS applications. FIG. 6B depicts the use of a microchannel array as depicted in FIG. 6A, but with a plurality of patch-clamped cells. The arrows in the Figures indicate directions in which the patch-clamped cell(s) can be scanned. FIGS. 7A-N are schematics showing chip designs for carrying out cell scanning across ligand streams using buffer superfusion to provide a periodically resensitized sensor. FIG. 7A is a perspective view of the overall chip design and microfluidic system. FIGS. 7B-G show enlarged views of the outlets of microchannels and their positions with respect to a superfusion capillary and a patch clamp pipette, as well as a procedure for carrying out cell superfusion while scanning a patch-clamped cell across different fluid streams. “P” indicates a source of pressure on fluid in a microchannel or capillary. Bold arrows indicate direction of movement. FIGS. 7H-7N show a different embodiment for superfusing cells. As shown in the perspective view in FIG. 7H, instead of providing capillaries for delivering buffer, a number of small microchannels placed at each of the outlets of the ligand delivery channels are used for buffer delivery. As a patch-clamped cell is moved to a ligand channel and the system detects a response, a pulse of buffer can be delivered via the small microchannels onto the cell for superfusion. The advantage to using this system is that the exposure time of the patch-clamped cell to a ligand can be precisely controlled by varying the delay time between signal detection and buffer superfusion. FIG. 71 is a cross-section through the side of a microfluidic system used in this way showing proximity of a patch-clamped cell to both ligand and buffer outlets. FIG. 7J is a cross section, front view of the system, showing flow of buffer streams. FIG. 7K is a cross-section through a top view of the device showing flow of ligand streams and placement of the buffer microchannels. FIGS. 7L-7M show use of pressure applied to a ligand and/or buffer channel to expose a patch clamped cell to ligand and then buffer. FIGS. 8A-I are top views of microchannel outlets in relationship to a patch-clamped cell, collectively showing different methods by which a patch-clamped cell can be moved in relation to the fluid streams. FIGS. 8A-C show mechanical scanning of the patched cell across stationary microchannel outlets. FIGS. 8D-F show mechanical scanning of microchannel outlets relative to a stationary patch-clamped cell. FIGS. 8G-I show a method for sweeping fluid streams across an immobilized patched cell by controlled variation of the pressure across, and flow rates through, each individual microchannel. FIGS. 9A-C are top views of one design of a microfluidic chip for carrying out cycles of rapid delivery and withdrawal of compounds into and from a cell chamber for housing a patch-clamped cell. FIG. 9A shows the overall arrangements of the microchannels feeding the cell chamber. FIG. 9B is an expanded view of reservoirs and the individual channels through which they are accessed. FIG. 9C shows an enlarged view of microchannel outlets which feed into the cell chamber. FIG. 10 is an enlarged top view of the cell chamber of FIG. 9A, depicting the arrangement of microchannels around a cell chamber comprising a patch-clamped cell. FIGS. 11A-C are top views showing a microfluidic chip for carrying out rapid and sequential exchange of fluids around a patch-clamped cell. FIG. 11A shows the overall arrangement of channels feeding into, and draining from, a cell chamber. The drain channels feed into a plurality of reservoirs such that the pressure drops across each channel can be independently controlled. FIG. 11B shows an enlarged view of reservoirs and their connecting channels. FIG. 11C shows an enlarged view of microchannel outlets which feed into the cell chamber. FIG. 12 is an enlarged illustration of FIG. 11A, depicting the arrangement of and flow directions of fluids in microchannels around a cell chamber with a patch-clamped cell in a planar 2D microfluidic system according to one aspect of the invention. FIG. 13 is an enlarged perspective view of the system of FIG. 11A depicting the arrangement of microchannels, and flow directions in a 3D microfluidic system according to one aspect of the invention. FIGS. 14A-C are top views depicting the chip structure of a fishbone design for carrying out rapid and sequential exchange of fluids around a patch-clamped cell (not shown) according to one aspect of the invention. In the example shown in FIG. 14A, a single drain channel is provided which feeds into a single waste reservoir. FIG. 14B shows an enlarged view of reservoirs for providing sample to the microchannels. FIG. 14C shows an enlarged view of a plurality of inlet channels intersecting with a central “spine” channel which feeds sample into the sensor chamber. In this enlarged view, intersecting channels are perpendicular to the spine channel rather than slanted; either configuration is possible. FIG. 15 is a schematic illustration of an enlarged view of FIG. 14A depicting arrangements of, and flow directions in, microchannels, and a patch-clamped cell in a chip according to one aspect of the invention, as well as the presence of passive one-way valves, which are schematically depicted as crosses. FIGS. 16A and B are microphotographs showing flow profiles at the outlet of a single microchannel (FIG. 16A) and an array of microchannels (FIG. 16B). Fluid flow was imaged under fluorescence using a fluorescent dye (fluorescein) as a flow tracer. The channels were 100-μm wide, 50 μm thick, with an inter-channel spacing of 25 μm; the flow rate was 4 mm/s. FIG. 17 is a schematic illustrating the arrangement of the outlets of an interdigitating array of microchannels in which varying dilutions of a sample (e.g., a drug) are provided in every other microchannel. By scanning a patch-clamped cell across the outlets of the channels, dose-response measurements can be obtained. FIGS. 18A-I show schematics of systems for obtaining dose-response measurements based on high-frequency superfusion and re-sensitization of a patch-clamped cell. Superfusion can be achieved through a capillary co-axially placed with respect to a patch-clamp pipette, or through any capillary placed adjacent to the patch pipette which is suitable for superfusion, while translating the patch-clamped cell across a concentration gradient created by streams exiting microchannel outlets. FIGS. 18A-C show a concentration gradient generated by diffusion broadening of a ligand plug in a microchannel. FIGS. 18D-F show lateral diffusion spreading of a ligand stream as it exits a microchannel. FIG. 18G-H show the use of networks of microchannels. “P” indicates a source of pressure applied at one or more microchannels of the systems. FIGS. 19A-C show scanning electron micrographs of microchannels fabricated in silicon. FIG. 19A shows simple microchannel arrangements in which the patch-clampled cell or cells can be scanned across interdigitated ligand and buffer streams. FIG. 19B shows a simple planar radial spokes-wheel structure for carrying out cycles of rapid delivery and withdrawal of compounds into and from a cell chamber housing a patch-clamped cell. FIG. 19C shows a simple fishbone arrangement of microchannel outlets for carrying out rapid and sequential exchange of fluids around a patch-clamped cell. FIG. 20 shows whole cell patch clamp recordings of transmembrane current responses elicited by manual repeated scanning of a cell across the channel outlet where it was superfused by buffer into an open reservoir containing acetylcholine (lmM). A train of peaks are produced by repeated manual scanning of the patched cell across the superflision-generated gradient. The cell was scanned back and forth at an average scan rate of 100 gm/s and at a maximum rate of up to 150 μm/s across the entire outlet of the microchannel depicted in the inset. FIGS. 21A-D show patch clamp current responses of a whole cell to 1 mM acetylcholine as the patch-clamped cell is scanned across the outlets of a parallel 7-channel structure (same structure as that shown in FIG. 16B). Channels 1, 3, 5 and 7 were filled with PBS buffer, while channels 2, 4 and 6 were filled with acetylcholine. The channel flow rate was 6.8 mm/s and the cell scanning speeds in the Figures were A) 0.61 mm/s, B) 1.22 mm/s, C) 2 mm/s and in D) 4 mm/s FIG. 22 shows patch clamp current responses of a whole cell to 1 mM acetylcholine as the patch-clamped cell was scanned across the outlets of a 7-channel structure (same structure as that shown in FIG. 16B). Channels 1, 3, 5 and 7 were filled with PBS buffer; channels 2, 4 and 6 with acetylcholine. The channel flow rate was 2.7 mm/s and the cell scanning speed was 6.25 μm/s. FIG. 23 shows concentration-dependent patch clamp current responses of whole cells to 1 μM, 12 μM and 200 μM nicotine as the patch-clamped cell was scanned across the outlets of a 7-channel structure (same structure as that shown in FIG. 16B); channels 1, 3, 5 and 7 were filled with PBS buffer; channel 2 with 1 μM, 4 with 12 μM and 6 with 200 μM nicotine respectively. The flow rate was 3.24 mm/s and the cell scanning speed was 250 μm/s. FIGS. 24A-C show agonist screening according to one method of the invention using amicrofluidic chip comprising 26 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber. As shown in FIG. 24A, the screen is performed linearly from channel outlet position 1 to 26. The scans can be repeated until a sufficient number of scans are performed. A simulated trace and score sheet are shown in FIGS. 24B and C for a single forward scan across microfluidic channel outlets. From this analysis, a 6 is the agonist with highest potency, followed by α2. FIGS. 25A-C show a method for antagonist screening according to one aspect of the invention using a microfluidic chip comprising 26 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber. As shown in FIG. 25A, the screen is performed linearly from position 1-to-26. The scans can be repeated until a sufficient number of scans are performed. As shown in the simulated trace and score sheet, FIGS. 25B and C, respectively, for a single forward scan across microfluidic channel outlets, ζ3 is the antagonist with highest potency followed by ζ5. FIGS. 26A-C show a method for dose-response screening using a microfluidic chip comprising 28 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber. As shown in FIG. 24A, the screen is performed linearly from channel outlet position 1 to 28. The scans can be repeated until a sufficient number of scans are performed. A simulated trace and score sheet are shown in FIGS. 26B and C for a single forward scan across microfluidic channel outlets. From these data, a dose-response curve can be created for the unknown agonist α. FIGS. 27A-C show a method for agonist screening using a microfluidic chip comprising 14 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber and high repetition rate buffer superfusion using a fluidic channel placed close to a patch-clamped cell. As shown in FIG. 27A, the screen is performed linearly from channel outlet position 1 to 14. The scans can be repeated until a sufficient number of scans are performed. A simulated trace for a single forward scan across microfluidic channel outlets and score sheet are shown in FIGS. 27B-C. A plurality of peak responses are obtained per single microchannel outlet. From this analysis, α3 is the agonist with highest potency, followed by α5. FIG. 28 shows a schematic drawing of a system according to the invention and a dose-response experiment at varying texp. a, is an overview of a device showing 16 sample reservoirs connected to an open volume. The inset shows the channels exiting into the open volume from where the different solutions are accessed by a patch-clamped cell. The loading pattern is chosen so that every second channel contains a specific ligand concentration (C1, C2, C3, . . , C7) interdigitated with extracellular buffer (B). The cell is placed outside the first channel, the device is translated, and the cell is translated relative the channel exits and thereby exposed to doses in ascending or descending order depending on the scanning direction. Current responses are recorded during the scanning. FIG. 29 shows a kinetic model of a GABAA receptor containing several different ligand bound states in which the distribution of receptor state populations are dependent on concentration and time. FIGS. 30 a-f show patch clamp current recordings to descending (left) and ascending (right) doses of GABA (1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 μM). Experiments were performed on the same cell with trest>3 minutes and texp=twash, which corresponds to the scale bar. As texp increases the dose-responses are transformed and for longer texp (>100 ms) the dose-responses are different between applications in ascending or descending order. This represents differently distributed receptor states. FIGS. 31 a-b are an investigation of the frequency dependent stimulation of GABAA receptors showing that brief pulse stimulation has essentially the same effect as continuous stimulation. a. shows current responses to a set of brief pulses GABA (tep =twash =100 ms, 30 stimulations per pulse train) applied in descending order concentration 500, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5 and 1 μM. twash=3 s in-between each pulse set. b shows current responses to doses applied as in a, but the doses were applied in ascending order. c shows dose-response functions for the first, tenth, twentieth and thirtieth pulse in each pulse set for descending and ascending doses. d shows the EC50 and Hill Slope changes with texp for doses applied in descending and ascending order. The EC50 changes with increasing desensitization within each pulse set and are dependent on the order of application. FIGS. 32 a and b show dose-response behaviors of GABAA receptors for different texp shows tunability of the receptor sensitivity. a, and b show 7 different dose-response curves for different texp normalized to 500 μM GABA. In a, the doses are applied in ascending order of concentrations, and the curves are shifted left with increased texp. In b, doses are applied in descending order of concentrations, and the curves are shifted right with increased texp. c, and d depict how the EC50 and Hill Slope changes with texp. For experiments with doses in descending order of application results in increased EC50 and a reduced Hill slope. Experiments with doses applied in ascending order results in reduced EC50 and an increased Hill slope. This clearly shows that a population of GABAA receptors can be prepared in two or more different states and that the sensitivity of the receptor can be tuned by exposure time. FIGS. 33 a-g show that exposure time and mode of application modulates the dynamic range of GABAA receptor response. a-f, show representative dose response curves for texp=30 ms. (a), 100 ms (b), 500 ms (c), 1 s (d), 5 s (e), and 10 s (f). Peak currents shown are from doses applied in descending order (black squares) or ascending order (red circles). Initially, the responses were similar, displaying a sigmoid appearance, but as texp increases the dose-response function changes. The dynamic range increases for experiments with descending order of application, whereas the dynamic range decreases for experiments with ascending order of application. This illustrates that a population of GABAA receptors has a memory of previous activations. (g) shows dose response curves for cyclic scanning patch clamp of GABAA receptor reveals the persistence of the molecular memory. Representative dose response curves for texp=100 ms (1st and 2nd row) or 3 s (3rd and 4th row). Dose-response curves were obtained starting either with ascending-order scans, followed by descending-order scans (1st and 3rd row), or vice versa (2nd and 4th row). The time between scans (trest) was 0 s (2nd comumn), 30 s (3rd column), 120 s (4th column) or 300 s (5th column). Peak currents shown were from doses applied in descending order (black squares) or ascending order (red circles). For short exposure times, the molecular memory persists for up to 30 s, whereas for long exposure times effects remain for up to 2 minutes. FIGS. 34 a and b show that antagonists have different effects on GABAA receptors depending on the history of activation. a and bshow dose-responses for GABA and GABA together with 1 μM Bicuculline, applied in descending or ascending order with texp=100 ms (a) or 3 s (b). The dose-response curves for GABA together with antagonist are shifted to the left. The difference in dose-response function and dynamic range between ascending and descending order of application becomes less distinct when antagonist is present. This indicates that addition of antagonists eradicates some of the ability to tune the responses, which becomes more pronounced with increasing texp and may be a reason for side-effects. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention provides a system and method for rapidly and programmably altering the local solution environment around a sensor, such as a cell-based biosensor. The invention relates to methods of determining novel functions in receptor proteins, situated, e.g., in the central nervous system. The method is based on a microfluidic protocol to expose a cell or other preparation containing the receptor-protein to ligands with precise control of periods of exposure to ligand, ligand concentration, wash times between ligand exposure, and order of application. In particular, a protocol for cyclic scanning patch clamp where a patch-clamped cell is exposed periodically to ascending and descending concentrations of ligands with controlled exposure times is demonstrated. The methods can additionally be used for characterization and validation of receptor modulators such as drugs and pharmaceutically active substances. Definitions The following definitions are provided for specific terms which are used in the following written description. As used herein, a “microchannel” refers to a groove in a substrate comprising two walls, a base, at least one inlet and at least one outlet. In one aspect, a microchannel also has a roof. The term “micro” does not imply a lower limit on size, and the term “microchannel” is generally used interchangeably with “channel”. Preferably, a microchannel ranges in size from about 0.1 μm to about 500 μm, and more preferably ranges from, 0.1 μm to about 150 μm. As used herein, a “positioner” refers to a mechanism or instrument that is capable of moving an object or device (e.g., a substrate, a sensor, a cell, a mechanism for holding a sensor, etc.) to which it is coupled. Preferably, the positioner can control movement of an object over distances such as nanometers (e.g., the petitioner is a nanopositioner), micrometers (e.g., the positioner is a micropositioner) and/or millimeters. Suitable positioners move at least in an x-, y-, or z- direction. In one aspect, positioners according to the invention also rotate about any pivot point defined by a user. In a preferred aspect, the positioner is coupled to a drive unit that communicates with a processor, allowing movement of the object to be controlled by the processor through programmed instructions, use of joysticks or other similar instruments, or a combination thereof. As used herein, “a mechanism for holding a sensor” refers to a device for receiving at least a portion of a sensor to keep the sensor in a relatively stationary position relative to the mechanism. In one aspect, the mechanism comprises an opening for receiving at least a portion of a sensor. For example, such mechanisms include, but are not limited to: a patch clamp pipette, a capillary, a hollow electrode, and the like. As used herein, the term “moving a sensor” refers to moving the sensor directly or through the use of a mechanism for holding the sensor which is itself moved. As used herein, a “chamber” refers to an area formed by walls (which may or may not have openings) surrounding a base. A chamber may be “open volume” (e.g., uncovered) or “closed volume” (e.g., covered by a coverslip, for example). A “sensor chamber” is one which receives one or more sensors and comprises outlets in one or more walls from at least two microchannels. However, a sensor chamber according to the invention generally can receive one or more nanoscopic or microscopic objects, without limitation as to their purpose. A sensor chamber can comprise multiple walls in different, not necessarily parallel planes, or can comprise a single wall which is generally cylindrical (e.g., when the chamber is “disc-shaped”). It is not intended that the geometry of the sensor chamber be a limiting aspect of the invention. One or more of the wall(s) and/or base can be optically transmissive. Generally, a sensor chamber ranges in size but is at least about 0.1 μm. In one aspect, the dimensions of the chamber are at least large enough to receive at least a single cell, such as a mammalian cell. The sensor chamber also can be a separate entity from the substrate comprising the microchannels. For example, in one aspect, the sensor chamber is a petrie dish and the microchannels extend to a surface of the substrate opening into the petrie dish so as to enable fluid communication between the microchannels and the petrie dish. As used herein, a “sensor” refers to a device comprising one or more molecules capable of producing a measurable response upon interacting with a condition in an aqueous environment to which the molecule is exposed (e.g., such as the presence of a compound which binds to the one or more molecules). In one aspect, the molecule(s) are immobilized on a substrate, while in another aspect, the molecule(s) are part of a cell (e.g., the sensor is a “cell-based biosensor”). As used herein, “a nanoscopic or microscopic object” is an object whose dimensions are in the nm to mm range. As used herein, “aqueous” is inclusive of other liquid that are not aqueous, such as alcohols, and other non-aqueous fluids and liquids. As used herein, the term, “a cell-based biosensor” or “biosensor” refers to an intact cell or a part of an intact cell (e.g., such as a membrane patch) which is capable of providing a detectable physiological response upon sensing a condition in an aqueous environment in which the cell (or part thereof) is placed. In one aspect, a cell-based biosensor is a whole cell or part of a cell membrane in electrical communication with an electrically conductive element, such as a patch clamp electrode or an electrolyte solution. In certain embodiments, receptors and reconstituted receptor proteins within a lipid bilayer of any constitution, or similar preparations are included within the meaning of the term biosensor. As used herein, “modulating a receptor” refers to altering the responsive properties of the receptor, for example the altering the receptor to display memory. This may be done, for example, by cyclic scanning patch clamp methods described herein. One example of modulating a receptor is to change the response properties of the receptor for a certain stimuli (X) by exposing the receptor to various concentrations of the same stimuli. Alternately, one may expose a receptor to an agonist having the same effect but with different kinetics. Another example is to control the exposure and wash (resensitization) times so as to produce a specific response for stimuli X. As used herein “controlling a receptor” refers to altering the characteristics of a receptor by exposure to ligand, agonist, or antagonist. This may be done, for example, by cyclic scanning patch clamp methods described herein. As used herein, “preparing a receptor” refers to methods of creating a receptor or receptors in a discrete kinetic state, which is characterized by having different response functions, dynamic range EC50, and Hill slope. This may be done, for example, by cyclic scanning patch clamp methods described herein. As used herein, “studying a receptor” refers to obtaining and analyzing information about a receptor using the methods described herein as well as methods known in the art. As used herein, “sequentially” is intended to encompass in sequence, in succession, consecutively and in sequences. Alternately, there may be interruption or interdigitation. As used herein, “sequentially exposing” refers to exposing a biosensor to a ligand, sample, agonist, or antagonist in sequence, in succession, consecutively, serially, or alternately, there may be interruption or interdigitation of the ligand, sample, agonist, or antagonist with buffer. As used herein, “controller” refers to a device, for example, a programmed processor, to control or direct the methods described herein. For example, the controller may control the exposure time, sample concentration, washes, and rest time periods. The controller may also, or independently control the pressure , the position of the sensor, pulses of buffer or sample, exchange of solution on or surrounding the biosensor As used herein, “selected time interval” or “selected length of time” refers to a time interval set to achieve a desired result or for the purpose of the studying a receptor. For example, times may be selected for the exposure time, the wash time, or the rest time. As used herein, “sample” refers to a solution or material provided that is of interest in relation to the receptor. The sample may contain a ligand, an agonist, or antagonist or a compound or composition that is unknown and is to be studied. As used herein, “or” may be inclusive as well as exclusive. As used herein, “memory properties of a receptor” refers to the receptors response function or functions that are altered due to previous events (e.g., stimulations), which may be dependent on the nature of the stimuli, the wash time, and/or the magnitude ( concentration) of the previous stimuli. For example, the response function to a specific concentration of agonist may be changed dependent on the history of the application of the previous stimulus. As used herein, “short-term, medium-term, or long-term memory functions” refer to plasticity of the receptors. For example, short term includes the plasticity of the receptor lasts for between about 1 μM to about 1 μM; medium term includes the plasticity that lasts for between about I s to about 10 minutes; long term refers to the plasticity that lasts for between about 10 minutes to about 5days. Plasticity refers to the receptor's ability to remember and change its response function due to previous events (e.g., stimuli). As used herein, the term “receptor” refers to a macromolecule capable of specifically interacting with a ligand molecule. Receptors may be associated with lipid bilayer membranes, such as cellular, golgi, or nuclear membranes, or may be present as free or associated molecules in a cell's cytoplasm or may be immobilized on a substrate. A cell-based biosensor comprising a receptor can comprise a receptor normally expressed by the cell or can comprise a receptor which is non-native or recombinantly expressed (e.g., such as in transfected cells or oocytes). As used herein, “periodically resensitized” or “periodically responsive” refers to an ion-channel which is maintained in a closed (i.e., ligand responsive) position when it is scanned across microchannel outlets providing samples suspected or known to comprise a ligand. For example, in one aspect, an receptor or ion-channel is periodically resensitized by scanning it across a plurality of interdigitating channels providing alternating streams of sample and buffer. The rate at which the receptor/ion channel is scanned across the interdigitating channels is used to maintain the receptor/ion-channel in a ligand-responsive state when it is exposed to a fluid stream comprising sample. Additionally, or alternatively, the receptor/ion channel can be maintained in a periodically resensitized state by providing pulses of buffer, e.g., using one or more superfusion capillaries, to the ion channel, or by providing rapid exchange of solutions in a sensor chamber comprising the ion channel. As used herein, a “substantially separate fluid stream” refers to a flowing fluid in a volume of fluid (e.g., such as within a chamber) that is physically continuous with fluid outside the stream within the volume, or other streams within the volume, but which has at least one bulk property which differs from and is in non-equilibrium from a bulk property of the fluid outside of the stream or other streams within the volume of fluid. A “bulk property” as used herein refers to the average value of a particular property of a component (e.g., such as an agent, solute, substance, or a buffer molecule) in the stream over a cross-section of the stream, taken perpendicular to the direction of flow of the stream. A “property” can be a chemical or physical property such as a concentration of the component, temperature, pH, ionic strength, or velocity, for example. As used herein, the term “in communication with” refers to the ability of a system or component of a system to receive input data from another system or component of a system and to provide an output response in response to the input data. “Output” may be in the form of data, or may be in the form of an action taken by the system or component of the system. For example, a processor “in communication with a scanning mechanism” sends program instructions in the form of signals to the scanning mechanism to control various scanning parameters as described above. A “detector in communication with a sensor chamber” refers to a detector in sufficient optical proximity to the sensor chamber to receive optical signals (e.g., light) from the sensor chamber. A “light source in optical communication” with a chamber refers to a light source in sufficient proximity to the chamber to create a light path from the chamber to a system detector so that optical properties of the chamber or objects contained therein can be detected by the detector. As used herein, “a measurable response” refers to a response, which differs significantly from background as determined using controls appropriate for a given technique. As used herein, an outlet “intersecting with” a chamber or microchamber refers to an outlet that opens or feeds into a wall or base or top of the chamber or microchamber or into a fluid volume contained by the chamber or microchamber. As used herein, “superfuse” refers to washing the external surface of an object or sensor (e.g., such as a cell). As used herein, “cyclic scanning patch-clamp” (CSPC), refers to a method for scanning a patch-clamped cell back and forth through fixed concentration gradients of receptor effectors with control of each cycle in regard of exposure time (texp ) clearance time (twash) and in-between cycle time (trest). This may be applied in other systems, for example to G-protein couple receptors (GPRC) where a preferred method of detection may be fluorescence and alternatively may be electrochemistry, SPR or other methods known in the art for functional receptor protein studies. The term microfluidic device includes such as microfabricated chips, capillary systems, u-tubes, liquid-filaments and theta-glass on microfluidic flow characterized by low Reynolds number behavior for solution exchange around cells and biosensors. The term “ligand” as used herein, may refer to a molecule which binds to a receptor which either becomes activated or inactivated. Ligands can act on the receptor as an agonist or antagonist or by modulating the response of the receptor by other agonists or antagonists. The term “dose-response” as used herein refers to how the response from the receptor protein system varies with the ligand concentration The terms “EC50,” “IC50,” and “Hill slope” refer to macroscopic properties of the receptor protein system and are derived from dose response function fitted to a sigmoid logistic Hill function or other function known in the art. The term “texp” refers to the time period for exposure to ligand. The term “twash ” refers to the exposure of a biosensor to washing solution (ligand-free solution). The term “trest” refers to rest periods in washing solution (ligand-free solution)receptor proteins or similar entities residing in different ligand-bound or non-bond configurations can be studied, controlled, and prepared. By controlling the time down to <1 ms for solution exchange around a cell or biosensor containing receptor proteins it is possible to control the distribution of receptors in different states for fast receptor systems such as but not limited to the GABAA receptor, Glu3 receptors, NMDA receptors. This is done by utilizing a microfluidic device were the solution environment around the cell and or sensor is defined in concentration and the time of exposure is an example of such device (FIG. 28). We have found that depending on the kinetic scheme of the receptors, it is possible to separate different states in discrete subpopulations. In the example presented below, we show how this is done for GABAA receptors (FIG. 29). The method may be generally applicable to all receptor proteins, for example, those having the appropriate states or having bound deactivated states separated by different rate constants. The populations of receptors in different states are characterized by different 5 response functions, dynamic range, EC50 and Hill slope (FIGS. 31 and 32). Dose-response relationships are measured for different periods of ligand exposure times. Depending on the rate constants governing the existence of different bound states, the dose-response function will be different resulting in separate values for the dynamic range, EC50 and Hill slope. The distribution of receptors in separate populations depending on non-active bound states can be used to achieve detailed data on the efficacy and potency of receptor modulators such as drugs and pharmaceutically active substances. This can be used as a way to examine and avoid side effects of existing drugs and to be used in drug screening as a way to normalize data and to achieve unformed experimental protocols Receptor accumulation in non-active different states, such as desensitized states, is a factor in regulating the receptor response in synaptic signaling. Furthermore, it is possible that following activation, receptors can be arrested in different states and that the distribution of these states influence the way the receptor responds to subsequent. The distribution of these states depends on the frequency and duration of ligand stimulation, and that depending on the exposure time, the receptors equilibrate in different states. Repetitive applications of ligand resulted in pronounced inhibition of GABAA receptor that showed extensive desensitization dependant on the presence of fast, intermediate, and slow phases of desensitization. This strongly suggests that slowly desensitized states could accumulate under conditions of repeated activation of brief pulses of GABA. The System In one aspect, the system provides a substrate comprising a plurality of microchannels fabricated thereon whose outlets intersect with, or feed into, a sensor 30 chamber comprising one or more sensors. The system further comprises a scanning mechanism for programmably altering the position of the microchannels relative to the one or more sensors and a detector for monitoring the response of the sensor to exposure to solutions from the different channels. In a preferred aspect, the sensor chamber comprises a cell-based biosensor in electrical communication with an electrode and the detector detects changes in electrical properties of the cell-based biosensor. The system preferably also comprises a processor for implementing system operations including, but not limited to: controlling the rate of scanning by the scanning mechanism (e.g., mechanically or through programmable pressure drops across microchannels), controlling fluid flow through one or more channels of the substrate, controlling the operation. of valves and switches that are present for directing fluid flow, recording sensor responses detected by the detector, and evaluating and displaying data relating to sensor responses. Preferably, the system also comprises a user device in communication with the system processor which comprises a graphical interface for displaying operations of the system and for altering system parameters. The Substrate In a preferred aspect, the system comprises a substrate that delivers solutions to one or more sensors at least partially contained within a sensor chamber. The substrate can be configured as a two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) structure, as described further below. The substrate, whether 2D or 3D, generally comprises a plurality of microchannels whose outlets intersect with a sensor chamber that receives the one or more sensors. The base of the sensor chamber can be optically transmissive to enable collection of optical data from the one or more sensors placed in the sensor chamber. When the top of the sensor chamber is covered, e.g., by a coverslip or overlying substrate, the top of the chamber is preferably optically transmissive. Each microchannel comprises at least one inlet (e.g., for receiving a sample or a buffer). Preferably, the inlets receive solution from reservoirs (e.g., shown as circles in FIGS. 2A and B) that conform in geometry and placement on the substrate to the geometry and placement of wells in an industry-standard microtiter plate. The substrate is a removable component of the system and therefore, in one aspect, the invention provides kits comprising one or more substrates for use in the system, providing a user with the option of choosing among different channel geometries. Non-limiting examples of different substrate materials include crystalline semiconductor materials (e.g., silicon, silicon nitride, Ge, GaAs), metals (e.g., Al, Ni), glass, quartz, crystalline insulators, ceramics, plastics or elastomeric materials (e.g., silicone, EPDM and Hostaflon), other polymers (e.g., a fluoropolymer, such as Teflon®, polymethylmethacrylate, polydimethylsiloxane, polyethylene, polypropylene, polybutylene, polymethylpentene, polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyarylate, polyarylsulfone, polycaprolactone, polyestercarbonate, polyimide, polyketone, polyphenylsulfone, polyphthalamide, polysulfone, polyamide, polyester, epoxy polymers, thermoplastics, and the like), other organic and inorganic materials, and combinations thereof. Microchannels can be fabricated on these substrates using methods routine in the art, such as deep reactive ion etching (described further below in Example 1). Channel width can vary depending upon the application, as described further below, and generally ranges from about 1 μM to about 10 mm, preferably, from about 0.1 μm to about 150 μm, while the dimensions of the sensor chamber generally will vary depending on the arrangement of channel outlets feeding into the chamber. For example, where the outlets are substantially parallel to one another (e.g., as in FIGS. 2A-C), the length of the longitudinal axis of the chamber is at least the sum of the widths of the outlets which feed into the chamber. In one aspect, where a whole cell biosensor is used as a sensor in the sensor chamber, the width of one or more outlets of the microchannels is at least about the diameter of the cell. Preferably, the width of each of the outlets is at least about the diameter of the cell. In one aspect, a cover layer of an optically transmissive material, such as glass, can be bonded to a substrate, using methods routine in the art, preferably leaving openings over the reservoirs and over the sensor chamber when interfaced with a traditional micropipette-based patch clamp detection system. Preferably, the base of the sensor chamber also is optically transmissive, to facilitate the collection of optical data from the sensor. The Sensor Cell Based Biosensors The system can be used in conjunction with a cell-based biosensor to monitor a variety of cellular responses. The biosensor can comprise a whole cell or a portion thereof (e.g., a cell membrane patch) which is positioned in the sensor chamber using a mechanism for holding a sensor (which may be stationary or movable) such as a pipette, capillary, or column connected to a positioner, such as a micropositioner, a nanopositioner or a micromanipulator, or an optical tweezer, or by controlling flow or surface tension, thereby exposing the cell-based biosensor to solution in the chamber. The biosensor can be scanned across the various channels of the substrate by moving the substrate, i.e., changing the position of the channels relative to the biosensor, or by moving the cell (e.g., by scanning the micropositioner or by changing flow and/or surface tension). In one aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises an ion channel and the system is used to monitor ion channel activity. Suitable ion channels include ion channels gated by voltage, ligands, internal calcium, other proteins, membrane stretching (e.g., lateral membrane tension) and phosphorylation (see e.g., as described in Hille B., In Ion Channels of Excitable Membranes 1992, Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass., USA). In another aspect, the ion-gated channel is a voltage-gated channel. Voltage-gated channels open in response to a threshold transmembrane voltage. Voltage-gated sodium, potassium, and calcium channels are all essential for conducting an action potential (or a nerve pulse) down an axon and to another nerve cell (or neuron). These ion channels typically comprise a transmembrane sequence with a lysine and/or arginine-rich S4 consensus sequence. The positive amino acids within the S4 sequence are thought to “sense” voltage across a cell membrane, causing an ion channel containing the sequence to either open or close under different voltage conditions. In another aspect, the ion channel in the cell-based biosensor is a ligand-gated channel. Ligand-gated channels gate (open or close) in response to ligand binding. There are two types of ligand-gated channels, those gated when bound by ligands inside the cell and those gated by ligands outside the cell. Ion channels gated by ligands from outside of the cell are very important in chemical synaptic transmission. These types of ion channels are gated by neurotransmitters, which are the small molecules that actually carry the signal between two nerve cells. Ion channels gated from the inside of the cell are generally controlled by second messengers, which are small signaling molecules inside the cell. Intracellular calcium ions, cAMP and cGMP are examples of second messengers. The most common calcium-gated channel is the calcium-gated potassium channel. This ion channel can generate oscillatory behavior (e.g., for frequency tuning of hair cells in the ear) upon changes in membrane voltage when placed in a positive feedback environment. In yet another aspect, the ion channel is gated by another protein. Certain signaling proteins have been found to directly gate ion channels. One example of this is a potassium channel gated by the beta-gamma subunit of the G protein, which is a common signaling protein activated by certain membrane receptors. In a further aspect, the ion channel is gated by phosphorylation. Phosphorylation can be mediated by a protein kinase (e.g., a serine, threonine, or tyrosine kinase), e.g., as part of a signal transduction cascade. In still a further aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a mechanotransduction channel that can be directly gated by a mechanical trigger. For example, the cell-based biosensor can comprise the cation channel of an inner ear hair cell, which is directly gated by a mechanical vibration such as sound. Bending of the hair bundle in a particular direction will affect the probability of channel gating, and therefore, the amplitude of a depolarizing receptor current. In another aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a receptor, preferably, a receptor involved in a signal transduction pathway. For example, the cell-based biosensor can comprise a G Protein Coupled Receptor or GPCR, glutamate receptor, a metabotropic receptor, a hematopoietic receptor, or a tyrosine kinase receptor. Biosensors expressing recombinant receptors also can be designed to be sensitive to drugs which may inhibit or modulate the development of a disease. Suitable cells which comprise biosensors include, but are not limited to: neurons; lymphocytes; macrophages; microglia; cardiac cells; liver cells; smooth muscle cells; and skeletal muscle cells. In one aspect, mammalian cells are used; these can include cultured cells such as Chinese Hamster Ovary Cells (CHO) cells, NIH-3T3, and HEK-293 cells and can express recombinant molecules (e.g., recombinant receptors and/or ion channels). However, bacterial cells (E. coli, Bacillus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, and the like), protist cells, yeast cells, plant cells, insect and other invertebrate cells, avian cells, amphibian cells, and oocytes, also can be used, as these are well suited to the expression of recombinant molecules. . Cells generally are prepared using cell culture techniques as are know in the art, from cell culture lines, or from dissected tissues after one or more rounds of purification (e.g., by flow cytometry, panning, magnetic sorting, and the like). Non-Cellular Sensors In one aspect, the sensor comprises a sensing element, preferably, a molecule which is cellular target (e.g., an intracellular receptor, enzyme, signalling protein, an extra cellular protein, a membrane protein, a nucleic acid, a lipid molecule, etc.), which is immobilized on a substrate. The substrate can be the base of the sensor chamber itself, or can be a substrate placed on the base of the chamber, or can be a substrate which is stably positioned in the chamber (e.g., via a micropositioner) and which is moveable or stationary. The sensor may consist of one or several layers that can include any combination of: a solid substrate; one or more attachment layers that bind to the substrate, and a sensing molecule for sensing compounds introduced into the sensor chamber from one or more channel outlets. Suitable sensors according to the invention, include, but are not limited to, immunosensors, affinity sensors and ligand binding sensors, each of which can respond to the presence of binding partners by generating a measurable response, such as a specific mass change, an electrochemical reaction, or the generation of an optical signal (e.g., fluorescence, or a change in the optical spectrum of the sensing molecule). Such sensors are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,331,244, for example, the entirety of which is incorporated by reference herein. In one aspect, the sensor comprises a microelectrode which is modified with a molecule which transports electrons. In response to a chemical reaction caused by contact with one or more compounds in an aqueous stream from one of the microchannels, the molecule will produce a change in an electrical property at the electrode surface. For example, the molecule can comprise an electron-transporting enzyme or a molecule which transduces signals by reduction or oxidation of molecules with which it interacts (see, e.g., as described in, Gregg, et al., J. Phys. Chem. 95: 5970-5975, 1991; Heller, Acc. Chem. Res. 23(5): 128-134, 1990; In Diagnostic Biosensor Polymers. ACS Symposium Series. 556; Usmani, A M, Akmal, N; eds. American Chemical Society; Washington, D.C.; pp. 47-70, 1994; U.S. Pat. No. 5,262,035). Enzymatic reactions also can be performed using field-effect-transistors (FETs) or ion-sensitive field effect'transistors (ISFETs). In another aspect, the sensor comprises a sensing molecule immobilized on a solid substrate such as a quartz chip in communication with an electronic component. The electronic component can be selected to measure changes in any of: voltage, current, light, sound, temperature, or mass, as a measure of interaction between the sensing element and one or more compounds delivered to the sensor chamber (see, as described in, Hall, Int. J. Biochem. 20(4): 357-62, 1988; U.S. Pat. No. 4,721,677; U.S. Pat. No. 4,680,268; U.S. Pat. No. 4,614,714; U.S. Pat. No. 6,879,11). For example, in one aspect, the sensor comprises an acoustic wave biosensor or a quartz crystal microbalance, on which a sensor element is bound. In this embodiment, the system detects changes in the resonant properties of the sensor upon binding of compounds in aqueous streams delivered from the microchannels to the sensor element. In another aspect, the sensor comprises an optical biosensor. Optical biosensors can rely on detection principles such as surface plasmon resonance, total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF), critical angle refractometry, Brewster Angle microscopy, optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy (OWLS), surface charge measurements, and evanescent wave ellipsometry, and are known in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,313,264; EP-A1-0 067 921; EP-A1-0 278 577; Kronick, et al., 1975, J. Immunol. Meth. 8: 235-240). For example, for a sensor employing evanescent wave ellipsometry, the optical response related to the binding of a compound to a sensing molecule is measured as a change in the state of polarization of elliptically polarized light upon reflection. The state of polarization is related to the refractive index, thickness, and surface concentration of a bound sample at the sensing surface (e.g., the substrate comprising the sensing element). In TIRF, the intensity and wavelength of radiation emitted from either natively fluorescent or fluorescence-labelled sample molecules at a sensor is measured. Evanescent wave excitation scattered light techniques rely on measuring the intensity of radiation scattered at a sensor surface due to the interaction of light with sensing molecules (with or without bound compounds). Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measures changes in the refractive index of a layer of sensor molecules close to a thin metal film substrate (see, e.g., Liedberg, et al., 1983, Sensors and Actuators 4: 299; GB 2 197 068). Each of these sensing schemes can be used to provide useful sensors according to the invention. In yet another aspect, the sensor comprises a sensing molecule associated with a fluorescent semiconductor nanocrystal or a Quantum DotSM particle. The Quantum Dot particle has a characteristic spectral emission which relates to its composition and particle size. Binding of a compound to the sensing element can be detected by monitoring the emission of the Quantum Dot particle (e.g., spectroscopically) (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,306,610). The sensor further can comprise a polymer-based biosensor whose physical properties change when a compound binds to a sensing element on the polymer. For example, binding can be manifested as a change in volume (such as swelling or shrinkage), a change in electric properties (such as a change in voltage or current or resonance) or in optical properties (such as modulation of transmission efficiency or a change in fluorescence intensity). It should be obvious to those of skill in the art that a variety of different types of sensors may be adapted for use in present invention, and the examples above are intended to be non-limiting. In general, the measurement outputs of one or more sensors are connected to a control and evaluating device which is in electrical communication with a detection device and/or system processor. The control and evaluating device can be integrated with the substrate of the sensor and/or with the base of the sensing chamber. The control and evaluating device can comprise various electronic components such as microprocessors, multiplexers, 10 units, etc. (see, e.g., as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,280,586). Microfluidics In a preferred aspect, the substrates according to the invention are adapted for microfluidic transport of sample and/or buffer to a sensor chamber. Interfacing Microfluidic Structures with Well Plates Samples (i.e., drugs, etc.) contained in sample-well plates (e.g., industry-standard microtiter plates such as 96-well plates) are manipulated and transferred, preferably, using robotic automated array pipettors as are known in the art (see, e.g., Beckman's Biomek 1000 & 2000 automated workstations, available from Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.). To be able to leverage the same sample transfer platform used to array a sample in a well plate, one important design parameter is to ensure the reservoir arrangements in the chip described above are compatible for use with such array pipettors. For example, preferably, the reservoirs in the microfluidic chip are arranged such that the center-to-center distance between each reservoir is identical to the center-to-center distance between each well of the well plate to which the chip interfaced. Preferably, each reservoir has a diameter suitable for receiving a fluid stream from an array pipetter without significantly impeding the flow of fluid from the array pipettor. In addition to array pipettors, there are other suitable automated devices for transferring samples from well plates onto chips, such as robotic sequential pipettors. It is important to note that the use of these other devices may permit more flexible placement of reservoirs and microchannels on the chip, providing more flexibility in the design of channel parameters. Although a substrate suitable for interfacing between 96-well array pipettors is described in more detail below owing to the widespread use of these pipettors, it should be obvious to those of skill in the art that the general design of the chip and placement of reservoirs can be modified for interfacing with any desirable sample transfer platform, as such platforms evolve. In general, reference to 96-well plates is not intended to be limiting. FIGS. 2A and 2B show examples of microfluidic chips according to the invention that are suitable for interfacing with a 96-well plate. FIG. 2A illustrates reservoir arrangements for which no buffer reservoirs are required. FIG. 2B illustrates reservoir arrangements for applications in which alternating (i.e., interdigitating) streams of buffer and sample are provided to a sensor. In this arrangement, the center-to-center distances for both the ligand and buffer reservoirs are identical to the center-to-center distance of the wells of a 96-well plate. To compensate for doubling the number of reservoirs on chip, the diameter of all reservoirs are decreased by half. FIG. 3 illustrates how sample solutions can be transferred from the wells of a 96-well plate into reservoirs on a chip according to one aspect of the invention using traditional robotic automated array pipettors. For a microchip with interdigitated ligand and buffer reservoirs (e.g., as shown in FIG. 2B), buffer solution can be transferred from a bath, where only one buffer is needed, or from a 96-well plate, with wells comprising the same or different buffers. In addition to the reservoirs needed for interfacing with sources of sample and/or buffer (e.g., such as well plates), there may be additional reservoirs placed on the chip for storing and transferring cells or other samples of interest. FIG. 2C illustrates the possible placement of additional reservoirs and microchannels for storing and transporting cells into reservoirs or the sensor chamber of the chip, according to one aspect of the invention. The cell chambers can be adapted for performing on-chip manipulation of cells. In one aspect, the chip provides one or more cell treatment chambers for performing one or more of: electroporation, electroinjection, and/or electrofusion. Chemicals and/or molecules can be introduced into a cell within a chamber which is in electrical communication with a source of current. For example, one or more electrodes may be placed in proximity to the chamber, or the chamber can be configured to receive an electrolyte solution through which current can be transmitted, for example, from an electrode/capillary array as described in WO 99/24110, the entirety of which is incorporated by reference herein. Suitable molecules which can be introduced into a cell in the cell treatment chamber include, but are not limited to: nucleic acids (including gene fragments, cDNAs, antisense molecules, ribozymes, and aptamers); antibodies; proteins; polypeptides; peptides; analogs; drugs; and modified forms thereof. In a preferred aspect, the system processor controls both the delivery of molecules to the one or more cell treatment chambers (e.g., via capillary arrays as described above) and incubation conditions (e.g., time, temperature, etc.). For example, a cell can be incubated for suitable periods of times until a desired biological activity is manifested, such as transcription of an mRNA; expression of a protein; inactivation of a gene, mRNA, and/or protein; chemical tagging of a nucleic acid or protein; modification or processing of a nucleic acid or protein; inactivation of a pathway or toxin; and/or expression of a phenotype (e.g., such as a change in morphology). The treated cells can be used to deliver molecules of interest to the sensor in the sensor chamber, e.g., exposing the sensor to secreted molecules or molecules expressed on the surface of the cells. In this aspect, the system can be programmed to release a cell from a cell treatment chamber into a channel of the system intersecting with the sensor chamber, thereby exposing a sensor in the sensor chamber to the molecule of interest. Alternatively, or additionally, when the system is used in conjunction with a cell-based biosensor, the cell treatment chamber can be used to prepare the biosensor itself. In one aspect, a cell is delivered from the treatment chamber to a channel whose outlet intersects with the sensor chamber. In one aspect, the scanning mechanism of the system is used to place a micropositioner in proximity to the outlet so that the micropositioner can position the cell within the sensor chamber. In another aspect, fluid flow or surface tension is used to position a cell in a suitable position. For example, the system can be used to deliver the cell to the opening of a pipette which is part of a patch clamp system. In another aspect, a cell can be delivered to the sensor chamber to periodically replace a cell-based biosensor in the sensor chamber. In this aspect, the cell can be untreated, e.g., providing a substantially genetically and pharmacologically identical cell (i.e., within the range of normal biological variance) as the previous sensor cell. Alternatively, the replacement cell can be biochemically or genetically manipulated to be different from the previous sensor cell, to enable the system to monitor and correlate differences in biochemical and/or genetic characteristics of the cells with differences in sensor responses. The biochemical or genetic difference can be known or unknown. The system can be programmed to deliver cells from the cell treatment chamber at selected time periods based on control experiments monitoring uptake of chemicals and molecules by cells. Alternatively, the system can monitor the phenotype of cells and deliver cells when a certain phenotype is expressed. For example, in one aspect, the cell treatment chamber is in communication with an optical sensor which provides information relating to optical properties of the cell to the system processor, and in response to optical parameters indicating expression of a particular phenotype, the system can trigger release of the cell from the cell treatment chamber. Optical parameters can include the uptake of a fluorescent reporter molecule or optical parameters identified in control experiments. The combination of on-chip electroporation with microfluidics and patch clamp (or other methods for monitoring cell responses) facilitates screening for molecules (e.g., ligands or drugs) which modulate the activity of intracellular targets. In one aspect, the system is used to deliver a cell-impermeant molecule into the interior of a cell by transiently electroporating the cell. In this way, the molecule can be introduced to intracellular receptors, intracellular proteins, transcriptional regulators, and other intracellular targets. The cell can be delivered to the sensor chamber and the response of the cell can be monitored (e.g., by patch clamp or by fluorescence, if the molecule is tagged with a fluorescent label). Altematively, the sensor chamber can be modified to perform both treatment and response detection. In a further aspect, the system can be modified to perform electroporation by scanning. For example, a cell can be repeatedly electroporated as it is being translated or scanned across a plurality of different fluid streams containing different compounds. In one aspect, pores are introduced into one or more cells as they come into contact with a sample stream, enabling compounds in the sample stream to be taken up by the cell. Rapid Alterations of the Solution Environment Around a Sensor Central to the present invention is the use of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) networks of microfabricated channels for the complex manipulation of compounds or reagents contained in the fluid in a way that permits repeated and rapid delivery of different solutions to the sensor in the sensor chamber. For example, the microfluidics used with the system enables the system to programmably deliver a ligand to a cell-based biosensor comprising a receptor. This enables the system to be used for HTS screening of samples (e.g., such as compound libraries) to monitor the effects of compounds on the responses of the biosensor. In one aspect, electrical properties of a cell-based biosensor are monitored using voltage clamp or patch clamp techniques. Because the system provides a scanning mechanism for changing the position of channels relative to a sensor, the system can be used to flush a cell-based biosensor with buffer after exposure to a sample compound, enabling a receptor or ion channel that is part of the biosensor to be resensitized prior to exposure to the next compound. Thus, the system can provide a periodically resensitized receptor for exposure to potential modulators of receptor function (e.g., such as agonists or antagonists). For receptors that do not desensitise, the system is still advantageous for providing pulsed delivery of buffer to a receptor, e.g., to remove unbound ligand from the receptor, to enhance the specificity and/or decrease background of a response. The geometry of different network structures of microchannels is designed to exploit the unique characteristic of fluid behavior in micro-dimensions. Three exemplary designs are described below. The first design relies on the system's ability to transport one or more sensors, rapidly across different streams of fluid flowing from channel outlets by translating the sensors across the channels or by translating the substrate comprising the channels relative to the one or more sensors. The system also can sweep different fluid streams across a stationary sensor by varying pressure drops across individual channels of the substrate. This design is derived from the discovery of a new and unique fluidic behavior; i.e., that lateral interactions and couplings between neighbouring fluid streams as they exit from a set of closely spaced microchannels into an open volume can extend dramatically the distance over which these streams remain collimated. The second design exploits the reversibility of fluid behavior at low Reynold's numbers while the third design is based on the ability to rapidly exchange fluids in microchannels and chambers. The theme that runs through these designs is a microfluidic-based approach for rapidly and efficiently altering the local solution microenvironment in which one or more biosensors reside, providing complete or near-complete solution exchange. The system requires small sample volumes (nLs to μLs) and can be easily automated and programmed for HTS applications. The Rapid Transport of Sensors Across Different Streams of Fluids Adjacent fluid streams exiting the plurality of microchannels of a substrate according to the invention have a low Reynold's number and undergo minimal mixing by diffusion. For example, a small molecule with a diffusion coefficient of about 5×10−6 cm2/s would take approximately 0.1 seconds to diffuse 10 μm, but 10 s to diffuse 100 μm, owing to the square dependence of distance on diffusion time (x2=2Dt, where D is the diffusion coefficient). Similarly, for typical proteins having D˜,10−6cm2/s, it will take 0.5 second to diffuse 10 μm and 50 seconds for 100 μm. However, flow rates in microchannels can vary dramatically from many meters per second to micrometers per second. The flow rate in the present system is limited to the maximum flow rate that can be used without disturbing the activity of the sensor. For example, when using a patch clamp sensor, flow rate is typically on the order of hundreds of gm/s to mm/s for a patch-clamped cell (see below for discussion), in order to prevent dislodgement of the patch-clamped cell from the pipette which positions it at a channel opening. Flow Profiles Of Multiple Fluid Streams Exiting Into the Sensor Chamber When a plurality of microchannels is used, an understanding of the flow profile of the multiple streams of fluid at the interface between the outlets of the microchannels and the open-volume reservoir is essential. FIGS. 16A and 16B show photomicrographs of flow profiles of a fluid comprising 500 μM of a fluorescent dye (fluorescein) from a single channel (FIG. 16A) and multiple channels (FIG. 16B). Excitation of the fluorescent tracer was carried out using the 488-nm line of an Argon Ion laser in an epi-illumination configuration and fluorescence of the tracer was collected and imaged using a CCD camera. As shown in FIG. 16A, in the absence of adjacent microchannels and fluid streams, the fluid exits the single channel and disperses at the channel outlet in a semicircular fashion. FIG. 16B shows a flow profile of interdigitated buffer and fluorescein fluid streams exiting from a plurality of channel outlets. The dimensions of microchannels were 100 μm wide, 50 μm thick, with an interchannel interval of 25 μm. The flow rate in the microchannels in both FIGS. 16A and 16B was 4 mm/s. As shown in FIG. 16B, the fluid stream exiting multiple microchannels into an open volume is collimated for at least a distance that is about 4-5 times the width of the microchannels (e.g., about several hundred micrometers) at a flow rate of about 4 mm/s. In this range of low flow rates (i.e., mm/s), the rate of fluid flow is still much faster than diffusion. For example, at a flow rate of mm/s, channel width of 10 μm, and channel intervals (the space between channels) of 10 μm, different streams of fluid containing small molecules (D=5×10−6 cm2/s) exiting different channel outlets will not be fuilly mixed until at a distance of at least about 0.4 mm downstream of the channel outlets. This is more than sufficient for making measurements of a typical mammalian cell having a diameter of about 10 to 20 μm which is placed 10 to 20 μm outside the outlet of a channel. Since diffusion time varies with the square of the distance, doubling the width and spacing of microchannels to 20 μm extends the downstream distance at which the cell can be placed to at least about 1.6 mm. The average linear velocity of the flow will vary depending on the exact application, with typical flow rates ranging from about 100 μm/s to about 10 mm/s for a 10 μm cell. Thus, a sensor can be scanned across substantially distinct and separate aqueous streams of fluid which exit from the microchannel outlets. At the preferred flow rates for use with patch clamp measurements and at a cell-to-outlet distance of about 20 μm or less, the different fluid streams are essentially distinct and separate and are undisturbed by the presence of a patch-clamped cell. Even at much lower flow rates (e.g., <100 wtn/s) that may be used with patch clamp measurements, different fluid streams are still well separated. This observed behaviour (e.g., collimation of fluid streams) of fluid flow at the exits of microchannels into an open volume sensor chamber facilitates HTS applications which require relatively rapid translation of patched cells with respect to different fluid streams. Spacing between microchannel outlets can be optimised to optimise separation between fluid streams, as can flow rate. For example, the more rapid the flow rate, the less mixing is observed. Preferably, flow rate and interchannel spacing are optimised to minimize the width of a boundary zone (i.e., an area of mixing). Preferably, a boundary zone is less than about 50% of the width of a fluid stream, or less than about 40%, less than about 30%, less than about 20%, less than about 10%, less than about 5%, or less than about 1% of the width of the stream. In one aspect, the boundary zone is about 2-3 microns. Optimal fluid flow rates and interchannel spacings can be devised readily using one or more tracer dyes as described above. To exploit the unique behaviour of fluid flow into open volumes, the pressure applied to each of a plurality of microchannels can be individually varied for precise manipulation of each flow stream. For example, in the extreme case in which positive pressure is applied to one channel and negative pressure is applied to an adjacent channel, the fluid stream can be made to make a “U-turn”, going from the channel with positive pressure to the one with negative pressure while drawing in a sheath of buffer into the channel with negative pressure. Therefore, the position, width, collimation, direction, and rate of flow, as well as the composition of the fluid streams, can be controlled by varying the relative pressure applied to each channel. As shown in FIG. 5D-F, this can be used to create a U-shaped fluid stream which has the advantage that sample delivered onto a cell from a channel experiencing positive pressure can be withdrawn into a waste channel experiencing negative pressure. This minimizes the accumulation of ligands in the open volume where the patch-clamped cell resides. In situations where a sample (e.g., a drug, ligand, and the like) is in low concentration and/or is expensive, the system further can be used to recycle ligand and/or to feed ligand back into the system (i.e., the U-shaped stream can be turned into a closed loop). By controlling pressure, the system can control the velocity (both amplitude and direction) of fluid streams. Velocity control also may be exercised by controlling the resistance of each channel without changing the pressure or by changing both resistance and pressure. Fluid shear also can be varied by using solutions of different viscosity (e.g., adding different amounts of a sugar such as sucrose to a fluid stream) in both the microchannels and sensor chamber. Thus, by varying a number of different parameters, the flow profile of different fluid streams can be precisely tuned. Patch Clamp Under Fluid Flow The ability to rapidly scan patch-clamped cells across interdigitated streams of receptor modulators (agonists or antagonists) and buffer depends on the mechanical stability of the patched cell under the required flow conditions as well as scan speeds. Here, the stability of the “giga seal” and ion-channel activities of patch-clamped cells under a range of flow conditions is described. The effects of liquid flow on a patch-clamped cell arise from the force (Stokes drag) exerted by the flow on the cell. This Stokes drag can be calculated from the following equation: Force=(frictional coefficient)×(velocity of the flow) Where the frictional coefficient (f) can be calculated from: f=6πrμ where r is the radius of the cell and i is the viscosity of the solution. This relationship is valid for low Reynold's number flow and for particles that are spherical. Both conditions are adequately met in the methods and devices utilized in connection with the present invention. For water at room temperature, μ is˜1 centipoise (1 centipoise=0.01 g/[cm s]) and for a typical mammalian cell, r=5 μm. Using these values and for flow rates of 1 mm/s, Force=9.4×10−11 N or 9.4 picoNewtons. Since force is linearly proportional to the flow rate, at 0.1 mm/s, Force is 9.4 picoN. To put this number in perspective, micropipettes can routinely exert nano- and micro- Newtons on a small particle such as a cell. In addition to the force that arises owing to the drag on the cell from fluid flow, the scanning of the cell at a certain velocity exerts a similar drag force in the direction of cell translation, which is typically orthogonal to the direction of fluid flow. Scanning of a cell at 1 mm/s under no flow typically has the same effect as keeping the cell stationary while flowing the fluid at the same rate. For applications that require extremely high flow rates in which cell dislodgement may become an issue, patch-clamped cell(s) may be put into a recessed region or well in the sensor chamber that matches the dimension of the cell. This design will permit the use of high flow rates while preventing cell dislodgement because the flow profile in a channel or chamber is parabolic, owing to no-slip boundary conditions at the interface of a fluid and a solid surface (i.e., the velocity at the interface of the fluid and the solid surface is zero). By placing cell(s) in well(s) having similar dimensions as the cell, the cell is essentially “shielded” from the high velocity flow region that is located away from the well and the solid surface. Therefore, although the average flow rate and the flow velocity away from the solid surface can be extremely high, the flow velocity near the well in which the patched cell is placed can be very small. By using this strategy, very high average flow rates can be used. As discussed above, fluid flow also can be used to maximize the sensitivity of patch clamp. As shown in FIG. 5D-F, a U-shaped fluid stream created by two parallel channels can be used to create an optimal seal between a cell and a patch clamp micropipette. Scanning Mechanisms Scanning can be mediated mechanically (by moving the substrate while the sensor is stationary or by moving the sensor while the substrate is stationary or by moving both the substrate and sensor at different speeds and/or in different directions) or by pressure drops across different microchannels. FIGS. 8A-I schematically depict how each of these methods may be carried out. The mechanical movement and scanning of a sensor can be readily accomplished by translating a micropositioner positioning the sensor. For example, a cell-based biosensor can be physically attached to a micropipette by suction, which in turn is attached to a micromanipulator. Most micromanipulators can be controlled manually as well as actuated electronically, so preprogrammed movement can be easily achieved. A number of parameters that can be programmed, include, but are not limited to, the linear velocity for constant velocity scans; accelerations for variable velocity scans; trajectories of the scan, both in two dimensions and three dimensions; and the number of repeated scans. For scans based on real-time signal feedback from one or more sensors in the sensor chamber, programmable parameters include, but are not limited to, the time delay between signal detection and the change of scan settings. A variety of signal processing and computational functions can be performed to determine correct feedback parameters to output for the scan. The mechanical movement and scanning of a platform on which the substrate (e.g., a chip) is resting also can be readily achieved, thereby moving the substrate relative to a stationary biosensor. For example, computer-controlled microscope stages with different designs (e.g., ones based on piezo-electric crystals, or electronically actuated thread screws) and having the needed specifications are commercially available (for example, from Prior Scientific Inc., 80 Reservoir Park Drive, Rockland, Mass.). Suitable scanning parameters can be programmed using the system processor which is in communication with the platform, e.g., in response to user directions or feedback signals from one or more sensors in the sensor chamber, as described above. In one aspect, one or more sensors are moved rapidly over the distance between the outlets of closely spaced channels in the sensor chamber, exposing the one or more biosensors in the chamber to different streams of fluid exiting the outlets. For example, the sensor can be a cell or a membrane patch attached to a micropipette which is programmed to move across the outlets of the channels. In another aspect, one or more stationary cells are immobilized in the sensor chamber (e.g., in a planar-patch clamp format) and different streams of fluid are made to sweep over the stationary cell(s), e.g., by adjusting pressures and flow rates at each individual channel through which the different streams exit. Alternatively, channel outlets can be moved physically past a stationary cell as described above. Because the aqueous solutions flowing through the channels are non-compressible (unlike air), the width and placement of each fluid stream depends on the relative flow rate through each microchannel. Therefore, fluid streams from the microchannels also can be made to move and translate by varying the flow rate through each channel. This is most easily achieved by controlling the pressure drops across each channel or by changing the resistance of each channel. The ability to move fluid streams by pressure variations (or other means) is particular useful in applications in which the sensor(s) are cell-based and are immobilized on the chip, such that such that mechanical movements of the cell(s) relative to the chip are not possible. As with mechanical scanning, the pressure and resistances of each channel can be programmed, using the system processor. Parameters which can be programmed include, but are not limited to, linear changes in the pressure and resistance of each channel, stepwise or constantly variable changes in the pressure and resistance of each channel, and the sequence of changes among the different channels. In addition, pressure and resistance changes can be based on real-time feedback signals, and these signals may be processed and computed prior to outputting new pressure and resistance parameters. Scanning speed can be adjusted depending on the application. For example, when the sensor comprises a receptor which is desensitized upon continued exposure to an agonist, the sensor can be moved from a sample-containing stream to a buffer-containing stream to allow the receptor to resensitize. By sequentially sweeping a sensor across sample streams and buffer streams (mechanically or through pressure differentials), pulsed delivery of agonist and buffer can be provided, thereby generating a periodically resensitized receptor. Scanning speed can be adjusted in this scenario to accommodate the amount of time necessary for resensitization, which, in the case of an ion channel, is often on the order of milliseconds (depending on ligand-ion channel pair). In general, the exposure time of the sensor to solution can be controlled and can range from microseconds to hours. For drug-receptor pairs having long equilibration times, however, throughput may be limited by the length of equilibration time. Similarly, the responses of a cell-based biosensor may depend on transduction of a signal through a biochemical pathway, which can require from milliseconds to longer intervals (e.g., minutes). Scan rates therefore will be adjusted to accommodate the type of sensor being used and can be determined readily from control experiments, such as time course experiments. Preferably, therefore, the scanning mechanism (whether it moves the sensor, or the chip, or acts by controlling pressure drops across channels) is controlled by the system processor to move the position of the sensor relative to the chip, at a user-selected or system-selected rate. For example, a user can implement a system program which alters translation parameters of the scanning mechanism, e.g., by selecting an action button on a graphical interface displayed on a computer in communication with the system processor. Alternatively, scanning rates can be modified by the system processor in response to a feedback signal (e.g., such as a patch clamp recording of a cell indicating desensitization). The scanning mechanism can be programmed for linear or stepwise scanning (e.g., moving a sensor to a channel outlet which is not adjacent to the previous outlet to which the sensor was exposed). A sensor may comprise a receptor/ion channel which does not desensitize, eliminating the need to resensitize the receptor. However, the system may still be used to provide pulsed delivery of buffer, for example, to wash a cell free of unbound compounds. In this scenario, the scan rate can be adjusted based on “noise” observed in the response. For example, the scan rate can be adjusted to achieve a linear dose-response over certain concentrations of sample compound. A ligand also may irreversibly block a sensor, rendering it unresponsive to other ligands in other fluid streams. In this case, pulsing with buffer will have no effect. It is straightforward to ascertain whether the cell is inactivated by introducing compounds of known effect periodically to the cell and verifying whether an appropriate response is obtained. Preferably, the system is able to sense a lack of response by a sensor as it is scanned past a selected number of sample fluid streams. For example, the system can provide a feedback signal when no response is observed in patch clamp recordings over as a sensor is scanned past a selected number of consecutive fluid streams. Alternatively, or additionally, devices can be provided in the sensor chamber to monitor sensor function. In one aspect, an optical sensor is provided in communication with the sensor chamber for monitoring the viability of a cell-based biosensor. For example, spectroscopic changes associated with cell death (e.g., such as from chromatin condensation) may be observed, or the uptake of a dye by a dead or dying cell can be monitored. In one aspect, the system executes certain program instructions when a selected number of scanning intervals in which no sensor signal has been received have gone by. For example, the system can vary pressure at particular channels to stop flow in those channels, thereby minimizing sample waste. In another aspect, in response to an absence of a response signal from a sensor over a threshold period, one or more replacement biosensors are delivered to the sensor chamber (e.g., from the cell treatment chambers described above). If a sensor is translated at a constant speed compared to flow rate from channel outlets (e.g., mm/s), then the screening rate (e.g., compounds screened per second) for channels having a width and spacing of about 10 μm will be approximately 25 Hz. Using about 100 μm wide channels with channel intervals of about 10 μm, the screening rate will be about 4.5 Hz. If the translation speed is increased, the scan range may be in the range of hundreds of Hz. For some applications, e.g., where the sensors comprise rapidly desensitizing ion channels, fluidic channels with narrow outlets are preferred as these can provide sharp concentration profile over short periods of time. Preferably, such channels range from about 1 μm to about 100 μm in width. Scanning rates can be uniform or non-uniform. For example, scanning rates across channels providing sample streams (e.g., providing agonists) can differ from scanning rates across channels providing buffer streams. Variable scanning rates can be based on preprogramming or on feedback signals from the sensor measurements, e.g., such as from patch clamp measurements. The actual scan rate will vary depending on the exact screening system, but a typical linear scan rate will range from between about 100 μm/s to hundreds of mm/s for a sensor comprising a mammalian cell having a diameter of about 10 μm. A two-dimensional microfluidic system is shown in FIGS. 4A and 5A. The system comprises a substrate comprising a plurality of microchannels corresponding in number to the number of wells in an industry-standard microtiter plate to which the microchannels will be interfaced, e.g., 96 channels. When the system is used to provide alternating streams of sample and buffer to a sensor, at least 96 sample and 96 buffer microchannels (for a total of at least 192 channels) are provided. Wells of a microtiter plate, or of another suitable container, are coupled to reservoirs which feed sample or buffer to channels, e.g., for the system described previously, the substrate comprises 192 reservoirs, each reservoir connecting to a different channel. Additional reservoirs can be provided for cell storage and delivery, e.g., to provide cells for patch clamp recordings. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A and 5A, microchannels are substantially parallel, having widths of about 100 μm and thicknesses of about 50 μm. The exact thickness of channels may be varied over a wide range, but preferably is comparable to, or greater than, the diameter of the sensor, e.g., the diameter of a patched cell. In the Figure, inter-channel spacings of about 10 μm are provided. Pressure can be applied simultaneously to all microchannels such that a steady state flow of solutions is made to flow through all microchannels at the same rate into the open volume that houses the sensor. In this way, steady state concentrations of different solutions containing ligands or pure buffer can be established at the immediate outlet of each of the microchannels. The width of each microchannel may be adjusted to achieve the desired flow rate in each microchannel. Although the fluid streams exiting from the parallel channels enter an open volume sensor chamber in the embodiment discussed above, it may be more convenient and desirable to provide a set of parallel drain channels opposite the set of sample and buffer channels. A groove having an appropriate width (e.g., about 50 μm) can be placed in between, and orthogonal to, the two sets of channels (i.e., the delivery and drain channels) to accommodate scanning of a sensor in the sensor chamber. To establish an appropriate flow profile, a negative pressure may be applied to all the drain channels while simultaneously applying a positive pressure to the delivery channels. This induces fluid exiting the delivery channels to enter the set of drain channels. FIG. 5C shows a three-dimensional microfluidic system. The main difference between this 3D structure and the planar structure shown in FIG. 5B is the displacement along the z axis of fluid flowing between the outlet of the parallel array channels (e.g., interdigitated sample and buffer channels) and the inlet of the waste channels. In this embodiment, a positive pressure is applied to all sample and buffer channels while a negative pressure is simultaneously applied to all waste channels. Consequently, a steady state flow is established between the outlets of the sample/buffer channels and the inlets of the waste channels. In this configuration, a sensor, such as a patch-clamped cell, is scanned across the z-direction flow of fluid, preferably close to the outlet of the sample/buffer microchannels. Although the fabrication of this 3D structure is more complex than the planar structure, the presence of z-direction flow in many cases will provide better flow profiles (e.g., sharper concentration gradients) across which to scan a sensor, such as a patch-clamped cell. The length over which z-direction flow is established should be significantly greater than the diameter/length of a sensor used. For example, the length of z-direction flow of a cell-based biosensor, such as a patch-clamp cell, should preferably range from about 10 μm to hundreds of μm. Another strategy for providing alternating sample streams and buffer streams, in addition to scanning, is shown in FIGS. 7A-N. In this embodiment, rather than providing interdigitating outlets which feed sample and buffer, respectively, into the sensor chamber, all outlet streams are sample streams. Buffer superfusion is carried out through one or more capillaries placed in proximity to one or more sensors. In FIG. 7A, the sensor shown is a patch-clamped cell positioned in proximity to an outlet using a patch clamp pipette connected to a positioner, such as a micropositioner or a nanopositioner or micromanipulator. A capillary is placed adjacent to the patch clamp pipette and can be used for superfusion, e.g., to resensitize a desensitized cell. By this means, a cell-based biosensor comprising an ion channel can be maintained in a periodically responsive state, i.e., toggled between a ligand non-responsive state (e.g. bound to an agonist when exposed to drugs) and an ligand responsive state (e.g. ligand responsive after superfusion by buffer). Programmed delivery of buffer through this co-axial or side-capillary arrangement can be pre-set or based on the feedback signal from the sensor (e.g., after signal detection, buffer superfusion can be triggered in response to instructions from the system processor to wash off all bound ligands), providing pulsed delivery of buffer to the sensor. In one aspect, the longitudinal axis of the capillary is at a 90° angle with respect to the longitudinal axis of a patch clamp micropipette, while in another aspect, the longitudinal axis, is less than 90° . Microchannel outlets themselves also may be arranged in a 3D array (e.g., as shown in FIGS. 6A-B). A 3D arrangement of outlets can increase throughput (e.g., increasing the number of samples that can be screened) and therefore increase the amount of biological information that the sensor can evaluate. In one aspect, the microfluidic system is used to obtain pharmacological information relating to cellular targets, such as ion channels. There are several advantages to performing HTS in this format over the scanning format described in the preceding paragraphs: (1) ligand exposure time is determined by the inter-superfusion period (e.g., time between pulses of buffer) rather than by the scan speed and width of the ligand streams: (2) buffer superfusion and re-sensitization time also is determined by the duration of the superfusion pulse rather than by residence time in the buffer stream; (3) higher packing density of the number of ligand streams can be provided, thus resulting in the ability to scan a large number of ligands per experiment. Cycles of Rapid Delivery Another feature of the system according to the invention is that fluid can be rapidly delivered through the channels into the sensor chamber, enabling compounds to be introduced into the microenvironment of a sensor and withdrawn from that microenvironment rapidly. Fluid flows inside micron-sized channels are laminar and reversible, a property that can be gauged by a dimensionless number, called the Reynold's number (Re): For example, typically, fluid flow having a low Re number is reversible, while at high Re numbers, fluid flow becomes turbulent and irreversible. The transition between laminar reversible flow and turbulent flow appears to occur at a Re number of about 2000, an estimation based on flow through a smooth circular channel (e.g., approximating flow through a microchannel). Even at high flow rates (m/s), Re for channels measuring a few microns in width is ˜<10. This means that fluid flow in micron-sized channels fall well within the laminar reversible regime. The key feature of fluidic behaviour exploited herein is the reversibility of fluid flow. In one aspect, positive pressure is applied at a microchannel to introduce a compound or drug into the sensor chamber housing the biosensor, preferably a patch-clamped cell. After a suitable incubation time to allow interaction between the compound/drug and the biosensor, a negative pressure is applied to withdraw the compound/drug from the chamber. Because fluid flow is completely reversible and also because diffusion is negligible under conditions used (e.g., relatively fast flow), the drug is completely withdrawn from the chamber back into the microchannel from which it came. In this way, each compound delivered onto the cell to screen for potential interactions, can be subsequently withdrawn from the cell so the cell is again bathed in buffer, re-sensitized, and ready for interaction with the next compound delivered via a different microchannel. This scheme is particularly useful because of the small channel and chamber dimensions used in particular aspects of the invention. A number of channel geometries can be suitable to implement this scenario, particularly, the spokes-wheel configuration described above and shown in FIGS. 9A-C and 10. As can be seen from the Figures, an array of microchannels is arranged in a spokes-wheel format in which the microchannels converge in a circular sensor chamber at the center. The number of microchannels used depends on the number of sample wells in the sample-well plate to which the microchannels are to be interfaced. For example, a 96 sample-well plate will require at least 96 microchannels. The center sensor chamber can house one or more sensors, such as a patch-clamped cell, which can be patch-clamped using a micropipette or patch-clamped on a chip. FIGS. 9A-C show the layout of the overall chip structure for interfacing with a 96 sample-well plate, in which solutions from 96-well plates can be pipetted directly from a sample-well plate onto the corresponding reservoirs of the chip using standard array pipettors. FIG. 10 schematically depicts the enlarged region around the central chamber. The dimension of the chamber may vary depending on the exact application (e.g., whether the sensor comprises a cell or is another type of sensor), with typical diameters ranging from about 10 to hundreds of μm. The width of the microchannels will also vary depending on the diameter of the center chamber, with typical widths ranging from about 1 to about 20 gm. The thickness of the microchannels is less critical and will in most cases be range from about 1 to about 50 microns. Flow rates also can vary, with typical flow rates inside microchannels ranging from mm/s to cm/s and with corresponding flow rates in the open chamber across the sensor ranging from μm/s to mm/s. Positive and negative pressure applied to each of the microchannels can be controlled individually by the system processor such that positive pressure applied to one microchannel will cause its solution content to perfuse over the sensor while negative pressure will cause the withdrawal of this solution back to its respective microchannel, thereby leaving the biosensor bathed in its original buffer solution. Rapid Exchange of Fluids This design relies on the fact that solutions contained in the microchannels and sensor chamber (and/or cell treatment chambers) can be rapidly and efficiently replaced and exchanged. Rapid solution exchange can be achieved using a variety of different microchannel network geometries. In one aspect, a plurality of microchannels converge or feed into the sensor chamber, while in another aspect, a plurality of microchannels converge into a single channel which itself converges into the sensor chamber. The plurality of microchannels can comprise interdigitating channels for sample and buffer delivery respectively. In a preferred aspect, the design is integrated with a patch clamp system. Three exemplary constructions are described below. Planar Radial Spokes-Wheel Format In this construction, a large number (e.g. 96-1024) of microchannels are arranged as radial spokes which converge into a chamber with dimensions ranging from about 10 μm to about 10 mm which houses the sensor. The number of microchannels used are selected to accommodate the number of sample wells in an industry-standard microtiter plate, e.g., 96 to 1024 wells. In addition to the number of microcharmels that matches the number of inputs from the well plates, there are preferably, at least two additional microchannels, one for the delivery of buffer for superfusion/re-sensitization and the other for waste removal. For patch clamp using micropipettes, this construction also contains an open volume region for accessing the cell(s); however, for chip-based patch clamp measurements (such as described in WO 99/31503 and WO 01/25769), there will preferably not be any open volume regions. To prevent cell(s) from being dislodged by fluid flow from the microchannels, it is preferable that the cell(s) be placed in a recessed region or well that matches the dimensions of the cell(s). For membrane patches having dimensions much smaller than that of a cell, dislodging of patch by fluid flow is not an issue because the force exerted by Stokes drag is inversely proportional to the dimension of the object (i.e., patch). In order to provide for efficient replacement of fluids contained in the chamber by incoming fluids from the channels, the angle between the input channel and waste channel is optimized. Fluid mixing and replacement is optimal when this angle is about 180° and gets progressively worse as this angle decreases towards 0 degrees. For high flow rates (cm/s to m/s), the effect of this angle becomes progressively more important, while for low flow rates, the angle between the input channel and waste channel is less important. To maximize efficient replacement of fluids at high flow rates, the number of radial channels can be increased such that each input channel will have a corresponding waste channel, rather than having all input channels share a common waste channel. In this format, all angles between input and output channels are about 180 degrees, ensuring optimal fluid replacement. A second strategy is to construct a three-dimensional radial spokes-wheel channel network, while a third strategy involves the use of branched channel geometries. These strategies are described further below. One preferred embodiment of a 2D radial spokes-wheel format for rapid solution exchange is shown in Figures 11A-C and FIG. 12. In this embodiment, an array of microchannels is arranged in a spokes-wheel format and converges in a circular sensor chamber at the center. The number of microchannels used will depend on the number of wells in the well plate to which the microchannels are to be interfaced. For example, a 96 sample-well plate will require at least 96 microchannels for ligand delivery and an additional 96 microchannels for waste, with each waste microchannel oriented at about 180° with respect to its corresponding sample delivery microchannel. In addition to these 192 microchannels, there is one pair of microchannels used for buffer superfusion and buffer waste, which brings the total number of channels to 194 for interfacing to 96 sample-well plates. A sensor, such as a patch-clamped cell is housed in the center chamber, which may be open volume, if interfaced with a traditional micropipette-based patch clamp system, or which may be closed volume, if interfaced with a chip-based patch clamp system. FIGS. 11A-C show the structure of this microfluidic system, which again is designed to be compatible for interfacing with a 96-well plate. Several spokes-wheel microfluidic arrangements, each having a patch-clamped detector cell, can be used on the same chip structure to obtain parallel measurements. FIG. 12 shows an enlarged view of the sensor chamber. The dimensions of this center chamber may vary depending on the exact application, with typical diameters ranging from about 10 -100 μm. The width of the microchannels will also vary, depending on the diameter of the center chamber, with typical widths ranging from about 1-10 μm. The thickness of the microchannels is less critical and will in most cases ranges from about 1-10 μm. The flow rates also can vary, with typical flow rates inside microchannels ranging from μmu/s to cm/s, with corresponding flow rates in the center chamber ranging from μm/s to mm/s. Three-Dimensional Radial Spokes-Wheel Format A three-dimensional radial spokes-wheel arrangement also can be used to efficiently replace fluids entering the sensor chamber. In this construction, one or more sensors (e.g., such as cells) are placed on a filter membrane sandwiched between a substrate comprising radial channels and a substrate comprising a waste reservoir. In this format, fluids are forced to flow down from the top layer where the radial channels reside (e.g., through input channels which feed into the radial channels), past the sensor(s), then through the filters and into the waste channel. The filter thus permits the sensor(s) to be superfused with fast fluid flow while supporting the sensors (e.g., such as cells), so they are not carried away or dislodged by the flow. In addition, the fluids are forced to flow past the sensors and to replace all the fluids that surround the sensors. There are a number of advantages offered by this 3D design: (1) fluids around the cells are completely, efficiently, and rapidly exchanged; (2) sensors, such as cells, are firmly placed on the filter and will not be dislodged by fluid flow even at extremely high flow speed, because in the axial or z-direction, the flow pushes the cells against the filter; and (3) a minimal number of radial channels is required in comparison with the planar radial design described above. The main disadvantage of this design in comparison with other planar designs is increased complexity in the micro-fabrication. One preferred embodiment of the 3D radial spokes-wheel format is shown in FIG. 13. The main difference between this 3D structure and the planar structure shown in FIG. 12 is the presence of z-direction flow of fluids from the outlets of the microchannels to the inlet of the waste microchannel. Another difference is the presence of a porous membrane on which the sensor(s) (e.g., cells) are placed, which provides mechanical support for the sensors as the z-direction flow pushes the cell against the membrane. In this embodiment, the arrangements and dimensions of the microchannels are comparable to that of the 2D planar format (FIG. 12). Although the fabrication of this 3D structure is more complex than the planar structure, the presence of the z-direction flow in many cases provides better flow profiles, especially for open volume reservoirs. Because the sensors are placed immediately outside (i.e., on top) of the inlet of the waste channels, both ligand streams and superfusion streams are forced to flow past the sensor(s), which result in more efficient and complete dosing of the sensor(s) by the different fluid streams. Also, the presence of the porous membrane support permits the use of higher flow rates and thus higher throughput. Branched Channel Format In this design, preferably only two channels are placed directly adjacent to one or more sensors (e.g., such as patch-clamped cells), one for the delivery of compounds and the other for waste. Rather than separating all the input channels and converging the outlets of each input channel so they feed into a center sensor chamber, channels are arranged in a branched geometry. To interface with 96-1024 well plates, the single delivery channel adjacent to the sensor(s) is connected to a multitude of input microchannels, each input channels receiving input from a different well of the 96 -1024 well plate. This format has the advantage that the channel delivering compounds and the waste channel can be placed in very close proximity to the sensor(s), thereby ensuring a rapid response from the system. The delivery of the large number of compounds onto the sensor(s) in rapid succession is achieved by the controlled and multiplexed delivery of fluids containing compounds into the single channel feeding directly into the sensor chamber. One preferred embodiment of this design is shown in FIGS. 14A-C and 15. In this embodiment, a “fish-bone” structure is fabricated with each “bone” corresponding to a sample (e.g., a ligand) delivery microchannel which intersects with a main “spine” microchannel which is connected to a buffer reservoir. The rapid and sequential delivery of sample and buffer onto one or more sensors in a sensor chamber is achieved by first applying a positive pressure to one of the sample delivery microchannels, thus introducing a plug of sample (e.g., such as a ligand) from that microchannel into the main microchannel containing the buffer. This plug is introduced onto the cell by applying positive pressure to the buffer reservoir, which carries the plug onto the sensor, and then washes the sensor (e.g., resensitizing it) with the buffer solution. This cycle of delivery of sample and buffer superfusion is repeated with different samples contained in different microchannels. The layout of this chip design is shown in FIGS. 14A-C. In the embodiment shown in the Figures, the chip can be interfaced with a 96-well plate. FIG. 15 is an enlarged view of the area around the main buffer channel and the sensor chamber. The dimensions (width and thickness) of the microchannel (for both sample delivery and buffer delivery) can be highly variable, with typical dimensions ranging from about 1-100 μm, and preferably from about 10 μm. Flow rate also may be varied with preferred flow rates ranging from μm/s to cm/s. Pressure is isotropic, therefore, upon application of a positive or negative pressure, fluids will flow along any pressure drop without preference to any particular direction. Therefore, preferably, passive one-way valves are integrated at the junction between sample delivery microchannels and the main buffer channel. The purpose of these integrated one-way valves is to prevent any flow from the main buffer channel into each of the sample delivery microchannels upon application of a positive pressure to the buffer reservoir, while allowing flow from each of the sample delivery microchannels into the main buffer channels when positive pressure is applied to reservoirs providing sample to these microchannels. There are numerous suitable designs for microfluidic valves as well as pumping mechanisms. Although the discussion below emphasizes pressure driven flow owing to its simplicity of implementation, a number of appropriate means can be designed for transporting liquids in microchannels, including but not limited to, pressure-driven flow, electro-osmotic flow, surface-tension driven flow, moving-wall driven flow, thermo-gradient driven flow, ultrasound-induced flow, and shear-driven flow. These techniques are known in the art. Valving and Pumping Scheme 1 Using Septums To Address Individual Microchannels In this scheme, the reservoirs that connect to each of the microchannels are sealed by a septum, for example, using polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) for sealing or another suitable material as is known in the art. Because the septum forms an airtight seal, application of a positive pressure (e.g., with air or nitrogen) via a needle or a tube inserted through the septum will cause fluid to flow down the microchannel onto one or more sensors in a sensor chamber (e.g., to the center of a spokes-wheel where radial microchannels converge). Application of a negative pressure with a small suction through the needle or tubing inserted through the septum will cause fluid to be withdrawn in the opposite direction (e.g., from the chamber at the center of the spokes-wheel to the reservoir feeding into the microchannel). An array of such needle-septum arrangements allows each reservoir to be individually addressed, and therefore, each microchannel. The use of this scheme permits the simultaneous and sequential pumping and valving of the fluids contained within each of the microchannels. By exercising precise control over positive and negative pressure applied to each of the microchannels, controlled fluid flow and compound delivery onto the one or more sensors can be achieved. For designs that do not require individual addressing of the microchannels (e.g., design 1 -the rapid transport of patched cells across different streams of fluids), a single or a few septa with a single or a few pressure control devices will suffice. Scheme 2 Controlling Fluidic Resistance by Varying Channel Dimensions A lthough the above design using individual septa offers great flexibility and control, for certain applications in which the sequence of compound delivery and fluid flow is predetermined, a simpler design offers simplicity and ease of implementation. In this scheme, equal positive pressure is applied to all reservoirs, for example, by using pressurized air applied homogeneously to all reservoirs via a single septum, or through the use of gravity flow caused by the difference in height between inlet and outlet reservoirs. The rapid sequential delivery of compounds from each microchannel onto one or more sensors is accomplished by varying the fluidic resistance of each microchannel, which is easily achieved by varying the width and length of the each microchannel. Fluidic resistance increases linearly with length and to the fourth power of the diameter for a circular capillary. By gradually and systematically varying the dimension of each microchannel, the time delay among the microchannels in their delivery of compounds onto one or more sensors in a sensor chamber can be controlled. This scheme is especially pertinent to high-throughput drug screening applications in which a large number of compounds are to be delivered sequentially and rapidly onto patched cell/cells with pre-determined time delays. Scheme 3 Control of Fluid Flow With External Valves In this configuration, compounds from each of the wells of an array well plate are introduced through external tubings or capillaries which are connected to corresponding microchannels. External valves attached to these external tubings or capillaries can be used to control fluid flow. A number of suitable external valves exist, including ones actuated manually, mechanically, electronically, pneumatically, magnetically, fluidically, or by chemical means (e.g., hydrogels). Scheme 4 Control of Fluid Flow With Internal Valves Rather than controlling fluid flow with external valves, there are also a number of chip-based valves that can be used. These chip-based valves can be based on some of the same principles used for the external valves, or can be completely different, such as ball valves, bubble valves, electrokinetic valves, diaphragm valves, and one-shot valves. The advantage of using chip-based valves is that they are inherently suited for integration with microfluidic systems. Of particular relevance are passive one-way valves, which are preferred for implementing some of the designs mentioned in above (e.g., such as the branched channel format). Other suitable geometries may be integrated with any of the above systems. In one aspect, at least one channel of a microfluidic system described above is a mixing channel which receives two or more separate streams of fluid from two or more other channels. The mixing channel can be used to combine the separate streams in a single channel. Such a configuration can be used to establish a concentration gradient of a substance provided in different concentrations in the two or more separate streams as is described in WO 02/22264. Interfacing Patch Clamp Detection With Microfluidics The system can be used to monitor cellular responses by measuring changes in electrical properties of cells. In one aspect, the sensor chamber of the chip comprises a cell-based biosensor and the system comprises a detector for monitoring the response of the biosensor to solution flow from the channels. One response which can be monitored is a change in an electrical property of the biosensor in response to gating of an ion channel. For example, a change in current flowing across the membrane of the biosensor can be measured using a voltage clamp technique. Currents can be in the range of a few picoampere (pA) (e.g., for single ion-channel openings) to several μm (for cell membranes of larger cells such as Xenopus oocytes). Among voltage clamp techniques, patch clamp is most suitable for measuring currents in the pA range (see e.g. Neher and Sakmann, 1976, supra; Hamill, et al., 1981, supra, Sakmann and Neher, 1983, supra). The low noise property of patch clamp is achieved by tightly sealing a glass microelectrode or patch clamp pipette onto the plasma membrane of an intact cell thereby producing an isolated patch. The resistance between the pipette and the plasma membrane is critical to minimize background noise and should be in excess of 109 ohm to form a “giga seal”. The exact mechanism behind the formation of the “giga seal” is debated, but it has been suggested that various interactions such as salt-bridges, electrostatic interactions, and van der Waal forces mediate the interaction between the glass surface of the pipette and the hydrophilic heads in the lipid layer of the cell membrane (see, e.g., Corey and Stevens, 1983, In Single-Channel Recording, pp. 53-68, Eds. B. Sakmann and E. Neher. New York and London, Plenum Press). Variations of patch clamp techniques can be utilized such as whole-cell recording, inside-out recording, outside-out recording, and perforated patch recording as are known in the art. In whole-cell recording, the cell membrane covering the electrode tip is ruptured by suction in order to establish an electrical connection (and a chemical pathway) between the cell interior and the electrode solution. Because electrode solution is in great excess compared to the amount of cytosol in the cell (about 10 μl vs. about 1 pl), changing ionic species in the electrode solution will create concentration gradients across the cell membrane, providing a means to control the direction and magnitude of the transmembrane ionic flow for a given receptor/ion-channel complex. In inside-out and outside-out patch clamp configurations, the cytosolic environment is lost by excision of a membrane patch from the entire cell (see, e.g., Neher and Sakmann, 1976, supra; Sakmann and Neher, 1983, supra). To obtain an excision of a patch in both the inside-out and the outside-out configurations, the cells are preferably attached to the bottom of the sensor chamber. In the case of acutely isolated cells, for example, poly-L-lysine can be used to fix the cells to the bottom of the chamber. The inside-out configuration allows exposure of the cytosolic side of the membrane to solution in the chamber. It is therefore a method of choice for studying gating properties of second-messenger activated ion-channels at the single-channel level. Thus, the effects of cytosolic signaling molecules or enzymatic activity on ion-channel function can be studied by means of this configuration. The outside out configuration, on the other hand, allows exposure of the extracellular side of the patch. It can therefore be used to monitor the activity of ligand-gated or receptor-operated ion-channels. Low noise levels provide better signal-to-noise ratios where modulators (e.g., such as agonists or antagonists). Under optimal conditions, single-channel currents in the higher femto-ampere (1015 A) range can be resolved. Strategies to decrease noise (e.g., such as caused by a bad seal between the electrode and the cell) to facilitate formation of GΩ-seals include, but are not limited to, fire polishing of the glass electrode or treating the surface the glass electrode using agents such as sigmacote. Dielectric noise and capacitive-resistive charging noise also can be decreased by selecting an expedient electrode/pipette geometry, using quartz glass, and by coating of the glass surface of the pipette with Sylgard® (silicone, PDMS) in order to insulate the pipette tip as much as possible. One frequently used modification of the whole-cell configuration, the perforated patch mode, also can be used (see, e.g., as described in Pusch and Neher, 1988, supra). In this technique, holes are selectively made in the cell membrane using a pore-building protein, such as amphotericin or nystatin (see, e.g., Akaike et al., 1994, Jpn. J Physiol. 44: 433-473; Falke, et al., 1989, FEBSLett. 251: 167; Bolard, et al., 1991, Biochemistry 30: 5707-5715) to create increased conductivity across the patched cell membrane without the loss of intracellular signalling molecules. In addition to measuring ion currents across ion channels at constant membrane potential, the patch clamp technique can be used to measure membrane voltage at a known constant or time-varying current. This patch clamp configuration, referred to as “current clamp”, measures the change in membrane potential caused by activation of ligand-gated ion-channels or by voltage-gated ion channels and is particularly suited for creating a biosensor which can be used to monitor the effects of agents (e.g., drugs) on action potentials (i.e., frequency, duration, and amplitude). This technique also can be used to study the effect of an agent to study an agent's impact on the excitability of a nerve cell. Therefore, in one aspect, the system is used to monitor the modulation of the voltage threshold (e.g., hyperpolarizing or depolarizing) of a cell-based biosensor in a current clamp mode when an action potential is triggered. In another aspect, the system is used to monitor capacitance changes in cell membranes by providing a cell-based biosensor in the open volume reservoir and measuring impedance of the membrane across the membrane of the biosensor in an AC mode. For example, the system can be used to monitor the effect of agents on the release of vesicles from a cell (i.e., exocytosis) and/or on the uptake of vesicles by a cell (i.e., endocytosis). One preferred embodiment for interfacing microfluidic systems with electrophysiological patch clamp recordings is shown in FIG. 1A. In FIG. 1A, a single patch-clamped cell is shown; however, several patch-clamped cells can be used simultaneously. External pumps and fluid control equipments are placed adjacent to a standard microscope. The entire integrated system preferably is computer-controlled and automated. The different components of the system (i.e. microfluidics, scanning mechanism, patch clamp, and the like) may be controlled separately using separate controllers and separate software, but most preferably these components are all controlled by a single system processor as described above. The system can be readily adapted for use with a conventional patch clamp pipette or micropipette. In one aspect, a cell or a fraction of a cell (e.g., a cell membrane) is positioned at the opening of a patch clamp micropipette. Patch clamp micropipettes are known in the art and are available, for example, from World Precision Instruments, Inc. (Sarasota, Fla. 34240 USA; at http://www.wpiinc.com/WPI_Web/Glass-Holders/Patch_Clamp_Glas.html). Suction is applied to the patch clamp micropipette until a giga-seal (giga-ohms) is created between the end of the micropipette and the membranes of the cell. Preferably, a change in one or more electrical properties of the cell is monitored as a means of determining the presence of a ligand or other compound in a fluid stream coming into contact with the cell. For example, an electrical signal can be detected by an electrode in the micropipette and transmitted, preferably with amplification, to the system processor. A reference electrode, which contacts solution in the sensor chamber, also is required. Various supporting solutions can be adapted for use in sensor chamber. The type of solution will depend on the sensor and compounds being evaluated. For example, a sensor solution can be a recording solution used for traditional patch clamp analysis of an ion channel. In general, the exact composition of a solution for patch clamp recording will vary depending on the type of channel being evaluated (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,333,337, for potassium channels; U.S. Pat. No. 6,323,191, for Cl channels, and PCT/US99/02008, for sodium channels); such solutions are well known in the art. In one aspect of the invention, patch clamp recording is automated and controlled by the system processor. For example, the system processor may direct the movement of one or more micropipettes to pre-programmed locations. In another aspect, the system processor directs the movement of the one or more micropipettes in response to image analyses of cells in the sensor chamber (e.g., the system monitors the delivery of cells to the micropipette(s) from one or more treatment chambers). In a preferred aspect, acquisition and analysis of patch clamp data, followed by a feedback control to vary microfluidic settings (e.g., pressure, valves and switches) and to control scanning parameters (e.g., speed and trajectory of scanning, pressure drops across channels), is implemented by the system processor. In addition to integrating with traditional patch clamp systems, the microfluidics platform according to the invention also is ideally suited for interfacing with chip-based patch clamp, as described, for example, in WO 99/31503; WO 01/25769; WO 01/59447; and WO 99/66329. This embodiment is shown in FIG. 1C and can eliminate such system components as a microscope, micropipette, micromanipulators, and the like. Chip-based patch clamp integrate readily with the substrates of the invention. Chip-based patch clamp systems also provide the ability to patch clamp several cells together on a single substrate. Herein is described a method in which receptor proteins are prepared in discrete kinetic states characterized by having different response functions, dynamic range EC50 and Hill slope. The present invention describes how accumulation of receptors in bound non-active states such as desensitisazed states and the dynamics between these states of the receptors essentially can be used as a molecular-level memory used in the construction of logic bio-devises and as well as in silica made in neuromorphic very large scare integration (VLSI) circuitry. Furthermore, the invention comprises a method for characterization and validation of receptor modulators such as drugs and pharmaceutically active substances by the fact that the response function, dynamic range, and the tuning of sensitivity in receptor proteins is altered by antagonist concentration and exposure time. The finding that competitive antagonist eradicates some of the differentiation in the response behavior may as well be the cause of some of the side effect for drugs acting on the GABAergic system. Methods of Using The System The invention exploits the potential for using microfluidic systems to control the delivery of a large number of different biologically active molecules and compounds (e.g., candidate drugs) to a sensor comprising a target molecule. Suitable molecules/compounds which can be evaluated include, but are not limited to, drugs; irritants; toxins; proteins; polypeptides; peptides; amino acids; analogs and modified forms of proteins; polypeptides, peptides, and amino acids; antibodies and analogs thereof; immunological agents (e.g., such as antigens and analogs thereof, haptens, pyrogens, and the like); cells (e.g., such as eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells, infected cells, transfected cells, recombinant cells, bacteria, yeast, gametes) and portions thereof (e.g., cell nuclei, organelles, secretogogues; portions of cell membranes); viruses; receptors; modulators of receptors (e.g., agonists, antagonists, and the like); enzymes; enzyme modulators (e.g., such as inhibitors, cofactors, and the like); enzyme substrates; hormones; metabolites and analogs thereof, nucleic acids (e.g., such as oligonucleotides; polynucleotides; fibrinotides; genes or fragments, including regulatory sequences, and/or introns, and/or coding regions; allelic variants; RNA; antisense molecules, ribozymes, nucleotides, aptamers), including analogs and modified forms thereof; chemical and biological warfare agents; metal clusters; and inorganic ions. Combinations of two or more of any of these molecules also can be delivered, sequentially or simultaneously, to one or more sensors in the sensor chamber. Compounds also can be obtained from synthetic libraries from drug companies and other commercially available sources known in the art (e.g., including, but not limited, to the LeadQuest® library comprising greater than 80,000 compounds, available through http://www.tripos.com/compounds/; ChemRx Diversity Library, comprising 1000 to 5000 compounds per scaffold, available through http://www.chemrx.com; the Nanosyn Pharma library, available through Nanoscale Combinatorial Synthesis Inc., Menlo Park, Calif., and the like) or can be generated through combinatorial synthesis using methods well known in the art. In aspects in which molecules are delivered to cells, any of the molecules described above may be taken up by cells by transiently exposing the cells to an electric field (e.g., in a cell treatment chamber or in a sensor chamber which is adapted for electroporation) as described above. Providing Periodically Resensitized Ion Channel Sensors Binding a compound (such as an agonist or modulator or drug) to a broad range of ion channels not only evokes conformational changes in these channels, allowing a flux of ions across a cell membrane, but also causes the ion channel to desensitize, i.e., to reside in a long-lasting, ligand-bound, yet shut-off and non-conducting state (see, e.g., Jones and Westbrook, 1996, GL Trends Neurosci. 19: 96-101). Desensitization of many types of ion-channels usually occurs within a few milliseconds and is thought to be one of the mechanisms by which synaptic information in the central nervous system is processed and modified. Densitization also may serve as a negative feedback mechanism that prevents excitotoxic processes caused by excessive activation of ion channels by neurotransmitters or other neuromodulators (see, e.g., Nahum-Levy, et al., 2000, Biophys J. 80: 2152-2166; Swope, et al., 1999, Adv. Second Messenger Phosphoprotein. Res. 33: 49-78). In one aspect, to achieve high screening rates in, for example, HTS applications, patch-clamped cell(s) in the sensor chamber are moved from the outlet of one microchannel to the next in rapid succession. To achieve rapid resensitizaton of ion channels and receptors, microchannels delivering samples comprising suspected modulators, agonists, or drugs of receptor/ion channels are interdigitated with microchannels delivering buffer for resensitization of the receptor/ion channels (e.g., buffer free of any agonist). In addition to resensitizing ion channels and receptors, this delivery of buffer onto cells between ligand and drug exposure serves to wash out ligands and drugs previously administered to the cell. Thus, in this aspect, the system is used to screen for an agonist or modulator or drug of a specific ion-channel by providing a periodically responsive ion channel sensor. For example, by providing pulsed or steady-state flow delivery of buffer to the sensor, the system provides a cell that is resensitized when exposed to a channel outlet delivering a candidate agonist or modulator or drug. FIGS. 24A-C show simulated screenings of unknown agonists according to one method using a microfluidic chip comprising 26 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber. The contents of each channel are shown in FIG. 24A. Agonists with known pharmacological action (e.g., known efficacy, or potency) have been included in certain channels to serving as internal controls or standards. The score sheet for this experiment, i.e., the patch clamp response obtained for each microchannel is shown in FIG. 24 C. In another embodiment, an additional superfusion pipette proximal to the patch-clamped cell, e.g., in an arrangement that is adjacent to or coaxial with respect to the patch pipette (as detailed below), is used to continuously resensitize/wash receptors/ion channels on the cell surface. This enables cells to be extremely rapidly resensitized and washed (e.g., within ms) and enables several different readings/registrations of ion channel activation to be made as a cell moves across a channel outlet. FIGS. 27A-C show a simulated method of rapid resensitization used for screening of agonists which combines the use of a microfluidic chip comprising 14 outlets feeding into a sensor chamber with pulsed superfusion of agonist-free buffer solution using a fluidic channel (or micropipet) placed coaxial or orthogonal or otherwise in close proximity to a patched-clamped cell. The contents of each microfluidic channel are shown in FIG. 27A. Agonists with known pharmacological action (e.g., known efficacy, or potency) have been included in certain channels to serve as internal standards or test compounds. The simulated trace, shown in FIG. 27B, for a linear, single, forward scan of a cell-based biosensor across microfluidic channel outlets, show a plurality of peak responses obtained per single microchannel outlet. The score sheet for this experiment, i.e., the patch clamp response obtained for each microchannel is shown in FIG. 27C. In this case, a Gaussian-distributed response is obtained because it was modeled that the ligands exiting microchannels into the open volume had a gaussian distribution. Many other types of distributions can be obtained depending on substrate geometry and experimental parameters, such as level of collimation of flows. However, this type of repeated superfusion of cells during their passage across a single microchannel outlet allows dose-response information and high signal-to-noise ratios to be obtained for receptors/channels that rapidly desensitize. To obtain desired data, variable scan rates of cell(s) across individual streams of sample and buffer and variable pressure drops across each microchannel can be implemented by the system, either from pre-programmed instructions or in response to feed-back signals from a detector in electrical communication with the patch clamp electrode (e.g., based on a detected signal or in real-time). The system thus can be used to change microenvironments rapidly around a cell comprising a receptor/ion-channel. For example, the system can provide a periodically responsive ion channel. Because of the small dimensions of the substrates and microchannels used herein, which allows for rapid mass transport, the system enables a user to screen for drugs, in some instances, at the rate of hundreds per second (i.e., millions per hour) using one patch clamp sensor, provided drugs and resensitization solutions are delivered sequentially at a comparable rate to the sensor. As discussed above, scanning rates can be modified to account for the physiological responses of a cell-based sensor, e.g., providing slower scanning rates for receptors that equilibrate slowly. Generating Dose-Response Curves and Analyzing Ion-Channel Pharmacology Dose-response curves provide valuable information regarding the actions and potencies of drugs. Obtaining dose-response curves using traditional methods involving micropipettes often can be time consuming and tedious. The present invention, which uses microfluidics for the rapid and controlled manipulation of the microenvironemnt around cell(s), is uniquely suited for dose-response measurements. Dose-response relationships most often follow a sigmoidal curve in a lin-log plot, and can be described by the Hill logistic functions: I=Imax/[1+(EC50/C)n] Where I is the whole-cell current, C is the concentration of ligands, Imax is the maximal current (i.e., when all channels are in the open state), EC50 is the half-maximal value (i.e., when half of the receptor population is activated, and often equals KD, the dissociation constant of the ligand), and n is the Hill coefficient that reflects the stoichiometry of ligand binding to the receptor. In one aspect, to achieve dose-response information for agonists, patch-clamped cell(s) in the sensor chamber are moved from the outlet of one microchannel to the next in rapid succession. Microchannels delivering agonists at different concentration are interdigitated with microchannels delivering buffer free of agonist (e.g., to resensitize receptors/ion channels and/or to wash out compounds previously administered to the cell, as described above). Preferably, the serially or sequentially diluted agonists are loaded into different channels. FIG. 26A is an example of such a loading scheme in a 56-channel substrate. Agonist is present at highest concentration in channel 52 and then is serially diluted at each subsequent channel until channel 6. Agonists with known pharmacological action (e.g., known efficacy, or potency) have been included in certain channels to serve as internal standards. Preferably, the agonist concentration from the channel with the highest concentration to the channel with the lowest concentration covers many orders of magnitude. FIG. 26B show simulated patch clamp recordings of agonists at different concentration as described above. From the score sheet for this simulated experiment, i.e., the patch clamp response obtained for each microchannel as shown in FIG. 26 C, a dose-response curve can be constructed. Similarly, with some modifications, dose-response curves can be obtained for antagonists as well using the system which is described in more detail below. Furthermore, as described above, the combination of microfluidics with patch clamp can provide a wide range of information about the actions of modulators on ion-channels, e.g., such as the association and dissociation constants of a ligand for its receptor, and whether a modulator is an agonist or an antagonist of a receptor. It is also possible, however, to obtain dose-response information from accumulated responses of ligands without washing or resensitizing the receptors with interdigitated flows of buffer. In this aspect, the microchannels need only contain ligand solutions at different concentrations. Detection and Characterization ofAgonists Partial Agonists The ability of a drug molecule to activate a receptor-mediated response is a graded property, rather than an all-or-nothing property. If a series of chemically related agonists acting on the same receptor are tested on a cell, the maximal response (i.e., the largest response that can be produced by an agonist in high concentration) generally differs from one agonist to another. Some compounds (known as “full agonists”) can produce a maximal response whereas others, referred to “partial agonists”, can only produce a submaximal response. An “partial agonist” can therefore act as a “weak antagonist” by hampering a full agonist from binding a receptor. Thus, by using a defined ion-channel together with a known agonist that produces a maximal response, the grade of an agonist's activity can be monitored (see, e.g., FIG. 24). Detection and Characterization ofAntagonists In one aspect, the system is used to screen for antagonists of ion-channel activity. Suitable ion-channels which can be evaluated include: (i) ion channels that do not de-sensitize; (ii) ion-channels that desensitize (iii) ion-channels that desensitize but which mediate large current fluctuations when activated; and (iv) ion-channels whose desensitizing property is blocked by irreversible binding of an allosteric modulator (e.g., such as a lectin). To detect antagonists, the ion-channels or receptors expressed by a biosensor need to be activated or “tested” by an agonist during, before, or after, application of the antagonist. For example, different antagonists can be applied together with a well-defined agonist with known pharmacological properties. Antagonists at different concentrations also can be loaded into microchannels together with agonists at a constant concentration. To achieve rapid resensitizaton of ion channels and receptors, microchannels containing agonist and antagonist (e.g., such as ligands and drugs) can be interdigitated with microchannels delivering buffer free of any agonist or antagonist (e.g., buffer for resensitization of the receptor/ion channels). In addition to resensitizing ion channels and receptors, exposure of cells to buffer between periods of exposure to ligands and drugs serves to wash out ligands and drugs previously administered to the cell. Thus, in this aspect, the system is used to provide a periodically responsive ion channel sensor. Antagonists are detected in this system by their inhibition of the agonist-induced response. In another aspect, the system is used to screen for antagonists which can be detected through attenuation in the signal mediated by constantly pre-activated receptors/ion-channels. In this particular setup, different channels are loaded with different antagonists, or with the same antagonist at different concentrations, or a combination of both, while each channel comprising antagonist comprises agonist at a constant concentration. To achieve continuous activation of receptors and ion channels, microchannels containing agonist and antagonist are interdigitated with microchannels delivering buffer and agonist at the same concentration as in the channels supplemented with antagonist. This delivery of buffer supplemented with agonist onto cells between ligand and drug exposure serves to wash out ligands and drugs previously administered to the cell and also can serve to resensitise a receptor/ion channel. A simulation of such an experiment is shown in FIGS. 25A-C. The contents of each channel is shown in FIG. 25A. Antagonists with known pharmacological action (blocking potency) have been included in certain channels to serve as internal standards. The simulated trace shown in FIG. 25 B represents a linear single forward scan of a cell-based biosensor across microfluidic channel outlets. As shown in the Figure, a plurality of peak responses are obtained per single microchannel outlet. The score sheet for this experiment, i.e., the patch clamp response obtained for each microchannel, is shown in FIG. 25C, from which the antagonist with the highest blocking potency can be identified. Competitive Antagonism This type of antagonism refers to competition between agonists and antagonists at the same binding site on the receptor. Reversible competitive antagonism is characterized by a shift in the slope of a dose response curve to higher concentrations while maintaining the same maximum response and the slope of the curve. In irreversible competitive antagonism, no change in antagonist occupancy is observed when the cell is exposed to agonist. Non-Competitive Antagonism Non-competitive antagonism describes the situation where the antagonist blocks, at some point, the chain of events that leads to the production of a response by the agonist. In this type of antagonism, the agonist and antagonist either bind to different sites on the receptor/ion channel or the antagonists simply block the ion channel pore. The net effect is to reduce the slope and maximum of the agonist's dose-response curve. Isosteric Inhibition This type of antagonism refers to the self-inhibition of agonists above a certain concentrations; that is, an agonist will start to antagonize its own action at a sufficiently high concentration. A bell-shaped dose-response curve often signals the presence of this kind of antagonism. Detection of Modulators of Presynaptically Expressed Ion-Channels In another aspect, the system is used to detect a modulator of a presynaptically expressed ion-channel. Strategies for studying presynaptically localized ion-channels often include patch clamp recordings of synaptosomes (i.e., pinched-off nerve terminals produced by homogenizing brain tissue) inserted in proteoliposomes or planar phospholipid bilayers (see, as described in Farley and Rudy, 1988, Biophys. J 53: 919-934; Hirashima and Kirino, 1988, Biochim Biophys Acta 946: 209-214, for example). The method of Hirashima and Kirino, 1988, supra, is particularly preferred, as it is a simple and rapid technique for generating giant proteoliposomes comprising presynaptically expressed ion-channels which can be used as biosensors for patch clamp analysis in the system according to the invention. Detection ofLigands Acting on Orphan Receptors/Ion-Channels Conventional drug discovery approaches often are initiated by the discovery of ligand's biological activity which is subsequently used to characterize its tissue pharmacology and physiological role. Typically, after the ligand is characterized, the corresponding receptor is identified as target for drug screening in HTS applications. A relatively novel strategy for characterizing orphan receptors (i.e., receptors with an undefined biological activity) is often referred to as a “reverse pharmacology” approach. The reverse approach starts with an orphan receptor of unknown function that is used as target for detection of its ligand. The ligand is then used to explore the biological and pathophysiological role of the receptor. High-throughput screening is initiated on the receptor at the same time that the ligand is being biologically characterized in order to develop antagonists that will help determine the therapeutic value of the receptor. The present invention is particularly useful for a reverse pharmacological approach. In one aspect, the system comprises a cell-based biosensor which is a non-native cell line which expresses an exogenous orphan receptor (e.g., such as an ion channel). Suitable native cell lines, include, but are not limited to, HEK-293 , CHO-KI, and COS-7. There are several benefits coupled to screening ion channels in a non-native cell background. First, a transfected cell line containing a null background (e.g., which does not ordinarily express the orphan receptor) allows one to be certain of the molecular identity of the gene responsible for the observed signal. Second, the orphan receptor can be over-expressed, thus improving the signal-to-noise of the screening read-out. Third, host cells with low background conductances can be chosen to allow very sensitive assays of certain types of ion channels. Finally, these cell lines are relatively easy to culture and are robust enough to be handled by automated screening systems. Detection of Modulators of Neurotransm itter Vesicular Release Patch-clamp techniques to measure membrane capacitance, developed over ten years ago (see, e.g., Neher and Marty, 1982, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 6712-6716), provide a powerful tool to study the underlying mechanism and control of exocytosis. The surface area of a cell depends on the balance between exocytosis and endocytosis. Exocytosis results in the discharge of vesicle contents (i.e., such as neurotransmitters) into the extracellular space and the incorporation of vesicle membrane into the plasma membrane, leading to an increase in cell surface area. During endocytosis, parts of the plasma membrane are retrieved, resulting in a decrease in the surface area. Changes in net exocytotic and endocytotic activity thus can be monitored by measuring changes in cell surface area. Membrane capacitance is an electrical parameter of the cell that is proportional to the plasma membrane area. Thus, providing the specific capacitance remains constant, changes in plasma membrane area resulting from drug-induced modulation of exocytotic and endocytotic activity through presynaptically located ion-channels, can be monitored by measuring membrane capacitance by means of patch clamp in the open sensor chamber of the system. Determining Permeability Properties of a Cell When a cell used in a screening procedure expresses a broad range of ion-channel types, characterizing the ion permeability properties of the cell's activated ion-channels can be used to characterize a drug's interaction with the cell. Information about permeability properties of an ion-channel can be determined by monitoring reversal potential which can be determined by evaluating current-to-voltage relationships, created from measurements of agonist-evoked currents at different holding potentials. By employing the reversal potential and knowledge about intra- and extra-cellular ion concentrations, the relative ion-channel permeability properties are determined from different models. Noise Analysis of Current Traces Analysis of current-traces from ion-channels activated by agonists can be performed on both an ensemble- and single-channel level for further characterization of an agonist-ion-channel interaction. The Fourier transformation of the autocorrelation function obtained for the total current recorded with whole-cell patch clamp yields power spectra that can be fitted by single or double Lorentzian functions. These fits provide information about mean single-channel conductances and ion-channel kinetics (e.g., mean single channel open time) through analysis of the frequency dependence of the current response (i.e., corner frequency). In principle, although a more difficult and tedious technique, recordings obtained from outside-out patch-clamp configurations also can be analysed to measure single-channel opening intervals and different conductance levels mediated by the same receptor-ion channel complex. EXAMPLES The invention will now be further illustrated with reference to the following examples. It will be appreciated that what follows is by way of example only and that modifications to detail may be made while still falling within the scope of the invention. Example 1 Microfabrication of a Substrate FIG. 19 shows examples of microchannels fabricated in silicon by deep reactive ion etching in SF6. Masks for photolithography were produced using standard e-beam writing on a JEOL JBX-5DII electron beam lithography system (medium reflective 4″ chrome masks and Shipley UV5 resists, 50 keV acc. voltage, dose 15 μC/cm−2, exposure current 5 nA). The resist was spin coated at 2000 rpm for 60 s giving 250 nm of resist and soft baked for 10 minutes at 130° C. on a hotplate before exposure. The pattern was post exposure baked for 20 minutes in an oven at 130° C. and developed for 60 s in Shipley MF24-A, rinsed in DI water and etched in a reactive ion etcher (Plasmatherm RIE m-95, 30 s, 50 W, 250 mTorr, 10 ccm O2). The chrome was etched for 1-2 minutes in Balzers chrome etch #4, the mask was stripped of the remaining resist using Shipley 1165 remover and rinsed in acetone, isopropanol and DI water. A 3″, [100], two sides polished, low N-doped Silicon wafers with 700 nm of thermally grown silicon dioxide and a total thickness of 380 μm was cleaned in a reactive ion etcher Plasmatherm RIE m-95 (30 s, 50 W, 250 mTorr, 10 ccm O2), spin coated with Shipley S-1813 photoresist at 4000 rpm, giving 1.3 μm of resist, and exposed for a dose of 110 mJ/cm−2 at 400 nm wavelength on a Carl Süss MA6 mask aligner. The wafer was developed for 45 s in Shipley MF319 rinsed in DI water and ashed in a reactive ion etcher (Plasmatherm RIE m-95, 30 s, 50 W, 250 mTorr, 10 ccmO2). The wafer was hard baked for 10 minutes at 130° C., the silicon dioxide was etched with SioTech buffered oxide etch and rinsed in DI water. The wafer was stripped of the remaining resist with acetone, rinsed in isopropanol and DI water. The other side of the wafer was spin coated with Shipley AZ4562 photoresist at 3000 rpm for 30 seconds giving approximately 8 μm of resist, soft baked for 3 minutes at 100 ° C. on a hotplate and exposed for a dose of 480 mJ/cm−2 at 400 nm wavelength on a Carl Süss MA6 mask aligner. The pattern was developed for 200 seconds in Shipley MF312 and DI water in 50:50 mix, rinsed in DI water, and ashed in a reactive ion etcher (Plasmatherm RIE m-95, 30 seconds, 50 W, 250 mTorr, 10 ccm2) The pattern defined in the photoresist AZ4562, the recording chamber and the combined access holes and sample wells was etched in a STS Multiplex deep reactive ion etcher using SF6 as etching gas and C4F8 as passivation gas at 600 W of RF power and 30 W of platen power. The system was operating at a constant APC angle of 74% and the etching time was 12 seconds with an overrun time of 1 second, and the passivation time 8 seconds with an overrun time of 1second. The etching rate was approximately 4.9 μm/minute and the etching time 60 minutes resulting in a depth of approximately 300 μm. The wafer was stripped of the remaining resist in acetone, rinsed in isopropanol and DI water. The pattern in silicon dioxide defining the microchannels was etched with the same system as before but with 800 W of RF power, at a constant APC angle of 68% and the etching time was 7 s with an overrun time of 0.5 s, and the passivation time 4 second with an overrun time of 1 second. The etching rate was approximately 3.3 μm/min and the etching time 30 minutes resulting in a depth of 100 μm. The wells and the recording chamber were completely etched through resulting in holes in the wafer at these points. The channels were sealed to a 3″, 1000 μm thick wafer of Corning #7740 borosilicate glass using anodic bonding at a temperature of 450° C. and a voltage of 1000 V. The maximum current during bonding was typically 500 μA. Example 2 Re-sensitization of Patch-Clamped Cells Using Microfluidic-Based Buffer Superfusion and Cell Scanning Microchannels were molded in a polymer, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), which were then sealed irreversibly onto a glass coverslip to form an enclosed channel having four walls. The procedure used is the following: (1) A silicon master used for molding PDMS was fabricated by first cleaning the wafer to ensure good adhesion to the photoresist, followed by spin coating a layer (˜50 μm) of negative photoresist (SU 8-50) onto the wafer. This layer of negative photoresist was then soft baked to evaporate the solvents contained in the photoresist. Photolithography with a mask aligner was carried out using a photomask having the appropriate patterns that were prepared using e-beam writing. The exposed wafer was then baked and developed by washing away the unexposed photoresist in an appropriate developer (e.g. propylene glycol methyl ether acetate). (2) This developed wafer (master) was surface passivated by silanizing in vacuo with a few hundred microliters of tridecafluoro-1,1,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl-1-trichlorosilane for a few hours. (3) Degassed PDMS prepolymer was poured on top of the silicon master and left in an oven to cure at 60° C. for two hours, (4) The cured PDMS mold containing the microchannel features was then sealed irreversibly to a glass substrate after oxidization in an oxygen plasma for ˜1 min. Channel dimensions we used in this example were approximately 100 μm wide and 50 μm deep. The experiments described here used a simple single-channel structure. This microchannel was interfaced to a polyethylene tubing by first punching a smooth hole through the PDMS with a sharp hole-puncher having the appropriate dimensions. Polyethylene tubing having an outer diameter slightly greater the punched hole was inserted into the hole, and the tubing formed a pressure seal owing to the elastomeric nature of PDMS. The polyethylene tubing was connected to a syringe needle having the appropriate size (gauge), which was connected to a syringe. Controlled pressure for driving fluid flow was accomplished with a high precision syringe pump (CMA/100, Microinjection pump, Carnegei Medicin). Patch clamp experiments were carried out in the whole-cell configuration. The pipettes for whole-cell recording were fabricated from thick-walled borosilicate glass capillaries having an outer diameter of 1.5 mm and an inner diameter of 0.86 mm (Harvard Apparatus LTD Edenbridge, Kent, UK). The diameters and the resistances of the tips were ˜2.5 μM and 5-15 MΩ, respectively. The estimated series resistance was always <50 MΩ and holding potentials were corrected for voltage errors due to series resistance. The patch clamp electrode solution contained 100-mM KCl, 2-mM MgCl2, 1-mM CaCl2, 11-mM EGTA, and 10 -mM HEPES; pH was adjusted to 7.2 with KOH. All experiments were performed at room temperature (18-22°C.). Signals were recorded with an Axopatch 200 A (Axon inc. California, U.S.A) patch-clamp amplifier, at a holding potential of −70 mV, and were digitized and stored on the computer hard drive (sample frequency 10 kHz, filter frequency 200 Hz using a 8 pole Bessel filter) and analyzed using a PC and Clampfit 8.1 software (Axon inc.). The experimental chamber containing the microchannel structure was mounted on an inverted microscope stage equipped with 40×and 10×objectives (Nikon, Japan). Mounted to the microscope was a CCD camera (Hamamatsu) connected to a video for recording of the scan rates, the sampling rate for the video was 25 Hz. This equipment together with micromanipulators (Narishigi, Japan) was placed on a vibration-isolated table inside a Faraday cage. The patch clamp amplifier, the Digidata board, filters, the video and PCs, were kept outside the cage to minimize interference from line frequency. Adherent PC-12 cells were cultivated on circular cover slips in Petrie dishes for 2-6 days (DMEM/F12 medium supplemented with antibiotics and antimyocotin (0.2%), fetal calf serum (10%), and L-glutamine). Before the patch clamp experiments, cells were washed and detached in a HEPES-saline buffer, containing (in mM): 10 HEPES, 140 NaCl, 5 KCl, 1 CaCl2, 1 MgCl2, 10 D-glucose (pH 7.4), and placed in the open buffer reservoir at the outlet of the microchannel. The strength of the seals was tested with cells that were patched-clamped without entering into a whole-cell configuration. A membrane holding potential of−70 mV was applied and the cell was positioned 10 Jum away from the channel outlet. Different flow rates, which varied between 0.3-21 mm/s, were applied while the seal was continuously monitored. The patched seal was stable (no shift in the current trace) for flow rates up to 6.7 mm/s, in this particular experiment. For the re-sensitization experiment, agonist was added to the open reservoir where the cell was patched while buffer was delivered from the syringe into the microchannel and exits the microchannel into the open reservoir. The patch-clamped cell was placed ˜10 μm away from the outlet of the microchannel. The reservoir in which the patch-clamped cell resides was filled with 1 mM acetylcholine (agonists). Buffer was delivered by the syringe pump into the microchannel and was continuously flown through the microchannel at ˜3 mm/s. No current was observed while the giga Ohm seal was stable (5-20 Gohm) as the cell was moved, in a direction parallel to the microchannel, from ˜10 μM to 80 ˜μm from the outlet of the microchannel. This fact means the patch-clamped cell was superfused by the buffer exiting from the microchannel and thus was not in contact with the agonists in the open reservoir. At ˜80 μm from the outlet of the microchannel, the patched cell was scanned repeatedly at ˜100 μm/s, in a direction perpendicular to the microchannel, between the reservoir containing agonists and the microchannel outlet (FIG. 20). De-sensitization of the current response could be observed after exposure to the agonist for longer periods of time (>5 s) as a decrease of the mean whole-cell current. No de-sensitization of the cells was seen for the shorter exposure times (<5 s) to the agonist nor for repeatedly short exposures as long as the patched cell was re-sensitized in agonist free buffer between each exposure. Example 3 Rapid Scanning Of A Patch-Clamped Cell Across Interdigitated Streams Of Ligands And Buffer For HTS Applications One preferred embodiment for implementing HTS using the current invention is to scan a patch-clamped cell rapidly across interdigitated streams of buffer and ligands, with each ligand stream corresponding to a different drug. In these applications, as discussed above, both the flow rate of the fluids exiting the microchannels and the scan rate of the patch clamped cell are important. FIGS. 21A-D show the response of patch-clamped whole cells after being scanned across the outlets of a 7-channel structure. The width of each channel is 100 μm, the thickness is 50 μm, and the interchannel spacing is 25 μm. This 7-channel structure is identical to that shown in FIG. 16B. The procedure used for fabricating the microchannels and for patch clamping are identical to that described in Example 2 (see above). The patch clamped cell used was a PC-12 cell, which was placed between 10 to 20 micrometers away from the outlets of the microchannels. Channels 1, 3, 5 and 7 were filled with PBS buffer, while channels 2, 4 and 6 were filled with acetylcholine. The flow rate of the fluid streams was 6.8 mm/s. In FIGS. 21A-D, a patch-clamped cell was scanned across interdigitated streams at four different scan rates: A, 0.61 mm/s; B, 1.22 mm/s; C, 2 mm/s; and D, 4 mm/s. The difference in the scan rate is reflected in the width of the whole cell current response peaks, the wider the width, the longer the transit time and the wider the peak width. In addition, for slow scan rates (e.g., FIG. 21A), the maximal response for each peak decreases as the patch-clamped cell is scanned from one acetylcholine stream to the next. This decrease in the peak response is caused by desensitisation of the patch-clamped cell as a result of the slow scan rate that led to a longer residence time for the cell in the acetylcholine stream. From FIG. 21A, it can seen the decrease in height from the second to third peak is greater when compared to the decrease from the first to second peak. This is consistent with the fact that the longer residence time (i.e., larger peak width) of the patch-clamped cell in the second stream causes more desensitisation. As the scan rate increases (FIGS. 21C and 21D), the residence time in the acetylcholine stream decreases and desensitisation is no longer an issue. For fast scan rates (e.g., tens of ms) as shown, for example, in FIG. 21D, no desensitisation can be detected. FIG. 22 shows the opposite scenario in which the scan rate is slow (seconds), and desensitisation is pronounced as the patch-clamped cell is scanned across the width of the acetylcholine stream. From these experiments, it is clear that controlling the scan rate is critical for achieving optimal performance of the system for HTS applications. Scanning rates can be controlled by any of the mechanisms described above or by other methods known in the art. Data obtained by the system relating to the dynamics of desensitisation and re-sensitization can be exploited to provide useful information in elucidating ion-channel pharmacology, kinetics and identity. Example 4 Dose-Response Measurements By Rapid Scanning Of A Patch-Clamped Cell Across Interdigitated Streams Of Buffer And Ligands Having Different Concentrations The channel structure and experimental setup used in Example 3 can be used to carry out dose-response measurements, in which the concentrations of the ligands in each of the ligand streams differ by predetermined amounts. FIG. 23 shows the result of one such experiment, in which three different concentrations (1 μM, 12 μM and 200 μM) of nicotine were applied to a patch-clamped cell. In this 7-channel structure, channels 1, 3, 5 and 7 were filled with PBS buffer, whereas channels 2, 4, and 6 were filled with 1 μM, 12 μM, and 200 μM nicotine, respectively. The flow rate used was 3.24 mm/s and the cell-scanning speed was 250 μm/s. The patch-clamped cell was placed between 10 to 20 μm away from the outlet of the microchannel. At 1 μM concentration of nicotine, the whole-cell current response was barely discernible in the patch-clamp trace. The current peak for 12 μM was detected with good signal-to-noise ratio, and the peak that corresponds to 200 μM was approximately 15 to 20 times that of the peak for 12 μM. With these measurements, a dose-response curve can be generated that provides valuable information about drug action and ion-channel pharmacology. It should be emphasized that a number of on-chip techniques for gradient generation as well as off-chip methods for preparing different concentrations of ligands can be used (see, e.g., Dertinger, et al., 2001, Analytical Chemistry 73: 1240-1246). In addition, the number of different concentrations used for constructing dose-response curves will in most cases be greater than that used in this example, and will depend on the required concentration resolution and range desired for a particular application. Example 5 The Microfluidic Device and the Basic Set-Up Electrophysiology experiments were performed using a commercially available microfluidic device for patch-clamp (Dynaflow 16, Cellectricon AB, Goteborg Sweden). The device has 16 channels of dimensions 50×57 μm (w×h) separated by 22 μm thick walls at the point of exit into the open volume. The volume of the 16 sample reservoirs is 80 μl and the dimensions of the open volume are 30×35 mm. Prior to experiments the device was loaded with different solutions using a micropipette. A 2 mm thick polycarbonate lid was attached over the sample reservoirs using double adhesive tape (3M, Stockholm, Sweden) to create a closed system. The lid was connected to a syringe with PE tubing and a syringe pump (CMA/100, microinjection pump, Carnegie Medicine, Cambridge, UK) was used to compress the air enclosed by the lid to initiate a well defined pressure driven flow in the channels. Example 6 Cell Culture Adherent WSS-1 cells were cultivated in Petri dishes for 4-8 days in (DMEM/F12) medium supplemented with antibiotics and antimycotin (0.2%), fetal calf serum (10%), and L-glutamine. Before the experiments, cells were washed and detached in a HEPES-saline buffer (HBS) containing (in mM): 10 HEPES, 140 NaCl, 5 KCl, 1 CaCl2, 1 MgCl2, and 10 D-glucose (pH 7.4). All chemicals used in the cell cultures were from Sigma-Aldrich (Sigma-Aldrich Sweden AB, Stockholm, Sweden). Example 7 Electrophysiology Patch clamp experiments were carried out in the whole-cell configuration (holding potential −60 mV, sampling frequency 5 kHz filter frequency 1 KHz). The cell bath solution (HBS) contained 10-mM HEPES, 140-mM NaCl, 5-mM KCl, 1-mM CaCl2, 1-mM MgCl2, 10-mM D-glucose (pH 7.4). The patch clamp electrode solution contained 100-mM KCl, 2-mM MgCl2, 1−mM CaCl2, 11−mM EGTA, and 10−mM HEPES; pH was adjusted to 7.2 with KOH. The experiments were performed at room temperature (18-22° C.). Example 8 Preparing the GABAA receptors in separate states and the use of these stages as transient memory storage elements Dose-response curves were obtained. Every other microchannel of a substrate was loaded with 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, and 500 μM GABA, interdigitated with buffer solution for clearance after each agonist exposure. We scanned the patch-clamped cells across the channel outlets in either ascending (low-to-high; starting with an exposure to 1 μM GABA) or descending order (high-to-low; starting with an exposure to 500 μM GABA). Scans were performed using ten different constant scanning velocities yielding exposure times, texp ranging from 30 ms to 10 s (n=3-6 scans for each texp). The exposure times, and the wash time twash, were kept equivalent during each scan. The influence of twash was investigated separately and shown to have minimal influence on data for twash up to 30 s for texp >1 s. The wait time trest, between an ascending and a descending scan was always >3 min, during which the cell was superfused with buffer solution. FIG. 30A-F shows peak-current dose response-curves obtained pair-wise from the same cell for six different exposure times. When texp is less than 100 ms, the dose-response curves obtained in ascending order are close to identical to dose-response curves obtained in descending order in concern of dynamic range, whereas they are strikingly different at tep >100 ms. Thus, at these longer exposure times, (which we later will show is caused by differential population of slowly desensitized state of the receptor), the response function of the receptor is critically dependent on initial dose of agonist. This is a sign of receptor hysteresis, and proof of the existence of an activation-dependent molecular memory. When the receptor is titrated in ascending order, we obtained for all texp investigated, a classical sigmoidal dose-response function with a dynamic range of less than two orders of magnitude (FIG. 32A-F). For doses applied in descending order, a similar sigmoidal response function is obtained for texp less than 100 ms, whereas at longer times the gating response is non-saturable and displays almost a linear increase for the higher doses (FIG. 32A-F). To get an understanding of the dynamic range of the receptor when titrated in descending order, we performed dose-response experiments using GABA concentrations up to 5 mM that shows that the receptor has a linear response spanning at least four orders of magnitude (data not shown). CSPC experiments were performed to determine the duration of the activation-dependent molecular memory. Dose-response curves were obtained starting either with ascending-order scans, followed by descending-order scans or vice versa i.e. by starting with descending-order scans followed by ascending-order scans. Two sets of experiments were performed with texp=100 ms or 3s, and trest=0, 30, 120 or 300 seconds, respectively, to find the time point in which no difference in the dose-response curves could be discerned for the different values of trest(FIG. 30 g). For values of trest, up to 30 seconds, memories of the previous stimulations could be seen, whereas increasing trest, further (>120 seconds) eliminated this effect. This shows that the activation-dependent molecular memory under these conditions persist for at least up to 30 s. We have so far shown that the response function and dynamic range of GABAA receptors is different when applying doses in descending and ascending order. We will now take a closer look on the effect of texp and show that it effectively tunes the sensitivity of the receptor both when titrated in ascending, and descending order. FIGS. 31A-B show normalized ascending, and descending-order dose-response curves, respectively, obtained at different values of tep The dose-response curves were normalized to the response obtained at 500 μM and averaged (n=3-6 cells). EC50 values, and Hill slopes were calculated by fitting the data to a sigmoidal logistic Hill function. Dose-response curves for doses applied in ascending order are distinctly shifted towards lower concentrations with increasing exposure time (FIG. 31A). In contrast, the dose response curves for doses applied in descending order are shifted towards higher concentrations. Specifically, for doses applied in ascending order, increased exposure times decreases the EC50-values from 35 μM (texp=30 ms) to 10 μM (texp=10 s) (FIG. 31C), while the Hill slope increases from 1.7 to 2.5 (FIG. 31D). The decrease of EC50-values follows two distinct phases that approximately can be fitted to a double exponential decay having time constants of 4.34 ms for the fast initial phase, and 309 ms for the slow phase, indicating transition between two different states of the receptor. For doses applied in descending order, the EC50 increases from ˜40 μM to ˜130 μM (FIG. 31C), with a Hill slope of about 1,with increasing exposure times (FIG. 31D). In addition, the change of the EC50-values follows three distinct phases. Initially, a phase of fast decrease is observed, followed by a phase of fast increase, and finally a phase of slow increase. The respective time constants for the different phases are 3.85 ms, 3.79 ms, and 2555 ms, respectively. Thus, a fast initial decrease during short exposure times (30-100 ms) is seen for doses applied in both ascending and descending order. During longer exposure times, the receptor is gradually tuned toward two different states with distinctly different EC50-values, and Hill slopes. Notably, the EC50-values comparing ascending and descending scans differ by as much as a factor of thirteen. Taken together, the results show that the level of receptor gating is dependent both on the initial dose as well as the duration of the exposure. The Hill slope on the other hand, is only dependent on the initial concentration, and displays only small changes with increasing exposure time. These changes are consistently seen also on timescales up to one minute. The frequency dependence of the molecular memory was also investigated. Specifically, experiments in which performed does-responses were measured from a cell exposed to repeated brief pulses (texp and twash =100 ms) of GABA (FIG. 32a) for a duration of 6 s interdigitaded with rest time in buffer twash =3 or 180 s before it was exposed to the next GABA concentration. Example 9 Characterization and validation receptor modulators such as drugs and pharmaceutically active substances The competitive antagonist bicuculline was used at the concentrations of 0.01, 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 100 μM. The bicuculline samples were loaded together with 100 μM GABA to explore the effects. As in the experiments with agonist, every second channel was filled with buffer solution for cleansing, and a resting time in buffer of at least three minutes was used before a return scan was made. Dose-response curves were obtained with texp of 100 ms and 3 s. When the antagonist was applied in ascending order, IC50 -values of 5.17 +0.4 μM (texp =100 ms), and 8.46±1.4 μM (texp=3 s) respectively were obtained. In contrast, descending-order applications yielded IC50 values of 3.56±0.9 μM (texp=100 ms) and 1.84±0.4 μM (texp=3 s). Thus, there is nearly a factor five difference in blocking efficacy at long exposure times comparing ascending and descending scans. Overall, the results show that the activation memory of the receptor has an impact on the potency of specific drugs. Dose-response experiments were also preformed with GABA as before with a fixed concentration of 1 μM Bicuculline, roughly corresponding to the IC20-value. FIG. 33 A and B show that the dose-response curves obtained in this manner are displaced to the left at higher concentration compared to pure GABA responses. For ascending-order scans, the dose-response curve is displaced to a larger extent than for the descending-order scans. Furthermore, addition of the antagonist eradicates some of the differences observed in dynamic range and tunability for pure GABA responses. Without wishing to be bound by any scientific theory, this could mean that a fixed concentration of antagonist levels out the effect of having different initial concentrations of agonist, especially for longer exposure times. It also implies that to some extent, the receptors have lost their ability to decode concentration- and time-dependent signals by addition of antagonists. FIGS. 34 a and b show the results of a patch-clamp experiment. Patch clamp experiments were performed using a 16 channel microfluidic chip loaded for dose-response experiments with GABA (1, 5, 10, 20 50 100 and 500 mM) and a fixed concentration of 1 μM Bicuculline, which roughly corresponds to the IC20-value. These sample channels were interdigitized with buffer channels in every other channel, and the exposure time were set to either 100 ms or 3s. Variations, modifications, and other implementations of what is described herein will occur to those of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The publications, patents, applications and other references cited herein are all incorporated by reference in their entirety herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Of mammalian tissues, the central nervous system is one of the most complex, both in terms of structure and function. The brain has an incredible capacity for executing a multitude of computational tasks and possesses several intricate forms of memory mechanisms. Understanding the function of a variety of CNS processes in the healthy and diseased brain has been one of the most intensively studied by mankind but is still not well-established and understood. Ion-channels are important therapeutic targets. Neuronal communication, heart function, and memory all critically rely upon the function of ligand-gated and voltage-gated ion-channels. In addition, a broad range of chronic and acute pathophysiological states in many organs such as the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and brain involve ion channels. Indeed, many existing drugs bind receptors directly or indirectly connected to ion-channels. For example, anti-psychotic drugs interact with receptors involved in dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Because of the importance of ion-channels as drug targets, there is a need for methods which enable high throughput screening (HTS) of compounds acting on ligand-gated and voltage-gated channels (see e.g., Sinclair et al., 2002, Anal. Chem. 74: 6133-6138). However, existing HTS drug discovery systems targeting ion channels generally miss significant drug activity because they employ indirect methods, such as raw binding assays or fluorescence-based readouts. Although as many as ten thousand drug leads can be identified from a screen of a million compounds, identification of false positives and false negatives can still result in a potential highly therapeutic blockbuster drug being ignored, and in unnecessary and costly investments in false drug leads. Patch clamp methods are superior to any other technology for measuring ion channel activity in cells, and can measure currents across cell membranes in ranges as low as picoAmps (see, e.g., Neher and Sakmann, 1976, Nature 260: 799-802; Hamill, et al., 1981, Pflugers Arch 391: 85-100; Sakmann and Neher, 1983 , In Single-Channel Recording pp. 37-52, Eds. B. Sakmann and E. Neher. New York and London, Plenum Press, 1983). However, patch clamp methods generally have not been the methods of choice for developing HTS platforms. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention provides microfluidic systems for altering the solution environment around a nanoscopic or microscopic object, such as a sensor, and methods for using the same. The invention can be applied in any sensor technology in which the sensing element needs to be exposed rapidly, sequentially, and controllably, to a large number of different solution environments (e.g., greater than 10 and preferably, greater than about 96 different environments) whose characteristics may be known or unknown. In contrast to prior art microfluidic systems, the interval between sample deliveries is minimized, e.g., on the order of microseconds and seconds, permitting rapid analysis of compounds (e.g., drugs). According to one aspect, the invention provides a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors. The system comprises a substrate for changing a solution environment around a sensor, the substrate comprising a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet; and a scanning mechanism for selectively exposing a sensor to a fluid stream from an outlet, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. According to another aspect, the invention provides, a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising an open-volume chamber for receiving a sensor; and a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate fluid stream into the chamber, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. According to yet another aspect, the invention provides a system for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising a substrate for changing a solution environment around a sensor, the substrate comprising a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate fluid stream to a sensor; and a processor for controlling delivery of fluid from each channel to the sensor, wherein each of the channels delivers a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. In one aspect, at least one channel is in communication with a reservoir. In a related aspect, a system has a plurality of buffer reservoirs and sample reservoirs. In another related aspect, each reservoir is in communication with a different channel. In yet another related aspect, the system has alternating sample and buffer reservoirs. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for applying positive or negative pressure to the reservoir. In one aspect, the scanning mechanism comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels. In another aspect, the system further comprises at least one drain channel communicating with the chamber. According to one aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for holding a sensor, which is coupled or connected to a positioner for positioning the sensor in proximity to an outlet of a channel. In a related aspect, the mechanism for holding the sensor comprises a mechanism for holding a cell. In another related aspect, the sensor comprises a cell or a portion of a cell. Another related aspect provides, a cell as a patch clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction. Yet another relates aspect provides, a cell or portion of the cell comprises an ion channel. Still another related aspect provides a cell or portion of a cell is selected from cultured cell, a bacterial cell, a protist cell, a yeast cell, a plant cell, an insect cell, an avian cell, an amphibian cell, a fish cell, a mammalian cell, an oocyte, a cell expressing a recombinant nucleic acid, and a cell from a patient with a pathological condition. According to one aspect, the cell or portion of the cell is positioned in proximity to the outlet of a channel using a positioner. In one aspect, the system further comprises a sensor selected from a surface plasmon energy sensor; an FET sensor; an ISFET; an electrochemical sensor; an optical sensor; an acoustic wave biosensor; a sensor comprising a sensing element associated with a Quantum Dot particle; a polymer-based biosensor; and an array of biomolecules immobilized on a substrate. In a related aspect, wherein the system comprises a plurality of sensors. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels in the substrate for selectively exposing a cell in a well to a fluid stream from a selected channel. In another aspect, the system further comprises a scanning mechanism for selectively exposing a sensor to a fluid stream from an outlet. In related aspect, the scanning mechanism comprises a mechanism for varying pressure across one or more channels in the substrate sequentially. In another aspect, the system further comprises a processor in communication with the scanning mechanism. In a related aspect, the processor controls one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, pause intervals at a channel and pressure changes across one or more channels. In another related aspect, the processor controls the exposure time. In another aspect, the system further comprises a detector in communication with the sensor for detecting the responses of a sensor in the chamber. In a related aspect, the detector communicates with a processor comprising a data acquisition system. According to one aspect, each of the channels of the system is adapted to deliver a fluid stream into the open volume chamber. In one aspect, the system is interfaced to a fluid delivery system operably linked to a micropump for pumping fluids from the fluid delivery system into one or more reservoirs of the substrate. In a related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of sequentially delivering different types of samples and/or buffer to the one or more reservoirs. In another related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of programmably delivering a selected volume or concentration of sample or buffer to at least one reservoir. In yet another related aspect, the system has alternating sample and buffer reservoirs. In another related aspect, the fluid delivery system is capable of programmably delivering a selected volume or concentration of sample or buffer to at least one reservoir at a selected time interval. In another aspect, the system further comprises at least one output channel for removing fluid from the system. In another aspect, the system further comprises a mechanism for delivering positive or negative pressure to at least one of the channels. In a related aspect, the mechanism for delivering pressure is in communication with a processor. In one aspect, the substrate comprises a material selected from a crystalline semiconductor material; silicon; silicon nitride; Ge, GaAs; metals; Al, Ni; glass; quartz; crystalline insulator; ceramics; plastics; an elastomeric material; silicone; EPDM; Hostaflon; a polymer; a fluoropolymer; Teflon®; polymethylmethacrylate; polydimethylsiloxane; polyethylene; polypropylene; polybutylene; polymethylpentene; polystyrene; polyurethane; polyvinyl chloride; polyarylate; polyarylsulfone; polycaprolactone; polyestercarbonate; polyimide; polyketone; polyphenylsulfone; polyphthalamide; polysulfone; polyamide; polyester; epoxy polymer; thermoplastic; an organic material; an inorganic material; combinations thereof. In one aspect, the substrate is three-dimensional and at least two of the channels lie at least partially in different planes. In one aspect, the invention provides a substrate comprises an open-volume chamber for the sensor, and a plurality of channels. Each channel comprises an outlet for delivering a substantially separate aqueous or other liquid stream into the chamber. In one aspect, the outlets are substantially parallel, i.e., arrayed linearly in a single plane. The dimensions of the outlets can vary; however, in one aspect, where the sensor is a biological cell, the diameter of each of the outlets is, preferably, at least about the diameter of the cell. Preferably, a plurality, if not all, of the channels programmably deliver a fluid stream into the chamber. In a preferred aspect, each channel of the substrate comprises at least one inlet for receiving solution from a reservoir, conforming in geometry and placement on the substrate to the geometry and placement of wells in a multi-well plate. For example, the substrate can comprise 96-1024 reservoirs, each connected to an independent channel on the substrate. Preferably, the center-to-center distance of each reservoir corresponds to the center-to-center distance of wells in an industry standard microtiter or multi-well plate. In a further aspect, the substrate comprises one or more treatment chambers or microchambers for delivering a treatment to a cell placed within the treatment chamber. The treatment can comprise exposing the cell to a chemical or compound, (e.g. drugs or dyes, such as calcium ion chelating fluorogenic dyes), exposing the cell to an electrical current (e.g., electroporafion, electrofusion, and the like), or exposing the cell to light (e.g., exposure to a particular wavelength of light). A treatment chamber can be used for multiple types of treatments which may be delivered sequentially or simultaneously. For example, an electrically treated cell also can be exposed to a chemical or compound and/or exposed to light. Treatment can be continuous over a period of time or intermittent (e.g., spaced over regular or irregular intervals). The cell treatment chamber can comprise a channel with an outlet for delivering a treated cell to the sensor chamber or directly to a mechanism for holding the cell connected to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner or nanopositioner) for positioning the cell within the chamber. Preferably, the base of the sensor chamber is optically transmissive and in one aspect, the system further comprises a light source (e.g., such as a laser) in optical communication with the open volume chamber. The light source can be used to continuously or intermittently expose the sensor to light of the same or different wavelengths. The sensor chamber and/or channels additionally can be equipped with control devices. For example, the sensor chamber and/or channels can comprise temperature sensors, pH sensors, and the like, for providing signals relating to chamber and/or channel conditions to a system processor. The sensor chamber can be adapted for receiving a variety of different sensors. In one aspect, the sensor comprises a cell or a portion of a cell (e.g., a cell membrane fraction). In another aspect, the cell or cell membrane fraction comprises an ion channel, including, but not limited to, a presynaptically-expressed ion channel, a ligand-gated channel, a voltage-gated channel, and the like. In a further aspect, the cell comprises a receptor, such as a G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR), or an orphan receptor for which no ligand is known, or a receptor comprising a known ligand. A cultured cell can be used as a sensor and can be selected from the group consisting of CHO cells, NIH-3T3 cells, and HEK-293 cells, and can be recombinantly engineered to express a sensing molecule such as an ion channel or receptor. Many other different cell types also can be used, which can be selected from the group consisting of mammalian cells (e.g., including, but not limited to human cells, primate cells, bovine cells, swine cells, other domestic animals, and the like); bacterial cells; protist cells; yeast cells; plant cells; invertebrate cells, including insect cells; amphibian cells; avian cells; fish; and the like. A cell membrane fraction can be isolated from any of the cells described above, or can be generated by aggregating a liposome or other lipid-based particle with a sensing molecule, such as an ion channel or receptor, using methods routine in the art. The cell or portion of the cell can be positioned in the chamber using a mechanism for holding the cell or cell portion, such as a pipette (e.g., a patch clamp pipette) or a capillary connected to a positioner (e.g., such as a micropositioner or nanopositioner or micromanipulator), or an optical tweezer. Preferably, the positioner moves the pipette at least in an x-, y-, z-, direction. Alternatively or additionally, the positioner may rotate the pipette. Also, preferably, the posifioner is coupled to a drive unit which communicates with a processor, allowing movement of the pipette to be controlled by the processor. In one aspect, the base of the chamber comprises one or more depressions and the cell or portion of the cell is placed in a depression which can be in communication with one or more electrodes (e.g., the sensor can comprise a planar patch clamp chip). Non-cell-based sensors also can be used in the system. Suitable non-cell based sensors include, but are not limited to: a surface plasmon energy sensor; an FET sensor; an ISFET; an electrochemical sensor; an optical sensor; an acoustic wave sensor; a sensor comprising a sensing element associated with a Quantum Dot particle; a polymer-based sensor; a single molecule or an array of molecules (e.g., nucleic acids, peptides, polypeptides, small molecules, and the like) immobilized on a substrate. The sensor chamber also can comprise a plurality of different types of sensors, non-cell based and/or cell-based. A sensor substrate can be affixed to the base of the chamber or the substrate can simply be placed on the base of the chamber. Alternatively, the base of the chamber itself also can serve as the sensor substrate and one or more sensing elements can be stably associated with the base using methods routine in the art. In one aspect, sensing elements are associated at known locations on a substrate or on the base of the sensor chamber. However, an object placed within a chamber need not be a sensor. For example, the object can be a colloidal particle, beads, nanotube, a non-sensing molecule, silicon wafer, or other small elements. The invention also provides a system comprising a substrate, which comprises at least one chamber for receiving a cell-based biosensor, a plurality of channels, at least one cell storage chamber and at least one cell treatment chamber. Preferably, each channel comprises an outlet for delivering a fluid stream into the chamber, and the cell treatment chamber is adapted for delivering an electrical current to a cell placed within the cell treatment chamber. In one aspect, the cell treatment chamber further comprises a channel with an outlet for delivering a cell to the sensor chamber for receiving the cell-based biosensor. The system can be used to rapidly, programmably, and sequentially, change the solution environment around a cell which has been electroporated and/or electrofused, and/or otherwise treated within the cell treatment chamber. Alternatively, or additionally, the sensor chamber also can be used as a treatment chamber and in one aspect, the sensor chamber is in electrical communication with one or more electrodes for continuously or intermittently exposing a sensor to an electric field. In one aspect, a system according to the invention further comprises a scanning mechanism for scanning the position of a sensor relative to the outlets of the channels. The scanning mechanism can translate the substrate relative to a stationary sensor, or can translate the sensor relative to a stationary substrate, or can move both sensor and substrate at varying rates and directions relative to each other. In one aspect, the sensor is positioned relative to an outlet using a mechanism for holding the sensor (e.g., such as a pipette or capillary) coupled to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner or nanopositioner or micromanipulator). Thus, the positioner can be used to move the sensor across a plurality of fluid streams exiting the outlets of the channels by moving the mechanism for holding the sensor. Alternatively, or additionally, scanning also can be regulated by producing pressure drops sequentially across adjacent microchannels. Preferably, the scanning mechanism is in communication with a processor and translation occurs in response to instructions from the processor (e.g., programmed instructions or instructions generated as a result of a feedback signal). In one aspect, the processor controls one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, and number of scans. Thus, the system can be used to move nanoscopic and microscopic objects in a chamber to user-selected, or system-selected coordinates, for specified (e.g., programmable) lengths of time. Preferably, the system processor also can be used to locate the position of one or more objects in the chamber, e.g., in response to previous scanning actions and/or in response to optical signals from the objects detected by the system detector. In one aspect, the system further comprises a user device in communication with the processor which comprises a graphical user display for interfacing with a user. For example, the display can be used to display coordinates of object(s) within the chamber, or optical data or other data obtained from the chamber. The invention additionally provides a substrate comprising a chamber for receiving a cell-based biosensor, which comprises a receptor or ion channel. In one aspect, the system sequentially exposes a cell-based biosensor for short periods of time to one or several ligands which binds to the receptor/ion channel and to buffer without ligand for short periods of time through interdigitated channels of the substrate. For example, selective exposure of a cell biosensor to these different solution conditions for short periods of time can be achieved by scanning the cell-based biosensor across interdigitated channels, which alternate delivery of one or several ligands and buffer. The flow of buffer and sample solution in each microfluidic channel is preferably a steady state flow at constant velocity. However, in another aspect, the system delivers pulses (e.g., pulsatile on/off flow) of buffer to a receptor through a superfusion capillary positioned in proximity to both the cell-based biosensor or other type of sensor and to an outlet through which a fluid is streaming. For example, the system can comprise a mechanism for holding the sensor, which is coupled to a positioner (e.g., a micropositioner, nanopositioner, micromanipulator, etc.) for positioning the c sensor in proximity to the outlet and a capillary comprising an outlet in sufficient proximity to the mechanism for holding the sensor to deliver a buffer from the capillary to the sensor. A scanning mechanism can be used to move both the capillary and sensor simultaneously, to maintain the appropriate proximity of the capillary to the sensor. The capillary also can be coupled to a pumping mechanism to provide pulsatile delivery of buffer to the sensor. In another aspect, the flow rate of buffer from the one or more superfusion capillaries in proximity to one or more sensors can be higher or lower than the flow rate of fluid from the channels. The invention further provides a substrate, which comprises a circular chamber for receiving a sensor, comprising a cylindrical wall and a base. In one aspect, the substrate comprises a plurality of channels comprising outlets whose openings are radially disposed about the circumference of the wall of the chamber (e.g., in a spokes-wheel configuration), for delivering samples into the chamber. Preferably, the substrate also comprises at least one output channel for draining waste from the chamber. In one aspect, at least one additional channel delivers buffer to the chamber. Preferably, the angle between the at least one additional channel for delivering buffer and the output channel is greater than 10°. More preferably, the angle is greater than 90°. The channel “spokes” may all lie in the same plane, or at least two of the spokes may lie in different planes. Rapid, programmed, sequential exchange of solutions in the chamber is used to alter the solution environment around a sensor placed in the chamber and multiple output channels can be provided in this configuration. For example, there may be an output channel for each channel for delivering sample/buffer. The number of channels for delivering also can be varied, e.g., to render the substrate suitable for interfacing with an industry standard microtiter plate. For example, there may be 96 to 1024 channels for delivering samples. In another aspect, there may be an additional, equal number of channels for delivering buffer (e.g., to provide interdigitating fluid streams of sample and buffer). The invention also provides a multi-layered substrate for changing the solution environment around a sensor, comprising: a first substrate comprising channels for delivering fluid to a sensor; a filter layer for retaining one or more sensors which is in proximity to the first substrate; and a second substrate comprising a waste reservoir for receiving fluid from the filter layer. One or more sensors can be provided between the first substrate and the filter layer. In one aspect, at least one of the sensors is a cell. Preferably, the system further comprises a mechanism for creating a pressure differential between the first and second substrate to force fluid flowing from channels in the first substrate through the filter and into the waste reservoir, i.e., providing rapid fluid exchange through the filter (i.e., sensor) layer. The invention additionally provides a substrate, which comprises a chamber for receiving a sensor, a first channel comprising an outlet intersecting with the chamber, and a plurality of sample delivery channels intersecting with the first channel. The first channel also is connected to a buffer reservoir (e.g., through a connecting channel). In one aspect, the longitudinal axes of the sample delivery channels are parallel with respect to each other, but are angled with respect to the longitudinal axis of the first channel (e.g., providing a “fish bone” shape). Rapid flow of solution through the first channel and/or sample channels can be achieved through a positive pressure mechanism in communication with the buffer reservoir and/or sample channels. Passive one-way valves can be provided at the junction between sample delivery channels and the first channel to further regulate flow rates. In one aspect, at least one of the sample reservoirs is sealed by a septum which can comprise a needle or tube inserted therein. The invention further provides a substrate, which comprises a chamber for receiving a sensor, a plurality of delivery channels comprising outlets for feeding sample or buffer into the chamber, and a plurality of drain channels comprising inlets opposite the outlets of the delivery channels. The longitudinal axes of the delivery channels can be in the same, or a different plane, from the longitudinal axes of the drain channels. In one aspect, the plurality of drain channels is on top of the plurality of inlet channels (i.e., the substrate is three-dimensional). Any of the systems described above can further comprise a pressure control device for controlling positive and negative pressure applied to at least one microchannel of the substrate. In systems where substrates comprise both delivery channels as well as output channel(s), the system preferably further comprises a mechanism for applying a positive pressure to at least one delivery channel while applying a negative pressure to at least one output channel. Preferably, hydrostatic pressure at at least one of the channels can be changed in response to a feedback signal received by the processor. The system can thus regulate when, and through which channel, a fluid stream is withdrawn from the chamber. For example, after a defined period of time, a fluid stream can be withdrawn from the chamber through the same channel through which it entered the system or through a different channel. When a drain channel is adjacent to a delivery channel, the system can generate a U-shaped fluid stream, which can efficiently recycle compounds delivered through delivery channels. As described above, multiple delivery channel configurations can be provided: straight, angled, branched, fish-bone shaped, and the like. In one aspect, each delivery channel comprises one or more intersecting channels whose longitudinal axes are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the delivery channels. In another aspect, each delivery channel comprises one or more intersecting channels whose longitudinal axes are at an angle with respect to the delivery channel. In general, any of the channel configurations described above are interfaceable with containers for delivering samples to the reservoirs or sample inlets (e.g., through capillaries or tubings connecting the containers with the reservoirs/inlets). In one aspect, at least one channel is branched, comprising multiple inlets. Preferably, the multiple inlets interface with a single container. However, multiple inlets also may interface with several different containers. Further, any of the substrates described above can be interfaced to a multi-well plate (e.g., a microtiter plate) through one or more external tubings or capillaries. The one or more tubings or capillaries can comprise one or more external valves to control fluid flow through the tubings or capillaries. In one aspect, a plurality of the wells of the multi-well plates comprise known solutions. The system also can be interfaced with a plurality of microtiter plates; e.g., the plates can be stacked, one on top of the other. Preferably, the system further comprises a micropump for pumping fluids from the wells of a microtiter plate or other suitable container(s) into the reservoirs of the substrate. More preferably, the system programmably delivers fluids to selected channels of the substrate through the reservoirs. In one aspect, a system according to the invention further comprises a detector in communication with a sensor chamber for detecting sensor responses. For example, the detector can be used to detect a change in one or more of: an electrical, optical, or chemical property of the sensor. In one aspect, in response to a signal from the detector, the processor alters one or more of: the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, and pressure on one or more channels. In another embodiment, the invention presents a method for modulating, controlling, preparing, or studying receptors, comprising providing a substrate, the substrate comprising a chamber comprising a cell-based biosensor comprising a receptor which is activated by an agonist; and a plurality of delivery channels delivering agonist, antagonist, or both agonist and antagonist, each channel comprising an outlet for delivering a substantially separate aqueous or other liquid stream into the chamber; and sequentially exposing the biosensor to a fluid stream from two or more outlets. According to one aspect, the chamber comprises at least one of a buffer, a sample, an agonist, anantagonist, or a combination thereof. In one aspect, the exposing is selectively exposing the biosensor to a selected concentration of a sample. In a related aspect, the exposing is selectively for a selected time. In another aspect, the system further comprises providing to the channels one or more buffers. In yet another aspect, the system further comprises exposing the biosensor to the one or more buffers. According to a related aspect, the exposing the biosensor to one or more buffers is interspersed between the exposing to one or more samples. In another related aspect, the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash period. In yet another related aspect, the exposing to one or more buffers is a rest period. In still another aspect, the system further comprises the exposing to one or more buffers is a wash and a rest period. In one aspect, a rest period in buffer is between a series of sample exposures and interdigitated by one or more wash periods in buffer. In another aspect, selectively exposing the biosensor to streams of buffer and sample. According to a related aspect, selectively exposing the biosensor to alternating streams of buffer and sample. In another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations. In another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations. In a related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations. In yet another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to ligand solutions in order of decreasing concentrations followed by exposure to ligand solutions in order of increasing concentrations. In yet another related aspect, the receptors are exposed to washing solution after ascending or descending exposures of modulator. In another aspect, the agent is selected from a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. According to one aspect, the method for studying is a method for studying the memory properties of a receptor. According to another aspect, the memory functions are short-term, medium-term, or long-term memory functions. In a related aspect, the effects of a drug on memory properties of a biosensor are studied. In another aspect, the exposing step is performed by moving the substrate or a sensor or both the substrate and the sensor relative to at least one channel outlet. In a related aspect, both the substrate and sensor are moved independently of each other. In another related aspect, the exposing further comprises producing pressure drops across one or more channels. According to one aspect, the same sample is provided to a plurality of channels. In a related aspect, different concentrations of the sample are provided to the plurality of channels. In another aspect, the system further comprises generating a dose-response curve for the sample. In one aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a patch-clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction. In a related aspect, the patch-clamped cell is positioned relative to the outlets using a patch clamp pipette coupled or connected to a positioner. According to one aspect, the sample is an agonist. In a related aspect, the sample is an antagonist. In another aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises an ion-channel. In a related aspect, the receptor comprises a G-protein coupled receptor. In another related aspect, the cell-based biosensor comprises a recombinantly expressed receptor. In still another related aspect, the recombinantly expressed receptor is an orphan receptor. In one aspect, the response to the sample is determined by measuring cell surface area. In a related aspect, the response is determined by measuring an electrical property of the cell-based biosensor. In another related aspect, the response is determined by measuring ion-channel permeability properties. In another aspect, the sample is a modulator of neurotransmitter release. According to another embodiment, a method of preparing a receptor in a discrete kinetic state is presented. The method comprises sequentially exposing a cell-based biosensor to two or more concentrations of modulator, and alternating resting and washing periods between exposures to modulator, wherein the sequential exposure arrests the biosensor in a pre-determined kinetic state. According to one aspect, the sequentially exposing ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In a related aspect, the resting ranges from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In another related aspect, the washing periods range from between about 1 ms to about 180 minutes, or from between 1 ms to about 60 minutes, or from between about 1 ms to tens of minutes, or from 1 ms to the death of the cell. In another aspect, the system further comprises determining the molecular memory of a biosensor. In a related aspect, the molecular memory is determined by measuring a dose response of the modulator. In another aspect, the system further comprises providing a system of claim 1 . In another aspect, increasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. In related aspect, decreasing concentrations of modulator are exposed to the biosensor. In one aspect, wherein the modulator is selected from a candidate drug; a known drug; a suspected carcinogen; a known carcinogen; a candidate toxic agent, a known toxic agent; and an agent that acts directly or indirectly on ion channels. The invention also provides a method for changing an aqueous or other liquid solution environment locally around a nanoscopic or microscopic object (e.g., such as a sensor). The method comprises providing a substrate, which comprises an open volume chamber comprising a nanoscopic or microscopic object and an aqueous or other liquid fluid. The substrate further comprises a plurality of channels, each channel comprising an outlet intersecting with the open volume chamber. Substantially separate aqueous streams of fluid are delivered into the open volume chamber, at least two of which comprise different fluids. Preferably, fluid streams exiting from the at least two adjacent channels are collimated and laminar within the open volume. However, the system can comprise sets of channels (at least two adjacent channels) wherein at least one set delivers collimated laminar streams, while at least one other set delivers non-collimated, non-laminar streams. In one aspect, the streams flow at different velocities. Fluid can be delivered from the channels to the chamber by a number of different methods, including by electrophoresis and/or by electroosmosis and/or by pumping. In one aspect, the longitudinal axes of the channels are substantially parallel. The channels can be arranged in a linear array, in a two-dimensional array, or in a three-dimensional array, can comprise treatment chambers, sensor chambers, reservoirs, and/or waste channels, and can be interfaced with container(s) or multi-well plate(s) as described above. In one aspect, output channels can overly input channels (i.e., in a three-dimensional configuration). Preferably, the longitudinal axis of at least one output or drain channel is parallel, but lying in a different plane, relative to the longitudinal axis of at least one input channel. By applying a positive pressure to an input channel at the same time that a negative pressure is applied to an adjacent output or drain channel, a U-shaped fluid stream can be generated within the chamber. In this way, an object within the chamber can be exposed to a compound in a fluid stream from an inlet channel which can, for example, be recycled by being withdrawn from the chamber through the adjacent output or drain channel. The U-shaped fluid streams can, preferably, be used to create local well-defined regions of fluid streams with specific composition in a large-volume reservoir or open volume. Preferably, the object is scanned sequentially across the at least two aqueous fluid streams, thereby altering the aqueous solution environment around the object. Scanning can be performed by moving the substrate and/or the object, or, can be mediated by pressure drops applied to the channels. The open volume chamber can comprise a plurality of objects; preferably, each object is scanned across at least two streams. Scanning can be performed by a scanning mechanism controlled by a processor as described above. The open volume can, additionally have inlets and outlets for adding and withdrawal of solution. For example, fresh buffer solution can be added to the recording chamber by using a peristaltic pump. In one aspect, the method further comprises modifying one or more scanning parameters, such as the rate of scanning, the direction of scanning, acceleration of scanning, number of scans, and pressure across one or more channels. Scanning parameters can be modified in response to a feedback signal, such as a signal relating to the response of an object to one or more of aqueous streams. Scanning also can be coordinated with other system operations. For example, in a system comprising a cell-based biosensor, scanning can be coordinated with exposure of the biosensor to an electrical current, i.e., inducing pore formation in a cell membrane of the biosensor, as the biosensor is scanned past one or more sample outlets. Hydrostatic pressure at one or more channels also can be varied by the processor according to programmed instructions and/or in response to a feedback signal. In one aspect, hydrostatic pressure at each of the plurality of channels is different. In another aspect, the viscosity of fluids in at least two of the channels is different. In yet another aspect, fluid within at least two of the channels are at a different temperature. In a further aspect, the osmolarity of fluid within at least two of the channels is different. In a still further aspect, the ionic strength of fluid within at least two of the channels is different. Fluid in at least one of the channels also can comprise an organic solvent. By changing these parameters at different outlets, sensor responses can be optimized to maximize sensitivity of detection and minimize background. In some aspects, parameters also can be varied to optimize certain cell treatments being provided (e.g., such as electroporation or electrofusion). The invention also provides a method for rapidly changing the solution environment around a nanoscopic or microscopic object, which comprises rapidly exchanging fluid in a sensor chamber comprising the nanoscopic or microscopic object. In one aspect, fluid exchange in the chamber occurs within less than about I minute, preferably, with less than about 30 seconds, less than about 20 seconds, less than about 10 seconds, less than about 5 seconds, or less than about I second. In another aspect, fluid exchange occurs within milliseconds. In another aspect fluid exchange occurs within nanoseconds. In one aspect, the method comprises providing a chamber comprising the object (which may be a sensor or even a single molecule), wherein the chamber comprises a plurality of inlet channels for delivering a fluid into the chamber and a plurality of outlet channels for draining fluid from the chamber. Preferably, the longitudinal axes of the drain channels are at an angle with respect to the longitudinal axes of the delivery channels. In one aspect, the longitudinal axis of at least one drain channel is ≧90° with respect to the longitudinal axis of a delivery channel. Preferably, the angle is about 1800 . Fluid entering the chamber is withdrawn from the chamber after a predetermined period of time or in response to a feedback signal. By controlling the velocity of fluid flow through the inlet channels and the output or drain channels, complete exchange of fluid in the chamber can occur in less than about 30 seconds, and preferably, in milliseconds. Preferably, the velocity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In one aspect, the hydrostatic pressure of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In another aspect, the viscosity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In still another aspect, the osmolarity of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In a further aspect, the ionic strength of fluids in the channels at an angle with respect to each other is different. In yet a further aspect, the channels at an angle with respect to each other comprise different organic solvents. The chamber can be circular, comprising a cylindrical wall and a base and the outlets can be radially disposed around the circumference of the wall, i.e., in a two-dimensional or three-dimensional spokes-wheel configuration. Other configurations are also possible. For example, each delivery channel can comprise an intersecting inlet channel whose longitudinal axis is perpendicular to the delivery channel. The method can generally be used to measure responses of a cell or portion thereof to a condition in an aqueous environment, by providing a cell or portion thereof in the chamber of any of the substrates described above, exposing the cell or portion thereof to one or more aqueous streams for creating the condition, and detecting and/or measuring the response of the cell or portion thereof to the condition. For example, the condition may be a chemical or a compound to which the cell or portion thereof is exposed and/or can be the osmolarity and/or ionic strength and/or temperature and/or viscosity of a solution in which the cell or portion thereof is bathed. The composition of the bulk solution in the sensor chamber in any of the substrates described above can be controlled, e.g., to vary the ionic composition of the sensor chamber or to provide chemicals or compounds to the solution. For example, by providing a superfusion system in proximity to the sensor chamber, a chemical or a compound, such as a drug, can be added to the sensor chamber during the course of an experiment. In one aspect, exposure of the cell or portion thereof to the condition occurs in the sensor chamber. However, alternatively, or additionally, exposure of the cell or portion thereof to the condition can occur in a microchamber which connects to the sensor chamber via one or more channels. The cell or portion thereof can be transferred to the sensor chamber in order to measure a response induced by changing the conditions around the cell. In one aspect, the invention also provides a method for generating an activated receptor or ion channel in order to detect or screen for antagonists. The method comprises delivering a constant stream of an agonist to a cell-based biosensor in a sensor chamber through a plurality of microchannels feeding into the sensor chamber (e.g., using any of the substrates described above). Preferably, the cell-based biosensor expresses receptor/ion channel complexes which do not desensitize or which desensitize very slowly. Exposure of the biosensor to the agonist produces a measurable response, such that the receptor is activated each time it passes a microchannel delivering agonist. Preferably, a plurality of the agonist delivering microchannels also comprise antagonist whose presence can be correlated with a decrease in the measurable response (e.g., antagonism) when the cell-based biosensor passes by these microchannels. In one aspect, a plurality of microchannels comprises equal amounts of agonist but different concentrations of antagonist. Inhibition of the measurable response can thus be correlated with the presence of a particular dose of antagonist. In another aspect, a plurality of microchannels comprise equal amounts of agonist, but one or more, and preferably all of the plurality of microchannels, comprises different kinds of antagonists. In this way the activity of particular types of antagonists (or compounds suspected of being antagonists) can be monitored. In one aspect, a periodically re-sensitized receptor is provided using the superfusion system described above to deliver pulses of buffer to the cell-based biosensor, to thereby remove any bound agonist or modulator desensitizing the receptor, before the receptor is exposed to the next channel outlet containing agonists or receptor modulators. In detection of antagonists, the pulsated superfusion system can also periodically remove the constantly applied agonist. A transient peak response (which is desensitized to a steady state response) is generated when the re-sensitized biosensor is exposed to the agonist. The generation of this peak response can provide a better signal-to-noise ratio in detection of antagonists. In another aspect, ion-channels in a cell-based biosensor are continuously activated or periodically activated by changing the potential across the cell-membrane. This provides a sensor for detection of compounds or drugs modulating voltage-dependent ion-channels. Responses measured by the systems or methods will vary with the type of sensor used. When a cell-based biosensor is used, the agonist-, antagonist-, or modulator-induced changes of the following parameters or cell properties can be measured: cell surface area, cell membrane stretching, ion-channel permeability, release of internal vesicles from a cell, retrieval of vesicles from a cell membrane, levels of intracellular calcium, ion-channel induced electrical properties (e.g., current, voltage, membrane capacitance, and the like), optical properties, or viability. In one aspect, the sensor comprises at least one patch-clamped cell. For example, the method can be performed by combining the system with a traditional patch clamp set-up. Thus, a cell or cell membrane fraction can be positioned appropriately relative to channel outlets using a patch clamp pipette connected to a positioner such as a micropositioner or nanopositioner. Alternatively, a patch-clamped cell or patch-clamped cell membrane fraction can be positioned in a depression in the base of the chamber, which is in communication with one or more electrodes (e.g., providing a patch clamp chip). The systems and methods according to the invention can be used to perform high throughput screening for ion channel ligands and for drugs or ligands which act directly or indirectly on ion channels. However, more generally, the systems and methods can be used to screen for compounds/conditions, which affect any extracellular, intracellular, or membrane-bound target(s). Thus, the systems and methods can be used to characterize, for example, the effects of drugs on cell. Examples of data that can be obtained for such purposes according to the present invention includes but is not limited to: dose response curves, IC 50 and EC 50 values, voltage-current curves, on/off rates, kinetic information, thermodynamic information, etc. Thus, the system can, for example, be used to characterize if an ion channel or receptor antagonists is a competitive or non-competitive inhibitor. The systems and methods according to the invention also can be used for toxicology screens, e.g., by monitoring cell viability in response to varying kinds or doses of compound, or in diagnostic screens. The method can also be used to internalize drugs, in the cell cytoplasm, for example, using electroporation to see if a drug effect is from interaction with a cell membrane bound outer surface receptor or target or through an intracellular receptor or target. It should be obvious to those of skill in the art that the systems according to the invention can be used in any method in which an object would benefit from a change in solution environment, and that such methods are encompassed within the scope of the instant invention. | 20050106 | 20081230 | 20061019 | 80253.0 | G01N3353 | 1 | WEGERT, SANDRA L | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR RAPIDLY CHANGING THE SOLUTION ENVIRONMENT AROUND SENSORS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G01N | 2,005 |
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11,031,581 | ACCEPTED | Providing files to an information handling system using a remote access controller | An information handling system that receives operational communications over a primary communications controller may receive files to be installed in the information handling system via a remote access controller. Files received using the remote access controller may not require use of the primary processor of the information handling system, and can be staged in the information handling system for later installation by the primary processor. | 1. A method for use with an information handling system, the method comprising: receiving operational communications at the information handling system using a primary communications controller; and receiving, at a remote access controller, a file to be installed in the information handling system. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising storing the received file in a storage medium local to the information handling system. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the storing comprises storing the received files to a non-volatile storage medium. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the storing comprises storing the received file to random access memory accessible to both a primary processor of the information handling system and the remote access controller. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving the operational communications over a first communications network; and receiving the file to be installed over a second communications network, different from the first communications network. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving operational communications under control of a first processor; and receiving, under control of a second processor, the file to be installed. 7. The method of claim 6, further comprising: installing the file under control of the first processor. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the information handling system is configured as part of a computing cluster including a plurality of additional information handling systems, the method further comprising: transferring the file to the information handling system from one of the plurality of additional information handling systems included in the computing cluster. 9. An information handling system comprising: at least one processor; a first memory operably associated with said first processor; an operating system to be stored, at least temporarily, in said memory and executed by said at least one processor; a communications controller coupled to receive operational communications and to provide said operational communications for use by said first processor under control of said operating system; and a remote access controller coupled to receive, independent of said at least one processor, a file to be installed in said information handling system. 10. The information handling system of claim 9, further comprising a storage medium accessible to the remote access controller and the at least one processor. 11. The information handling system of claim 10, wherein the storage medium comprises a non-volatile storage medium. 12. The information handling system of claim 10, wherein the storage medium comprises the first memory. 13. The information handling system of claim 9, wherein the first communications controller comprises a network controller coupled to a first communications network; and the remote access controller comprises a network controller coupled to a second communications network, different from the first communications network. 14. The information handling system of claim 9, further comprising: installing the file under control of the operating system. 15. A remote access controller (RAC) comprising: at least one processor; memory operably associated with said processor; at least one out-of-band communications interface; and a program of executable instructions to be stored in said memory and executable by said at least one processor, said program of instructions including at least one instruction to receive, via the at least one out of band communications interface, a file to be staged for subsequent installation. 16. The RAC of claim 15, wherein: said remote access controller is coupled to an information handling system comprising a storage medium; and said program of instructions comprises at least one instruction to store the file in the storage medium. 17. The RAC of claim 16, wherein the storage medium comprises non-volatile storage. 18. The RAC of claim 16, wherein the storage medium comprises a random access memory accessible to a processor external to the RAC. 19. The RAC of claim 16, wherein the at least one program of instructions is capable of receiving the file via the out-of-band communications interface even if a main processor of the information handling system to which the RAC is coupled is inoperational. 20. The RAC of claim 15, further comprising a plurality of out-of-band communications interfaces. | TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates generally to transferring files to an information handling system, and more particularly to transferring files to an information handling system using a remote access controller. BACKGROUND As the value and use of information continues to increase, individuals and businesses seek additional ways to process and store information. One option available to users is information handling systems. An information handling system generally processes, compiles, stores, and/or communicates information or data for business, personal, or other purposes thereby allowing users to take advantage of the value of the information. Because technology and information handling needs and requirements vary between different users or applications, information handling systems may also vary regarding what information is handled, how the information is handled, how much information is processed, stored, or communicated, and how quickly and efficiently the information may be processed, stored, or communicated. The variations in information handling systems allow for information handling systems to be general or configured for a specific user or specific use such as financial transaction processing, airline reservations, enterprise data storage, or global communications. In addition, information handling systems may include a variety of hardware and software components that may be configured to process, store, and communicate information and may include one or more computer systems, data storage systems, and networking systems. Often, one or more of such information handling systems are connected to form a communications network. Updating software on one or more of the networked information handling systems using conventional methods may require installing software packages manually at individual information handling systems using installation disks, or delivering installation files over the same communication channel used for operational communications. Thus, installation of software packages or upgrades may consume part of the bandwidth that could otherwise be used for operational tasks. Furthermore, some of these methods may involve removing one or more of the networked information handling systems from operation while transferring files required for software maintenance or upgrades, negatively impacting system or network performance. SUMMARY In accordance with teachings of the present disclosure, a method, system, and device are described for transferring files to an information handling system using a remote access controller. According to at least one embodiment, an information handling system receives operational communications using a primary communications controller, and receives a file to be installed in the information handling system using a remote access controller (RAC). By receiving operational communications using a primary communications controller and files to be installed using a remote access controller, various methods provide for reduced traffic over a network channel used to transmit operational communications between information handling systems. In some cases, reduced loading of a central processor or group of processors can be achieved. It should be appreciated that, as used herein, the term “operational communications” is sometimes used to refer to general communication traffic, for example messages, commands, status requests, data transfers, file transfers, and the like, occurring during execution of an assigned task. So, for example, a request by one information handling system for a second information handling system to transfer specified data files to the first information handling system under control of an operating system (OS), may be referred to as an operational communication. Conversely, transferring files required to update an OS and/or any other application on the information system files to be staged for future use, or installation, and not generally considered to be operational communications. Thus, transferring a file may be part of an operational communication in one context, and part of a non-operational communication in another context. In some embodiments a remote access controller receives a file to be installed in an information handling system and stores the file in a local storage medium, for example a random access memory (RAM), a magnetic disk drive, an optical drive, a tape drive, or another suitable storage medium. The storage medium may be accessible to both the remote access controller and the primary processor of the information handling system. In some such embodiments, the file to be installed is received over a communications network different from the communications network used to receive operational communications. So, for example, operational communications may be received over a primary channel of a local area network, and the file to be installed may be received over an out-of-band communications channel, e.g. a communications channel using the same physical medium but a different transmission frequency. Furthermore, a secondary processor on the remote access controller may be used to receive the file to be installed, while a main processor of the information handling system is used to install the file later. Another embodiment of the present disclosure provides an information handling system that comprises a system processor and memory, an operating system, a communications controller to receive operational communications, and a remote access controller (RAC) to receive a file to be installed in the information handling system. The RAC receives the file independent of the system processor. In some embodiments, the information handling system includes a random access memory, a disk drive, or some other volatile or non-volatile storage medium. The communications controller and the RAC may each include separate network controllers, coupled to different communication networks. In yet another embodiment of the present disclosure, a RAC includes a processor, associated memory, and at least one out-of-band communications interface. The RAC also includes a program of instructions that includes at least one instruction to receive, via an out-of-band communications interface, a file to be staged for subsequent installation. The RAC may be connected to an information handling system that includes a storage medium, and the program of instructions may include at least one instruction to store the file in that storage medium. In at least one embodiment, the file may be received by the remote access controller even if a primary processor of the information handling system to which the remote access controller is coupled is currently inoperational. At least one such embodiment also includes multiple out-of-band communications interfaces. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete understanding of the present embodiments and advantages thereof may be acquired by referring to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numbers indicate like features, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating how files can be transferred from a server or other information handling system to multiple information handling systems via an out-of-band communication channel according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a high performance computing cluster (HPCC) that stages files to be distributed to processing nodes via a remote access controller, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. FIG. 3 is a flow diagram illustrating a method according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Preferred embodiments and their advantages are best understood by reference to FIGS. 1 through 3, wherein like numbers are used to indicate like and corresponding parts. For purposes of this disclosure, an information handling system may include any instrumentality or aggregate of instrumentalities operable to compute, classify, process, transmit, receive, retrieve, originate, switch, store, display, manifest, detect, record, reproduce, handle, or utilize any form of information, intelligence, or data for business, scientific, control, or other purposes. For example, an information handling system may be a personal computer, a network storage device, or any other suitable device and may vary in size, shape, performance, functionality, and price. The information handling system may include random access memory (RAM), one or more processing resources such as a central processing unit (CPU) or hardware or software control logic, ROM, and/or other types of nonvolatile memory. Additional components of the information handling system may include one or more disk drives, one or more network ports for communicating with external devices as well as various input and output (I/O) devices, such as a keyboard, a mouse, and a video display. The information handling system may also include one or more buses operable to transmit communications between the various hardware components. Referring now to FIG. 1, a network 100 of information handling systems will be discussed according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. Network 100 includes information handling systems 110, 120, 140, and 160. Information handling systems 110, 120, 140, and 160 may be connected together for communication using any of various network configurations. For example, information handling system 110 may be a server used to remotely manage information handling systems 120, 140, and 160. Alternatively, information handling systems 110, 120, 140, and 160 may be connected in a peer-to-peer configuration, or in any other suitable configuration. The embodiment illustrated of FIG. 1 shows information handling system 110 including files 116 to be installed on respective information handling systems 120, 140, or 160. For example, File A and File B in files 116 are to be delivered to information handling system 120 for subsequent installation. Likewise, Files C and D are to be delivered to information handling system 140, and Files A, B and C are to be delivered to information handling system 160. Each of the information handling systems 110, 120, 140, and 160 include respective local area network controllers 112, 127, 147, or 167, and respective remote access controllers 114, 125, 145, and 165. Local area network controllers 112, 127, 147, and 167 are connected via communications channel 182 and are generally used to carry operational traffic between information handling systems 110, 120, 140, and 160. Remote access controllers 114, 125, 145, and 165 are connected via communications channel 184, and are generally used to provide non-operational traffic, including, but not limited to, intelligent platform management interface(IPMI) notifications, various system configuration or control signals, as well as software or other files, e.g. files 116, which are to be delivered to information handling systems 120, 140, or 160 for later installation. It should be appreciated that although communications channel 182 and communications channel 184 are illustrated as being separate and distinct communications channels, other embodiments can be implemented in which files to be staged in individual information handling systems 120, 140, and 160 are provided to remote access cards 125, 145 and 165 via local area network controllers 127, 147, and 167, respectively. In some such embodiments, advantages pertaining to conserved bandwidth on communications channel 182 may be decreased, but operational efficiencies can still be realized by using the processor included each of the remote access controllers to stage the files for later installation, rather than requiring the files to be staged using main processors included in each of the information handling systems. Remote access controller 125 includes RAC processor 131, RAC memory 133, and out-of-band interfaces 137. RAC memory 133 includes staging software 135, which may be stored in RAC memory 133 and executed by RAC processor 131 to cause RAC 125 to receive Files A and B to be staged in system storage 123. Files A and B may be saved in system storage 123 using RAC 125, may later be installed into information handling system 120 using main processor 121, or otherwise, as desired. Out-of-band interfaces 137 may include, but are not limited to, various serial interfaces, local area network interfaces, modulator-demodulators (modems), or the like. In at least one embodiment, out-of-band interfaces 137 include a virtual terminal (VT-100) interface, a network interface, a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) interface, an intelligent platform management bus (IPMB) interface, and an Ethernet or other network interface controller. Out-of-band interfaces 137 may include a local area network connector that is connected to the same physical communications channel as local area network controller 127. RAC 145 includes RAC processor 151, RAC memory 153, which includes staging software 155, and out-of-band interfaces 157. RAC 165 includes RAC processor 171, RAC memory 173, staging software 175, and out-of-band interfaces 177. Using information handling system 140 as an example, consider the situation in which software update Files C and D are to be transferred from information handling system 110 for later installation on information handling system 140. The file transfer may be performed as part of a normal maintenance program, in which updated versions of software, drivers, and the like are loaded periodically, or otherwise, from information handling system 110 to information handling system 140. Alternatively, Files C and D may be provided to system storage 143 on information handling system 140 in conjunction with hardware upgrades, or the like. At least one embodiment of the present disclosure transfers Files C and D through remote access controller 114, over communications channel 184, and into one or more of the out-of-band interfaces 157, which are part of RAC 145. RAC 145 receives the files, and may stage them for later installation in information handling system 140 by storing the files in system storage 143, as illustrated. Alternatively, files may be staged in RAC memory 153, or in other suitable storage accessible to both RAC 145 and main processor 141. In such embodiments, the files may be downloaded into information handling system 140 over communications channel 184 without interfering with the normal operational communications of information handling system 140. Thus, for example, operational traffic on communications channel 182, which is handled primarily by local area network controller 147 and main processor 141, are not interrupted or delayed by transferring files that will be later installed in information handling system 140. Files A, B, and C may be stored to information handling system 160 in a manner similar to the manner in which Files C and D are stored to information handling system 140. Thus, under control of RAC processor 171, RAC 165 receives Files A, B, and C from information handling system 110 over out-of-band communications channel 184. The files are received at out-of-band interfaces 177, and delivered to system storage 163. Main processor 161 can subsequently install Files A, B, and C, which are held in system storage 163. By staging Files A, B, and C in this manner, information handling system 160 need not be taken out of an operational mode to stage Files A, B, and C. Furthermore, the operational efficiency of information handling system 160 may be maintained by conserving main processor 161 resources until needed for the actual installation of the files. Referring next to FIG. 2, a network according to an embodiment of the present disclosure is illustrated. Network 200 includes file server 210 connected to master node 230 via a communications network 220, which may include a wide area network like the Internet, a local area network, or other similar network. Master node 230 communicates with processing clusters 250 and 270 to form a high performance computing cluster (HPCC). Processing clusters 250 and 270 each include various processing nodes 251, as well as job nodes 260. In at least one embodiment, master node 230 serves as an interface between processing clusters 250, 270 and file server 210. Master node 230 is generally assigned to perform a relatively high level task compared to those tasks performed by processing clusters 250 and 270. Often, processing clusters 250 and 270 are used by master node 230 to perform specific, highly computation-intensive tasks that might require more computing power than available in master node 230 itself. Alternatively, master node 230 may use processing clusters 250 and 270 to perform intermediate-level tasks, and job nodes 260 may assign lower-level processing tasks to one or more of the processing nodes 251. Each processing node 251 may, in turn, represent another processing cluster, or some other form of information handling system or information handling network, as dictated by various operational considerations. It should be appreciated that although a particular information handling network configuration is illustrated in FIG. 2, those skilled in the art may implement the teachings set forth herein in other network configurations as desired, and the various implementations discussed herein, and their equivalents, are not limited to implementation in the particular illustrated network configuration. Assuming the illustrated configuration of network 200, and further assuming that master node 230 is used to perform a high level process with processing clusters 250 and 270 being used to perform lower-level, computationally-intensive procedures, consider the following example. Processing nodes 251 may require updated software to perform a task more efficiently, or to perform a particular type of task. Additionally, different processing nodes 251 may require different software if the nodes are to perform different tasks. Thus, if processing cluster 250 is used to perform a different type of calculation than processing cluster 270, different software may be needed by processing nodes 251 in processing cluster 270 than is needed by processing nodes 251 in processing cluster 250. File server 210 can supply master node 230 with the software updates needed by processing nodes 251 in both clusters 250 and 270. Master node 230, in turn, delivers these software updates to job nodes 260 in both processing clusters. Both job nodes 260 stage the software updates for their respective processing nodes in respective file staging areas 262, which may include hard disks, random access memories, or another suitable storage device. If, as in some conventional networks, master node 230 transfers the software updates to job nodes 260 over a primary communications channel, then the communications bandwidth between master node 230 and processing clusters 250 and 270 may be at least partially consumed. At least one embodiment of network 200, by contrast, communicates between software updates master node 230 and job nodes 260 via remote access controllers (not illustrated), which does not decrease the bandwidth of the primary communication channels. Job nodes 260 may store these software updates, or other non-operational files, in staging areas 262, for subsequent transfer to one or more processing nodes 251. This subsequent transfer may also be performed using RACs on job nodes 260 processing nodes 251. Using an RAC to transfer files, rather than transferring the files using a primary communications controller is described in the following example according to one embodiment of the disclosure. Considering only processing cluster 250 and master node 230 for purposes of this example, assume that master node 230 is using processing cluster 250 to perform data comparisons between a large number of data samples and a table of predetermined threshold limits. If it is estimated that processing cluster 250 will be finished comparing the current samples against the current threshold values in three hours, efficient practice may dictate that new threshold tables are queued in file staging area 262 prior to the three hour estimated completion time, so that new data samples can be compared against new threshold values. Towards that end, master node 230 can send the new threshold tables to file staging area 262 over a secondary communications channel using RACs (not illustrated) in master node 230 and job node 260. The new threshold tables can be sent at the same time that operational communications are being sent between master node 230 and job node 260, and while operational communications are being sent between job node 260 and processing nodes 251. Because the primary communication controllers are not being used, transferring the new threshold tables does not impact the efficiency of network 200 as much as the efficiency of network 200 would be impacted if operational communications had to be suspended to allow for transfer of the files to a staging area 262. In some embodiments, the files in file staging area 262 can be provided to processing nodes 251 during normal operations, without interfering with operational communications between job node 260 and processing node 251. In other embodiments, it may be desirable for job node 260 to perform software or other file transfers from job node 260 to the individual processing nodes 251 over a primary communications channel. In some such embodiments, processing cluster 250 may be placed in a maintenance, or non-operational state, long enough for files to be transferred from job node 260 to processing node 251, and for these files to be installed in the respective processing nodes. In other embodiments, each of the processing nodes 251 may have already received appropriate software and/or other file updates, and processing cluster 250 will enter a maintenance state only long enough for each processing node to install its own, previously received software. After the software or file updates have been installed, processing cluster 250 may be brought back online for use by master node 230. It should be appreciated that in some embodiments, files transferred via remote access controllers between master node 230 and job node 260, or between job node 260 and processing node 251, may not require installation. Instead, such files can be saved to storage devices and accessed essentially immediately by an operating system or other software. Referring next to FIG. 3, a method 300 will be discussed according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. In one form, the method begins at 310, where files are sent to an information handling system using an RAC processor. It should be appreciated that an RAC, in many embodiments, includes a second processor, separate from the primary processor used to execute the operating system of an information handling system. Note that the primary processor and/or the RAC processor may actually include more than one physical processor. By using an RAC with a processor separate from the information handling system's primary processor, at least one embodiment permits file transfers to be handled without impacting the information handling system's primary operational performance. Thus, an operating system or other software being run on a system that includes a remote access controller with a separate processor may be more efficient than an information handling system without a separate RAC processor. The method proceeds from 310 to 320, where files received using the RAC processor are stored to the system storage of the information handling system. In some embodiments, the RAC may include its own memory or other storage device so that received files can be stored within the remote access controller itself. In some such embodiments, the main system processor, or an intermediate processor, may be granted access to the memory on the RAC so that any files stored in the RAC are actually accessible by the main information handling system. In other embodiments, the RAC may store received files or other information into a main system memory such as a hard disk drive, a floppy disk drive, random access memory, or the like. In these embodiments, the RAC may use direct memory access technology or any other suitable method of storing information to the system storage. By storing the file to system storage, the main processor of the information handling system will have access to the files received using the RAC processor. The method proceeds from 320 to 330, where, in at least one embodiment, the files received by the RAC processor are installed onto the information handling system using the primary processor of the information handling system. In this way, the primary processor of the information handling system, which is generally responsible for running the operating system and similar software, can be used to install the software or other file updates received via the RAC processor, without having to be involved with the actual transfer of files from one information handling system to another. Although the disclosed embodiments have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made to the embodiments without departing from their spirit and scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>As the value and use of information continues to increase, individuals and businesses seek additional ways to process and store information. One option available to users is information handling systems. An information handling system generally processes, compiles, stores, and/or communicates information or data for business, personal, or other purposes thereby allowing users to take advantage of the value of the information. Because technology and information handling needs and requirements vary between different users or applications, information handling systems may also vary regarding what information is handled, how the information is handled, how much information is processed, stored, or communicated, and how quickly and efficiently the information may be processed, stored, or communicated. The variations in information handling systems allow for information handling systems to be general or configured for a specific user or specific use such as financial transaction processing, airline reservations, enterprise data storage, or global communications. In addition, information handling systems may include a variety of hardware and software components that may be configured to process, store, and communicate information and may include one or more computer systems, data storage systems, and networking systems. Often, one or more of such information handling systems are connected to form a communications network. Updating software on one or more of the networked information handling systems using conventional methods may require installing software packages manually at individual information handling systems using installation disks, or delivering installation files over the same communication channel used for operational communications. Thus, installation of software packages or upgrades may consume part of the bandwidth that could otherwise be used for operational tasks. Furthermore, some of these methods may involve removing one or more of the networked information handling systems from operation while transferring files required for software maintenance or upgrades, negatively impacting system or network performance. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with teachings of the present disclosure, a method, system, and device are described for transferring files to an information handling system using a remote access controller. According to at least one embodiment, an information handling system receives operational communications using a primary communications controller, and receives a file to be installed in the information handling system using a remote access controller (RAC). By receiving operational communications using a primary communications controller and files to be installed using a remote access controller, various methods provide for reduced traffic over a network channel used to transmit operational communications between information handling systems. In some cases, reduced loading of a central processor or group of processors can be achieved. It should be appreciated that, as used herein, the term “operational communications” is sometimes used to refer to general communication traffic, for example messages, commands, status requests, data transfers, file transfers, and the like, occurring during execution of an assigned task. So, for example, a request by one information handling system for a second information handling system to transfer specified data files to the first information handling system under control of an operating system (OS), may be referred to as an operational communication. Conversely, transferring files required to update an OS and/or any other application on the information system files to be staged for future use, or installation, and not generally considered to be operational communications. Thus, transferring a file may be part of an operational communication in one context, and part of a non-operational communication in another context. In some embodiments a remote access controller receives a file to be installed in an information handling system and stores the file in a local storage medium, for example a random access memory (RAM), a magnetic disk drive, an optical drive, a tape drive, or another suitable storage medium. The storage medium may be accessible to both the remote access controller and the primary processor of the information handling system. In some such embodiments, the file to be installed is received over a communications network different from the communications network used to receive operational communications. So, for example, operational communications may be received over a primary channel of a local area network, and the file to be installed may be received over an out-of-band communications channel, e.g. a communications channel using the same physical medium but a different transmission frequency. Furthermore, a secondary processor on the remote access controller may be used to receive the file to be installed, while a main processor of the information handling system is used to install the file later. Another embodiment of the present disclosure provides an information handling system that comprises a system processor and memory, an operating system, a communications controller to receive operational communications, and a remote access controller (RAC) to receive a file to be installed in the information handling system. The RAC receives the file independent of the system processor. In some embodiments, the information handling system includes a random access memory, a disk drive, or some other volatile or non-volatile storage medium. The communications controller and the RAC may each include separate network controllers, coupled to different communication networks. In yet another embodiment of the present disclosure, a RAC includes a processor, associated memory, and at least one out-of-band communications interface. The RAC also includes a program of instructions that includes at least one instruction to receive, via an out-of-band communications interface, a file to be staged for subsequent installation. The RAC may be connected to an information handling system that includes a storage medium, and the program of instructions may include at least one instruction to store the file in that storage medium. In at least one embodiment, the file may be received by the remote access controller even if a primary processor of the information handling system to which the remote access controller is coupled is currently inoperational. At least one such embodiment also includes multiple out-of-band communications interfaces. | 20050106 | 20080916 | 20060706 | 57468.0 | G06F1100 | 0 | WON, MICHAEL YOUNG | PROVIDING FILES TO AN INFORMATION HANDLING SYSTEM USING A REMOTE ACCESS CONTROLLER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,005 |
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11,031,631 | ACCEPTED | Clamp based lesion formation apparatus with variable spacing structures | Apparatus including includes first and second energy transmission surfaces with a predetermined spacing and a device that allows the spacing to increase when the energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing. | 1. An apparatus for use with a clamp including first and second clamp members, the apparatus comprising: a first energy transmission device configured to be removably secured to the first clamp member; and a second energy transmission device configured to be removably secured to the second clamp member; at least one of the first and second energy transmission devices including a resilient member and a barrier member formed from different material than the resilient member. 2. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first and second energy transmission devices each include a resilient member and a barrier member formed from different material than the resilient member. 3. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the resilient member is configured to retain fluid. 4. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the resilient member comprises a porous member. 5. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the resilient member comprises a foam member. 6. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the barrier member comprises a hydrophilic fabric. 7. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the barrier member comprises a porous fabric. 8. An apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first and second energy transmission devices each comprise an electrically non-conductive mounting device and an electrode. 9. A clamp, comprising: first and second clamp members, at least one of the first and second clamp members being movable relative to the other of the first and second clamp members; a first energy transmission element carried by the first clamp member; and a second energy transmission element carried by the second clamp member; at least a portion of at least one of the first and second energy transmission elements being covered by a resilient member and a barrier member formed from different material than the resilient member. 10. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the first and second energy transmission elements are removably secured to the first and second clamp members. 11. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the first and second energy transmission elements are both covered by a resilient member and a barrier member formed from different material than the resilient member. 12. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the resilient member is configured to retain fluid. 13. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the resilient member comprises a porous member. 14. A clamp as claimed in claim 19, wherein the resilient member comprises a foam member. 15. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the barrier member comprises a hydrophilic fabric. 16. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the barrier member comprises a porous fabric. 17. A clamp as claimed in claim 9, wherein the first and second energy transmission devices each comprise an electrically non-conductive mounting device and an electrode. 18. An apparatus for use with a clamp including first and second clamp members, the apparatus comprising: a base member configured to be removably secured to at least one of the first and second clamp members; at least one energy transmission element carried by the base member such a portion of the energy transmission element is covered by the base member and a portion of the energy transmission element is not covered by the base member; and a variable spacing structure that is configured to retain fluid and cover at least part of the uncovered portion of the energy transmission element and not cover the portion of the energy transmission element that is covered by the base member. 19. An apparatus as claimed in claim 18, wherein the variable spacing structure includes a resilient member. 20. An apparatus as claimed in claim 19, wherein the resilient member is configured to retain fluid. 21. An apparatus as claimed in claim 19, wherein the resilient member comprises a porous member. 22. An apparatus as claimed in claim 19, wherein the resilient member comprises a foam member. 23. An apparatus as claimed in claim 19, wherein the variable spacing structure includes a barrier member, formed from different material than the resilient member, over the resilient member. 24. An apparatus as claimed in claim 23, wherein the barrier member comprises a hydrophilic fabric. 25. An apparatus as claimed in claim 23, wherein the barrier member comprises a porous fabric. 26. An apparatus as claimed in claim 18, wherein the at least one energy transmission element comprises at least one electrode. 27. A clamp, comprising: first and second clamp members, at least one of the first and second clamp members being movable relative to the other of the first and second clamp members; a base member carried by at least one of the first and second clamp members; at least one energy transmission element carried by the base member such a portion of the energy transmission element is covered by the base member and a portion of the energy transmission element is not covered by the base member; and a variable spacing structure that is configured to retain fluid and cover at least part of the uncovered portion of the energy transmission element and not cover the portion of the energy transmission element that is covered by the base member. 28. A clamp as claimed in claim 27, wherein the variable spacing structure includes a resilient member. 29. A clamp as claimed in claim 28, wherein the resilient member is configured to retain fluid. 30. A clamp as claimed in claim 28, wherein the resilient member comprises a porous member. 31. A clamp as claimed in claim 28, wherein the resilient member comprises a foam member. 32. A clamp as claimed in claim 28, wherein the variable spacing structure includes a barrier member, formed from different material than the resilient member, over the resilient member. 33. A clamp as claimed in claim 32, wherein the barrier member comprises a hydrophilic fabric. 34. A clamp as claimed in claim 32, wherein the barrier member comprises a porous fabric. 35. A clamp as claimed in claim 27, wherein the at least one energy transmission element comprises at least one electrode. 36. An apparatus for use with a clamp including first and second clamp members defining an open orientation and a closed orientation, the apparatus comprising: first and second energy transmission devices defining first and second energy transmission surfaces and configured to be removably secured to the first and second clamp members such that there is a spacing having a predetermined size between the first and second energy transmission surfaces when the clamp is in the closed orientation; and means for increasing the spacing between the first and second energy transmission surfaces when the first and second energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing size. 37. A clamp, comprising: first and second clamp members, at least one of the first and second clamp members being movable relative to the other of the first and second clamp members between an open orientation and a closed orientation; first and second energy transmission devices defining first and second energy transmission surfaces and configured to be removably secured to the first and second clamp members such that there is a spacing having a predetermined size between the first and second energy transmission surfaces when the clamp is in the closed orientation; and means for increasing the spacing between the first and second energy transmission surfaces when the first and second energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing size. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS 1. Field of Inventions The present inventions relate generally to devices for performing therapeutic operations on body tissue. 2. Description of the Related Art There are many instances where electrosurgical devices are used to form therapeutic lesions in tissue. Therapeutic lesions are frequently formed to treat conditions in the heart, prostate, liver, brain, gall bladder, uterus, breasts, lungs and other solid organs. Electromagnetic radio frequency (“RF”) may, for example, be used to heat and eventually kill (i.e. “ablate”) tissue to form a lesion. During the ablation of soft tissue (i.e. tissue other than blood, bone and connective tissue), tissue coagulation occurs and it is the coagulation that kills the tissue. Thus, references to the ablation of soft tissue are necessarily references to soft tissue coagulation. “Tissue coagulation” is the process of cross-linking proteins in tissue to cause the tissue to jell. In soft tissue, it is the fluid within the tissue cell membranes that jells to kill the cells, thereby killing the tissue. The tissue coagulation energy is typically supplied and controlled by an electrosurgical unit (“ESU”) during the therapeutic procedure. More specifically, after an electrosurgical device has been connected to the ESU, and the electrodes or other energy transmission elements on the device have been positioned adjacent to the target tissue, energy from the ESU is transmitted through the energy transmission elements to the tissue to from a lesion. The amount of power required to coagulate tissue ranges from 5 to 150 W. Clamps that carry electrodes or other energy transmission elements on opposable clamp members are used in a wide variety of electrophysiology procedures, especially those in which the physician intends to position electrodes on opposite sides of a body structure. Examples of clamp based devices which carry energy transmission elements are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,142,994, and U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2003/0158547 A1, which are incorporated herein by reference. In a typical clamp based procedure, a clamp will be used by the physician to position energy transmission surfaces (such as the outer surface of the exposed portion of the energy transmission elements) on opposite sides of a tissue structure. Energy may then be transmitted through the tissue from one energy transmission surface to the other, which is commonly referred to as bipolar energy transmission, or from each of the energy transmission surfaces to an indifferent electrode positioned at a remote location such as the patient's skin, which is commonly referred to as unipolar energy transmission. Surgical probes are another example of devices that may be used in electrophysiology procedures. Surgical probes used to create lesions often include a handle, a relatively short shaft that is from 4 inches to 18 inches in length and either rigid or relatively stiff, and a distal section that is from 1 inch to 10 inches in length and either malleable or somewhat flexible. One or more coagulation electrodes or other energy transmission devices are carried by the distal section. Surgical probes are used in epicardial and endocardial procedures, including open heart procedures and minimally invasive procedures where access to the heart is obtained via a thoracotomy, thoracostomy or median sternotomy. Exemplary surgical probes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,142,994. Tissue contact is an important issue in any electrophysiology procedure. With respect to clamp based procedures, for example, the failure to achieve and maintain intimate contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces can result in gaps in what were intended to be continuous linear or curvilinear lesions. With respect to the formation of therapeutic lesions in the heart to treat cardiac conditions such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and arrhythmia, such gaps may result in a failure to cure the arrhythmia and atrial flutter or may create atrial flutter. Moreover, atrial flutter created by gaps in linear lesions can difficult to cure. Poor contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces can also result in lesions that are not transmural. Lesions which are not transmural may, in turn, fail to cure the patient's arrhythmia or other medical condition. One method of insuring the proper level of contact in clamp based electrophysiology procedures is to configure the clamp in such a manner that there is a predetermined (i.e. preset) spacing between the energy transmission surfaces when the clamp is in the closed orientation that corresponds to the thickness of the target tissue structure. In addition to insuring intimate tissue contact, the preset spacing also prevents the mechanical damage to tissue (e.g. cutting through the tissue structure) that can occur when the spacing between the energy transmission surfaces is less than the thickness of the target tissue structure when the clamp is closed. For example, electrophysiology clamps that are intended to position energy transmission surfaces on opposite sides of the tissue around the pulmonary veins have a closed orientation spacing of about 2 mm between the energy transmission surfaces. The present inventors have determined that conventional clamp based electrophysiology devices are susceptible to improvement. More specifically, the present inventors have determined that there are procedures where a physician may wish to form lesions in tissue structures with different thicknesses. The use of a conventional clamp based electrophysiology device with a preset spacing between the energy transmission surfaces can hamper such procedures because a preset spacing that is large enough to accommodate the larger tissue structures may be too large to facilitate intimate tissue contact with the smaller tissue structures. As such, the use of a single conventional clamp based electrophysiology device in procedures that involve tissue structures of varying thickness may result in mechanical damage to tissue and/or lesions that are not continuous or transmural. Another important issue in electrophysiology procedures is energy transmission and, more specifically, the electrical resistivity on the structure that is in contact with tissue. In some clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices that include electrodes, the exposed portions of the electrodes are covered with porous, wettable structures that are configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid (such as saline) prior to use. Tissue coagulation energy may be transmitted to (or to and from) the electrodes by way of the ionic fluid. The present inventors have determined that conventional porous, wettable structures are susceptible to improvement and, in particular, that the electrical resistance across the porous, wettable structures should be reduced. Still another important issue in electrophysiology procedures is confirming whether a therapeutic lesion has been properly formed during surgical procedures. Some clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices employ stimulation electrodes that may be placed on tissue on one side of a lesion, or stimulation and sensing electrodes that may be placed on tissue on opposite sides of a lesion, and used to confirm whether a therapeutic lesion has been formed during surgical procedures. The present inventors have determined that such clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices are susceptible to improvement. SUMMARY OF SOME OF THE INVENTIONS An apparatus for use with a clamp in accordance with one invention herein includes first and second energy transmission surfaces with a predetermined spacing when the clamp is closed and a device that allows the spacing to increase when the energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing. Similarly, a clamp in accordance with one invention herein includes first and second energy transmission surfaces with a predetermined spacing when the clamp is closed and a device that allows the spacing to increase when the energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing. Such devices provide a number of advantages. For example, such devices may be used to achieve and maintain intimate contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces, but will not damage tissue, when brought into contact with the tissue surfaces structures of varying thickness. An apparatus for use with an energy transmission element in accordance with one invention herein includes a wettable structure configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid and a plurality of conductive fibers carried by the wettable structure. Such an apparatus provides a number of advantages. For example, the use of conductive fibers greatly increases the conductivity of the apparatus, as compared to an otherwise identical wettable structure saturated with the same ionic fluid. An apparatus in accordance with one invention herein includes a tissue coagulation device that creates a current path and a stimulation electrode carried within the current path. Such an apparatus provides a number of advantages. For example, the apparatus allows the physician to quickly and easily confirm tissue contact, form a lesion, and evaluate the lesion with the same apparatus and without moving the apparatus. The location of the stimulation electrode also results in more accurate information concerning the lesion, as compared to conventional apparatus, because the assessment of the lesion is localized (i.e. the assessment is made directly on the target tissue within the current path). The above described and many other features and attendant advantages of the present inventions will become apparent as the inventions become better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Detailed description of preferred embodiments of the inventions will be made with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a surgical system in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 2 is a section view taken along line 2-2 in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a plan view of a clamp in accordance with a preferred embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 4 is a section view taken along line 4-4 in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a top view of a portion of the clamp illustrated in FIG. 3. FIG. 6 is a plan view of a portion of a tissue coagulation assembly in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 7 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the tissue coagulation assembly illustrated in FIG. 6. FIG. 8 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the tissue coagulation assembly illustrated in FIG. 6. FIG. 9 is a section view taken along line 9-9 in FIG. 7. FIG. 10 is a section view taken along line 10-10 in FIG. 8. FIG. 11 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus illustrated in FIG. 1 in the closed orientation. FIG. 12 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus illustrated in FIG. 1 in the closed orientation engaging a tissue structure. FIG. 13 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus illustrated in FIG. 1 in the closed orientation engaging a tissue structure. FIG. 14 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention in the closed orientation. FIG. 15 is a side, partial section view of the portion of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus illustrated in FIG. 14 engaging a tissue structure. FIG. 16 is a side view of a portion of a modified version of the electrophysiology clamp apparatus illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 15. FIG. 17A is a section view of an energy transmission device in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 17B is a section view of an energy transmission device in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 18A is a side view illustrating a step in a process in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 18B is a top view illustrating a step in a process in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 18C is a top view of a wettable structures with conductive fibers in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 18D is a section view taken along line 18D-18D in FIG. 18C. FIG. 19 is a plan view of a surgical probe in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 20 is plan, partial section view of the distal portion of the surgical probe illustrated in FIG. 19. FIG. 21 is a section view taken along line 21-21 in FIG. 20. FIG. 22 is a section view taken along line 22-22 in FIG. 20. FIG. 23 is a section view taken along line 23-23 in FIG. 20. FIG. 24 is an end view of the surgical probe illustrated in FIG. 19. FIG. 25 is a perspective view of a surgical system in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 26 is a side, partial section view of a tissue coagulation assembly in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 27 is a perspective view of a surgical system in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 28 is a section view taken along line 28-28 in FIG. 27. FIG. 29 is a plan view of a portion of the tissue coagulation assembly illustrated in FIG. 26. FIG. 30 is a plan view of a portion of the tissue coagulation assembly illustrated in FIG. 26. FIGS. 31 and 32 are end views showing portions of a lesion formation process in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 33 is a perspective view of a surgical system in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 34 is an end view of the surgical probe illustrated in FIG. 33. FIG. 35 is a side, partial section view of a portion of the surgical probe illustrated in FIG. 33. FIG. 36 is a section view taken along line 36-36 in FIG. 35. FIG. 37 is a section view of a portion of a lesion formation process in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. FIG. 38 is a section view of a portion of a lesion formation process in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following is a detailed description of the best presently known modes of carrying out the inventions. This description is not to be taken in a limiting sense, but is made merely for the purpose of illustrating the general principles of the inventions. The detailed description of the preferred embodiments is organized as follows: I. Introduction II. Exemplary Surgical Systems Ill. Exemplary Wettable Structures With Conductive Fibers IV. Power Control V. Stimulation Electrodes and Lesion Confirmation The section titles and overall organization of the present detailed description are for the purpose of convenience only and are not intended to limit the present inventions. I. Introduction This specification discloses a number of structures, mainly in the context of cardiac treatment, because the structures are well suited for use with myocardial tissue. Nevertheless, it should be appreciated that the structures are applicable for use in therapies involving other types of soft tissue. For example, various aspects of the present inventions have applications in procedures concerning other regions of the body such as the prostate, liver, brain, gall bladder, uterus, breasts, lungs, and other solid organs. II. Exemplary Surgical Systems As illustrated for example in FIG. 1, an exemplary surgical system 10 in accordance with one embodiment of a present invention includes an electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100 and an ESU 300. The ESU 300, which is discussed in Section IV below, supplies and controls power to the electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100. The electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100 includes a clamp and a tissue coagulation assembly that may be secured to the clamp. As used herein, the term “clamp” includes, but is not limited to, clamps, clips, forceps, hemostats, and any other surgical device that includes a pair of opposable clamp members that hold tissue, at least one of which is movable relative to the other. In some instances, the clamp members are connected to a scissors-like arrangement including a pair of handle supporting arms that are pivotably connected to one another. The clamp members are secured to one end of the arms and the handles are secured to the other end. Certain clamps that are particularly useful in minimally invasive procedures also include a pair of handles and a pair of clamp members. Here, however, the clamp members and handles are not mounted on the opposite ends of the same arm. Instead, the handles are carried by one end of an elongate housing and the clamp members are carried by the other. A suitable mechanical linkage located within the housing causes the clamp members to move relative to one another in response to movement of the handles. The clamp members may be linear or have a predefined curvature that is optimized for a particular surgical procedure or portion thereof. The clamp members may also be rigid or malleable. One example of a clamp is generally represented by reference numeral 102 in FIGS. 1 and 3-5. Referring more specifically to FIGS. 3-5, the clamp 102 includes a pair of rigid arms 104 and 106 that are pivotably connected to one another by a pin 108. The proximal ends of the arms 104 and 106 are respectively connected to a pair handle members 110 and 112, while the distal ends are respectively connected to a pair of clamp members 114 and 116. The clamp members 114 and 116 may be rigid or malleable and, if rigid, may be linear or have a pre-shaped curvature. A locking device 118 locks the clamp in the closed orientation, and prevents the clamp members 114 and 116 from coming any closer to one another than is illustrated in FIGS. 3 and 11-13, thereby defining a predetermined (or preset) spacing between the clamp members. The clamp 102 is also configured for use with a pair of soft, deformable inserts (not shown) that may be removably carried by the clamp members 114 and 116 and allow the clamp to firmly grip a bodily structure without damaging the structure. To that end, the clamp members 114 and 116 each include a slot 120 (FIGS. 4 and 5) that is provided with a sloped inlet area 122 and the inserts include mating structures that are removably friction fit within the slots. The present tissue coagulation and stimulation assemblies may be mounted on the clamp members in place of the inserts. With respect to the tissue coagulation assembly, the tissue coagulation assembly 124 in the exemplary electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100 illustrated in FIG. 1 includes a first energy transmission device 126 that may be connected to one of the clamp members 114 and 116 and a second energy transmission device 128 that may be connected to the other. The energy transmission devices 126 and 128 are respectively carried on support structures 130 and 132, which are connected to a cable 134 by a molded junction 136. The other end of the cable 134 enters a handle 138. The support structures 130 and 132 in the illustrated embodiment are flexible tubular structures which have an outer diameter that is, depending on the diameter of the electrodes 140, 142 and 144 (discussed below), typically between about 1.5 mm and about 3 mm. The support structures 130 and 132 in the illustrated embodiment, which are intended for use in cardiovascular applications, have an outer diameter of about 2 mm. Suitable support structure materials include, for example, flexible biocompatible thermoplastic tubing such as unbraided Pebax® material, polyethylene, or polyurethane tubing. Although tissue coagulation assemblies in accordance with the present inventions may be operated in bipolar and unipolar modes, the exemplary tissue coagulation assembly 124 is configured so as to be especially useful in a bipolar mode wherein the first energy transmission device 126 will transmit energy through tissue to the second energy transmission device 128. To that end, and as illustrated for example in FIGS. 7 and 8, the first energy transmission device 126 includes a pair of electrodes 140 and 142 that may be independently controlled, while the second energy transmission device 128 includes a single electrode 144. Such an arrangement provides for higher fidelity control of the overall region that is transmitting energy and a gap free, constant potential region on the return side. The spaced electrodes 140, 142 and 144 are preferably in the form of wound, spiral closed coils. The coils are made of electrically conducting material, like copper alloy, platinum, or stainless steel, or compositions such as drawn-filled tubing (e.g. a copper core with a platinum jacket). The electrically conducting material of the coils can be further coated with platinum-iridium or gold to improve its conduction properties and biocompatibility. Preferred coil electrodes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,797,905 and 6,245,068. Alternatively, the electrodes 140, 142 and 144 may be in the form of solid rings of conductive material, like platinum, or can comprise a conductive material, like platinum-iridium or gold, coated upon the device using conventional coating techniques or an ion beam assisted deposition (IBAD) process. For better adherence, an undercoating of nickel, silver or titanium can be applied. The electrodes can also be in the form of helical ribbons. The electrodes can also be formed with a conductive ink compound that is pad printed onto a non-conductive tubular body. A preferred conductive ink compound is a silver-based flexible adhesive conductive ink (polyurethane binder), however other metal-based adhesive conductive inks such as platinum-based, gold-based, copper-based, etc., may also be used to form electrodes. Such inks are more flexible than epoxy-based inks. Open coil electrodes may also be employed. Still other types of electrodes are formed from electroless plated copper on a polyimide film or tubular substrate. Gold, nickel or silver should be plated over the copper for electrochemical stability and improved biocompatibility. The plating can be applied in continuous form (up to about 1-2 cm in length at most) or can be applied in a pattern that is designed to improve current density distributions and/or electrode flexing characteristics. Temperature sensors (e.g. thermocouples) may be incorporated into the electrode structure by placing the temperature sensors in a channel in the polyimide film or tubular substrate and then plating over them. The electrodes 140 and 142 are preferably about 1.5 cm to 4 cm in length with about 1 mm to 3 mm spacing, which will result in the creation of continuous lesion patterns in tissue when coagulation energy is applied simultaneously to adjacent electrodes. The length of the electrode 144 is preferably the combined length of the electrodes 140 and 142, including the spacing therebetween, so that the overall electrode length on the first and second energy transmission devices 126 and 128 is the same. The first and second energy transmission devices 126 and 128 in the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 6-13 are also provided with respective mounting devices 146 that may be used to mount the tissue coagulation assembly 124 in general, and the energy transmission devices in particular, on the clamp 102. Additionally, although the configuration of the tissue coagulation assembly 124 may vary from application to application to suit particular situations, the exemplary tissue coagulation assembly is configured such that the electrodes 140 and 142 will be parallel to the electrode 144 when the clamp 102 is in the closed orientation. Referring more specifically to FIGS. 7-10, the mounting devices 146 are identical in the illustrated embodiment. Each mounting device 146 includes a base member 148 that has a groove 150 which is configured to receive the support structure 130 and electrodes 140 and 142 (or support structure 132 and electrode 144). About 20% of the electrode surface (i.e. about 75° of the 360° circumference) is exposed in the illustrated embodiment. Adhesive may be used to hold the support structures and electrodes in place. The mounting device also includes a connector 152 that is configured to removably mate with the clamp slot 120 (FIGS. 4 and 5). The exemplary connector 152 is provided with a relatively thin portion 154 and a relatively wide portion 156, which may consist of a plurality of spaced members (as shown) or an elongate unitary structure, in order to correspond to the shape of the slot 120. The mounting devices 146 are preferably formed from polyurethane. The length of the mounting devices 146 will vary according to the intended application. In the area of cardiovascular treatments, it is anticipated that suitable lengths will range from, but are not limited to, about 4 cm to about 10 cm. In the exemplary implementation, the mounting devices 146 are about 7 cm in length. The electrodes 140 and 142 in the exemplary tissue coagulation assembly 124 are connected to power wires 158, while the electrode 144 is connected to a power wire 160, as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. The power wires 158 and 160 extend through the support structures 130 and 132, respectively, as well as the cable 134, and into the handle 138. The power wires 158 extend into a cable 162 (FIG. 1) with a power connector 164 that extends proximally from the handle 136, while the power wire 160 extends into a cable 166 with a return connector 168 that also extends proximally from the handle. A plurality of temperature sensors 170 (FIG. 9), such as thermocouples or thermistors, may be located on, under, abutting the longitudinal end edges of, or in between, the electrodes 140 and 142. A reference thermocouple (not shown) may also be provided. In the exemplary implementation, temperature sensors 170 are located at both longitudinal ends of each of the electrodes 140 and 142. The temperature sensors 170 are connected to signal wires 172, which pass through the support structure 130, cable 134 and cable 162. The temperature sensors 170 are also located within a linear channel 174 that is formed in the support structure 130. The linear channel insures that the temperature sensors will all face in the same direction (e.g. facing tissue) and be arranged in linear fashion. The energy transmission devices 126 and 128 also include variable spacing structures 176, as is shown in FIGS. 1 and 6-13. The variable spacing structures 176, which are substantially identical in the illustrated embodiment and each define an energy transmission surface 178, allow the energy transmission devices 126 and 128 to achieve intimate tissue contact with tissue structures of varying thickness without mechanically damaging the thicker structures. Referring more specifically to FIGS. 11 and 12, the exemplary clamp apparatus 100 is configured such that there is a preset spacing CS between the clamp members 114 and 116 when the clamp 102 is in the completely closed orientation. The energy transmission devices 126 and 128 and variable spacing structures 176 are correspondingly configured such that there is a preset spacing S1 between the energy transmission surfaces 178 when the clamp 102 is in the closed orientation illustrated in FIG. 11. When the clamp apparatus 100 is closed on opposite sides of a tissue structure T that is thicker than the spacing S1, the variable spacing structures 176 will compress, and the spacing between the energy transmission surfaces 178 will increase to S2 as shown in FIG. 12, in order to accommodate the tissue structure. The spacing CS between the clamp members 114 and 116 will, however, remain the same. The variable spacing structures 176 are preferably configured such that as they compress from the state illustrated in FIG. 11 to the state illustrated in FIG. 12, there will not be a significant increase in the clamping force applied to a tissue structure therebetween. Another advantage associated with the variable spacing structures 176 is associated with tissue contact at the edge of a tissue structure. As illustrated in FIG. 13, the resiliency of the variable spacing structures 176 allows the energy transmission surfaces 178 to wrap around the tissue structure edge TE, thereby providing better contact along the edge than could be achieved with a more rigid energy transmitting structure that would not wrap around the edge. Better contact results in better lesions and reduces the likelihood that there will be gaps in a lesion at the edge of a tissue structure. In implementations intended for use in the treatment of cardiac conditions such as atrial fibrillation, for example, the spacing S1 between the energy transmission surfaces 178 may be about 1 mm and the spacing S2 may be about 2 mm. As such, the energy transmission devices 126 and 128 will achieve and maintain intimate contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces 178 when brought into contact with the epicardial and endocardial surfaces that are about 1 mm apart (typically by inserting one of the energy transmission through a cut in the left atrial wall), but will not damage tissue when positioned on opposite sides of the tissue around the pulmonary veins, which is about 2 mm thick after the opposite sides are brought together. Although the present inventions are not limited to any particular instrumentality for facilitating the increase in spacing when a target tissue structure is thicker than the preset spacing S1, the exemplary variable spacing structures 176 include a resilient member 180 and a barrier member 182. Referring to FIGS. 11-13, the resilient members 180 in the exemplary implementation are configured to compress in the manner described above, thereby acting as cushions for tissue structures that are thicker than the preset spacing S1. The resilient members 180 are also porous, wettable structures that are configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid (such as saline) prior to use so that energy may be transmitted to and from the associated electrodes by way of the ionic fluid. Suitable materials include foams, such as open cell foams, reticulated foams, non-reticulated foams, fine cell foams and hydrocolloide foams. Other suitable materials include hydrogels, thick woven biocompatible materials (e.g. Dacron®), cotton and cellulose. The thickness of the resilient members 180 (i.e. the distance from the outer surface of the associated electrode to the inner surface of the associated barrier member) may range from about 1 mm to 3 mm and is about 1.5 mm in the illustrated embodiment. Turning to the barrier members 182 in the exemplary variable spacing structures 176, each barrier member is preferably a porous structure that is used to secure the associated resilient member 180 in place. To that end, the side edges 184 of the barrier members 182 are secured to the mounting device base members 148 (FIG. 10). The barrier members 182, the outer surfaces of which define the energy transmission surfaces 178, are also preferably porous and are hydrophilic so that they may retain the aforementioned ionic fluid through which energy is transmitted during electrophysiology procedures. The thickness of the barrier members 182 may range from about 0.05 mm to 0.5 mm and is about 0.2 mm in the illustrated embodiment. The barrier members 182 may also be used to perform a number of other functions. For example, the barrier members 182 prevent tissue ingress into the resilient member 180 during electrophysiology procedures, which can result in the tissue sticking to the resilient member and tissue tearing when the energy transmission devices 126 and 128 are moved. Suitable materials for the barrier member 182 include biocompatible fabrics commonly used for vascular patches (such as woven Dacron®). One specific example is Hemashield Finesse™ from Boston Scientific Corporation. Such material may be easily cleaned during an electrophysiology procedure with alcohol or saline, which further facilitates the formation of multiple lesions with the same tissue coagulation assembly 124 during a single electrophysiology procedure. It should be noted that the effective electrical resistivity of each variable spacing structure 176 when wetted with 0.9% saline (normal saline) should range from about 1 Ω-cm to about 2000 Ω-cm. A preferred resistivity for epicardial and endocardial procedures is about 1000 Ω-cm, which is much closer to the resistivity of tissue than that of the electrodes. As a result, energy transmission devices with the variable spacing structure 176 will have lower edge currents and provide more uniform current distribution than energy transmission device that are configured to place the electrodes in direct contact with tissue. The distal portion of another exemplary clamp apparatus 100a is illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 15. The clamp apparatus 100a is essentially identical to the clamp apparatus 100 and similar elements are represented by similar reference numerals. The clamp apparatus 100a is, however, configured such that there is no spacing S1 between the energy transmission surfaces 178, i.e. the energy transmission surfaces are in contact with one another, when the clamp 102 is in the closed orientation illustrated in FIG. 14. This may be accomplished by slightly modifying the dimensions of the clamp and/or the energy transmission devices. In the illustrated embodiments, the energy transmission devices 126a and 128a are slightly thicker than the energy transmission devices 126 and 128 in the clamp apparatus 100. When the clamp apparatus 100a is closed on opposite sides of a tissue structure, such as the compressed pulmonary vein PV illustrated in FIG. 15, the associated portions of the variable spacing structures 176 will compress, and the spacing between the energy transmission surfaces 178 increase to S2 in order to accommodate the tissue structure. The portions of the energy transmission surfaces 178 of the clamp apparatus 100a that are not in contact with a tissue structure will remain in contact with one another when other portions are in contact with a tissue structure. As a result, there will not be any electrically non-conductive gaps between the energy transmission surfaces 178. The configuration illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 15 is advantageous for a number of reasons. For example, the entire surface of the tissue structure (e.g. the compressed pulmonary vein PV illustrated in FIG. 15), including the lateral edge surfaces, is in contact with a portion an energy transmission surface 178 of a variable spacing structure 176. As noted above, increasing the amount of edge tissue contacted by the energy transmission surfaces reduces the likelihood that there will be gaps in a lesion at the edge of the tissue structure. Another advantage is associated with the portions of the energy transmission surfaces 178, and the underlying electrodes, that are not in contact with tissue. As discussed in Section IV below, power to the transmitting electrodes 140 and 142 may be controlled by the ESU 300 (FIG. 1) on an electrode-by-electrode basis. In some instances, the tissue coagulation procedure will be shut down when there is no current path from one of the transmitting electrodes 140 and 142 to the return electrode 144. In the exemplary implementation illustrated in FIGS. 14 and 15, such current paths are insured because the energy transmission surfaces 178 are either in contact with tissue or are in contact with one another. Conversely, as illustrated in FIG. 16, when an otherwise identical electrophysiology clamp that lacks the variable spacing structures 176 is positioned around a pulmonary vein PV or other tissue structure, it is possible that there will be a gap between one of the transmitting electrodes 140 and 142 and the return electrode 144. In the illustrated situation, there is a current path from the transmitting electrode 142 to the return electrode 144 (i.e. the pulmonary vein PV), but there is no current path from the transmitting electrode 140 to the return electrode due to the gap. This may result in the ESU 300 stopping the coagulation procedure. Finally, the clamp and the tissue coagulation assemblies described above may be combined into an integral unit that cannot be readily separated. For example, the base members may be molded onto the clamp members. Such base members would, for example, extend completely around the each clamp member and/or include portions that are molded into the slots. The base members, clamp members, electrodes, etc. could also be formed as a unitary structure using, for example, insert molding techniques. III. Exemplary Wettable Structures with Conductive Fibers As noted above, the resilient members 180 are wettable structures that are configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid prior to use so that energy may be transmitted to and from the associated electrodes by way of the ionic fluid. In accordance one of the present inventions, the electrical resistance of such wettable structures may be reduced by adding conductive fibers thereto and, to that end, the resilient members 180b illustrated in FIGS. 17A and 17B include a plurality of conductive fibers 186 in addition to the wettable material. Although the present inventions are not limited to any particular concentration of conductive fibers 186, the conductive fibers will typically occupy less than 5% of the volume of the resilient member 180b. Wettable structures with conductive fibers may be used in combination with wide variety of devices. By way of example, but not limitation, the resilient members 180b may be carried on the energy transmission devices 126b and 128b illustrated in FIGS. 17A and 17B. The energy transmission devices 126b and 128b may form part of an electrophysiology clamp apparatus that is otherwise identical to the electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100 illustrated in FIG. 1. Another example is the surgical probe 200 described below with reference to FIGS. 19-24. Although the present inventions are not limited to any particular orientation, the conductive fibers 186 in the illustrated embodiment are parallel to the direction of current flow, which is represented by the arrows CF in FIG. 17A. The current flow direction is generally perpendicular to a flat energy transmission element and radial from a curved energy transmission element, such as the electrodes 140 and 144 in FIGS. 17A and 17B. So arranged, the conductive fibers will be perpendicular to the bottom surface of the wettable material if the resilient member is not curved, or perpendicular to the associated tangent if the resilient member 180b is curved or has been bent over a curved energy transmission element (as it has is in FIGS. 17A and 17B). Orienting the conductive fibers 186 parallel to the current flow direction is considerably more effective from a resistance reduction standpoint than a random orientation. For comparison purposes, conductive fibers that are perpendicular to the current flow direction have almost no influence on electrical impedance until the amount of fibers approaches 30 percent of the volume of the resilient member. The length of the conductive fibers 186 and their position relative to the electrode are other important considerations. Preferably, the length of the conductive fibers 186 will be at least one-half of the thickness of the resilient wettable structure. Conductive fibers that extend to the bottom surface of the resilient member and are in physical contact with the underlying electrode (as they are in the illustrated embodiment) will have twice the effect on conductance as compared to conductive fibers that are not in physical contact. Moreover, conductive fibers that are spaced more than about 1 fiber radius from the electrode will be essentially disconnected from the electrode. The fractional increase in electrical conductance of a wettable structure provided with conductive fibers that are parallel to the direction of current flow may be expressed as: [(2)·(% Fiber)·(T2/D2)]/[−In(% Fiber)] where % Fiber=the volumetric percentage of fiber in the structure expressed as a decimal (e.g. 1%=0.01), T=the thickness of the wettable structure, D=the average diameter of the conductive fibers. For example, if metallic fibers that are 0.1 mm in diameter occupy 1 percent of the volume a wettable structure that is 2 mm thick, the fibers would provide an additional conductance of 14-fold compared to that provided by saline alone (i.e. the resistance would be reduced by about 15-fold). Similarly, if carbon fibers that are 0.02 mm in diameter occupy 1 percent of the volume of a wettable structure that is 2 mm thick, the fibers would provide an additional conductance of about 300-fold compared to that provided by saline alone. The resistance of the overall structure would be less than 1 percent of the resistance without the fibers. Even lesser amounts of conductive fibers also provide great benefits. For example, if carbon fibers that are 0.02 mm in diameter occupy 0.1 percent of the volume a wettable structure that is 2 mm thick, the fibers would provide an additional conductance of about 20-fold compared to that provided by saline alone. The resistance of the overall structure would be about 5 percent of the resistance without the fibers. It should also be noted that, in addition to the aforementioned metallic and carbon fibers, fibers formed from electrically conductive plastics may also be used. The resistivity of the conductive fibers 186 is much lower than the resistivity of ionic fluid (such as saline) and, accordingly, the specific conductivity of the fibers has almost no effect on overall system resistivity within the resilient material. Carbon fiber has a conductivity more than 105 larger than saline, and almost all metals have conductivities 108 or more higher than saline. However, the ratios of the conductivities need only be larger than the T2/D2 ratio. One method of manufacturing the wettable resilient member 180b with conductive fibers 186 is illustrated in FIGS. 18A and 18B. First, the conductive fibers 186 are sewn in place into a thin, elongate strip of resilient material 187 such as the aforementioned woven biocompatible material. The conductive fibers 186 may, alternatively, be woven into the strip of resilient material 187. In either case, the conductive fibers 186 are oriented perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the strip of resilient material 187. Next, as illustrated in FIG. 18B, the strip of resilient material 187 with the conductive fibers 186 is z-folded back and forth over itself and compressed in the direction of arrow A. This process results in the resilient member 180b with conductive fibers 186 illustrated in FIGS. 17A, 17B, 18C and 18D. The surgical probe 200 illustrated in FIGS. 19-24 is another example of a device that may include a wettable resilient member with conductive fibers. The surgical probe 200 includes a relatively short shaft 202 with a proximal section 204, which is connected to a handle 206, and a distal section 208, on which coagulation electrodes 210 (or other energy transmission elements) and a tip member 212 are supported. A strain relief device 214 may also be provided. The resilient member 180c illustrated in FIGS. 19, 20 and 23 includes a plurality of conductive fibers 186. The resilient member 180c, which extends around the distal section 208 in the manner illustrated in FIG. 23, is essentially identical to the resilient member 180b, but for the fact that the resilient member 180c extends completely around the underlying electrodes. A barrier member 182c that extends around the resilient member 180c, and is formed from the barrier materials described above, may also be provided if desired. With respect to the particulars of the exemplary surgical probe 200, the shaft proximal section 204 consists of a hypotube 216, which is either rigid or relatively stiff, and an outer polymer tubing 218 over the hypotube. The shaft proximal section 204 in the illustrated embodiment may be from 4 inches to 18 inches in length and is preferably 6 inches to 8 inches. The shaft distal section 208, which is preferably either malleable, somewhat flexible or some combination thereof, may be from 1 inch to 20 inches in length and is preferably 3 to 5 inches. As used herein the phrase “relatively stiff” means that the shaft (or distal section or other structural element) is either rigid, malleable, or somewhat flexible. A rigid shaft cannot be bent. A malleable shaft is a shaft that can be readily bent by the physician to a desired shape, without springing back when released, so that it will remain in that shape during the surgical procedure. Thus, the stiffness of a malleable shaft must be low enough to allow the shaft to be bent, but high enough to resist bending when the forces associated with a surgical procedure are applied to the shaft. A somewhat flexible shaft will bend and spring back when released. However, the force required to bend the shaft must be substantial. Rigid and somewhat flexible shafts are preferably formed from stainless steel, while malleable shafts are formed from annealed stainless steel. In those instances where a malleable shaft proximal portion 204 is desired, the hypotube 216 may be a heat treated malleable hypotube. By selectively heat treating certain portions of the hypotube, one section of the hypotube can be made more malleable than the other. The outer tubing 218 may be formed from Pebax® material, polyurethane, or other suitable materials. Additional information concerning “relatively stiff” shafts is provided in U.S. Pat. No. 6,142,994, which is incorporated herein by reference. As noted above, the shaft distal section 208 can be either somewhat flexible, in that it will conform to a surface against which it is pressed and then spring back to its original shape when removed from the surface, malleable, or some combination thereof. In the exemplary implementation illustrated in FIGS. 19-24, the distal section 208 includes a malleable proximal portion and a flexible distal portion. Although the relative lengths of the portions may vary to suit particular applications, the malleable proximal portion and a flexible distal portion are equal in length in the illustrated embodiment. Referring more specifically to FIGS. 20, 22 and 23, the exemplary shaft distal section 208 includes an outer member 220 that carries the electrodes 210. The outer member 220 is a flexible tubular structure which has an outer diameter that is, depending on the diameter of the electrodes 210, typically between about 2 mm and about 4 mm. The outer member 220 in the illustrated embodiment, which is intended for use in cardiovascular applications, typically has an outer diameter of about 3 mm. Suitable support structure materials include, for example, flexible biocompatible thermoplastic tubing such as unbraided Pebax® material, polyethylene, or polyurethane tubing. Turning to the interior of the shaft distal section 208, the exemplary malleable portion includes a mandrel 222 (FIG. 4) made of a suitably malleable material, such as annealed stainless steel or beryllium copper, that may be fixed directly within the distal end of the shaft's hypotube 216 and secured by, for example, soldering, spot welding or adhesives. An insulating sleeve 224, which is preferably formed from Pebax® material, polyurethane, or other suitable materials, is placed over the mandrel 222. With respect to the flexible portion, a spring member 226, which is preferably either a solid flat wire spring (FIG. 5), a round wire, or a three leaf flat wire Nitinol® spring, is connected to the distal end of the mandrel 222 with a crimp tube or other suitable instrumentality. The distal end of the spring member 226 is connected to the tip member 212 by, for example, an adhesive or welding. The tip member 212 is also secured to the distal end of the outer member 220. Other spring members, formed from materials such as 17-7 or carpenter's steel, may also be used. The spring member 226 is also enclosed within the insulating sleeve 224. The spring member 226 may be pre-stressed so that the distal tip is pre-bent into a desired shape. Additional details concerning distal sections that have a malleable proximal portion and a flexible distal portion are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 6,464,700, which is incorporated herein by reference. In an alternative configuration, the distal section 208 may be formed by a hypotube that is simply a continuation of the shaft hypotube 216 covered by a continuation of the outer tubing 218. However, the distal end hypotube can also be a separate element connected to the shaft hypotube 216, if it is desired that the distal end hypotube have different stiffness (or bending) properties than the shaft hypotube. It should also be noted that the distal section 208 may be made malleable from end to end by eliminating the spring member 226 and extending the malleable mandrel 222 to the tip member 212. Conversely, the distal section 208 may be made flexible from end to end by eliminating the malleable mandrel 222 and extending the spring member 226 from the hypotube 216 to the tip member 212. The electrodes 210 are preferably wound, spiral closed coils that are preferably about 4 mm to about 20 mm in length and formed from the same materials as the electrodes 140, 142 and 144. In the illustrated embodiment, the surgical probe 200 includes seven (7) electrodes 210 and the electrodes are 12.5 mm in length with 1 mm to 3 mm spacing, which will result the creation of continuous lesion patterns in tissue when coagulation energy is applied simultaneously from adjacent electrodes through tissue to an indifferent electrode. The diameter of the electrodes 210 will typically be about 3 mm. The electrodes 210 may, alternatively, be formed from the other materials and methods discussed above with reference to the electrodes 140, 142 and 144. A plurality of temperature sensors 228 (FIG. 23), such as thermocouples or thermistors, may be located on, under, abutting the longitudinal end edges of, or in between, the electrodes 210. A reference thermocouple (not shown) may also be provided. In the exemplary implementation, temperature sensors 228 are located at both longitudinal ends of each of the electrodes 210 within a linear channel 230 that is formed in the outer member 220. The linear channel insures that the temperature sensors will all face in the same direction (e.g. facing tissue) and be arranged in linear fashion. The electrodes 210 are connected to power lines 232 and the temperature sensors 228 are connected to signal lines 234. The power lines 232 may be used to transmit energy from the power supply and control apparatus 300 to the coagulation electrodes 210, while signal lines 234 return temperature information from the temperature sensors 228 to the power supply and control apparatus. The power lines 232 and signal lines 234 extend from the coagulation electrodes 210 and temperature sensors 228 to a connector (such as the exemplary PC board 236 illustrated in FIG. 24) that is carried by the handle 206. The handle 206 also includes a port 238 that is configured to receive a suitable connector, such as the connector 308 from the power supply and control apparatus 300 in the exemplary surgical system 20 illustrated in FIG. 25, for connection to the PC board 238. IV. Power Control As noted above, the exemplary ESU 300 supplies and controls power to the tissue coagulation assembly 124 and the surgical probe 200. A suitable ESU is the Model 4810A ESU sold by Boston Scientific Corporation of Natick, Mass., which is capable of supplying and controlling RF power in both bipolar and unipolar modes on an electrode-by-electrode basis. Such electrode-by-electrode power control is sometimes referred to as “multi-channel control.” Typically, power will be controlled as a function of the temperature at each electrode in order to insure that tissue is coagulated without over-heating and causing coagulum and charring. With respect to temperature sensing, temperature at the electrodes 140 and 142 on the tissue coagulation assembly 124 is measured by the aforementioned temperatures sensors 170, while temperature at the surgical probe electrodes 210 is measured by the temperature sensors 228. Alternatively, in those instances where temperature sensors are not employed, the respective temperatures at the electrodes may be determined by measuring impedance at each electrode. Referring to FIG. 1, the exemplary ESU 300 is provided with a power output connector 302 and a pair of return connectors 304 which are respectively configured to be connected to the power and return connectors 164 and 168 on the tissue coagulation assembly 124. As such, the electrodes 140 and 142 and temperature sensors 170 may be connected to the ESU power output connector 302, and the electrode 144 may be connected to the return connector 304. The ESU power output and return connectors 302 and 304 may have different shapes to avoid confusion and the power and return connectors 164 and 168 may be correspondingly shaped. In the exemplary bipolar tissue coagulation assembly 124 illustrated in FIG. 1, for example, the power connector 164 has a generally circular shape corresponding to the ESU power output connector 302 and the return connector 168 has a generally rectangular shape corresponding to the ESU return connector 304. Turning to FIG. 25, the surgical system 20 includes the surgical probe 200 and the ESU 300. The ESU 300 transmits energy to the electrodes 210 and receives signal from the temperature sensors 228 by way of a cable 306 and a connector 308, which may be connected to the PC board in the surgical probe handle 206 in the manner described above. The exemplary ESU 300 is operable in a bipolar mode, where tissue coagulation energy emitted by one of the electrodes 210 is returned through another, and a unipolar mode, where the tissue coagulation energy emitted by the electrodes is returned through one or more indifferent electrodes 310 that are externally attached to the skin of the patient with a patch, or one or more electrodes (not shown) that are positioned in the blood pool, and a cable 312. Additional information concerning suitable temperature sensing and RF power supply and control is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,456,682, 5,582,609, 5,755,715 and U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2004/0059325 A1. V. Stimulation Electrodes and Lesion Confirmation Electrophysiology devices in accordance with the present inventions may also be provided with stimulation electrodes that are used to stimulate tissue (such as by pacing). The stimulation electrodes may be used to perform a variety of functions before, during and after a lesion formation procedure. For example, and as described in greater detail below, the stimulation electrodes may be used to confirm tissue contact prior to supplying coagulation energy, to evaluate the lesion as the coagulation energy is supplied, and to confirm whether or not a therapeutic lesion has been formed after the coagulation energy has been discontinued. Stimulation energy may be used because non-viable tissue (e.g. coagulated tissue) cannot be stimulated and will not propagate stimulation energy to nearby tissue. To that end, the exemplary electrophysiology system 10c illustrated in FIG. 27 includes an electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100c, the above described ESU 300, a tissue stimulation apparatus 350, and an EP recording apparatus 352. The tissue stimulation apparatus 350 is capable of providing pulses of energy that stimulate (but do not coagulate) tissue. One exemplary tissue stimulation apparatus 350 is a conventional pacing apparatus, such as the Medtronic Model Nos. 5330 and 5388 external pulse generators. The EP recording apparatus 352 is connected to, and directs the tissue stimulation and recording associated with, the tissue stimulation apparatus 350. A suitable EP recording apparatus is the Prucka CardioLab 7000® from GE Medical Systems. Alternatively, the electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100c may be directly connected to the tissue stimulation apparatus 350 or connected to the tissue stimulation apparatus by way of a simple switching box. It should also be noted that the functionality of the tissue stimulation apparatus 350 may be incorporated into the ESU 300. Here, however, ESU and associated surgical devices should be configured such that coagulation electrodes will only receive coagulation energy and the stimulation electrodes will only receive stimulation energy. Here too, this may be accomplished with different connector configurations. The functionality of the tissue stimulation apparatus 350 and the EP recording apparatus 352 may also be combined into a single device. With respect to the stimulation energy itself, the power delivered to tissue for stimulation purposes will typically be significantly less than that which would form a transmural or otherwise therapeutic lesion in tissue. An exemplary stimulation energy delivery would consist of two stimulation pulses per second, each pulse being 1 millisecond. The maximum amplitude would typical be 10 mA, which would create 0.5 V, for a total power delivery of 10 μW. As noted above, the amount of power required to coagulate tissue ranges from 5 to 150 W. The amplitude may be increased in those instances where the stimulation pulses are being supplied at the same time as the tissue coagulation energy, as is described below. Turning to the exemplary electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100c, and as illustrated in FIGS. 26-30, it includes a clamp 102 and a tissue coagulation assembly 124c that is essentially identical to the tissue coagulation assembly 124. Similar elements are used to represent similar elements. Here, however, the first and second energy transmission devices 126c and 128c are provided with stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 in addition to the coagulation electrodes 140-144. The stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 are carried on the energy transmission surfaces 178 of the variable spacing structures 176. Alternatively, the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 may be located between the resilient member 180 and a barrier member 182 or, in instances where there is no barrier member, simply on the exterior of the resilient member. The stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 may also be used in conjunction with resilient members, such as resilient member 180a, that includes conductive fibers 186. The stimulation electrodes 188 are connected to signal wires 192 and the stimulation electrodes 190 are connected to signal wires 194. The signals wires 192 and 194 are preferably configured such that they will not change the mechanical properties of the resilient material. Suitable signal wires include wires that are 38 gauge or smaller. The signal wires 192 traverse the resilient material 180 and enter the support structure 130 near the stimulation electrodes 188 (i.e. between the windings of the underlying coagulation electrodes 140 and 142 or between the underlying coagulation electrodes) as shown or, alternatively, just proximal to the underlying coagulation electrodes. The signal wires 194 traverse the resilient material 180 and enter the support structure 132 near the stimulation electrodes 190 (i.e. between the windings of the underlying coagulation electrode 144) as shown or, alternatively, just proximal to the underlying coagulation electrode. The signal lines 192 and 194, which pass through the cable 134, the handle 138, and a cable 135, are connected to the EP recording apparatus 352 by a connector 137. Referring to FIGS. 26, 29 and 30, the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 in the exemplary embodiment are positioned such that they are located between, and aligned with, the tissue coagulation electrodes 140-144. The stimulation electrodes 188 are also preferably aligned with the linear channel 174 (note FIG. 9) so that the stimulation electrodes face the same direction (and the same tissue) as the temperature sensors 170. The location and spacing of the stimulation electrodes 188 on the energy transmission device 126c is the same as it is on the energy transmission device 128c. As such, the clamp apparatus 100c includes pairs of stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 (five pairs in the illustrated embodiment) that are aligned with one another and face one another, when the clamp apparatus grasps a tissue structure, and are aligned with one another and face one another from opposite sides of the tissue structure. In the illustrated embodiment, two pairs of stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 are located between the transmitting electrode 140 and the return electrode 144, two pairs of stimulation electrodes are located between the transmitting electrode 142 and the return electrode, and one pair of stimulation electrodes is located between the small space between transmitting electrodes and the return electrode. The stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 and the coagulation electrodes 140-144 are also located within a common plane. There are a number of advantages associated with such an arrangement. For example, the placement of tissue stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 on the same surgical device as the tissue coagulation electrodes allows the physician to quickly and easily confirm tissue contact and evaluate the lesion without moving the clamp. Additionally, and as illustrated in FIGS. 31 and 32, the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 are located between the energy transmitting portions of the energy transmission devices 126c and 128c and are also in the current path CP between the energy transmission devices (which is shown by the dash lines in FIG. 31). This arrangement provides more accurate information when the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 are being used to confirm tissue contact prior to supplying coagulation energy because the stimulation electrodes are in contact with the portions of the tissue structure through which current will be transmitted, as opposed to being in contact with tissue that is merely close to the current path. The location of the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 also provides more accurate information concerning the lesion itself during and after the tissue coagulation procedure because the stimulation electrodes are in direct contact with the coagulated tissue CT (FIG. 32). The assessment of the lesion is localized (i.e. the assessment is made directly on the target tissue within the current path) and, therefore, facilitates lesion assessment processes that are easier to implement than those which involve stimulating tissue on one side of a lesion and sensing tissue on the other. Here, the assessment is simply whether or not stimulation of the tissue adjacent to the lesion occurs, as opposed to an assessment of the propagation delay between the stimulation pulse on one side of the lesion and the stimulation on the other. With respect to the specific methods by which tissue contact may be confirmed after the physician has positioned the energy transmission devices 126c and 128c on opposite sides of a tissue structure, the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 may be used to supply pulses of stimulation energy (sometimes referred to as “pacing” pulses) to the tissue in the current path CP between the energy transmission devices. The stimulation energy will preferably be supplied in bipolar fashion to a single stimulation electrode pair. The physician will then monitor the adjacent tissue, either visually or with a monitor such as an ECG to determine whether that tissue was stimulated. In the context of the treatment of atrial fibrillation, for example, the procedure may be performed after the energy transmission devices 126c and 128c are epicardially positioned about one or more of the pulmonary veins. If the stimulation energy stimulates (or “paces”) the adjacent tissue (here, the left atrium), the physician will know that proper contact has been achieved for the associated portions of the energy transmission devices 126c and 128c. This process may be sequentially repeated with the other stimulation electrode pairs to insure proper tissue contact with the other portions of the energy transmission devices 126c and 128c. Thereafter, and without moving the electrophysiology clamp apparatus 100c, tissue coagulation energy may be applied to the tissue in the current path CP with the electrodes 140-144 to form a lesion. As noted above, stimulation energy may also be used while the tissue coagulation energy is being supplied in order to determine when a transmural lesion has been completely formed. Here, stimulation energy pulses may be supplied by the electrode pairs to the tissue in the current path CP in the manner described above. The tissue adjacent to the current path will be monitored, either visually or with an ECG, to determine when the adjacent tissue is no longer being stimulated. The supply of tissue coagulation energy may be discontinued in response to such a determination. For example, if the ESU 300 is programmed to supply coagulation energy for 30 seconds, the supply of energy could end after 25 seconds if the lesion is completed earlier than was anticipated, as determined by the inability to stimulate the adjacent tissue. This may be accomplished either manually, or automatically, if the ECG is connected to the ESU 300. It should be noted that tissue becomes non-stimulatable before it is irreversibly coagulated or otherwise irreversibly damaged. Accordingly, tissue coagulation energy should continue to be supplied for a few seconds after the adjacent tissue ceases to be stimulated by stimulation energy pulses (i.e. there should be a brief delay before the coagulation energy is discontinued). It should also be noted that while coagulation energy is being supplied by the electrodes 140-144, the stimulation energy should be supplied at a significantly higher amplitude (e.g. 5 times higher) than it would be before or after the coagulation procedure because tissue that is heated is harder to stimulate. For example, if 4 mA pulses are suitable before and after the coagulation procedure, then 20 mA pulses should be used during the coagulation procedure. Finally, stimulation energy may be supplied after tissue coagulation energy has been discontinued, either at the end of the pre-programmed period or based on the sensed completion of the lesion, in order to determine whether a transmural lesion has been formed. Without moving the clamp, stimulation energy pulses may be supplied by the electrode pairs to the tissue in the current path CP in the manner described above. The adjacent tissue will be monitored, either visually or with the ECG, to determine whether the adjacent tissue can be stimulated. If not, the physician may assume that a transmural lesion has been formed. In those instances where the lesion is incomplete, the individual stimulation electrode pairs may be used to determine where the gap (i.e. the portion of the lesion that is not transmural) is located. Additional coagulation energy may then be supplied as necessary to complete the lesion. Of course, it may be the case that the entire lesion is not transmural, which would require the coagulation procedure to be at least partially repeated. With respect to sizes and materials, the stimulation electrodes 188 and 190 are relatively small (i.e. too small to form transmural myocardial lesions), solid, low profile devices. Suitable surface are sizes are about 0.2 mm2 to 10 mm2 , and suitable thicknesses are about 0.01 mm to 0.5 mm. The electrodes in the illustrated embodiment are about 1 mm2 and about 0.1 mm thick. Suitable materials include platinum, platinum iridium, stainless steel, gold, silver-silver chloride or other non-toxic metals. Stimulation electrodes may also be formed by coating a conductive material onto the variable spacing structures 176 or other underlying structure using conventional coating techniques or an IBAD process. Suitable conductive materials include platinum-iridium and gold. An undercoating of nickel, silver or titanium may be applied to improve adherence. Conductive ink compounds, such as silver-based flexible adhesive conductive ink (polyurethane binder) or metal-based adhesive conductive inks (e.g. platinum, gold, or copper based) may also be pad printed in place. With respect to assembly, the signal wires 190 and 192 may be welded or soldered to solid stimulation electrodes prior to assembly, while coated/printed electrodes may be formed onto the ends of signal wires that are already in place. Surgical probes may also be provided with stimulation electrodes. The exemplary surgical probe 200a illustrated in FIGS. 33-36 is essentially identical to the surgical probe 200 and similar elements are represented by similar reference numerals. Here, however, the distal section 208a includes a plurality of the above-described stimulation electrodes 188. The stimulation electrodes 188 are arranged such that a pair of stimulation electrodes is aligned with each of the seven coagulation electrodes 210. Signal wires 192, which are connected to the stimulation electrodes 188 in the manner described above, extend through a cable 240 to a connector 242. The handle 206a includes an aperture 244 for the cable 240. The surgical probe 200a may be incorporated into the exemplary electrophysiology system 20a (FIG. 33), which also includes the aforementioned ESU 300, tissue stimulation apparatus 350, and EP recording apparatus 352. There are a number of advantages associated with such as system. Most notably, positioning the tissue stimulation electrodes 188 on the same surgical device as the tissue coagulation electrodes 210 allows the physician to quickly and easily confirm tissue contact and evaluate the lesion without moving the probe. Typically, this will involve providing monopolar stimulation pulses from the pairs of stimulation electrodes 188 that are associated with the coagulation electrodes 210 that will be forming the lesion. With respect to tissue contact, and referring to FIG. 37, the stimulation electrode pairs may be used to supply pulses of stimulation energy to the tissue in the current path CP associated with one of the coagulation electrodes 210. The physician will then monitor the adjacent tissue in the tissue structure T, either visually or with an ECG, to determine whether that tissue was stimulated. This process may be sequentially repeated with the other stimulation electrode pairs in order to insure proper tissue contact with the applicable portions of the surgical probe distal section 208a. Thereafter, and without moving the distal section, tissue coagulation energy may be applied to the tissue in the current path CP with the electrodes 210 to form a lesion. Turning to FIG. 38, the stimulation electrodes 188 may also be used to determine lesion depth and, correspondingly, whether or not a lesion is transmural at various points along the length of the lesion. Stimulation energy may be used to determine lesion depth because non-viable tissue (e.g. coagulated tissue) cannot be stimulated and will not propagate stimulation energy to nearby tissue. As such, when the application of stimulation energy that should stimulate tissue at a known depth fails to do so, and that depth is greater than or equal to the thickness of the body structure, it may be inferred that a transmural lesion has been formed. Preferably, the stimulation electrodes will be used on a coagulation electrode-by-coagulation electrode basis both during and before the coagulation process in the manner described above. In the context of lesions formed within the heart, for example, localized current densities must exceed about 2 mA/cm2 to stimulate heart tissue. With respect to current transmitted from an electrode to tissue, the current density is about ½πr2, where r is the distance from the electrode. Thus, a 1 mA stimulation pulse will typically stimulate viable tissue that is no more than about 2.8 mm from the electrode, a 2 mA stimulation pulse will typically stimulate viable tissue that is no more than about 4.0 mm from the electrode, a 10 mA stimulation pulse will typically stimulate viable tissue that is no more than about 9.0 mm from the electrode, and a 20 mA stimulation pulse will typically stimulate viable tissue that is no more than about 13.0 mm from the electrode. The left atrium is, for example, about 3 mm thick and accordingly, failure to stimulate with a 2 mA stimulation pulse indicates that a transmural lesion has been formed in the vicinity of the stimulation electrode. As noted above, these values should be substantially increased (e.g. by a factor of five) when the stimulation pulses are being supplied at the same time as the coagulation energy. It should also be noted that there are a number of advantages associated with location of the stimulation electrodes 188 relative to the coagulation electrodes 210. For example, the stimulation electrodes 188 are positioned between the coagulation electrodes 210 and target tissue, as opposed to being positioned on the distal section outer member 220 between the coagulation electrodes. As such, the stimulation electrodes 188 are in the current path of each coagulation electrode 210, as opposed to being in between the current paths the coagulation electrodes. Although the inventions disclosed herein have been described in terms of the preferred embodiments above, numerous modifications and/or additions to the above-described preferred embodiments would be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. By way of example, but not limitation, tissue coagulation assemblies in accordance with the present inventions may be configured such that only one of the energy transmission devices includes a variable spacing device and/or such that the energy transmission devices are otherwise not identical. It is intended that the scope of the present inventions extend to all such modifications and/or additions and that the scope of the present inventions is limited solely by the claims set forth below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>1. Field of Inventions The present inventions relate generally to devices for performing therapeutic operations on body tissue. 2. Description of the Related Art There are many instances where electrosurgical devices are used to form therapeutic lesions in tissue. Therapeutic lesions are frequently formed to treat conditions in the heart, prostate, liver, brain, gall bladder, uterus, breasts, lungs and other solid organs. Electromagnetic radio frequency (“RF”) may, for example, be used to heat and eventually kill (i.e. “ablate”) tissue to form a lesion. During the ablation of soft tissue (i.e. tissue other than blood, bone and connective tissue), tissue coagulation occurs and it is the coagulation that kills the tissue. Thus, references to the ablation of soft tissue are necessarily references to soft tissue coagulation. “Tissue coagulation” is the process of cross-linking proteins in tissue to cause the tissue to jell. In soft tissue, it is the fluid within the tissue cell membranes that jells to kill the cells, thereby killing the tissue. The tissue coagulation energy is typically supplied and controlled by an electrosurgical unit (“ESU”) during the therapeutic procedure. More specifically, after an electrosurgical device has been connected to the ESU, and the electrodes or other energy transmission elements on the device have been positioned adjacent to the target tissue, energy from the ESU is transmitted through the energy transmission elements to the tissue to from a lesion. The amount of power required to coagulate tissue ranges from 5 to 150 W. Clamps that carry electrodes or other energy transmission elements on opposable clamp members are used in a wide variety of electrophysiology procedures, especially those in which the physician intends to position electrodes on opposite sides of a body structure. Examples of clamp based devices which carry energy transmission elements are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,142,994, and U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2003/0158547 A1, which are incorporated herein by reference. In a typical clamp based procedure, a clamp will be used by the physician to position energy transmission surfaces (such as the outer surface of the exposed portion of the energy transmission elements) on opposite sides of a tissue structure. Energy may then be transmitted through the tissue from one energy transmission surface to the other, which is commonly referred to as bipolar energy transmission, or from each of the energy transmission surfaces to an indifferent electrode positioned at a remote location such as the patient's skin, which is commonly referred to as unipolar energy transmission. Surgical probes are another example of devices that may be used in electrophysiology procedures. Surgical probes used to create lesions often include a handle, a relatively short shaft that is from 4 inches to 18 inches in length and either rigid or relatively stiff, and a distal section that is from 1 inch to 10 inches in length and either malleable or somewhat flexible. One or more coagulation electrodes or other energy transmission devices are carried by the distal section. Surgical probes are used in epicardial and endocardial procedures, including open heart procedures and minimally invasive procedures where access to the heart is obtained via a thoracotomy, thoracostomy or median sternotomy. Exemplary surgical probes are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,142,994. Tissue contact is an important issue in any electrophysiology procedure. With respect to clamp based procedures, for example, the failure to achieve and maintain intimate contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces can result in gaps in what were intended to be continuous linear or curvilinear lesions. With respect to the formation of therapeutic lesions in the heart to treat cardiac conditions such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter and arrhythmia, such gaps may result in a failure to cure the arrhythmia and atrial flutter or may create atrial flutter. Moreover, atrial flutter created by gaps in linear lesions can difficult to cure. Poor contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces can also result in lesions that are not transmural. Lesions which are not transmural may, in turn, fail to cure the patient's arrhythmia or other medical condition. One method of insuring the proper level of contact in clamp based electrophysiology procedures is to configure the clamp in such a manner that there is a predetermined (i.e. preset) spacing between the energy transmission surfaces when the clamp is in the closed orientation that corresponds to the thickness of the target tissue structure. In addition to insuring intimate tissue contact, the preset spacing also prevents the mechanical damage to tissue (e.g. cutting through the tissue structure) that can occur when the spacing between the energy transmission surfaces is less than the thickness of the target tissue structure when the clamp is closed. For example, electrophysiology clamps that are intended to position energy transmission surfaces on opposite sides of the tissue around the pulmonary veins have a closed orientation spacing of about 2 mm between the energy transmission surfaces. The present inventors have determined that conventional clamp based electrophysiology devices are susceptible to improvement. More specifically, the present inventors have determined that there are procedures where a physician may wish to form lesions in tissue structures with different thicknesses. The use of a conventional clamp based electrophysiology device with a preset spacing between the energy transmission surfaces can hamper such procedures because a preset spacing that is large enough to accommodate the larger tissue structures may be too large to facilitate intimate tissue contact with the smaller tissue structures. As such, the use of a single conventional clamp based electrophysiology device in procedures that involve tissue structures of varying thickness may result in mechanical damage to tissue and/or lesions that are not continuous or transmural. Another important issue in electrophysiology procedures is energy transmission and, more specifically, the electrical resistivity on the structure that is in contact with tissue. In some clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices that include electrodes, the exposed portions of the electrodes are covered with porous, wettable structures that are configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid (such as saline) prior to use. Tissue coagulation energy may be transmitted to (or to and from) the electrodes by way of the ionic fluid. The present inventors have determined that conventional porous, wettable structures are susceptible to improvement and, in particular, that the electrical resistance across the porous, wettable structures should be reduced. Still another important issue in electrophysiology procedures is confirming whether a therapeutic lesion has been properly formed during surgical procedures. Some clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices employ stimulation electrodes that may be placed on tissue on one side of a lesion, or stimulation and sensing electrodes that may be placed on tissue on opposite sides of a lesion, and used to confirm whether a therapeutic lesion has been formed during surgical procedures. The present inventors have determined that such clamp and surgical probe based electrophysiology devices are susceptible to improvement. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF SOME OF THE INVENTIONS <EOH>An apparatus for use with a clamp in accordance with one invention herein includes first and second energy transmission surfaces with a predetermined spacing when the clamp is closed and a device that allows the spacing to increase when the energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing. Similarly, a clamp in accordance with one invention herein includes first and second energy transmission surfaces with a predetermined spacing when the clamp is closed and a device that allows the spacing to increase when the energy transmission surfaces are brought into contact with a tissue structure that is thicker than the predetermined spacing. Such devices provide a number of advantages. For example, such devices may be used to achieve and maintain intimate contact between the tissue and energy transmission surfaces, but will not damage tissue, when brought into contact with the tissue surfaces structures of varying thickness. An apparatus for use with an energy transmission element in accordance with one invention herein includes a wettable structure configured to be saturated with and retain ionic fluid and a plurality of conductive fibers carried by the wettable structure. Such an apparatus provides a number of advantages. For example, the use of conductive fibers greatly increases the conductivity of the apparatus, as compared to an otherwise identical wettable structure saturated with the same ionic fluid. An apparatus in accordance with one invention herein includes a tissue coagulation device that creates a current path and a stimulation electrode carried within the current path. Such an apparatus provides a number of advantages. For example, the apparatus allows the physician to quickly and easily confirm tissue contact, form a lesion, and evaluate the lesion with the same apparatus and without moving the apparatus. The location of the stimulation electrode also results in more accurate information concerning the lesion, as compared to conventional apparatus, because the assessment of the lesion is localized (i.e. the assessment is made directly on the target tissue within the current path). The above described and many other features and attendant advantages of the present inventions will become apparent as the inventions become better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050108 | 20110104 | 20060713 | 82630.0 | A61B1814 | 0 | COHEN, LEE S | CLAMP BASED LESION FORMATION APPARATUS WITH VARIABLE SPACING STRUCTURES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61B | 2,005 |
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11,031,853 | ACCEPTED | Switching with transparent and non-transparent ports | There are disclosed apparatus and methods for switching. Transparent and non- transparent ports are provided. Data units are transferred between the transparent ports, between the transparent and non-transparent ports, and between the non-transparent ports. | 1. A switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces comprising a first physical interface for interfacing to a first device having a first address in a first shared address domain a second physical interface for interfacing to a second device having a second address in the first shared address domain a third physical interface for interfacing to a third device having a third address in a second address domain, wherein the second address domain is isolated from the first address domain logic for switching data units between the first physical interface, the second physical interface and the third physical interface using mapped address I/O and masking the second address domain. 2. The switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces of claim 1 wherein the first address domain and the second address domain are selected from the group comprising memory address domains and input/output address domains. 3. The switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces of claim 1 wherein the data units are switched by the logic through one of direct memory translation with or without offsets, indirect memory translation through lookup registers or tables, a mailbox mechanism, and doorbell registers. 4. The switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces of claim 1 wherein isolation comprises separation such that interaction does not take place. 5. The switch with transparent and non-transparent ports of claim 1 wherein the third physical interface is selectable to interface to devices in the first address domain or the second address domain. 6. The switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces of claim 1 having plural transparent physical interfaces and plural non-transparent physical interfaces. 7. A system comprising the switch with transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces of claim 1 a first processor having a first address domain and connected to the first physical interface a second processor having a second address domain and connected to the third physical interface wherein the first processor and the second processor can communicate with each other through the switch, and the switch masks the second address domain. 8. A process for switching data units, the method comprising providing a switch having transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces associating the transparent physical interfaces with a shared address domain associating the non-transparent physical interfaces with non-shared address domains obtaining translation offsets for the non-shared address domains transferring data units between the transparent physical interfaces, between the transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces, and between the non-transparent physical interfaces. 9. The process for switching data units of claim 8 wherein transferring data units between the transparent and non-transparent physical interfaces comprises receiving data units through the transparent physical interfaces which are addressed to devices coupled to the non-transparent physical interfaces, and transmitting the data units through the non-transparent physical interfaces to the addressed devices receiving data units through the non-transparent physical interfaces which are addressed to devices coupled to the transparent physical interfaces, and transmitting the data units through the transparent physical interfaces to the addressed devices. 10. The process for switching data units of claim 8 comprising receiving data units from the transparent physical interfaces and the non-transparent physical interfaces storing the received data units in a buffer determining destination addresses of the received data units if the destination addresses correspond to devices coupled to the non-transparent physical interfaces, then translating the destination addresses to the non-shared address domain associated with the devices prior to transfer through the non-transparent physical interfaces if the data units are received from transparent physical interfaces and the destination addresses correspond to devices coupled to the transparent physical interfaces, then transferring the data units through the corresponding transparent physical interfaces without translating the destination addresses. | RELATED APPLICATION INFORMATION This patent is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/993,277 filed Nov. 18, 2004, which claims priority from U.S. application Ser. No. 60/523,246 filed Nov. 18, 2003, both of which are incorporated by reference. NOTICE OF COPYRIGHTS AND TRADE DRESS A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. This patent document may show and/or describe matter which is or may become trade dress of the owner. The copyright and trade dress owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by any one of the patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent files or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright and trade dress rights whatsoever. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to data switches. 2. Description of the Related Art The Peripheral Component Interconnect (“PCI”) standard was promulgated about ten years ago, and has since been updated a number of times. One update led to the PCI/X standard, and another, more recently, to PCI Express. The PCI standards are defined for chip-level interconnects, adapter cards and device drivers. The PCI standards are considered cost-effective, backwards compatible, scalable and forward-thinking. PCI buses, whether they be PCI Express or previous PCI generations, provide an electrical, physical and logical interconnection for multiple peripheral components of microprocessor based systems. PCI Express systems differ substantially from their PCI and PCI/X predecessors in that all communication in the system is performed point-to-point. Unlike PCI/X systems in which two or more end points share the same electrical interface, PCI Express buses connect a maximum of two end points, one on each end of the bus. If a PCI Express bus must communicate with more than one end point, a switch, also known as a fan out device, is required to convert the single PCI Express source to multiple sources. The communication protocol in a PCI Express system is identical to legacy PCI/X systems from the host software perspective. In all PCI systems, each end point is assigned one or more memory and IO address ranges. Each end point is also assigned a bus/device/function number to uniquely identify it from other end points in the system. With these parameters set a system host can communicate with all end points in the system. In fact, all end points can communicate with all other end points within a system. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a switching environment. FIG. 2 is a diagram of address domains. FIG. 3 is a flow chart of a process for switching data units. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Throughout this description, the embodiments and examples shown should be considered as exemplars, rather than limitations on the apparatus and methods of the present invention. Description of Systems Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a block diagram of a switching environment 100. The switching environment includes a switch 110 and a number of end points 120a, 120b, 120c, 120d. The switching environment 100 may be a point-to-point communications network. The term “switch” as used herein means a system element that logically connects two or more ports to allow data units to be routed from one port to another, and the switch 110 is a switch. The switch routes data units using memory-mapped I/O or I/O-mapped I/O (both, collectively, “mapped I/O”). The switch 110 further includes a buffer 115 and logic 117. The switch 110 includes a number of ports 112a, 112b, 112c, 112d, which are physical interfaces between the buffer 115 and logic 117 and the end points 120. By data unit, it is meant a frame, cell, datagram, packet or other unit of information. In some embodiments, such as PCI, a data unit is unencapsulated. Data units may be stored in the buffer 115. By buffer, it is meant a dedicated or shared memory, a group or pipeline of registers, and/or other storage device or group of storage devices which can store data temporarily. The buffer 115 may operate at a speed commensurate with the communication speed of the switching environment 100. For example, it may be desirable to provide a dedicated memory for individual portions (as described below) and pipelined registers for multicast portions (as described below). The logic 117 includes software and/or hardware for providing functionality and features described herein. The logic 117 may include one or more of: logic arrays, memories, analog circuits, digital circuits, software, firmware, and processors such as microprocessors, field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), programmable logic devices (PLDs) and programmable logic arrays (PLAs). The hardware and firmware components of the logic 117 may include various specialized units, circuits, software and interfaces for providing the functionality and features described herein. The invention may be embodied in whole or in part in software which operates in the switch 110 and may be in the form of firmware, an application program, an applet (e.g., a Java applet), a browser plug-in, a COM object, a dynamic linked library (DLL), a script, one or more subroutines, or an operating system component or service. The hardware and software of the invention and its functions may be distributed such that some components are performed by the switch 110 and others by other devices. The end points 120a, 120b, 120c, 120d are logical devices which connect to and communicate with the switch 110 respectively through the ports 112. At least some of the end points may share an address domain, such as a memory address domain or an I/O address domain. The term “address domain” means the total range of addressable locations. If the shared address domain is a memory address domain, then data units are transmitted via memory mapped I/O to a destination address into the shared memory address domain. The end points 120 may be connected to the ports 112 by electrical contacts, wirelessly, optically or otherwise. Referring now to FIG. 2, there is shown a diagram of two address domains 200, 250. One address domain 200 is shared by end points 120a, 120b, 120d, and the other address domain 250 is not shared and used only by end point 120d. This is just an example; there may be more than two address domains, and more than one address domain may be shared. The address domains 200, 250 are contiguous ranges. Each address domains is defined by a master end point. Address portions associated with the individual end points 120 may be non-contiguous and the term “portions” is meant to refer to contiguous and non-contiguous spaces. The master end point for a given address domain allocates address portions to the other end points which share that address domain. The end points communicate their address space needs to the master device, and the master device allocates address space accordingly. Data units may be written into or communicated into an address portion. In a switch conforming to the PCI Express standard, it is expected that the address portions in a 32-bit shared memory address domain or shared I/O address domain will be at least as large as the largest expected transaction, and comparable to those shown in FIG. 2. Within the shared address domain 200, separate address portions 210a, 210b, 210c may be associated with the corresponding end points 120a, 120b, 120c. The address domain 200 may be allocated so as to provide the corresponding end points 120a, 120b, 120c with unique address portions. The address portions may be unique within the shared address domain 200 with respect to one another. Within the non-shared address domain 250, there may be a portion 250d associated with the end point 120d. The non-shared address domain 250 is considered isolated from the shared address domain 210. Other non-shared address domains could be included, and they would also be considered isolated from the shared address domain, and from each other. By “isolated” it is meant that the address domains are separated such that interaction does not directly take place between them, and therefore uniquely addressable addresses are provided. The address portions 210 may have various characteristics. The address portions 210 may have respective sizes. The sizes may be fixed or variable. The address portions 210 may be defined by a base address, as well as by a size or end address. The address portions 210 may come to be associated with the end points 120 through an arbitrage process, through centralized assignment (e.g., by a host or the switch 110), otherwise or through a combination of these. The address portion 210 for a given end point 120 need not be contiguous. To avoid errors, it may be desirable if the address portions 210 within the same address domain do not overlap. Data units may be directed to one or more of the end points 120 by addressing. That is, a destination address is associated with and may be included in the data units. The destination address determines which end point 120 should receive a given data unit. Thus, data units addressed to the individual portion for a given end point 120 should be received only by that end point 120. Depending on the embodiment, the destination address may be the same as the base address or may be within the address portion. The end points 120 may be associated with respective ports 112. Through this association, a given end point 120 may send data units to and receive data units from its associated port 112. This association may be on a one-to-one basis. Because of these relationships, the ports 112 also have associations with the address portions 210 of the end points 120. Thus, the ports 112 may be said to have address portions 210 within the address domains 200, 250. Ports within a shared addressed domain are considered “transparent”, and those not within a shared address domain are considered “non-transparent”. Data units from one transparent port to another may be transferred directly. However, data units between a transparent port and a non-transparent port require address translation to accommodate the differences in their respective address domains. Transparent ports are logical interfaces within a single addressing domain. Non-transparent ports allow interaction between completely separate addressing domains, but addresses from one domain must be converted from one domain to the other. The status of a port—transparent or non-transparent - may be fixed or configurable. The logic 117 may allow designation on a port-by-port of transparency or non-transparency, including the address domain for a given port. The switch 110 may be responsive to requests or instructions from the devices 120 to indicate such things as which address domain the devices will be in, and the address portion associated with a given device. Description of Methods Referring now to FIG. 3 there is shown a flow chart of a process for switching data units. The process employs a switch having transparent and non-transparent ports, such as the switches described above. In the switch, the transparent ports are associated with a shared address domain, and the non-transparent ports are associated with non-shared address domains. Domain maps for each address domain may be communicated to the switch. There may be provided a master end point, such as a processor, which is responsible for allocating address portions within its address domain. End points may communicate their address space needs to the master device, and the master device may allocate address space accordingly. The master device may query end points for their address space needs. These allocations, and other allocations and designations, define the address map which the master end point communicates to the switch. The switch may receive a single communication of an address map from a master end point. The switch may receive partial or revised address maps from time to time. In a first step 305, the switch receives a data unit. The switch then stores the data unit in a buffer (step 310). Next, the switch determines the destination address of the data unit (step 315). Next, the switch determines whether the destination address is associated with a transparent or non-transparent port (step 325). If the address is associated with a non-transparent port, then the switch translates the address (step 330). Many different schemes of memory and I/O address translation for mapping from one address domain into another may be used. These schemes include direct memory translation both with and without offsets, and indirect memory translation through lookup registers or tables. Furthermore, addresses may be translated using schemes other than address map translation, such as mailbox mechanisms and doorbell registers. Whether or not translated, the switch forwards the data unit to the port for the designated destination address (step 395). In this way, data units are transferred between the transparent ports, between the transparent and non-transparent ports, and between the non-transparent ports. In effect, non-transparent ports allow data transfers from one address domain to another. In one embodiment, the switch is a PCI Express switch in which one or more of the interfaces (i.e., ports) are optionally non-transparent. A device connected to a non-transparent port of the switch is isolated from the address domain of the other ports on the switch. Two or more processors with their own address maps could all communicate with each other through this type of PCI Express switch. With regard to FIG. 3, additional and fewer steps may be taken, and the steps as shown may be combined or further refined to achieve the methods described herein. Non-transparent operation allows a local subsystem to maintain a full address range completely separate from the main system. In addition, the presence of the local bus is obfuscated from the main system by presenting the non-transparent bridge as an endpoint. Bus enumeration and discovery software remains unaware of the presence of the secondary local bus, allowing for a higher level of abstraction at the system level. To provide both transparent and non-transparent ports, a transparent bridge may be associated with a different type of configuration space than a non-transparent bridge. Upon discovering the transparent type configuration space, bus enumeration and discovery software may read “through” the bridge device in an attempt to identify additional downstream devices. A non-transparent bridge, on the other hand, masks the presence of the secondary local bus by identifying itself as an endpoint. The endpoint association is made via a non-transparent type configuration header. Upon discovering a non-transparent type configuration space, bus enumeration and discovery software is satisfied and does not attempt to read through the non-transparent bridge. A PCI Express switch (including a bridge as described herein) in non-transparent mode allows completely independent and unrestricted address ranges to exist on both sides of the bridge. Transactions passing through the bridge will have their addresses remapped to a correlating destination address. A local host processor may be responsible for maintaining address translation and configuration registers. When address configuration is complete, a primary side lockout bit may “wake” the primary PCI Express endpoint interface, allowing it to respond to bus discovery queries. Addresses may be remapped in a three-stage process. First, the size and configuration of each address base address range is set by the local host. This allows software agents on the main host to allocate and distribute the main memory map. Next, the local host programs the translation offset. Finally, software agents on each side of the bridge perform standard PCI address mapping techniques to map the respective address regions into system memory space. Upon receiving a transaction that falls within a given base address range, a translation function overwrites the upper bits of the address with the translated base offset, or some other address translation technique. Thus, separate address ranges are maintained on both sides of the non-transparent bridge. A downstream range may be associated with requests moving from the PCI Express to the PCI interface. An upstream range is associated with request moving from the local PCI bus to the PCI Express interface. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art that a number of changes, modifications, or alterations to the invention as described herein may be made, none of which depart from the spirit of the present invention. All such changes, modifications and alterations should therefore be seen as within the scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to data switches. 2. Description of the Related Art The Peripheral Component Interconnect (“PCI”) standard was promulgated about ten years ago, and has since been updated a number of times. One update led to the PCI/X standard, and another, more recently, to PCI Express. The PCI standards are defined for chip-level interconnects, adapter cards and device drivers. The PCI standards are considered cost-effective, backwards compatible, scalable and forward-thinking. PCI buses, whether they be PCI Express or previous PCI generations, provide an electrical, physical and logical interconnection for multiple peripheral components of microprocessor based systems. PCI Express systems differ substantially from their PCI and PCI/X predecessors in that all communication in the system is performed point-to-point. Unlike PCI/X systems in which two or more end points share the same electrical interface, PCI Express buses connect a maximum of two end points, one on each end of the bus. If a PCI Express bus must communicate with more than one end point, a switch, also known as a fan out device, is required to convert the single PCI Express source to multiple sources. The communication protocol in a PCI Express system is identical to legacy PCI/X systems from the host software perspective. In all PCI systems, each end point is assigned one or more memory and IO address ranges. Each end point is also assigned a bus/device/function number to uniquely identify it from other end points in the system. With these parameters set a system host can communicate with all end points in the system. In fact, all end points can communicate with all other end points within a system. | 20050106 | 20080902 | 20050602 | 73468.0 | 5 | AUVE, GLENN ALLEN | SWITCHING WITH TRANSPARENT AND NON-TRANSPARENT PORTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,876 | ACCEPTED | Sheet interleave system for patty-forming apparatus | A sheet interleave system for a reciprocating mold plate patty-forming apparatus includes a hopper for holding sheets, a shuttle, a sheet transfer device, at least one precise position controlled motor, and a drive train. The shuttle has a sheet-holding frame that is slidable between a sheet receiving position and a sheet dispensing position beneath knockout cups of the patty-forming apparatus. The sheet transfer device has a suction device for gripping a sheet from the hopper. The suction device is moveable from a position to grip a sheet from the hopper to a position to place the sheet on the sheet holding frame. The drive train is driven by one or two precise position controlled motor. The drive train is mechanically connected to the carriage and to the sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. | 1. A sheet interleave system for a patty-forming apparatus, comprises a frame; a hopper holding sheets; a shuttle slidable on said frame from a sheet-receiving position and a sheet-dispensing position and having a sheet-holding frame; a sheet transfer device having a suction device for gripping a sheet, said suction device moveable from a position to grip a sheet from the hopper to a position to place the sheet on the sheet-holding frame; a first precise position controlled motor; and a first drive train driven by said precise position controlled motor, said drive train mechanically connected to said shuttle to impart controlled motion thereto. 2. The system according to claim 1, wherein said motor comprises an output shaft and said drive train comprises a drive pulley fixed to said output shaft, and a crank driven by said drive pulley, said crank pivotally connected to said frame at a first pivot, and said crank having a first portion extending from said first pivot and arranged to swing about said first pivot, said first portion connected to said shuttle, and a second portion extending from said first pivot and arranged to swing about said first pivot, said second portion connected to said suction device to impart controlled motion thereto. 3. The system according to claim 2, wherein said second portion carries a second pivot and said suction device is rotationally mounted to said second portion at said second pivot, and a drive arrangement connected between said frame and said suction device to swing said suction device about said second pivot simultaneously with pivoting of said second portion about said first pivot. 4. The system according to claim 3, wherein said drive arrangement comprises a stationary pulley fixed to said frame and a flip pulley fixed to said suction device and rotatable about said second pivot, and a belt wrapped around said stationary and flip pulleys, rotation of said second portion about said first pivot moving said belt over said flip pulley to rotate said suction device about said second pivot. 5. The system according to claim 4, wherein said precise positioning motor operates in reverse rotation directions. 6. The system according to claim 5, wherein said precise positioning motor comprises a servomotor. 7. The system according to claim 1, wherein said precise position controlled motor comprises a servomotor. 8. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first portion comprises a third pivot and said shuttle carries a fourth pivot, and comprising a linkage pivotally connected to said third pivot and to said fourth pivot, pivoting motion of said first portion translating said shuttle linearly. 9. The system according to claim 1, wherein said motor comprises an output shaft, and said drive train comprises a first pulley fixed to said output shaft and a crank pivotally mounted at a first pivot to said frame, said crank having a first portion swingable about said first pivot and having a distal end operatively connected to said shuttle, wherein said first portion comprises a second pulley fixed thereto, and a belt wrapped around said first and second pulleys, said motor rotating in oscillating fashion. 10. The system according to claim 1, wherein said apparatus comprises laterally arranged rods, said rods having protruding ends arranged to be attached to an adjacent patty-forming apparatus and to support the sheet interleave system in cantilever fashion, said rods also arranged to guide linear movement of said shuttle. 11. The system according to claim 10, wherein said carriage includes two slide blocks, each slidingly mounted on one rod. 12. The system according to claim 1, wherein said precise position controlled motor is not mechanically linked to said patty-forming apparatus. 13. The system according to claim 1 comprising a second precise position controlled motor and a second drive train, said second drive train mechanically connected to said sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. 14. The system according to claim 13, wherein said second precise position controlled motor comprises an output shaft and said second drive train comprises a lever driven to pivot about a base pivot by said output shaft, said lever having a flip pivot at a distal end thereof, and a drive arrangement connected between said flip pivot and said frame to swing said suction device about said flip pivot simultaneously with pivoting of said lever about said base pivot. 15. The system according to claim 13, wherein said precise positioning motor operates in reverse rotation directions. 16. The system according to claim 13, wherein said precise positioning motor comprises a servomotor. 17. A sheet interleaving module attachable to a patty-forming apparatus, comprising: a frame; a first motor mounted to said frame; a hopper holding sheets; a shuttle slidable from a sheet receiving position and a sheet dispensing position and having a sheet holding frame; a sheet transfer device having a suction device for gripping a sheet, said suction device moveable from a position to grip a sheet from the hopper to a position to place the sheet on the sheet holding frame; and a drive train driven by said first motor, said drive train mechanically connected to said shuttle to impart controlled motion thereto. 18. The system according to claim 17, wherein said frame includes two support rods arranged longitudinally extended and laterally spaced apart, said support rods protruding from said frame to be fastenable to a patty-forming apparatus to support said module in cantilever fashion thereto. 19. The system according to claim 17, wherein said first motor is arranged having its axis horizontal and extended in a lateral direction. 20. The system according to claim 17, further comprising a second motor and a second drive train, said second drive train driven by said second motor and mechanically connected to said sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. 21. The system according to claim 17, wherein said first drive train is connected to said sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provision Application Ser. No. 60/540,022 filed Jan. 30, 2004 and U.S. Provision Application Ser. No. 60/604,440 filed Aug. 25, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In many manufacturing applications, particularly in food processing, it is highly desirable to interleave the finished articles with thin, flexible sheets of paper, waxed paper, cellophane, plastic film, or other very thin, flexible material. For example, in packaging meat slices or hamburger patties, individual sheets of paper, waxed paper or like material inserted between adjacent pieces of meat prevent the meat from sticking together and preserve the integrity of the individual meat pieces. The same situation is presented with stacks of sliced cheese; the cheese slices tend to “grow” back together unless the slices are separated by sheets of thin, flexible material. Often, in the basic processing equipment, there is some stage of operation at which the individual hamburger patties or other such articles traverse a given discharge path, usually terminating at a stacking position; the preferred technique is to suspend individual sheets of waxed paper or the like at some intermediate position on the path so that each article, moving along the path, picks up a sheet of paper and comes to rest in a stack in which the articles are interleaved one-for-one with the paper sheets. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,126,683; 2,877,120, 3,675,387 and 4,054,967 all describe variations of sheet interleaving machines. U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478 describes a sheet applicator for a patty-forming apparatus wherein the patty-forming apparatus includes a reciprocating mold plate that moves linearly from a fill position to a knock out position. At the knock out position, patties are removed from the mold plate in a downward direction though a discharge path. The sheet applicator interleaves individual, thin, flexible sheets of paper, cellophane, plastic film or like material with a series of hamburger patties or like flat, relatively thick articles as the articles traverse the discharge path in sequential spaced relation to each other, the path terminating at a stacking position. The sheet applicator comprises a vacuum transfer shuttle which is reciprocally movable along a shuttle path between a sheet application position intersecting the article discharge path and sheet transfer position adjacent to, but spaced from the discharge path. The shuttle has a central opening which encompasses the article discharge path, through which one of the articles may pass freely, when the shuttle is in its application position. The shuttle also has a group of small vacuum grippers which are distributed around the peripheral edges of the central opening in the shuttle, just beyond the edges of an article passing therethrough. The sheet applicator also has a sheet feeder which includes a releasable sheet holder means for depositing a single, thin, flexible sheet on the shuttle in registry with the shuttle vacuum grippers, whenever the shuttle reaches its sheet transfer position. Each thin, flexible sheet is of a size and configuration so as to cover all of the shuttle vacuum grippers. The shuttle and the sheet feeder are mechanically linked to, and driven by, the mechanical system that drives the mold plate of the patty-forming apparatus. The shuttle and the sheet feeder are moved in synchronism with the mold plate, with movement of the articles along the discharge path and in synchronism with each other, so that the sheet holder means of the sheet feeder releases each sheet as it arrives at the transfer position in registry with the shuttle vacuum grippers, and so that the shuttle is in its sheet application position each time an article moves therethrough. This system has been successfully commercialized for many years as a part of the FORMAX F-26 food patty-forming machine, available from Formax, Inc. of Mokena, Ill., U.S.A. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide an improved sheet interleaving apparatus for a patty-forming apparatus that was not mechanically linked to the patty-forming apparatus for operational movement and that had an increased flexibility of operation and timing. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide a substantially modular sheet interleaving apparatus that could be added to a patty-forming apparatus easily and cost effectively. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide a sheet interleaving apparatus for a patty-forming apparatus that reduced overall maintenance requirements by reducing the number of lubrication, sealing and other maintenance points, and by making the maintenance points more accessible. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a new and improved sheet interleaving system and apparatus for interleaving individual thin, flexible sheets of paper, cellophane, plastic film, of like material with a series of relatively thick, flat articles such as hamburger patties, as the articles traverse a given discharge path. The invention provides a sheet interleave system for a patty-forming apparatus that includes a hopper for holding sheets, a shuttle, a sheet transfer device, at least one precise position controlled motor, and a drive train. The shuttle has a sheet-holding frame that is slidable between a sheet receiving position and a sheet dispensing position. The sheet transfer device has a suction device for gripping a sheet from the hopper. The suction device is moveable from a position to grip a sheet from the hopper to a position to place the sheet on the sheet holding frame. The precise position controlled motor is preferably a servomotor. The drive train is driven by the precise position controlled motor. The drive train can be configured as a system of pulleys, belts, chains, levers or any other known means of converting rotational input from a motor to useful movement of working implements. The drive train is mechanically connected to the shuttle and to the sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. According to a first exemplary embodiment, the motor comprises an output shaft and the drive train comprises a first pulley fixed to the output shaft and a crank. The crank is pivotally mounted by a first pivot and has a first portion arranged to swing about the first pivot. A second pulley is fixed to the crank. A belt or chain is wrapped around the first and second pulleys. The first portion is operatively connected to the shuttle. The crank also includes a second portion arranged to swing about the first pivot. The second portion is operatively connected to the suction device. The second portion carries a second pivot and the suction device is rotationally mounted to the second portion by the second pivot. A drive arrangement is connected between the second portion and the suction device to swing the suction device about the second pivot simultaneously with pivoting of the second portion about the first pivot. According to the first embodiment, the drive arrangement comprises a third pulley fixed to the machine frame and a fourth pulley fixed to the suction device to rotate with the suction device about the second pivot, and a belt wrapped around the third and fourth pulleys, rotation of the second portion about the first pivot circulating the belt and rotating the suction device about the second pivot. According to the first embodiment, a third pivot is carried by the first portion and the shuttle carries a fourth pivot. A linkage is pivotally connected to the third pivot and to the fourth pivot. Pivoting motion of the first portion translates the shuttle linearly via the linkage. The first embodiment provides a single servomotor drive for the paper interleaver system, independent of the mold plate drive. The suction device motion and the shuttle motion are mechanically linked with a simple linkage. No controlled timing relationships or adjustment are required for proper positioning. A second exemplary embodiment uses two precise position controlled motors to drive the paper system. Two separate precise position controlled motors, such as servomotors, are used, with one motor driving the suction device movements and the other motor driving the shuttle movements. A precise and flexible control and coordination of the movements between the vacuum cups and the shuttle is made possible. The servomotor or servomotors of either embodiment apparatus can control the motion of the paper system for the best paper pick-off and placement timing, regardless of the motion of the mold plate. Other sheet interleave systems are mechanically driven by the mold plate drive system and independent motion control is not possible. If the sheet interleave system is not used for certain products, the sheet interleave system is simply turned off, whereas other systems must continue to drive the sheet interleave system, as they are mechanically linked. According to another aspect of the invention, the sheet interleave system comprises laterally arranged longitudinally extending rods, the rods having protruding ends arranged to be attached to an adjacent patty-forming apparatus and to support the sheet interleave system in cantilever fashion. The rods are also arranged to guide linear movement of the carriage. The entire sheet interleave system is easily added or removed from the patty-forming apparatus. The invention provides a substantially modular configuration to a sheet interleaving apparatus that is used with an article-processing apparatus, such as a patty-forming apparatus. The sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven from the article-processing apparatus. Because the sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven, the sheet interleaving apparatus can be added to the article processing apparatus, in the field, without undue modifications and retrofitting. Furthermore, because the sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven, if the sheet interleaving apparatus must be shut down for maintenance, the associated article processing apparatus can still be operated. The sheet interleaving apparatus of the present invention is driven by a flexible servomotor drive wherein the timing, speeds and movement of the sheet interleaving apparatus can be controlled in precise fashion and need not be limited to a reciprocation that is dependent on the reciprocation timing of the article processing apparatus. Therefore, the steps required for loading a sheet beneath an article can be optimized in timing and step durations to ensure a reliable operation of the sheet interleaving apparatus. Furthermore, because the sheet interleaving apparatus is modular, independently driven, and substantially external to the mechanical components that drive the article processing apparatus, maintenance is simplified and reduced. For example, two dynamic seal points previously required to seal penetrations of drive rods for the heretofore known sheet interleaving apparatus; the drive rods driven by components internal to the article processing apparatus, are eliminated. Some lubrication points for the more complex mechanical drive assembly of the heretofore known paper interleaving apparatus are eliminated. The sheet interleaving apparatus of either embodiment of the invention is reliable in operation and adaptable to use with a variety of sheets, patty shapes and processes. Numerous other advantages and features of the present invention will be become readily apparent from the following detailed description of the invention and the embodiments thereof, and from the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic side view of a sheet interleaving apparatus connected to a patty forming apparatus, showing the sheet interleaving apparatus of the present invention, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the sheet interleaving apparatus of FIG. 1, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic sectional view taken generally along line 3-3 of FIG. 1, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic sectional view taken generally along line 44 of FIG. 1, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 5 is sectional view taken generally alone line 5-5 of FIG. 2, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 6 is a similar view of the apparatus shown in FIG. 5, showing further movement of sheet interleaving components; FIG. 6A is a plan view of a sheet dispensing components of the apparatus shown in FIG. 6, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 7 is a rear, fragmentary perspective view of the apparatus taken substantially from view 7-7 shown in FIG. 1, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 8 is a fragmentary, sectional view taken generally along line 8-8 of FIG. 6, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 9 is a side perspective view of the sheet interleaving apparatus shown in FIG. 7, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 10 is a side view of an alternate embodiment feature of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a diagrammatic side view of a sheet interleaving apparatus connected to a patty forming apparatus, showing an alternate embodiment sheet interleaving apparatus, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 12 is a fragmentary, sectional view of the apparatus of FIG. 11, with some components and/or panels removed for clarity; FIG. 13 is an enlarged, fragmentary perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 11; FIG. 14 is an enlarged, fragmentary inside perspective view of the apparatus shown in FIG. 11; FIG. 15 is a fragmentary reverse perspective view of the apparatus shown in FIG. 14; FIG. 16 is an enlarged fragmentary inside front perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 11; FIG. 17 is an enlarged, fragmentary inside rear perspective view of the apparatus of FIG. 11; FIG. 18 is a first position vs. time chart for the moving parts of the patty-forming apparatus and the sheet interleave system, the mold plate, the shuttle and the vacuum cups; and FIG. 19 is a second position vs. time chart for the moving parts of the patty-forming apparatus and the sheet interleave system, the mold plate, the shuttle and the vacuum cups. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT While this invention is susceptible of embodiment in many different forms, there are shown in the drawings, and will be described herein in detail, specific embodiments thereof with the understanding that the present disclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the principles of the invention and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments illustrated. This application incorporates by reference U.S. Provision Application Ser. No. 60/540,022 filed Jan. 30, 2004 and U.S. Provision Application Ser. No. 60/604,440 filed Aug. 25, 2004. FIGS. 1 through 9 illustrate a sheet applicator 11 constructed in accordance with the teachings of this invention and connected to the output side of a food patty-molding machine 13. The food patty-molding machine 13 may be any of the types conventionally used to mold and shape food patties. An example of one of these machines is a molding machine manufactured and sold by Formax, Inc. of Mokena, Ill., known as a FORMAX F-26 patty forming machine, or a FORMAX MAXUM700 machine, or the patty-forming machines shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478, U.S. provisional application 60/515,585, filed on Oct. 29, 2003, and U.S. Ser. No. 10/942,267, filed on Sep. 16, 2004, all herein incorporated by reference. The food patty-molding machine includes a multiple cavity mold plate 15 which reciprocates between a mold cover 17 and a top plate 19. The mold plate may be formed with a number of patty cavities 21. The machine shown in this example has four cavities which are circular in shape to form relatively thick, flat articles 23 such as hamburger patties, or the like. The cavity shape can also be square, unsymmetrical, irregular or any other desired shape. The food to be molded enters the cavities 21 through input passages (not shown) located in the top plate 19. The mold plate 15 is moved in a reciprocal path by mold plate drive bars (not shown), located on opposite sides of the machine. The bars are driven in a reciprocal motion by a mechanism which is not shown, but would be housed within a lower base 27 of the apparatus 13. The sheet applicator 11 includes a vacuum transfer shuttle 41. The vacuum transfer shuttle 41 includes a sheet-receiving vacuum bar 51 which extends between, and is fastened to, shuttle carriages 53a, 53b via mounting plates 54a, 54b. The shuttle vacuum bar 51 defines openings 55 in the shuttle 41. Suction grippers 57 are located on the upper surfaces of the vacuum bar 51 and more or less surround the periphery of each opening 55. The suction grippers 57 are formed by outlets connected to vacuum channels 59 extending within the vacuum bar 51, such as shown in FIG. 6 of U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478. The vacuum channels 59 are connected at inlets 61 to vacuum supply lines 63. The vacuum bar 51 is connected to a vacuum pump 65, preferably, a non-rotating, compressed air driven type, induced vacuum “pump” or vortex vacuum system. Vacuum lines 63 leading from opposite ends of the vacuum bar 51 connect to a solenoid operated valve 66 that controls the input line to the vacuum pump 65. The solenoid operated valve is controlled by the machine control 68 with positional input from the servomotor 200 as described below. The vacuum grippers 57 are grouped in sets of four to form rectangular configurations spaced along the length of the vacuum bar 51. Each rectangular configuration of vacuum grippers surrounds one opening 55 of the vacuum shuttle. The location of the vacuum grippers 57 thereon are such that the vacuum grippers and projections will support the corners of thin, flexible sheets 83 placed on the vacuum shuttle 41 while allowing passage of thick, flat articles 23 produced by the food patty-molding machine 13 through the openings 55. A sheet feeder 91 is equipped with a number of inclined hoppers 93, one for each patty cavity 21 in the mold plate 15. The sheet feeder 91 of the type described herein is available from Formax, Inc., as part of a FORMAX F-26 patty-forming machine with a sheet interleaving apparatus. In this embodiment, there are four hoppers 93, corresponding to the four food patty cavities 21. A stack of thin, flexible sheets 83 are stored in each hopper with the sheets substantially standing on edge at an angle to vertical and held in the hopper by stops 95 located at each corner and on the sides of an open face 97 at the lower end of each inclined hopper. Blades 99 at the top and bottom of this open face 97 engage the top and bottom center of the end sheet 83. The feeder 91 includes handles 91a, 91b, 91c. A sheet transfer mechanism is arranged for placing thin, flexible sheets 83 from the hoppers 93 onto the vacuum transfer shuttle 41 in alignment with the rectangular groupings of the vacuum grippers 57, to cover the openings 55. A number, in this case four, of releasable sheet holders or suction devices 103 each remove a single sheet 83 each cycle from a hopper 93 and deposit the sheets on the vacuum transfer shuttle 41. The sheet holders 103 each include a pair of suction or vacuum cups 105. The vacuum cups are formed of a soft flexible material, such as soft rubber. Each cup is mounted on the end of a common suction plate 107. The suction plate is clamped at opposite ends to a cross shaft 109. The suction cups 105 are spaced in pairs along the plate 107 so that two suction cups will engage each sheet 83 at the open face 97 of each hopper 93, with the suction cups contacting the bottom portion of the sheet 83, wherein each cup is located above the lower stops 95 and outwardly of the knives 99. The opposite ends of the cross shaft 109 are journaled in first free ends 110 of cranks 111a, 111b which are located on opposite sides of the apparatus 11 and configured in mirror image fashion across a vertical longitudinal center plane of the apparatus 11. The middle portion of each crank 111a, 111b is fixed by being clamped to a shaft 113, which extends across the width of the apparatus 11. At least one small sprocket or toothed pulley 117 is affixed to the cross shaft 109 near one end thereof. The sprocket or pulley engages a chain or toothed belt 119 which also extends around a larger sprocket or toothed pulley 121. The larger pulley 121 is journaled on the shaft 113 and is affixed to a plate 123. The plate 123 is fixed to a stationary portion 124 of the apparatus frame. The larger pulley 121 does not rotate. Second free ends 130 of cranks 111a, 111b are each pivotally connected to one end of a link 133a, 133b, respectively on opposite sides of the apparatus and configured in mirror image fashion. The opposite end of each link 133a, 133b is pivotally connected to a respective shuttle carriage 53a, 53b on opposite sides of the apparatus and configured in mirror image fashion. The carriages 53a, 53b comprise a first block 135a, 135b, respectively, which first blocks are fastened to a respective longitudinal plate 137a, 137b. Longitudinal plates 137a, 137b are fastened to second blocks 139a, 139b, respectively. The block pairs 135a, 139a; 135b, 139b of the carriages 53a, 53b are slidable on slide rods 141a, 141b, respectively. The slide rods 141a, 141b are also used to mount the sheet interleaving apparatus 11, in cantilever fashion, with knee braces 142a, 142b, to the patty-forming apparatus 13. The suction for vacuum cups 105 is drawn through tubing 143 connected to each cup and to a manifold 145. The manifold 145 is connected by tubing 146 to a solenoid controlled valve 147 which is connected to the input side of vacuum pump 149. The vacuum pump 149 is preferably a non-rotating, compressed air driven type, induced vacuum “pump” or vortex vacuum system. The solenoid controlled valve 147 is controlled by the machine controller 68. The patty-forming machine provides a row of knock-out cups 161 mounted above the vacuum sheet applicator 11 with each cup aligned with a cavity 21 in the mold plate 15, when the mold plate is in its outwardly extended, knock out position. Upon downward movement, the cups 161 force the food articles 23 out of the cavities 21 of the mold plate. While following these paths, each food articles 23 moves through an opening 55 of the vacuum bar 51, engages a sheet 83, and lands with the sheet on a conveyor 165 or on a previously deposited article 23 on the conveyor, forming a stack 25. At a select time, the conveyor 165 transports the stacked patties with interleaved sheets 83 to a discharge station. During operation, the individual movements of the suction plate 107, the shuttle 41 and the mold plate 15 are substantially as described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478. However, in that patent, the movements of the suction cups, and the shuttle that transfers the sheets to the knock out station, are mechanically linked to the movement of the mold plate and the knockout cups. In contrast, the present invention provides a controllable drive for shuttle 41 and the suction plate 107 that mounts the suction cups, that is mechanically independent of the drive for the mold plate and knockout cups. Thus, although the suction plate 17, the shuttle 41, the knockout cups 161, and the mold plate 15 have like movements as the like components in U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478, according to the invention, movements of the sheet interleaving components can be precisely adjusted independent of mold plate movement and knock out cup movement. In this way, as long as the shuttle is in position for the stroke of the knock out cups, the movements of the suction plate 107 and the shuttle 41 can be optimized for conditions most favorable to successfully removing a row of single sheets from the sheet feeder and depositing the row of sheets on the shuttle 41. According to the invention, a servomotor 200 drives the cranks 111a, 111b which drive the shuttle 41 and the vacuum plate 107. The servomotor is preferably a 3000 rpm, 3.1 KW (about 4 HP) servomotor. The servomotor includes a built in resolver for precise positioning information and control. The servomotor 200 is enclosed in a housing 202 to protect the servomotor from moisture. The servomotor includes a gearbox 206 with a turn ratio of about 5:1. An output shaft 210 of the gearbox 206 is fixed to a toothed pulley 212. The output shaft 210 is journaled for rotation by a bearing 216 mounted on a sidewall 218 of the apparatus 11. The shaft 113 freely penetrates through the toothed pulley 121 and is journaled by a bearing 220 mounted to the sidewall 218. The shaft 113 is fixed to a toothed pulley 226. A toothed belt 230 wraps around the pulleys 212, 226. The pulleys 212,226 have about a 2:1 turn ratio such that the overall turn ratio between the servomotor and the shaft 113 is about 10:1. In operation, the servomotor 200 rotates in one direction and then in the opposite direction, causing the shaft 113 to rotate the cranks 111a, 111b to swing the shaft 109 from the position shown in FIG. 6 to the position shown in FIG. 5. As the shaft 109 is swung the small pulley 117 rotates by force from the belt 119, and the suction plate 107 flips the suction cups 105. This displaces the suction cups 105 through the positions indicated as 105a to 105b (FIG. 6) to 105 (FIG. 5). Once the direction of rotation of the servomotor 200 reverses, the shaft 113 rotates to swing the shaft 109 from the position shown in FIG. 5 to the position shown in FIG. 6 and the suction cups 105 move through the positions 105 (FIG. 5) to 105b to 105a (FIG. 6). The position 105a of the suction cups corresponds to the sheets 83 being placed on the shuttle 41. The position 105 (FIG. 5) corresponds to the sheet 83 being engaged by the suction cups while in the feeder 91. While the shaft 113 pivots to swing the shaft 109 from the position shown in FIG. 6 to the position shown in FIG. 5, the free ends 130 of the cranks 111a, 111b swing to pull the carriages 53a, 53b toward the patty forming apparatus 13 to place the vacuum bar 51 to the position wherein the openings 55 align with the knock out cups, beneath the knock out cups. The knock out cups can then be driven downward to dispense the sheets 83 from the vacuum bar 51. When the direction of rotation of the servomotor reverses, the free ends 130 of the cranks 111a, 111b swing back such that the sheets 83 taken from the feeder hoppers 93 by the suction cups 105 are placed on top of the now empty vacuum bar 51 which now registers with the suction cups at the position 105a (FIG. 6). The servomotor is signal-connected to the machine control 68 for the patty-forming apparatus or can have its own control that communicates with the machine control 68. The timing and dwell of the servomotor at different stages of its rotation can be adjusted to optimize the process of removing a row of single sheets from the feeder hoppers 93 and depositing those sheets onto the shuttle 41 in reliable fashion. The machine control, with positional input from the servomotor, controls the timing of the application of vacuum to both the manifold 145 for the suction cups 105, and the vacuum bar 51 for the grippers 57. FIG. 10 illustrates alternate components to the pulley 212, pulley 226, belt 230, and tensioner 231. According to this embodiments levers 302, 304 are respectively fixed to the output shaft 210 of the gearbox 206 and the shaft 113. The gearbox can have a turn ratio of 10:1 and the levers 302, 304 pivot back and forth together via a link 306 which is adjustable. FIGS. 11 through 17 illustrate an alternate embodiment sheet applicator 511. According to this embodiment, a first motor 516 drives the vacuum plate 107. A second motor 518 drives the shuttle 41. The first motor 516 has an output shaft 516a that drives the shaft 113 that pivots levers 517a, 517b fixed on the shaft 113 that causes the belt 119 to pivot the small sprocket or toothed pulley 117 as described in the prior embodiment. The levers 517a, 517b are arranged the same as the previously described cranks 111a, 111b, except in this embodiment the levers 517a, 517b have no lower portion for reciprocating the shuttle. The second motor 518 has an output shaft 518a that is coupled to a transverse shaft 528 that is keyed to cranks 526a, 526b. The second motor 518 drives the shaft 528 to swing the cranks 526a, 526b. The cranks 526a, 526b are respectively connected to rods 530a, 530b that extend rearward and are attached respectively to the blocks 139a, 139b. Pivoting of the cranks 526a, 526b by the motor 518 drives the shuttle 41 on the slide rods 141a, 141b. The cranks 526a, 526b and the rods 530a, 530b and carriages 53a, 53b are arranged on opposite sides of the apparatus 511 in mirror image fashion across a longitudinal vertical center plane of the apparatus 511. Preferably, the first and second motors 516, 518 are precise position controlled motors, such as servomotors. The servomotors 516, 518 are signal-connected to the machine control for the patty-forming apparatus or can have its own control. The timing and dwell of the servomotors at different stages of their rotation can be adjusted to optimize the process of removing a row of single sheets 83 from the feeder hoppers 93 and depositing those sheets onto the shuttle 41 in reliable fashion. The machine control, with positional input from the servomotors, controls the timing of the application of vacuum to both the manifold 145 for the suction cups 105, and the vacuum bar 51 for the grippers 57. The alternate embodiment of FIGS. 11-17 is different from the previously described embodiment in that a single precise position controlled motor is replaced by two motors that make the drive for the shuttle and the drive for the suction cups mechanically independent. Accordingly, the two drives can be precisely controlled by the machine controller to optimize their functioning depending on the circumstances such as paper type, machine output speed, etc. In other respects, the other parts of the alternate embodiment of FIGS. 11-17 operate in like fashion as the parts of the previously described embodiment. FIG. 18 demonstrates one timing arrangement for the patty-forming apparatus and the sheet interleave system of the invention. According the this arrangement the mold plate reciprocates according to a substantially smooth sinusoidal movement profilie with a dwell period arranged at the knock out position in order to accommodate the dispensing of patties from the mold plate by the reciprocating knock out plungers. The shuttle also moves according to a substantially smooth sinusoidal profile with a dwell also corresponding to the knock out position of the mold plate. The mold plate and shuttle move in opposition, toward then away from each other. As illustrated, because the vacuum cups are driven by a separate servo motor than that which drives the shuttle, the vacuum cups need not have a dwell period corresponding to the dwell period of the shuttle. FIG. 19 illustrates another motion profile for the three moving components that can be programmed for the servomotor and the mold plate drive. According to this motion profile, the shuttle can have a dwell period for receiving the paper and this dwell period can be offset from the fill or home position of the mold plate. Furthermore the vacuum cup movement can be set to correspond to the shuttle dwell for proper placement of the paper on the vacuum bar, whereas the paper dispensing by the vacuum cups can occur asymmetrically, being at the beginning of the knock out dwell. FIGS. 18 and 19 demonstrate the flexibility of motion programming for the paper interleave system using two servomotors. Depending on the speed of the operating patty-forming apparatus and the quality of the paper used in the interleaving system, the motion profiles can be adjusted to achieve optimal results. From the foregoing, it will be observed that numerous variations and modifications may be effected without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It is to be understood that no limitation with respect to the specific apparatus illustrated herein is intended or should be inferred. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In many manufacturing applications, particularly in food processing, it is highly desirable to interleave the finished articles with thin, flexible sheets of paper, waxed paper, cellophane, plastic film, or other very thin, flexible material. For example, in packaging meat slices or hamburger patties, individual sheets of paper, waxed paper or like material inserted between adjacent pieces of meat prevent the meat from sticking together and preserve the integrity of the individual meat pieces. The same situation is presented with stacks of sliced cheese; the cheese slices tend to “grow” back together unless the slices are separated by sheets of thin, flexible material. Often, in the basic processing equipment, there is some stage of operation at which the individual hamburger patties or other such articles traverse a given discharge path, usually terminating at a stacking position; the preferred technique is to suspend individual sheets of waxed paper or the like at some intermediate position on the path so that each article, moving along the path, picks up a sheet of paper and comes to rest in a stack in which the articles are interleaved one-for-one with the paper sheets. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,126,683; 2,877,120, 3,675,387 and 4,054,967 all describe variations of sheet interleaving machines. U.S. Pat. No. 3,952,478 describes a sheet applicator for a patty-forming apparatus wherein the patty-forming apparatus includes a reciprocating mold plate that moves linearly from a fill position to a knock out position. At the knock out position, patties are removed from the mold plate in a downward direction though a discharge path. The sheet applicator interleaves individual, thin, flexible sheets of paper, cellophane, plastic film or like material with a series of hamburger patties or like flat, relatively thick articles as the articles traverse the discharge path in sequential spaced relation to each other, the path terminating at a stacking position. The sheet applicator comprises a vacuum transfer shuttle which is reciprocally movable along a shuttle path between a sheet application position intersecting the article discharge path and sheet transfer position adjacent to, but spaced from the discharge path. The shuttle has a central opening which encompasses the article discharge path, through which one of the articles may pass freely, when the shuttle is in its application position. The shuttle also has a group of small vacuum grippers which are distributed around the peripheral edges of the central opening in the shuttle, just beyond the edges of an article passing therethrough. The sheet applicator also has a sheet feeder which includes a releasable sheet holder means for depositing a single, thin, flexible sheet on the shuttle in registry with the shuttle vacuum grippers, whenever the shuttle reaches its sheet transfer position. Each thin, flexible sheet is of a size and configuration so as to cover all of the shuttle vacuum grippers. The shuttle and the sheet feeder are mechanically linked to, and driven by, the mechanical system that drives the mold plate of the patty-forming apparatus. The shuttle and the sheet feeder are moved in synchronism with the mold plate, with movement of the articles along the discharge path and in synchronism with each other, so that the sheet holder means of the sheet feeder releases each sheet as it arrives at the transfer position in registry with the shuttle vacuum grippers, and so that the shuttle is in its sheet application position each time an article moves therethrough. This system has been successfully commercialized for many years as a part of the FORMAX F-26 food patty-forming machine, available from Formax, Inc. of Mokena, Ill., U.S.A. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide an improved sheet interleaving apparatus for a patty-forming apparatus that was not mechanically linked to the patty-forming apparatus for operational movement and that had an increased flexibility of operation and timing. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide a substantially modular sheet interleaving apparatus that could be added to a patty-forming apparatus easily and cost effectively. The present inventors have recognized that it would be advantageous to provide a sheet interleaving apparatus for a patty-forming apparatus that reduced overall maintenance requirements by reducing the number of lubrication, sealing and other maintenance points, and by making the maintenance points more accessible. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a new and improved sheet interleaving system and apparatus for interleaving individual thin, flexible sheets of paper, cellophane, plastic film, of like material with a series of relatively thick, flat articles such as hamburger patties, as the articles traverse a given discharge path. The invention provides a sheet interleave system for a patty-forming apparatus that includes a hopper for holding sheets, a shuttle, a sheet transfer device, at least one precise position controlled motor, and a drive train. The shuttle has a sheet-holding frame that is slidable between a sheet receiving position and a sheet dispensing position. The sheet transfer device has a suction device for gripping a sheet from the hopper. The suction device is moveable from a position to grip a sheet from the hopper to a position to place the sheet on the sheet holding frame. The precise position controlled motor is preferably a servomotor. The drive train is driven by the precise position controlled motor. The drive train can be configured as a system of pulleys, belts, chains, levers or any other known means of converting rotational input from a motor to useful movement of working implements. The drive train is mechanically connected to the shuttle and to the sheet transfer device to impart controlled motion thereto. According to a first exemplary embodiment, the motor comprises an output shaft and the drive train comprises a first pulley fixed to the output shaft and a crank. The crank is pivotally mounted by a first pivot and has a first portion arranged to swing about the first pivot. A second pulley is fixed to the crank. A belt or chain is wrapped around the first and second pulleys. The first portion is operatively connected to the shuttle. The crank also includes a second portion arranged to swing about the first pivot. The second portion is operatively connected to the suction device. The second portion carries a second pivot and the suction device is rotationally mounted to the second portion by the second pivot. A drive arrangement is connected between the second portion and the suction device to swing the suction device about the second pivot simultaneously with pivoting of the second portion about the first pivot. According to the first embodiment, the drive arrangement comprises a third pulley fixed to the machine frame and a fourth pulley fixed to the suction device to rotate with the suction device about the second pivot, and a belt wrapped around the third and fourth pulleys, rotation of the second portion about the first pivot circulating the belt and rotating the suction device about the second pivot. According to the first embodiment, a third pivot is carried by the first portion and the shuttle carries a fourth pivot. A linkage is pivotally connected to the third pivot and to the fourth pivot. Pivoting motion of the first portion translates the shuttle linearly via the linkage. The first embodiment provides a single servomotor drive for the paper interleaver system, independent of the mold plate drive. The suction device motion and the shuttle motion are mechanically linked with a simple linkage. No controlled timing relationships or adjustment are required for proper positioning. A second exemplary embodiment uses two precise position controlled motors to drive the paper system. Two separate precise position controlled motors, such as servomotors, are used, with one motor driving the suction device movements and the other motor driving the shuttle movements. A precise and flexible control and coordination of the movements between the vacuum cups and the shuttle is made possible. The servomotor or servomotors of either embodiment apparatus can control the motion of the paper system for the best paper pick-off and placement timing, regardless of the motion of the mold plate. Other sheet interleave systems are mechanically driven by the mold plate drive system and independent motion control is not possible. If the sheet interleave system is not used for certain products, the sheet interleave system is simply turned off, whereas other systems must continue to drive the sheet interleave system, as they are mechanically linked. According to another aspect of the invention, the sheet interleave system comprises laterally arranged longitudinally extending rods, the rods having protruding ends arranged to be attached to an adjacent patty-forming apparatus and to support the sheet interleave system in cantilever fashion. The rods are also arranged to guide linear movement of the carriage. The entire sheet interleave system is easily added or removed from the patty-forming apparatus. The invention provides a substantially modular configuration to a sheet interleaving apparatus that is used with an article-processing apparatus, such as a patty-forming apparatus. The sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven from the article-processing apparatus. Because the sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven, the sheet interleaving apparatus can be added to the article processing apparatus, in the field, without undue modifications and retrofitting. Furthermore, because the sheet interleaving apparatus is independently driven, if the sheet interleaving apparatus must be shut down for maintenance, the associated article processing apparatus can still be operated. The sheet interleaving apparatus of the present invention is driven by a flexible servomotor drive wherein the timing, speeds and movement of the sheet interleaving apparatus can be controlled in precise fashion and need not be limited to a reciprocation that is dependent on the reciprocation timing of the article processing apparatus. Therefore, the steps required for loading a sheet beneath an article can be optimized in timing and step durations to ensure a reliable operation of the sheet interleaving apparatus. Furthermore, because the sheet interleaving apparatus is modular, independently driven, and substantially external to the mechanical components that drive the article processing apparatus, maintenance is simplified and reduced. For example, two dynamic seal points previously required to seal penetrations of drive rods for the heretofore known sheet interleaving apparatus; the drive rods driven by components internal to the article processing apparatus, are eliminated. Some lubrication points for the more complex mechanical drive assembly of the heretofore known paper interleaving apparatus are eliminated. The sheet interleaving apparatus of either embodiment of the invention is reliable in operation and adaptable to use with a variety of sheets, patty shapes and processes. Numerous other advantages and features of the present invention will be become readily apparent from the following detailed description of the invention and the embodiments thereof, and from the accompanying drawings. | 20050108 | 20070109 | 20050811 | 69246.0 | 0 | HUYNH, LOUIS K | SHEET INTERLEAVE SYSTEM FOR PATTY-FORMING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,878 | ACCEPTED | Striping data simultaneously across multiple platter surfaces | A hard disk drive comprises an actuator with independently movable arms and a printed circuit board with custom core electronic architecture. The drive also comprises one or more platters aggregating two or more platter surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write heads. The independent-arm actuator and custom printed circuit board enable alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to be read or written simultaneously across a plurality of platter surfaces within the same physical drive. | 1. An information storage and retrieval apparatus, said apparatus comprising: one or more circular substrates, said substrate or substrates aggregating two or more carrier surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write members; and means for reading or writing alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data simultaneously across a plurality of carrier surfaces within said information storage and retrieval apparatus. 2. An information storage and retrieval apparatus, said apparatus comprising: one or more circular substrates, said substrate or substrates aggregating two or more carrier surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write members; an actuator mechanism with two or more arms, said arms assigned to different carrier surfaces; means for moving said arms independently across corresponding carrier surfaces with a component of movement in a radial direction with respect to the circular substrate or substrates defining the carrier surfaces; and a logic holder, said holder comprising electronic architecture for electronically controlling said information storage and retrieval apparatus, wherein in its operative mode, said information storage and retrieval apparatus executes means for permitting alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to be read or written simultaneously across a plurality of carrier surfaces. 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said apparatus comprises more than one circular substrate. 4. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said circular substrate or substrates are nonremovable. 5. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said apparatus is a hard disk drive. 6. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said actuator mechanism comprises more than two arms. 7. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said actuator mechanism is rotary in nature. 8. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein: the arms to said actuator mechanism are pivotably connected to one and the same actuator shaft through independent racks; separate electromagnetic coils are affixed within the proximity of the base of each arm; and one or more stationary magnets are positioned between each coil fixture. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a substantially flat profile. 10. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally annular dimension. 11. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally triangular dimension. 12. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally square dimension. 13. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally rectangular dimension. 14. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said stationary magnets are plate-shaped members. 15. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said stationary magnets comprise permanent magnets. 16. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said stationary magnets comprise soft-magnetic elements. 17. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein antimagnetic shielding is affixed between each coil fixture. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein said antimagnetic shielding comprises mu metal. 19. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said electromagnetic coils are placed in an antipodal configuration. 20. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein said stationary magnets are placed in an antipodal configuration. 21. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein: said actuator mechanism comprises two or more individual actuator submechanisms, said submechanisms each having only one arm, wherein said submechanisms are mounted vertically within one and the same imaginary plane, with each submechanism assigned to different carrier surfaces. 22. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same mechanical housing. 23. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same actuator shaft. 24. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same stationary magnet. 25. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein: said actuator mechanism comprises a primary actuator and two or more secondary actuators, wherein the primary actuator comprises two or more primary arms, said primary arms being only unitarily movable; and the secondary actuators are subdevices that are individually affixed to the tip of each primary arm, with each secondary actuator supporting one read/write member, wherein in its operative mode, said primary actuator executes means for providing initial general positioning by unitarily moving said secondary actuators to an approximate radial position; and in its operative mode, said secondary actuators execute means for providing precise independent secondary positioning by independently moving said read/write members to specific radial positions corresponding to particular concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 26. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators are microactuators. 27. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators are microelectromechanisms. 28. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to 10,000 or more adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 29. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 5000 and 10,000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 30. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 2500 and 5000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 31. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 1000 and 2500 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 32. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 100 and 1000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 33. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 10 and 100 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 34. The apparatus of claim 25, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 1 and 10 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 35. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said electronic architecture comprises means for electronically intercepting read or write commands from a host system, means for electronically responding pursuant to a predetermined shuffling algorithm, and means for electronically manipulating said arms independently during read or write operations. 36. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said electronic architecture comprises: two or more RW/VCM controllers, said RW/VCM controllers comprising read/write (RW) circuitry for processing and executing read or write commands and voice-coil-motor (VCM) circuitry for manipulating and positioning said arms during read or write operations; and a microcontroller for providing supervisory and substantive processing services to said RW/VCM controllers, wherein said microcontroller, RW/VCM controllers, RW circuitry, and VCM circuitry together coexist either physically or logically or in the form of integrated circuits, discrete electronic components, or software equivalents. 37. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein: the number of RW/VCM controllers is equivalent to the number of arms composing said actuator mechanism, with each RW/VCM controller assigned to different arms; and the microcontroller is shared among the RW/VCM controllers, with the microcontroller connected to a communication channel interfacing the information storage and retrieval apparatus. 38. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein: the microcontroller is an intermediary between a host system and the RW/VCM controllers, said microcontroller comprising means for electronically intercepting read or write commands from said host system and means for electronically responding pursuant to a predetermined shuffling algorithm, wherein in executing write commands, the microcontroller implements means for electronically apportioning alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to each RW/VCM controller; and in executing read commands, the microcontroller implements means for electronically reconstituting previously apportioned data fragments received from the respective RW/VCM controllers and means for electronically transmitting said data to said host system in native sequential order. 39. The apparatus of claim 36, wherein: in response to read or write commands issued by the microcontroller, each RW/VCM controller executes means for electronically causing its assigned arm to read or write data across the respective carrier surfaces, with all such read or write operations by said arms occurring simultaneously in a parallel fashion, wherein the data that are read or written across each carrier surface are commensurate with the data apportioned to the respective RW/VCM controllers by the microcontroller. 40. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein said logic holder is a printed circuit board. 41. An actuator mechanism, said mechanism comprising: two or more arms, said arms assigned to different circular carrier surfaces within an information storage and retrieval apparatus; and means for moving said arms independently across corresponding carrier surfaces with a component of movement in a radial direction with respect to said carrier surfaces. 42. The mechanism of claim 41, wherein said actuator mechanism comprises more than two arms. 43. The mechanism of claim 41, wherein said actuator mechanism is rotary in nature. 44. The mechanism of claim 41, wherein: the arms to said actuator mechanism are pivotably connected to one and the same actuator shaft through independent racks; separate electromagnetic coils are affixed within the proximity of the base of each arm; and one or more stationary magnets are positioned between each coil fixture. 45. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a substantially flat profile. 46. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally annular dimension. 47. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally triangular dimension. 48. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally square dimension. 49. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils each feature a generally rectangular dimension. 50. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said stationary magnets are plate-shaped members. 51. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said stationary magnets comprise permanent magnets. 52. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said stationary magnets comprise soft-magnetic elements. 53. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein antimagnetic shielding is affixed between each coil fixture. 54. The mechanism of claim 53, wherein said antimagnetic shielding comprises mu metal. 55. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said electromagnetic coils are placed in an antipodal configuration. 56. The mechanism of claim 44, wherein said stationary magnets are placed in an antipodal configuration. 57. The mechanism of claim 41, wherein: said actuator mechanism comprises two or more individual actuator submechanisms, said submechanisms each having only one arm, wherein said submechanisms are mounted vertically within one and the same imaginary plane, with each submechanism assigned to different carrier surfaces. 58. The mechanism of claim 57, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same mechanical housing. 59. The mechanism of claim 57, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same actuator shaft. 60. The mechanism of claim 57, wherein said submechanisms share one and the same stationary magnet. 61. The mechanism of claim 41, wherein: said actuator mechanism comprises a primary actuator and two or more secondary actuators, wherein the primary actuator comprises two or more primary arms, said primary arms being only unitarily movable; and the secondary actuators are subdevices that are individually affixed to the tip of each primary arm, with each secondary actuator supporting one read/write member, wherein in its operative mode, said primary actuator executes means for providing initial general positioning by unitarily moving said secondary actuators to an approximate radial position; and in its operative mode, said secondary actuators execute means for providing precise independent secondary positioning by independently moving said read/write members to specific radial positions corresponding to particular concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 62. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators are microactuators. 63. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators are microelectromechanisms. 64. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to 10,000 or more adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 65. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 5000 and 10,000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 66. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 2500 and 5000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 67. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 1000 and 2500 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 68. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 100 and 1000 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 69. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 10 and 100 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 70. The mechanism of claim 61, wherein said secondary actuators have ranges of independent radial movement permitting access by the read/write members to between 1 and 10 adjacent concentric circular tracks on the respective carrier surfaces. 71. A logic holder, said holder comprising: electronic architecture, said architecture implementing means for electronically controlling an information storage and retrieval apparatus, wherein said information storage and retrieval apparatus comprises one or more circular substrates, said substrate or substrates aggregating two or more carrier surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write members; and said information storage and retrieval apparatus comprises an actuator mechanism with two or more arms and means for moving said arms independently across corresponding carrier surfaces with a component of movement in a radial direction with respect to the circular substrate or substrates defining the carrier surfaces. 72. The holder of claim 71, wherein said electronic architecture comprises means for electronically intercepting read or write commands from a host system, means for electronically responding pursuant to a predetermined shuffling algorithm, and means for electronically manipulating said arms independently during read or write operations. 73. The holder of claim 71, wherein said electronic architecture comprises: two or more RW/VCM controllers, said RW/VCM controllers comprising read/write (RW) circuitry for processing and executing read or write commands and voice-coil-motor (VCM) circuitry for manipulating and positioning said arms during read or write operations; and a microcontroller for providing supervisory and substantive processing services to said RW/VCM controllers, wherein said microcontroller, RW/VCM controllers, RW circuitry, and VCM circuitry together coexist either physically or logically or in the form of integrated circuits, discrete electronic components, or software equivalents. 74. The holder of claim 73, wherein: the number of RW/VCM controllers is equivalent to the number of arms composing said actuator mechanism, with each RW/VCM controller assigned to different arms; and the microcontroller is shared among the RW/VCM controllers, with the microcontroller connected to a communication channel interfacing the information storage and retrieval apparatus. 75. The holder of claim 73, wherein: the microcontroller is an intermediary between a host system and the RW/VCM controllers, said microcontroller comprising means for electronically intercepting read or write commands from said host system and means for electronically responding pursuant to a predetermined shuffling algorithm, wherein in executing write commands, the microcontroller implements means for electronically apportioning alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to each RW/VCM controller; and in executing read commands, the microcontroller implements means for electronically reconstituting previously apportioned data fragments received from the respective RW/VCM controllers and means for electronically transmitting said data to said host system in native sequential order. 76. The holder of claim 73, wherein: in response to read or write commands issued by the microcontroller, each RW/VCM controller executes means for electronically causing its assigned arm to read or write data across the respective carrier surfaces, with all such read or write operations by said arms occurring simultaneously in a parallel fashion, wherein the data that are read or written across each carrier surface are commensurate with the data apportioned to the respective RW/VCM controllers by the microcontroller. 77. The holder of claim 71, wherein said logic holder is a printed circuit board. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/568,346, said provisional application filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office in Washington, D.C., on May 3, 2004. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention herein relates to the art of dynamically storing and retrieving information using nonvolatile magnetic random-access media, specifically hard disk drives or the like. In particular, the invention is directed toward increasing the read/write speed of a hard drive by striping data simultaneously across multiple platter surfaces within the same physical drive, thereby permitting high-speed parallel storage and retrieval of digital information. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION By way of background, the basic operation or construction of a hard disk drive has not changed materially since its introduction in the 1950s, although various individual components have since been improved or optimized. Hard drives typically contain one or more double-sided platters. These platters are mounted vertically on a common axle and rotated at a constant angular velocity by a spindle motor. During physical low-level formatting, the recording media are divided into tracks, which are single lines of concentric circles. There is a similar arrangement of tracks on each platter surface, with each vertical group of quasi-aligned tracks constituting separate cylinders. Each track is divided into sectors, which are arc-shaped segments having a defined data capacity. Under the current iteration, each platter surface features a corresponding giant-magnetoresistive (GMR) read/write head, with the heads singly or dually attached by separate arms to a rotary voice-coil actuator. The arms are pivotably mounted to a vertical actuator shaft and connected to the shaft through a common carrier device. The common carrier device, or rack, functions as a single-movement mechanism, or comb. This actuator design physically prevents the arms from moving independently and only allows the arms to move radially across the platter surfaces in unison. As a consequence, the read/write heads are unable to simultaneously occupy different tracks or cylinders on separate platter surfaces. A rotary actuator unitarily rotates its arms to particular tracks or cylinders using an electromagnetic voice-coil-motor system. In a typical voice-coil-motor system, an electromagnetic coil is affixed to the base of the head rack, with a stationary magnet positioned adjacent to the coil fixture. Actuation of the carrier device is accomplished by applying various magnitudes of current to the electromagnetic coil. In response to the application of current, the coil attracts or repels the stationary magnet through resulting electromagnetic forces. This action causes the arms to pivot unitarily along the axis of the actuator shaft and rotate radially across corresponding platter surfaces to particular tracks or cylinders. A head disk assembly (HDA) houses the platters, spindle motor, and actuator mechanism. The head disk assembly is a sealed compartment containing an air-filtration system comprising barometric and recirculation filters. The primary purpose of the head disk assembly is to provide a substantially contamination-free environment for proper drive operation. The electronic architecture of the drive is contained on a printed circuit board, which is mounted to the drive chassis below the head disk assembly. The printed circuit board contains an integrated microcontroller, read/write (RW) controller, voice-coil-motor (VCM) controller, and other standard logic circuits and auxiliary chips. The microcontroller, RW controller, and VCM controller are typically application-specific integrated circuits, or ASICs, that perform a multitude of functions in cooperation with one another. The RW controller, for example, is connected to the read/write heads (through write-driver and preamplification circuitry) and is responsible for processing and executing read or write commands. The VCM controller is connected to the actuator mechanism (through the electromagnetic coil) and is responsible for manipulating and positioning the actuator arms during read or write operations. The microcontroller is interconnected to the foregoing circuitry and is generally responsible for providing supervisory and substantive processing services to the RW and VCM controllers under the direction of firmware located on an integrated or separate EEPROM memory chip. Although industry standards exist, drive manufacturers generally implement custom logic configurations for different hard-drive product lines. Accordingly, notwithstanding the prevalent use of extendible core electronic architecture and common firmware and ASICs, such custom logic configurations prevent printed circuit boards from being substituted within drives across different brands or models. Cylinders and tracks are numbered from the circumference of the platters toward the center beginning with 0. Heads and platter surfaces are numbered from the bottom head or platter surface toward the top, also beginning with 0. Sectors are numbered from the start of each track toward the end beginning with 1, with the sectors in different tracks numbered anew using the same logical pattern. Although it is often stated that tracks within respective cylinders are aligned vertically, tracks within each cylinder are actually not aligned with such precision as to render them completely perpendicular. This vertical misalignment of the tracks occurs as a result of imprecise servo writing, latitudinal formatting differences, mechanical hysteresis, nonuniform thermal expansion and contraction of the platters, and other factors. Because these causes of track misalignment are especially influential given the high track densities of current drives, tracks are unlikely to be exactly vertically aligned within a particular cylinder. From a technical standpoint, then, it can accurately be stated that tracks within a cylinder are quasi-aligned; that is, different tracks within a cylinder can be accessed sequentially by the read/write heads without substantial radial movement of the carrier device, but, it follows, some radial movement (usually several microns) is frequently required. As a result of its common-carrier and single-coil actuator design, core electronic architecture, and vertical track-alignment discrepancy, current drive configurations prevent data from being written simultaneously to different tracks within identical or separate cylinders. In contrast, current drives write data sequentially in a successive pattern generally giving preference to the lowest cylinder, head, and sector numbers. Pursuant to this pattern, for example, data are written sequentially to progressively ascending head and sector numbers within the lowest available cylinder number until that cylinder is filled, in which case the process begins anew starting with the first head and sector numbers within the next adjacent cylinder. Because tracks within a given cylinder are quasi-aligned, this pattern has the primary effect of reducing the seek time required by the read/write heads for sequentially accessing successive data. Hard disk-drives occupy a pivotal role in computer operation, providing a reliable means for nonvolatile storage and retrieval of crucial data. To date, while areal density (gigabits per square inch) continues to grow rapidly, increases in data transfer rates (megabytes per second) have remained relatively modest. Hard drives are currently as much as 100 times slower than random-access memory and 1000 times slower than processor on-die cache memory. Within the context of computer operation, these factors present a well-recognized dilemma: In a world of multi-gigahertz microprocessors and double-data-rate memory, hard drives constitute a major bottleneck in data transportation and processing, thus severely limiting overall computer performance. One solution to increase the read/write speed of disk storage is to install two or more hard drives as a Redundant Array of Independent Disks, or RAID, using a Level 0 specification, as defined and adopted by the RAID Advisory Board. RAID 0 distributes data across two or more hard drives via striping. In a two-drive RAID 0 array, for example, the striping process entails writing one bit or block of data to one drive, the next bit or block to the other drive, the third bit or block to the first drive, and so on, with data being written to the respective drives simultaneously. Because half as much data is being written to (and subsequently accessed from) two drives simultaneously, RAID 0 doubles potential data transfer rates in a two-drive array. Further increases in potential data transfer rates generally scale proportionally higher with the inclusion into the array of additional drives. Traditional RAID 0, however, presents numerous disadvantages over standard single-drive configurations. Since RAID 0 employs two or more separate drives, its implementation doubles or multiplies correspondingly the probability of sustaining a drive failure. Its implementation also increases to the same degree the amount of power consumption, space displacement, weight occupation, noise generation, heat production, and hardware costs as compared to ordinary single-drive configurations. Accordingly, RAID 0 is not suitable for use in laptop or notebook computers and is only employed in supercomputers, mainframes, storage subsystems, and high-end desktops, servers, and workstations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the invention to institute a single-drive striping configuration wherein the striping feature employed in RAID Level 0 is incorporated into a single physical hard disk drive (as opposed to two or more separate drives) through the use of particular embodiments and modes of implementation, operation, and configuration. By incorporating the striping feature into a single physical drive, it is an object of the invention to dramatically increase the read/write speed of the drive without suffering miscellaneous disadvantages customarily associated with traditional multi-drive RAID 0 implementation. In particular, the invention as embodied consists of a hard disk drive comprising an actuator with independently movable arms and a printed circuit board with custom core electronic architecture. The drive also comprises one or more platters aggregating two or more platter surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write heads. As explained in detail below, the independent-arm actuator and custom printed circuit board enable alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to be read or written simultaneously across a plurality of platter surfaces within the same physical drive, thereby accomplishing the primary objects of the invention. Other objects and aspects of the invention will in part become obvious and will in part appear hereinafter. The invention thus comprises the apparatuses, mechanisms, and systems in conjunction with their parts, elements, and interrelationships that are exemplified in the disclosure and that are defined in scope by the respective claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Six drawings accompany this patent. These drawings inclusively illustrate miscellaneous aspects of the invention and are intended to complement the disclosure by providing a fuller understanding of the invention and its constituents. FIG. 1 depicts a side view of the internal components of an independent-arm actuator mechanism. FIG. 2 depicts a side view of two one-arm actuators that compose an independent-arm actuator mechanism. FIG. 3 depicts a side view of a head disk assembly containing an independent-arm actuator mechanism and two disk platters. FIG. 4 depicts a perspective view of the head disk assembly featured in the previous figure. FIG. 5 depicts a side view of another embodiment of the independent-arm actuator mechanism. FIG. 6 depicts a block diagram of a printed circuit board containing custom core electronic architecture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As noted above, in order to effectuate the single-drive striping configuration, the invention embodies the utilization of an actuator with independently movable arms and a printed circuit board with custom core electronic architecture. These and other aspects of the invention are discussed in detail below, as well as particular modes of implementation, operation, and configuration. Turning now to specific aspects of the invention, the independent-arm actuator features numerous distinct characteristics. In contrast to conventional actuator design, the arms to the independent-arm actuator are connected to one and the same actuator shaft through independent carrier devices. Separate electromagnetic coils are affixed within the proximity of the base of each arm, with one or more stationary magnets positioned between each coil fixture. The independent carrier devices and separate electromagnetic coils function collectively as a multi-movement mechanism. This multi-movement mechanism allows the arms to move radially across corresponding platter surfaces independently (as opposed to unitarily or in unison) and permits each read/write head to simultaneously occupy different tracks or cylinders on separate platter surfaces. FIG. 1 depicts a side view of the internal components of an independent-arm actuator mechanism. The actuator mechanism 40 comprises horizontally suspended arms 15 mounted separately (through independent carrier devices) to a vertical actuator shaft 10. In accordance with the above embodiment, separate electromagnetic coils 5 are affixed to the base of each arm 15, with one or more stationary magnets (not shown) positioned between each coil fixture 5. To the extent necessary, antimagnetic shielding (not shown) may be inserted between each coil fixture 5 to minimize or eliminate adjacent electromagnetic interference. Actual independent-arm actuation is accomplished by applying various magnitudes of current to the respective electromagnetic coils 5. In response to the application of current, the coils 5 independently attract or repel the stationary magnet(s) through resulting electromagnetic forces. This action causes the arms 15 to pivot independently along the axis of the actuator shaft 10 and rotate radially across corresponding platter surfaces (not shown) to particular tracks or cylinders. Although FIG. 1 depicts the electromagnetic coils 5 as being actual large-scale wire windings, each electromagnetic coil 5 instead features a substantially flat profile and a generally annular, triangular, square, or rectangular dimension. The stationary magnets (not shown) are similarly plate-shaped members, with each such member comprising permanent magnets and optional soft-magnetic elements. The antimagnetic shielding (not shown), which typically takes the form of foil or plates, may comprise mu metal (nickel-molybdenum-iron-copper) or its functional equivalent. As a substitute for antimagnetic shielding, however, adjacent electromagnetic interference may be reduced appreciably by placing the electromagnetic coils and/or stationary magnets in an antipodal configuration (i.e., opposite polar relationship). As an alternative embodiment, the independent-arm actuator may comprise numerous individual one-arm actuators mounted vertically. This embodiment combines preexisting submechanisms in a unique manner never before suggested in combination. By combining individual one-arm actuators to form the independent-arm actuator mechanism, complexity of the actuator mechanism may be reduced appreciably, thereby resulting in lower potential development and production expenses being incurred by the manufacturer. FIG. 2 depicts a side view of two individual one-arm actuators that compose an independent-arm actuator mechanism under the alternative embodiment. Whereas the top actuator 20 has its read/write head 25 facing south, the bottom actuator 30 has its read/write head 35 facing north. Both actuators 20,30 have substantially low-height form factors. FIG. 3 depicts a side view of a head disk assembly for a hard drive containing two double-sided platters. The head disk assembly contains an independent-arm actuator mechanism 40 and two disk platters 45 affixed to an upright axle 50. In accordance with the above embodiment, the independent-arm actuator 40 comprises four one-arm actuators 20,30 mounted vertically, with each one-arm actuator 20,30 assigned to different platter surfaces. Although the one-arm actuators 20,30 are depicted in the diagram as being separate and discrete submechanisms, it should be noted that the one-arm actuators may share the same mechanical housing, actuator shaft, stationary magnet, and other unifiable components. FIG. 4 depicts a perspective view of the head disk assembly featured in the previous figure. To illustrate the independent nature of the actuator arms 15, the diagram depicts each head 25,35 in substantially different radial positions. FIG. 5 depicts a side view of another embodiment of the independent-arm actuator mechanism for a hard drive containing two single-sided platters. The diagram depicts an independent-arm actuator 40 comprising two one-arm actuators 20 mounted vertically. In contrast to the previous embodiment, the head 25 to each one-arm actuator 20 faces south, although a northern polarity may just as easily be employed. This actuator configuration is less preferable to the one specified previously but is nonetheless useful where the one-arm actuators cannot be accommodated within the height allocated to each platter surface. Such a situation may occur where the drive contains numerous platters that are vertically spaced in close proximity. This problem, however, may be corrected by reducing the number of platters within the drive in order to increase the vertical space between the platters. As another embodiment, the independent-arm actuator may comprise a primary actuator mechanism and two or more secondary actuator mechanisms. Under this embodiment, the primary actuator mechanism is an ordinary single-movement device, whereas the secondary actuator mechanisms are subdevices such as microactuators or microelectromechanisms. The microactuators or microelectromechanisms are individually affixed to the tip of each primary actuator arm, with each microactuator or microelectromechanism supporting one read/write head. The primary actuator mechanism provides initial general positioning by unitarily moving the microactuators or microelectromechanisms to an approximate radial position, whereupon the microactuators or microelectromechanisms provide precise independent secondary positioning by independently moving the read/write heads to specific tracks on corresponding platter surfaces. This embodiment accomplishes independent-arm actuation and is particularly useful to effectively combat adjacent electromagnetic interference. Pursuant to the foregoing embodiment, it is preferable that the secondary actuators (e.g., microactuators or microelectromechanisms) feature significant ranges of independent radial movement. In other words, each secondary actuator, for example, should preferably permit its read/write head to access 10,000 or more adjacent tracks on the respective platter surfaces. The secondary actuators, however, may permit their respective read/write heads to access a lesser number of adjacent tracks (e.g., 5000, 2500, 1000, 100, or 10) in accordance with the invention. These smaller ranges of independent radial movement are especially preferable where such radial restriction appreciably reduces the complexity of the secondary actuators. The printed circuit board comprises integrated RW/VCM (i.e., read/write and voice-coil-motor) controllers and microcontroller circuitry. As embodied, each RW/VCM controller comprises read/write (RW) circuitry for processing and executing read or write commands and voice-coil-motor (VCM) circuitry for manipulating the respective electromagnetic coils to the independent-arm actuator mechanism and positioning the respective actuator arms during read or write operations. The microcontroller comprises an application-specific integrated circuit, or ASIC, that performs a multitude of functions, including providing supervisory and substantive processing services to each RW/VCM controller. The RW/VCM controllers and microcontroller constitute the core electronic architecture of the printed circuit board. The printed circuit board, however, also comprises peripheral electronic architecture such as an integrated EEPROM memory chip containing supporting device drivers, or firmware, as well as standard logic circuits and auxiliary chips used to control the spindle motor and other elementary components. The number of RW/VCM controllers on the printed circuit board is equivalent to the number of arms composing the independent-arm actuator mechanism, with each RW/VCM controller assigned to different actuator arms. The integrated microcontroller is shared among the RW/VCM controllers using separate data channels, with the microcontroller connected singly to an interface bus, preferably using an SATA, SCSI, or other prevailing high-performance interface standard. The remaining peripheral logic circuits and auxiliary chips may be connected using a variety of standard or custom configurations. FIG. 6 depicts a block diagram of the aforementioned printed circuit board for a hard drive containing two double-sided platters. The diagram illustrates the core electronic architecture of the printed circuit board but omits peripheral electronic architecture to promote clarity. In accordance with the above embodiment, the printed circuit board comprises four RW/VCM controllers 55, with each RW/VCM controller 55 assigned to common microcontroller circuitry 60 and different actuator arms (not shown). It should be noted that any electronic component on the printed circuit board may coexist either physically or logically or may be rearranged schematically, consolidated into a single multi-function chip, or replaced by software equivalents, among other things, as customarily occurs in an effort by manufacturers to simplify or optimize the electronic architecture of hard drives. Similar to a RAID 0 controller or its software equivalent, the integrated microcontroller on the printed circuit board functions as an intermediary between a host system and the RW/VCM controllers. As embodied, the microcontroller intercepts read or write commands from the host system and responds pursuant to a predetermined shuffling algorithm. In executing write commands, the microcontroller apportions alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to each RW/VCM controller. In executing read commands, the above operation occurs in reverse sequence, with the microcontroller reconstituting previously apportioned data fragments received from the respective RW/VCM controllers and transmitting the data to the host system in native sequential order. The integrated RW/VCM controllers on the printed circuit board function as a massively parallel subsystem. In response to read or write commands issued by the microcontroller, each RW/VCM controller instructs its assigned actuator arm to perform the requested operation. Each RW/VCM controller and its corresponding actuator arm operate independently in relation to other similarly paired RW/VCM controllers and actuator arms. In reading or writing data, each RW/VCM controller causes its assigned actuator arm to read or write data across the respective platter surfaces, with all such read or write operations by the actuator arms occurring simultaneously in a parallel fashion. The data that are read or written across each platter surface are commensurate with the data apportioned to the respective RW/VCM controllers by the microcontroller. The result: Alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data are read or written simultaneously across multiple platter surfaces within the drive. In a one-platter drive containing two platter surfaces, for example, one bit or block of data is written to (or read from) one platter surface, the next bit or block to the other platter surface, the third bit or block to the first platter surface, and so on, with data being written to (or read from) the respective platter surfaces simultaneously. This process is akin to incorporating the striping feature used in RAID 0 into a single physical drive. To optimize data storage and retrieval, data are read or written across the respective platter surfaces in a pattern giving preference to the lowest track and sector numbers. This pattern is similar to the pattern employed in an ordinary drive with the exception that data are read or written simultaneously pursuant to the striping scheme outlined above. In addition to reducing the seek time required for simultaneously accessing pseudo-successive data, this pattern has the effect of providing consistency among the read/write pattern employed by each RW/VCM controller. As a result, although FIG. 4 depicts the heads 25,35 to the independent-arm actuator 40 in substantially different radial positions, the arms 15 actually move in near synchronization (albeit independently) in accordance with the identical read/write pattern common among the RW/VCM controllers. From a conceptual standpoint, it can generally be stated that each platter surface and its corresponding RW/VCM controller and actuator arm function as discrete drive modules. Such artificial compartmentalization causes these drive modules to appear as separate physical drives to the microcontroller, thereby enabling the microcontroller to natively manipulate each module independently. Analogous to standard RAID 0 technology, these drive modules appear collectively as a single drive to the host system, with total data capacity of the drive being equal to the aggregate capacity of the individual platter surfaces. The invention possesses several unique qualities in addition to those previously mentioned. Insofar as data are read or written simultaneously across the respective platter surfaces independently, each platter surface emulates separate drives in RAID 0 configuration. As a consequence, increases in potential data transfer rates generally scale proportionally higher with the inclusion into the drive of additional platter surfaces. Accordingly, a one-platter notebook drive, for example, would emulate two drives in RAID 0 configuration, while a five-platter desktop drive would emulate ten drives, also in RAID 0 configuration. Using the preceding example, the invention has the potential to double and decuple the read/write speeds of notebook and desktop drives, respectively, with maximum data transfer rates approaching or exceeding 500 megabytes per second. These speed increases, it follows, are accomplished without the disadvantages associated with traditional multi-drive RAID 0 implementation. The invention as embodied consists of a single physical drive as opposed to two or more separate drives. Notwithstanding the incorporation into the drive of substitute actuator components and additional integrated logic circuits, the drive is comparable to an ordinary drive in reliability, power consumption, space displacement, weight occupation, noise generation, heat production, and hardware costs. These characteristics are not only in sharp contrast to the ramifications resulting from RAID 0 implementation, but such characteristics make the drive suitable for use in all classes of computer systems, particularly laptop and notebook computers and entry-level desktops, servers, and workstations. Another notable quality of the invention is that it operates and functions identically to an ordinary drive from the perspective of a consumer or end user. The drive appears as a single drive to an operating system, with the internal striping process occurring surreptitiously. Because all of the necessary logic circuits are located on the printed circuit board, the drive constitutes a fully functional self-contained unit and is entirely compatible with existing technology. In addition, due to the auxiliary EEPROM memory chip containing supporting firmware, the drive is bootable and can thus serve as the primary storage medium for the operating system. These factors render the drive highly versatile, so much so, in fact, that the drive can be connected to a traditional RAID array (using a separate RAID controller or its software equivalent) to achieve additional performance and/or reliability increases beyond the already-high capability of the invention. Although specific embodiments have been set forth, the invention is sufficiently encompassing as to permit other embodiments to be employed within the scope of the invention. The embodiments outlined above, however, provide numerous practical advantages insofar as they permit the invention to be implemented as inexpensively as possible while remaining compatible with existing technology. This has the effect of lowering development and production expenses, increasing product marketability, and promoting widespread use and adoption. The embodiments outlined above thus constitute the best modes of implementation, operation, and configuration. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>By way of background, the basic operation or construction of a hard disk drive has not changed materially since its introduction in the 1950s, although various individual components have since been improved or optimized. Hard drives typically contain one or more double-sided platters. These platters are mounted vertically on a common axle and rotated at a constant angular velocity by a spindle motor. During physical low-level formatting, the recording media are divided into tracks, which are single lines of concentric circles. There is a similar arrangement of tracks on each platter surface, with each vertical group of quasi-aligned tracks constituting separate cylinders. Each track is divided into sectors, which are arc-shaped segments having a defined data capacity. Under the current iteration, each platter surface features a corresponding giant-magnetoresistive (GMR) read/write head, with the heads singly or dually attached by separate arms to a rotary voice-coil actuator. The arms are pivotably mounted to a vertical actuator shaft and connected to the shaft through a common carrier device. The common carrier device, or rack, functions as a single-movement mechanism, or comb. This actuator design physically prevents the arms from moving independently and only allows the arms to move radially across the platter surfaces in unison. As a consequence, the read/write heads are unable to simultaneously occupy different tracks or cylinders on separate platter surfaces. A rotary actuator unitarily rotates its arms to particular tracks or cylinders using an electromagnetic voice-coil-motor system. In a typical voice-coil-motor system, an electromagnetic coil is affixed to the base of the head rack, with a stationary magnet positioned adjacent to the coil fixture. Actuation of the carrier device is accomplished by applying various magnitudes of current to the electromagnetic coil. In response to the application of current, the coil attracts or repels the stationary magnet through resulting electromagnetic forces. This action causes the arms to pivot unitarily along the axis of the actuator shaft and rotate radially across corresponding platter surfaces to particular tracks or cylinders. A head disk assembly (HDA) houses the platters, spindle motor, and actuator mechanism. The head disk assembly is a sealed compartment containing an air-filtration system comprising barometric and recirculation filters. The primary purpose of the head disk assembly is to provide a substantially contamination-free environment for proper drive operation. The electronic architecture of the drive is contained on a printed circuit board, which is mounted to the drive chassis below the head disk assembly. The printed circuit board contains an integrated microcontroller, read/write (RW) controller, voice-coil-motor (VCM) controller, and other standard logic circuits and auxiliary chips. The microcontroller, RW controller, and VCM controller are typically application-specific integrated circuits, or ASICs, that perform a multitude of functions in cooperation with one another. The RW controller, for example, is connected to the read/write heads (through write-driver and preamplification circuitry) and is responsible for processing and executing read or write commands. The VCM controller is connected to the actuator mechanism (through the electromagnetic coil) and is responsible for manipulating and positioning the actuator arms during read or write operations. The microcontroller is interconnected to the foregoing circuitry and is generally responsible for providing supervisory and substantive processing services to the RW and VCM controllers under the direction of firmware located on an integrated or separate EEPROM memory chip. Although industry standards exist, drive manufacturers generally implement custom logic configurations for different hard-drive product lines. Accordingly, notwithstanding the prevalent use of extendible core electronic architecture and common firmware and ASICs, such custom logic configurations prevent printed circuit boards from being substituted within drives across different brands or models. Cylinders and tracks are numbered from the circumference of the platters toward the center beginning with 0. Heads and platter surfaces are numbered from the bottom head or platter surface toward the top, also beginning with 0. Sectors are numbered from the start of each track toward the end beginning with 1, with the sectors in different tracks numbered anew using the same logical pattern. Although it is often stated that tracks within respective cylinders are aligned vertically, tracks within each cylinder are actually not aligned with such precision as to render them completely perpendicular. This vertical misalignment of the tracks occurs as a result of imprecise servo writing, latitudinal formatting differences, mechanical hysteresis, nonuniform thermal expansion and contraction of the platters, and other factors. Because these causes of track misalignment are especially influential given the high track densities of current drives, tracks are unlikely to be exactly vertically aligned within a particular cylinder. From a technical standpoint, then, it can accurately be stated that tracks within a cylinder are quasi-aligned; that is, different tracks within a cylinder can be accessed sequentially by the read/write heads without substantial radial movement of the carrier device, but, it follows, some radial movement (usually several microns) is frequently required. As a result of its common-carrier and single-coil actuator design, core electronic architecture, and vertical track-alignment discrepancy, current drive configurations prevent data from being written simultaneously to different tracks within identical or separate cylinders. In contrast, current drives write data sequentially in a successive pattern generally giving preference to the lowest cylinder, head, and sector numbers. Pursuant to this pattern, for example, data are written sequentially to progressively ascending head and sector numbers within the lowest available cylinder number until that cylinder is filled, in which case the process begins anew starting with the first head and sector numbers within the next adjacent cylinder. Because tracks within a given cylinder are quasi-aligned, this pattern has the primary effect of reducing the seek time required by the read/write heads for sequentially accessing successive data. Hard disk-drives occupy a pivotal role in computer operation, providing a reliable means for nonvolatile storage and retrieval of crucial data. To date, while areal density (gigabits per square inch) continues to grow rapidly, increases in data transfer rates (megabytes per second) have remained relatively modest. Hard drives are currently as much as 100 times slower than random-access memory and 1000 times slower than processor on-die cache memory. Within the context of computer operation, these factors present a well-recognized dilemma: In a world of multi-gigahertz microprocessors and double-data-rate memory, hard drives constitute a major bottleneck in data transportation and processing, thus severely limiting overall computer performance. One solution to increase the read/write speed of disk storage is to install two or more hard drives as a Redundant Array of Independent Disks, or RAID, using a Level 0 specification, as defined and adopted by the RAID Advisory Board. RAID 0 distributes data across two or more hard drives via striping. In a two-drive RAID 0 array, for example, the striping process entails writing one bit or block of data to one drive, the next bit or block to the other drive, the third bit or block to the first drive, and so on, with data being written to the respective drives simultaneously. Because half as much data is being written to (and subsequently accessed from) two drives simultaneously, RAID 0 doubles potential data transfer rates in a two-drive array. Further increases in potential data transfer rates generally scale proportionally higher with the inclusion into the array of additional drives. Traditional RAID 0 , however, presents numerous disadvantages over standard single-drive configurations. Since RAID 0 employs two or more separate drives, its implementation doubles or multiplies correspondingly the probability of sustaining a drive failure. Its implementation also increases to the same degree the amount of power consumption, space displacement, weight occupation, noise generation, heat production, and hardware costs as compared to ordinary single-drive configurations. Accordingly, RAID 0 is not suitable for use in laptop or notebook computers and is only employed in supercomputers, mainframes, storage subsystems, and high-end desktops, servers, and workstations. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the invention to institute a single-drive striping configuration wherein the striping feature employed in RAID Level 0 is incorporated into a single physical hard disk drive (as opposed to two or more separate drives) through the use of particular embodiments and modes of implementation, operation, and configuration. By incorporating the striping feature into a single physical drive, it is an object of the invention to dramatically increase the read/write speed of the drive without suffering miscellaneous disadvantages customarily associated with traditional multi-drive RAID 0 implementation. In particular, the invention as embodied consists of a hard disk drive comprising an actuator with independently movable arms and a printed circuit board with custom core electronic architecture. The drive also comprises one or more platters aggregating two or more platter surfaces whereupon data may be read from or written to by corresponding read/write heads. As explained in detail below, the independent-arm actuator and custom printed circuit board enable alternate or interleaving bits or blocks of data to be read or written simultaneously across a plurality of platter surfaces within the same physical drive, thereby accomplishing the primary objects of the invention. Other objects and aspects of the invention will in part become obvious and will in part appear hereinafter. The invention thus comprises the apparatuses, mechanisms, and systems in conjunction with their parts, elements, and interrelationships that are exemplified in the disclosure and that are defined in scope by the respective claims. | 20050110 | 20080129 | 20051103 | 73236.0 | 1 | TZENG, FRED | STRIPING DATA SIMULTANEOUSLY ACROSS MULTIPLE PLATTER SURFACES | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,031,898 | ACCEPTED | Peptide compositions for treatment of sexual dysfunction | A peptide of the structural formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, m and n are as defined. Further provided are methods for treatment of sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction, and combination drugs and method of use thereof, including a peptide of the invention and one or more second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agents. | 1. A peptide of structural formula I: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein: R1 is NH2, NH3+, NH2-R7 or H; R2 is H or a linear or branched, C1 to C17, alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl chain; R3 and R4 are independently a linear or branched C1 to C6 aliphatic chain or an aromatic amino acid side chain moiety, on the proviso that not more than one of R3 and R4 is a C1 to C6 aliphatic chain; R5 is a C1 to C6 linear or branched chain or a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety; R6 is OH, NH2, or NH—R7; R7 is a C1-C17 chain; m is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if m is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by m, such that the amino terminal group is NH2; and, n is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if n is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by n. 2. The peptide of claim 1, wherein R2 is a C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, an acylated C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, an omega amino derivative of a C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, or an omega amino derivative of an acylated C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain. 3. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the aromatic amino acid side chain moiety R3 or R4, or independently R3 and R4, is an aromatic substituted aryl or heteroaryl side chain. 4. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the aromatic amino acid side chain moiety R3 or R4, or independently R3 and R4, is functionalized with one or more halogens, alkyl groups or aryl groups. 5. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the aromatic amino acid side chain moiety R3or R4, or independently R3 and R4, is selected from the following: wherein z is from 0 to 5. 6. The peptide of claim 5, wherein at least one aromatic ring comprising R3 or R4, or independently R3 and R4, is functionalized with one or more halogen, alkyl or aryl groups. 7. The peptide of claim 1, wherein both R3 and R4 are aromatic amino acid side chain moieties. 8. The peptide of claim 1, wherein R5 comprises at least one nitrogen-containing group. 9. The peptide of claim 8, wherein the at least one nitrogen-containing group comprises an amide, imide, amine, guanidine, urea, urethane, or nitrile. 10. The peptide of claim 8, wherein the at least one nitrogen-containing group is selected from the following: 11. The peptide of claim 1, wherein R5 comprises hydrogen donors and/or acceptors. 12. The peptide of claim 11, wherein R5 is selected from the following: is a portion of the backbone, and R5 is 13. The peptide of claim 1, wherein R7 is an alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl. 14. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to melanocortin receptors. 15. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the peptide is therapeutically effective for treatment of sexual dysfunction. 16. The peptide of claim 1, wherein the peptide is: NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-NH2, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg-NH2, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Cit, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Lys, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Orn, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Ala, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ala-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Ala-Arg Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, or Ac-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg. 17. A pharmaceutical composition for treating sexual dysfunction in a mammal, comprising the peptide of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 18. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 17, further comprising a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. 19. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 17, wherein the second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent is an MC4-R agonist or a PDE-5 inhibitor. 20. A method of treating sexual dysfunction in a mammal, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 21. The method of claim 20, further comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. 22. The method of claim 21 wherein the second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent is an MC4-R agonist or a PDE-5 inhibitor. 23. The method of claim 20 wherein the mammal is male and the sexual dysfunction is erectile dysfunction. 24. The method of claim 20 wherein the mammal is female and the sexual dysfunction is female sexual dysfunction. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part application of International Application PCT/US03/21417, entitled Peptide Compositions for Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction, filed on Jul. 9, 2003, and claims the benefit of the filing of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/394,756, entitled Compositions for Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction, filed on Jul. 9, 2002. The specification of each is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field) The present invention relates to peptides and pharmaceutical compositions including peptides for the treatment of sexual dysfunction in mammals, including both male erectile dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction in humans, including methods and formulations for the use and administration of the same. 2. Description of Related Art Note that the following discussion refers to a number of publications by author(s) and year of publication, and that due to recent publication dates certain publications are not to be considered as prior art vis-à-vis the present invention. Discussion of such publications herein is given for more complete background and is not to be construed as an admission that such publications are prior art for patentability determination purposes. Sexual dysfunction, including both penile erectile dysfunction or impotence and female sexual dysfunction, is a common medical problem. Significant effort has been devoted over the last twenty or more years to develop methods, devices and compounds for treatment of sexual dysfunction. While more effort has been undertaken for treatment of penile erectile dysfunction, female sexual dysfunction is also an area to which significant research and effort has been devoted. At present, one commonly used orally administered drug for treatment of sexual dysfunction in the male is Viagra®, a brand of sildenafil, which is a phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE-5) inhibitor. PDE-5 inhibitors increase the persistence of cyclic guanosine monophosphate and thereby enhance erectile response. Another drug approved in Europe for treating male erectile dysfunction is Ixense®, a brand of apomorphin that is a non-selective dopa receptor agonist. Oral and nasal formulations of apomorphin are currently undergoing clinical evaluations in the United States. There are several other medical treatment alternatives currently available depending on the nature and cause of the impotence problem. Some men have abnormally low levels of the male hormone testosterone, and treatment with testosterone injections or pills may be beneficial. However, comparatively few impotent men have low testosterone levels. For many forms of erectile dysfunction, treatment may be undertaken with drugs injected directly into the penis, including drugs such as papaverin, prostaglandin El, phenoxybenzamine or phentolamine. These all work primarily by dilating the arterial blood vessels and decreasing the venous drainage. Urethral inserts, such as with suppositories containing prostaglandin, may also be employed. In addition, a variety of mechanical aids are employed, including constriction devices and penile implants. A variety of treatments have also been explored for female sexual dysfunction, including use of sildenafil, although the Food and Drug Administration has not specifically approved such use. Testosterone propionate and various estrogen-related compounds have also been employed to increase or augment female libido. A number of other agents have been shown to induce or facilitate penile erection in laboratory animals. These include very diverse classes of ligands such as oxytocin (Benelli A, Poggioli R, Luppi P, Ruini L, Bertolini A, Arletti R., Oxytocin enhances, and oxytocin antagonism decreases, sexual receptivity in intact female rats. Neuropeptides 27:245-50 (1994)), vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, melanotropins, and ACTH as well as their analogs. It is well known to those skilled in the art of developing new therapeutic treatments for sexual dysfunction that identification of a new class of therapeutic agents is often achieved by chance. For example, investigations of sildenafil as an agent for treating high blood pressure in humans revealed its effects on facilitating penile erection in men. Similarly, clinical use of apomorphin for treatment of Parkinson's disease uncovered its effects in eliciting penile erections. Human studies on a potent melanotropin agonist as an agent to induce human skin pigmentation established its erectogenic activity. However, the mechanism by which these agents elicit a sexual activity response remains largely unknown. Some understanding of the PDE-5 class of compounds (e.g. sildenafil) has now been developed. The biological mechanism(s) by which presumably centrally acting molecules, such as oxytocin, vasopressin, apomorphin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, melanotropins and ACTH, elicit a sexual function response is still unclear. That at least a portion of the biological mechanism is central is generally understood to be demonstrated by efficacy following intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration. It is conceivable that some or all of these agents may be interacting at more than one individual receptor site involved in a common downstream biological pathway. Melanocortin receptor-specific compounds have been explored for use of treatment of sexual dysfunction. In one report, a cyclic α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (“α-MSH”) analog, called Melanotan-II, was evaluated for erectogenic properties for treatment of men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction. Wessells H. et al., J Urology 160:389-393 (1998); see also U.S. Pat. No. 5,576,290, issued Nov. 19, 1996 to M. E. Hadley, entitled Compositions and Methods for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Psychogenic Erectile Dysfunction and U.S. Pat. No. 6,051,555, issued Apr. 18, 2000, also to M. E. Hadley, entitled Stimulating Sexual Response in Females. A related compound is claimed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,579,968, Compositions and Methods for Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction, issued Jun. 17, 2003, to C. H. Blood and others, and is in clinical trials for treatment of erectile dysfunction. The peptides used in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,576,290 and 6,051,555 are also described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,674,839, issued Oct. 7, 1997, to V. J. Hruby, M. E. Hadley and F. Al-Obeidi, entitled Cyclic Analogs of Alpha-MSH Fragments, and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,714,576, issued Feb. 3, 1998, to V. J. Hruby, M. E. Hadley and F. Al-Obeidi, entitled Linear Analogs of Alpha-MSH Fragments. Additional related peptides are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,576,290, 5,674,839, 5,714,576 and 6,051,555. These peptides are described as being useful for both the diagnosis and treatment of psychogenic sexual dysfunction in males and females. Other peptides are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,284,735 and U.S. Published Patent Applications Nos. 2001/0056179 and 2002/0004512. It has long been believed that erectile response to melanocortin receptor-specific compounds, and both male and female sexual response in general, was related to the central tetrapeptide sequence, His6-Phe7-Arg8-Trp9 (SEQ ID NO:1) of native α-MSH. In general, all melanocortin peptides share the same active core sequence, His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1), including melanotropin neuropeptides and adrenocorticotropin. MC3-R (the melanocortin-3 receptor) has the highest expression in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, while MC4-R (the melanocortin-4 receptor) is more widely expressed in the thalamus, hypothalamus and hippocampus. A central nervous system mechanism for melanocortins in the induction of penile erection has been suggested by experiments demonstrating penile erection resulting from central intracerebroventricular administration of melanocortins in rats. While the mechanism of His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1) induction of erectile response has never been fully elucidated, it has been generally accepted that the response involves the central nervous system, and binding to MC3-R and/or MC4-R, and according to most researchers, MC4-R. Non-peptides have been proposed which alter or regulate the activity of one or more melanocortin receptors. For example, International Patent Application No. PCT/US99/09216, entitled Isoquinoline Compound Melanocortin Receptor Ligands and Methods of Using Same, discloses two compounds that induce penile erections in rats. However, these compounds were administered by injection at doses of 1.8 mg/kg and 3.6 mg/kg, respectively, and at least one compound resulted in observable side effects, including yawning and stretching. Other melanocortin receptor-specific compounds with claimed application for treatment of sexual dysfunction are disclosed in International Patent Application No. PCT/US99/13252, entitled Spiropiperidine Derivatives as Melanocortin Receptor Agonists. International Patent Application Nos. PCT/US00/14930, PCT/US00/19408, WO 01/05401, WO/00/53148, WO 01/00224, WO 00/74679, WO 01/10842 and the like disclose other compounds that may be so utilized. Most investigators, including those who are inventors of the above-described patents and applications, ascribe the sexual activity of melanotropin ligands to MC4-R. Evidence in favor of this hypothesis comes from the observation that a sexual response elicited by an MC4-R agonist can be blocked by an MC4-R antagonist. However, a few reports also suggest that MC4-R receptors may not be involved in eliciting sexual function response (Vergoni, A. V.; Bertolini, A.; Guidetti, G.; Karefilakis, V.; Filaferro, M.; Wikberg, J. E.; Schioth, H. B., Chronic melanocortin 4 receptor blockage causes obesity without influencing sexual behavior in male rats. J Endocrinol 166:419-26 (2000)). BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment the invention provides a peptide of structural formula l: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In peptides of formula I. R1 is NH2, NH3+, NH2—R7, or H. R2 is H or a linear or branched C1 to C17 alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl chain. R2 may thus include a C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, an omega amino derivative of a C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, or an acylated derivative of an omega amino derivative of a C1 to C17 aliphatic linear or branched chain. R3 and R4 are independently a C1 to C6 aliphatic linear or branched chain, including CH3, or an aromatic amino acid side chain moiety, on the proviso that not more than one of R3 and R4 is a C1 to C6 aliphatic linear or branched chain. In a preferred embodiment, both R3 and R4 are aromatic amino acid side chain moieties. Optionally the aromatic amino acid side chain moiety is derived from a natural or synthetic L- or D-amino acid, and is an aromatic substituted aryl or heteroaryl side chain. The aromatic ring or rings of the amino acid side chain moiety may be functionalized with one or more halogens or one or more alkyl or aryl groups. The aromatic amino acid side chain moiety is preferably selected from the following: R5 is a C1 to C6 linear or branched chain or a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety. Optionally the C1 to C6 linear or branched chain is CH3. Optionally the neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety is an aliphatic or aromatic amino acid side chain moiety derived from a natural or synthetic L- or D-amino acid, wherein the moiety includes at least one nitrogen-containing group, including an amide, imide, amine, guanidine, urea, urethane, or nitrile. The R5 nitrogen-containing amino acid side chain moiety is preferably selected from the following: The R5 neutral aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety, wherein the side chain includes hydrogen donors and/or acceptors, is preferably selected from the following: a portion of the backbone, and R5 is R6 is OH, NH2, or NH—R7. R7 is a C1-C17 chain, including an alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl. In the peptides of formula 1, m is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if m is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by m, such that the amino terminal group is NH2. In the peptides of formula 1, n is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if n is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by n. In an alternative embodiment, R5 can be R5′ and R5″, such that the invention provides a peptide of structural formula II: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In peptides of formula II, m, n, R1, R2, R3, R4, and R6 are as defined for formula I, and at least one of R5′ and R5″ is as R5 is defined for formula I, and the remaining of R5′ or R5″ is a lower aliphatic C1-C4 branched or linear alkyl chain, including methyl or ethyl. Peptides of formula I or II contain one or more asymmetric centers and can thus occur as racemates and racemic mixtures, single enantiomers, diastereomeric mixtures and individual diastereomers. The present invention includes all such isomeric forms of the peptides of formula I and II. Certain of the peptides of formula I or II contain one or more alkenes, and thus contain olefinic double bonds, and formulas I and Ii are meant to include both E and Z geometric isomers where relevant. Other peptides of formula I or II may exist as tautomers, such as keto-enol tautomers. The individual tautomers as well as mixtures thereof are included with the definition of formulas I and II. Peptides of formula I or II may be separated into their individual diastereoisomers by any means known in the art, including but not limited to fractional crystallization from a suitable solvent, such as methanol or ethyl acetate or a mixture thereof, or by chiral chromatography using an optically active stationary phase. It is also possible to synthesize a specific diastereoisomer of a peptide of formula I or II by stereospecific synthesis using optically pure starting materials or reagents of known configuration. In a preferred embodiment, the peptides of formula I or II are synthesized using reagents of known configurations, and accordingly have a specific diastereoisomeric form. The pharmaceutical compositions and peptides of the invention are characterized, in part, in that they do not bind to any significant degree, as determined by competitive inhibition assays utilizing radiolabeled α-MSH or analogs thereof, such as [Nle4, D-Phe7]-α-MSH (NDP—MSH), to any melanocortin receptor, including specifically MC1-R, MC3-R, MC4-R or MC5-R. Thus the pharmaceutical compositions and peptides exhibit neither agonist nor antagonist activity with respect to any of MC1-R, MC3-R, MC4-R or MC5-R. However, the pharmaceutical compositions and peptides do induce erectile activity in mammalian males, and may be employed for treatment of male sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction, in mammalian males, and for female sexual dysfunction in mammalian females. The invention thus further relates to peptides that are characterized in that they do not significantly bind MC4-R, or any other known melanocortin receptor, but which have some structural similarities to at least one molecular region of peptides that bind one or more melanocortin receptors, and specifically that bind MC4-R, and which further induce an erectile response in mammals. Thus the invention relates to peptides containing a His-D-Phe sequence, or alternatively containing a D-Phe-Arg sequence, or alternatively containing a His-D-Phe-Arg sequence, or a mimic or homolog of any of the foregoing, but which peptides of the invention do not bind to any melanocortin receptor, including specifically MC4-R. The peptides of the invention do not contain a Trp or mimic or homolog thereof, and thus are distinct from peptides or molecules that incorporate the His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1) sequence or mimics or homologs thereof. The peptides of this invention induce erectile responses in a manner similar to agents described in prior art that bind MC4-R. The invention further includes pharmaceutical compositions, including a peptide of this invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention further includes methods for treatment of sexual dysfunction, including treating erectile dysfunction in males or female sexual dysfunction, the methods including administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention. In an alternative embodiment, the method further includes administration of the peptide in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. The second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent can include an MC4-R agonist, which may be a peptide or a small molecule, a PDE-5 inhibitor, an alpha-andrenergic receptor antagonist, a sexual response related hormone, such as testosterone in males or estrogen in females, or other compounds or devices useful in treatment of sexual dysfunction. The present invention also encompasses pharmaceutical compositions useful in the foregoing method of the present invention, such as compositions including a peptide of formula I or II and one or more second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agents, as well as a method of manufacture of a medicament useful to treat sexual dysfunction. The peptides of this invention, and pharmaceutical compositions of this invention, may be used for stimulating sexual response in a mammal. The invention thus also includes a method for stimulating sexual response in a mammal, in which a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition is administered. The mammal may be male or female. In this method, the composition can also include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The peptide or pharmaceutical composition may be administered by any means known in the art, including administration by injection, administration through mucous membranes, buccal administration, oral administration, dermal administration, urethral administration, vaginal administration, inhalation administration and nasal administration. In a preferred embodiment, administration is by oral administration, including sublingual administration, of a specified amount of a formulation including an appropriate carrier, bulking agent and the like. A first object of the present invention is to provide a pharmaceutical composition for use in treatment of sexual dysfunction wherein the active agent is not melanocortin receptor-specific. A second object is to provide a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of male sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction, which is not melanocortin receptor-specific. Yet another object is to provide a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of female sexual dysfunction that is not melanocortin receptor-specific. An advantage of the present invention is that it provides a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of sexual dysfunction which may be administered by delivery systems other than art conventional intravenous, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, including but not limited to oral delivery systems, nasal delivery systems and mucous membrane delivery systems. Another advantage of the present invention is that it provides a peptide providing a sexual response similar to or superior to that of MC4-R specific agents, but without the side-effects or pharmacological responses unrelated to sexual response seen with MC4-R specific agents. Other objects, advantages and novel features, and further scope of applicability of the present invention will be set forth in part in the detailed description to follow, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The accompanying drawing, which is incorporated into and forms a part of the specification, illustrates an embodiment of the present invention and, together with the description, serves to explain a principle of the invention. The drawing is only for the purpose of illustrating a preferred embodiment of the invention and is not to be construed as limiting the invention. FIG. 1 is a dose response plot of mean penile erections per rat per 30 minute period following administration of varying doses of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Definitions The “peptides” of this invention can be (a) naturally-occurring, (b) produced by chemical synthesis, (c) produced by recombinant DNA technology, (d) produced by biochemical or enzymatic fragmentation of larger molecules, (e) produced by methods resulting from a combination of methods (a) through (d), or (f produced by any other means for producing peptides. By employing chemical synthesis, a preferred means of production, it is possible to introduce various amino acids which do not naturally occur along the chain, modify the N— or C-terminus, and the like, thereby providing for improved stability and formulation, resistance to protease degradation, and the like. The term “peptide” as used throughout the specification and claims is intended to include any structure comprised of two or more amino acids, including chemical modifications and derivatives of amino acids. For the most part, the peptides of this invention comprise fewer than 6 amino acids, and preferably ranging from about 3 to about 5 amino acids. The amino acids forming all or a part of a peptide may be naturally occurring amino acids, stereoisomers and modifications of such amino acids, non-protein amino acids, post-translationally modified amino acids, enzymatically modified amino acids, constructs or structures designed to mimic amino acids, and the like, so that the term “peptide” includes pseudopeptides and peptidomimetics, including structures which have a non-peptidic backbone. The term “peptide” includes structures that comprise one or more non-alpha-amino acid structures, such as for example aminoheptanoyl (as hereafter defined), in combination with two or more amino acids. The term “peptide” also includes dimers or multimers of peptides. A “manufactured” peptide includes a peptide produced by chemical synthesis, recombinant DNA technology, biochemical or enzymatic fragmentation of larger molecules, combinations of the foregoing or, in general, a peptide made by any other method. The term “amino acid side chain moiety” used in this invention, including as used in the specification and claims, includes any side chain of any amino acid, as the term “amino acid” is defined herein. This thus includes the side chain moiety present in naturally occurring amino acids. It further includes side chain moieties in modified naturally occurring amino acids, such as glycosylated amino acids. It further includes side chain moieties in stereoisomers and modifications of naturally occurring protein amino acids, non-protein amino acids, post-translationally modified amino acids, enzymatically synthesized amino acids, derivatized amino acids, constructs or structures designed to mimic amino acids, and the like. For example, the side chain moiety of any amino acid disclosed herein is included within the definition. A “derivative” of an amino acid side chain moiety is included within the definition of an amino acid side chain moiety. The “derivative” of an amino acid side chain moiety includes any modification to or variation in any amino acid side chain moieties, including a modification of naturally occurring amino acid side chain moieties. By way of example, derivatives of amino acid side chain moieties include straight chain or branched, cyclic or noncyclic, substituted or unsubstituted, saturated or unsaturated, alkyl, aryl or aralkyl moieties. The “amino acids” used in this invention, and the term as used in the specification and claims, include the known naturally occurring protein amino acids, which are referred to by their common three letter abbreviation. See generally Synthetic Peptides: A User's Guide, G A Grant, editor, W.H. Freeman & Co., New York (1992), the teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference, including the text and table set forth at pages 11 through 24. As set forth above, the term “amino acid” also includes stereoisomers and modifications of naturally occurring protein amino acids, non-protein amino acids, post-translationally modified amino acids, enzymatically synthesized amino acids, derivatized amino acids, constructs or structures designed to mimic amino acids, and the like. Modified and unusual amino acids are described generally in Synthetic Peptides: A User's Guide, cited above; Hruby V. J., Al-obeidi F. and Kazmierski W., Emerging approaches in the molecular design of receptor-selective peptide ligands—conformational, topographical and dynamic considerations. Biochem J 268:249-262 (1990); and Toniolo C., Conformationally restricted peptides through short-range cyclizabons. Int J Peptide Protein Res 35:287-300 (1990); the teachings of all of which are incorporated herein by reference. In addition, the following abbreviations setting forth amino acids, constituent portions thereof, reagents used in synthesis thereof, and the like, have the meanings giving: Abu—gamma-amino butyric acid 2-Abz—2-amino benzoic acid 3-Abz—3-amino benzoic acid 4-Abz—4-amino benzoic acid Achc—1-amino-cyclohexane-1-carboxylic acid Acpc—1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid 12-Ado—12-amino dodecanoic acid Aic—2-aminoindane-2-carboxylic acid 6-Ahx—6-amino hexanoic acid 8-Aoc—8-amino octanoic acid aminoheptanoyl—NH2—(CH2)6CO— Arg(Mtr)—NG-4-methoxy-2,3,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonyl-arginine Arg(Me)—NGmethyl-arginine Arg(NO2)—NG-nitro-arginine Arg(Pbfo—NG-pentamethyldihydrobenzofuransulfono-arginine Arg(Pmc)—NG-pentamethylchromansulfonyl-arginine Arg(Tos)—NG-tosyl-arginine Asp(anilino)—beta-anilino-aspartic acid Asp(3-Cl-anilino)—beta-(3-chloro-anilino)-aspartic acid Asp(3,5-diCl-anilino)—beta-(3,5-dichloro anilino)-aspartic acid D/L Atc—(D,L)-2-aminotetralin-2-carboxylic acid 11-Aun—11-amino undecanoic acid AVA—5-amino valeric acid Bip—biphenylalanine Bz—benzoyl Cha—cyclohexylalanine Chg—cyclohexylglycine Dip—3,3-ciphenylalanine Et—ethyl GBZA—4-guanidino benzoic acid B-Gpa—3-guanidino propionic acid Hphe—homophenylalanine Lys(Z)—N-epsilon-benzyloxycarbonyl-lysine Me—methyl Nal 1—3-(1-naphthyl)alanine Nal 2—3-(2-naphthyl)alanine Phg—phenylglycine pF-Phe—para-fluoro-phenylalanine Phe(4-Br)—4-bromo-phenylalanine Phe(4-CF3)—4-trifluoromethyl-phenylalanine Phe(4-Cl)—4-chloro-phenylalanine Phe(2-Cl)—2-chloro-phenylalanine Phe(2,4-diCl)—2,4,-dichloro-phenylalanine Phe(3,4-diCl)—3,4,-dichloro-phenylalanine Phe(3,4-diF)—3,4,-difluoro-phenylalanine Phe(4-I)—4-iodo-phenylalanine Phe(3,4-di-OMe)—3,4,-dimethoxy-phenylalanine Phe(4-Me)—4-methyl-phenylaianine Phe(4-NO2)—4-nitro-phenylalanine Qal(2′)—beta-(2-quinolyl)-alanine Sal—3-styrylalanine Ser(Bzl)—O-benzyl-serine TFA—trifluoroacetyl Tic—1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid Tie—tert-butylalanine In the listing of peptides according to the present invention, conventional amino acid residues have their conventional meaning as given in Chapter 2400 of the Manual of Patent Examining Procedure, 8th Ed. Thus “D-Phe” is D-phenylalanine; “Arg” is arginine; “Trp” is tryptophan and so on. A single amino acid, including stereoisomers and modifications of naturally occurring protein amino acids, non-protein amino acids, post-translationally modified amino acids, enzymatically synthesized amino acids, derivatized amino acids, constructs or structures designed to mimic amino acids, and the like, including all of the foregoing, is sometimes referred to herein as a “residue”. The term “alkene” includes unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain one or more double carbon-carbon bonds. Examples of such alkene groups include ethylene, propene, and the like. The term “alkenyl” includes a linear monovalent hydrocarbon radical of two to six carbon atoms or a branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical of three to six carbon atoms containing at least one double bond; examples thereof include ethenyl, 2-propenyl, and the like. The “alkyl” groups specified herein include those alkyl groups of the designated length in either a straight or branched configuration. Examples of such alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, sec-butyl, tertiary butyl, pentyl, isopentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, and the like. The term “alkynal” includes a linear monovalent hydrocarbon radical of two to six carbon atoms or a branched monovalent hydrocarbon radical of three to six carbon atoms containing at least one triple bond; examples thereof include ethynyl, propynal, butynyl, and the like. The term “aryl” includes a monovalent or bicyclic aromatic hydrocarbon radical of 6 to 12 ring atoms, and optionally substituted independently with one or more substituents selected from alkyl, haloalkyl, cycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkythio, halo, nitro, acyl, cyano, amino, monosubstituted amino, disubstituted amino, hydroxy, carboxy, or alkoxy-carbonyl. Examples of an aryl group include phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, 1-naphthyl, and 2-naphthyl, derivatives thereof, and the like. The term “aralkyl” includes a radical—RaRb where Ra is an alkylene group and Rb is an aryl group as defined above. Examples of aralkyl groups include benzyl, phenylethyl, 3-(3-chlorophenyl)-2-methylpentyl, and the like. The term “aliphatic” includes compounds with hydrocarbon chains, such as for example alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and derivatives thereof. The term “acyl” includes a group RCO—, where R is an organic group. An example is the acetyl group CH3CO—. A peptide or aliphatic moiety is “acylated” when an alkyl or substituted alkyl group as defined above is bonded through one or more carbonyl {—(C═O)—} groups. A peptide is most usually acylated at the N-terminus. An “omega amino derivative” includes an aliphatic moiety with a terminal amino group. Examples of omega amino derivatives include aminoheptanoyl and the amino acid side chain moieties of ornithine and lysine. The term “heteroaryl” includes mono- and bicyclic aromatic rings containing from 1 to 4 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. 5- or 6-membered heteroaryl are monocyclic heteroaromatic rings; examples thereof include thiazole, oxazole, thiophene, furan, pyrrole, imidazole, isoxazole, pyrazole, triazole, thiadiazole, tetrazole, oxadiazole, pyridine, pyridazine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, and the like. Bicyclic heteroaromatc rings include, but are not limited to, benzothiadiazole, indole, benzothiophene, benzofuran, benzimidazole, benzisoxazole, benzothiazole, quinoline, benzotriazole, benzoxazole, isoquinoline, purine, furopyridine and thienopyridine. An “amide” includes compounds that have a trivalent nitrogen attached to a carbonyl group (—CO.NH2), such as for example methylamide, ethylamide, propylamide, and the like. An “imide” includes compounds containing an imido group (—CO.NH.CO—). An “amine” includes compounds that contain an amino group (—NH2). A “nitrile” includes compounds that are carboxylic acid derivatives and contain a (—CN) group bound to an organic group. An amino acid side chain moiety is “hydrogen bonding” when the side chain includes hydrogen donors or alternatively hydrogen acceptors. The term “halogen” is intended to include the halogen atoms fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, and groups including one or more halogen atoms, such as —CF3 and the like. The term “composition”, as in pharmaceutical composition, is intended to encompass a product comprising the active ingredient(s), and the inert ingredient(s) that make up the carrier, as well as any product which results, directly or indirectly, from combination, complexation or aggregation of any two or more of the ingredients, or from dissociation of one or more of the ingredients, or from other types of reactions or interactions of one or more of the ingredients. Accordingly, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention encompass any composition made by admixing a compound or peptide of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. “Sexual dysfunction” means any condition that inhibits or impairs normal sexual function, including coitus. The term is not limited to physiological conditions, and includes psychogenic conditions or perceived impairment without a formal diagnosis of pathology or disorder. Sexual dysfunction includes erectile dysfunction in a male mammal and female sexual dysfunction in a female mammal. “Erectile dysfunction” is a disorder involving the failure of a male mammal to achieve functional erection, ejaculation, or both. Erectile dysfunction is accordingly synonymous with impotence, and includes the inability to attain or sustain an erection of sufficient rigidity for coitus. Symptoms of erectile dysfunction include an inability to achieve or maintain an erection, ejaculatory failure, premature ejaculation, or inability to achieve an orgasm. An increase in erectile dysfunction is often associated with age or may be caused by a physical disease or as a side-effect of drug treatment. “Female sexual dysfunction” is a disorder including sexual arousal disorder. The term “sexual arousal disorder” includes a persistent or recurrent failure to attain or maintain the lubrication-swelling response of sexual excitement until completion of sexual activity. Sexual dysfunction in females can also include inhibited orgasm and dyspareunia, which is painful or difficult coitus. Female sexual dysfunction includes, but is not limited to, a number of categories of diseases, conditions and disorders including hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual anhedonia, sexual arousal disorder, dyspareunia and vaginismus. Hypoactive sexual desire disorder includes a disorder in which sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity are persistently or recurrently diminished or absent, causing marked distress or interpersonal difficulties. Hypoactive sexual desire disorder can be caused by boredom or unhappiness in a long-standing relationship, depression, dependence on alcohol or psychoactive drugs, side effects from prescription drugs, or hormonal deficiencies. Sexual anhedonia includes decreased or absent pleasure in sexual activity. Sexual anhedonia can be caused by depression, drugs, or interpersonal factors. Sexual arousal disorder can be caused by reduced estrogen, illness, or treatment with diuretics, antihistamines, antidepressants, or antihypertensive agents. Dyspareunia and vaginismus are sexual pain disorders characterized by pain resulting from penetration and may be caused, for example, by medications which reduce lubrication, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease, inflammatory bowel disease or urinary tract problems. By a melanocortin receptor “agonist” is meant an endogenous or drug substance or compound that can interact with a melanocortin receptor and initiate a pharmacological response characteristic of the melanocortin receptor. By a melanocortin receptor “antagonist” is meant a drug or a compound that opposes the melanocortin receptor-associated responses normally induced by a melanocortin receptor agonist agent. By “binding affinity” is meant the ability of a compound or drug to bind to its biological target. Peptides of the Invention Peptides of Formula I. The peptides encompassed in formula I are exemplified by the following disclosed peptides. In the peptide NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 1, R1 is an omega amino derivatve of a C5 aliphatic linear chain consisting of NH2—(CH2)5, R2 is H, R3 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Ser(Bzl): R4 is an amino acid side chain moiety of D-Phe(4-Cl): R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Arg: and R6 is —OH. It is to be understood that here and elsewhere in the specification and claims an amino acid sequence wherein there is not specified a C-terminus group, such as the foregoing, the peptide is a free acid compound with an C-terminus —OH, such that NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-OH is an alternative and identical description of the peptide NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6-CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-NH2, as further disclosed in Example 2, R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 are as above, and R6 is —NH2. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 3, R1, R2, R3, and R5 are as above, R4 is an amino acid side chain moiety of D-Nal 2: and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg-NH2, as further disclosed in Example 4, R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 are as above, and R6 is —NH2. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), as further disclosed in Example 5, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are as above, R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Arg(NO2): and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Cit, as further disclosed in Example 6, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are as above, R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Cit: and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Lys, as further disclosed in Example 7, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are as above, R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Lys: and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Orn, as further disclosed in Example 8, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are as above, R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Orn: and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Ala, as further disclosed in Example 9, R1, R2, R3, and R4 are as above, R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Ala: and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Ala-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 10, R1, R2, and R3 are as above, R4 is an amino acid side chain moiety of D-Ala: R5 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Arg as above and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ala-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 11, R1, R3, R4, and R5 are as above, R2 is an amino acid side chain moiety of Ala as above and R6 is —OH. In another example, in the peptide Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 12, m is 0, such that a single H occupies the position specified by m, R3, R4, and R5 are as above, and R6 is —OH. In yet another example, in the peptide Ac-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, as further disclosed in Example 13, R1 and R2 are each H, R3, R4, and R5 are as above, and R6 is —OH. Pharmaceutical Compositions of the Invention. The pharmaceutical compositions of the invention may further be defined as a composition for treating sexual dysfunction in a mammal which includes a peptide or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof of the formula: Y-Xaa1-Xaa2-Z III wherein Y is H, an acyl group with a linear or branched C1 to C17 alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl or aralkyl chain including an NH2, NH3+, or NH group or a corresponding acylated derivative, or is an amino add, a dipeptide or a tripeptide, with the side chains thereof independently selected from H or a linear or branched C1 to C17 alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl or aralkyl chain, with an N-terminus NH2, NH3+, NH group or a corresponding acylated derivative; Xaa1 and Xaa2 are independently each an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing a C1 to C6 aliphatic linear or branched chain or an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing at least one aromatic moiety, on the proviso that at least one of Xaa1 and Xaa2 is an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing at least one aromatic moiety; Z is —OH, NH2, NH—R, a C1 to C6 aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety, or is an amino add with a side chain selected from H, a C1 to C6 aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety or a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety, with a C-terminus —OH, NH2, or NH—R; and R is an aliphatic C1 to C17 chain. It may thus be seen that the minimum construct of formula III is a dipeptide, and that the maximum construct is a hexapeptide. The construct of formula III may further include structures defined herein as an amino acid residue, such as for example Y can be aminoheptanoyl. In one preferred embodiment, Xaa1 and Xaa2 are each independently an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing at least one aromatic moiety. It is to be understood that here and elsewhere reference to “C-terminus amino acid(s)” refers to the amino acid residue(s) occupying the C-terminus position in the peptide, which is to say the position conventionally occupied in a peptide with a terminal amino acid with a free carboxyl group, it being understood that the terminal group of the C-terminus amino acid need not be a carboxyl group, and may be, as specified herein, another group, including —NH2 (amide) or —NH—R (substituted amide), where R is for example an aliphatic C1 to C17 chain. It may thus be seen that in one embodiment, such as wherein Z is not an amino acid residue, the invention is characterized, in part, as a peptide of from two to about five amino acid residues, wherein the C-terminus amino acid residues are Phe-Arg or mimetics or homologs thereof, including without limitation all known derivatives and isomers of Phe and of Arg, and further optionally wherein the C-terminus group is —OH or —NH2. In a preferred embodiment, the C-terminus amino acid residues are D-Phe-Arg or mimetics or homologs thereof, including without limitation known derivatives of D-Phe and of Arg. Derivatives of Phe include, by way of example and not limitation, L- or D-isomers of Phe, pF-Phe, Phe(4-Br), Phe(4-CF3), Phe(4-Cl), Phe(2-Cl), Phe(2,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diF), Phe(4-I), Phe(3,4-di-OMe), Phe(4-Me), or Phe(4-NO2), among other variants of Phe. Derivatives of Arg include, by way of example and not limitation, L- or D-isomers of Arg, Arg(NO2), Arg(Tos), Arg(Pbf)), Arg(Mtr), Arg(Me), and Arg(Pmc), among other variants of Arg. The pharmaceutical composition may further be characterized in that the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to melanocortin receptors. Thus the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to MC4-R. Similarly, the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to MC3-R. In a preferred embodiment, the peptide is not a melanocortin receptor agonist, and specifically is not a MC4-R receptor agonist or a MC3-R agonist. The invention further includes other compounds and structures that are functionally equivalent to the peptides of this invention. These other compounds are characterized in part as effective in inducting erectile activity, preferably at very low doses, without being specific for any known melanocortin receptor, while having structural similarities to a His-Phe, Phe-Arg or His-Phe-Arg construct. These other compounds may further be characterized as specific for the class of receptors, which may be protein receptors or enzyme-associated receptors, for which the peptides of this invention are specific. In one preferred embodiment, Xaa, is Ser(Bzl). In another preferred embodiment, Xaa, includes Phe or Nal. Here and elsewhere, an amino acid residue specific formula reference, such as for example Xaa1, is said to “include” or “comprise” an amino acid, such as for example Phe, when such amino acid residue is Phe or a derivative or isomer thereof, including a derivative of an amino acid side chain moiety as defined herein. Thus, for example, Phe includes L- or D-isomers of Phe, pF-Phe, Phe(4-Br), Phe(4-CF3), Phe(4-Cl), Phe(2-Cl), Phe(2,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diF), Phe(4-I), Phe(3,4-di-OMe), Phe(4-Me), and Phe(4-NO2). Nal includes L- or D-isomers of Nal, Nal 1 or Nal 2. In another preferred embodiment, Xaa2 includes Phe or Nal, both as described above. In yet another embodiment, either Xaa1 or Xaa2 may be L- or D-Ala. In general, Xaa1 or Xaa2, and in a preferred embodiment both, can include any amino acid residue including at least one aromatic moiety, which at least one aromatic moiety can optionally be functionalized with at least one halogen, alkyl group or aryl group. Thus the amino acid residue in the Xaa1 or the Xaa2 position, or both, may have, for example, a side chain such as any of the following: In an alternative embodiment, Xaa1 or the Xaa2 position, or both, may be a derivatized, modified, synthetic or unnatural amino acid, such as by way of example only any of the following, which may further include isomers of the following: In a preferred embodiment, Y is aminoheptanoyl. Y may also include an acyl group, such as an acetyl group. In a preferred embodiment, Z includes Arg. Thus Arg may be an L- or D-isomer of Arg, Arg(NO2), Arg(Tos), Arg(Pbf)), Arg(Mtr), Arg(Me), or Arg(Pmc). Alternatively Z may include Cit, Lys or Orn. Z may also include an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged moiety. Thus any of the amino acids containing at least one aromatic side chain moiety specified for Xaa1 or Xaa2 may be Z, provided that such amino acid side chain contains a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged moiety. Optionally the neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety is an amino acid side chain moiety derived from a natural or synthetic L- or D-amino acid, wherein the moiety includes at least one nitrogen-containing group, including an amide, imide, amine, urea, urethane, guanidine or nitrile. In one preferred embodiment, the nitrogen-containing amino acid side chain moiety is selected from the following: The neutral aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety, which side chain includes hydrogen donors and/or acceptors, can be selected from the following: is a portion of the backbone, and the amino acid side chain moiety is In a preferred embodiment of the pharmaceutical composition, the peptide comprises no more than five amino acids. In a more preferred embodiment, the peptide comprises four amino acids. In yet another preferred embodiment, the peptide comprises three amino acids. In the peptide, there can be provided an N-terminus aliphatic C1 to C17 moiety, which may be linear or branched, and may be an alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl or aralkyl chain. The N-terminus aliphatic C1 to C17 moiety may be an acetylated derivative, such as an acetylated derivative of an omega amino acid derivative of an aliphatic C1 to C17 moiety. In one preferred embodiment, the N-terminus moiety is NH2—(CH2)6—CO—. In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a compound and method of treating sexual dysfunction in a mammal, comprising administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of formula IV: aminoheptanoyl-Xaa4-Xaa5-Xaa6 IV or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Xaa4 and Xaa5 are independently each an L- or D-amino acid with a side chain containing at least one aromatic moiety; Xaa6 comprises an amino acid with a side chain selected from H, a C1 to C6 aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety or a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety, with a C-terminus —OH, NH2, or NH—R; and R is a C1 to C17 chain. In the method and compounds of formula IV, Xaa4 may be Ser(Bzl). Xaa5 may be Phe, including an L- or D-isomer of Phe, pF-Phe, Phe(4-Br), Phe(4-CF3), Phe(4-Cl), Phe(2-Cl), Phe(2,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diCl), Phe(3,4-diF), Phe(4-I), Phe(3,4-di-OMe), Phe(4-Me), or Phe(4-NO2). Alternatively, Xaa5 may be Nal, including an L- or D-isomer of Nal, Nal 1 or Nal 2. Xaa6 may be Arg, including an L- or D-isomer of Arg, Arg(NO2), Arg(Tos), Arg(Pbf)), Arg(Mtr), Arg(Me), or Arg(Pmc). The method of use of a compound of formula IV may further include administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. The second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent may be an MC4-R agonist, such as Ac-Nle-cyclo(Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys)-OH. Alternatively, the second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent may be a PDE-5 inhibitor, such as sildenafil. The second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent may also be testosterone or an estrogen agonist/antagonist. In any of the foregoing embodiments, including those of formulas I through IV, the peptide may optionally be further modified so as to be a cyclic peptide. A cyclic peptide can be obtained by inducing the formation of a covalent bond between an amino group at the N-terminus of the peptide, if provided, and a carboxyl group at the C-terminus, if provided. A cyclic peptide can also be obtained by forming a covalent bond between a terminal reactive group and a reactive amino acid side chain moiety, or between two reactive amino acid side chain moieties. One skilled in the art would know that the means by which a given peptide is made cyclic is determined by the reactive groups present in the peptide and the desired characteristic of the peptide. Peptide Synthesis. The peptides of this invention may be readily synthesized by any known conventional procedure for the formation of a peptide linkage between amino acids. Such conventional procedures include, for example, any solution phase procedure permitting a condensation between the free alpha amino group of an amino acid or residue thereof having its carboxyl group or other reactive groups protected and the free primary carboxyl group of another amino acid or residue thereof having its amino group or other reactive groups protected. In a preferred conventional procedure, the peptides of this invention may be synthesized by solid-phase synthesis and purified according to methods known in the art. Any of a number of well-known procedures utilizing a variety of resins and reagents may be used to prepare the peptides of this invention. The process for synthesizing the peptides may be carried out by a procedure whereby each amino acid in the desired sequence is added one at a time in succession to another amino acid or residue thereof or by a procedure whereby peptide fragments with the desired amino acid sequence are first synthesized conventionally and then condensed to provide the desired peptide. Solid phase peptide synthesis methods are well known and practiced in the art. In such a method the synthesis of peptides of the invention can be carried out by sequentially incorporating the desired amino acid residues one at a time into the growing peptide chain according to the general principles of solid phase methods. These methods are disclosed in numerous references, including, Merrifield, R. B., Solid phase synthesis (Nobel lecture). Angew Chem 24:799-810 (1985) and Barany et al., The Peptides, Analysis, Synthesis and Biology, Vol. 2, Gross, E. and Meienhofer, J., Eds. Academic Press 1-284 (1980). In chemical syntheses of peptides, reactive side chain groups of the various amino acid residues are protected with suitable protecting groups, which prevent a chemical reaction from occurring at that site until the protecting group is removed. Usually also common is the protection of the alpha amino group of an amino acid residue or fragment while that entity reacts at the carboxyl group, followed by the selective removal of the alpha amino protecting group to allow a subsequent reaction to take place at that site. Specific protecting groups have been disclosed and are known in solid phase synthesis methods and solution phase synthesis methods. Alpha amino groups may be protected by a suitable protecting group, including a urethane-type protecting group, such as benzyloxycarbonyl (Z) and substituted benzyloxycarbonyl, such as p-chlorobenzyloxycarbonyl, p-nitrobenzyloxycarbonyl, p-bromobenzyloxycarbonyl, p-biphenyl-isopropoxycarbonyl, 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl (Fmoc) and p-methoxybenzyloxycarbonyt (Moz); aliphatic urethane-type protecting groups, such as t-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc), diisopropylmethoxycarbonyl, isopropoxycarbonyl, and allyloxycarbonyl. Fmoc is preferred for alpha amino protection. Guanidino groups may be protected by a suitable protecting group, such as nitro, p-toluenesulfonyl (Tos), Z, pentamethylchromanesulfonyl (Pmc), adamantyloxycarbonyl, and Boc. Pmc is a preferred protecting group for Arg. The peptides of the invention described herein were prepared using solid phase synthesis, in most cases by means of a Symphony Multiplex Peptide Synthesizer (Rainin Instrument Company) automated peptide synthesizer, using programming modules as provided by the manufacturer and following the protocols set forth in the manufacturer's manual. Solid phase synthesis was commenced from the C-terminal end of the peptide by coupling a protected alpha amino acid to a suitable resin. Such a starting material can be prepared by attaching an alpha amino-protected amino acid by an ester linkage to a p-benzyloxybenzyl alcohol (Wang) resin or a 2-chlorotrityl chloride resin, by an amide bond between an Fmoc-Linker, such as p-[(R,S)-α-[1-(9H-fluor-en-9-yl)-methoxyformamidol-2,4-dimethyloxybenzyl]-phenoxyacetic acid (Rink linker) to a benzhydrylamine (BHA) resin, or by other means well known in the art. Fmoc-Linker-BHA resin supports are commercially available and generally used when feasible. The resins are carried through repetitive cycles as necessary to add amino acids sequentially. The alpha amino Fmoc protecting groups are removed under basic conditions. Piperidine, piperazine, diethylamine, or morpholine (20-40% v/v) in DMF may be used for this purpose. Following removal of the alpha amino protecting group, the subsequent protected amino acids are coupled stepwise in the desired order to obtain an intermediate, protected peptide-resin. The activating reagents used for coupling of the amino acids in the solid phase synthesis of the peptides are well known in the art. After the peptide is synthesized, if desired, the orthogonally protected side chain protecting groups may be removed using methods well known in the art for further derivatization of the peptide. Reactive groups in a peptide can be selectively modified, either during solid phase synthesis or after removal from the resin. For example, peptides can be modified to obtain N-terminus modifications, such as acetylation, while on resin, or may be removed from the resin by use of a cleaving reagent and then modified. Methods for N-terminus modification, such as acetylation, or C-terminus modification, such as amidation, are well known in the art. Similarly, methods for modifying side chains of amino acids are well known to those skilled in the art of peptide synthesis. The choice of modifications made to reactive groups present on the peptide will be determined, in part, by the characteristics that are desired in the peptide. Following cleavage of peptides from the solid phase following their synthesis, the peptide can be purified by any number of methods, such as reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), using a suitable column, such as a C-18 column. Other methods of separation or purification, such as methods based on the size or charge of the peptide, can also be employed. Once purified, the peptide can be characterized by any number of methods, such as high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC), amino acid analysis, mass spectrometry, and the like. Melanocortin Receptor Binding Assays. The peptides of the invention are characterized, in part, in that they do not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to melanocortin receptors, and specifically MC1-R, MC3-R, MC4-R or MC5-R, such as by means of a competitive inhibition binding assay. Thus the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to MC4-R. NDP-MSH is one example of an α-MSH analog. Similarly, the peptide does not inhibit the binding of α-MSH or an α-MSH analog to MC3-R. The peptide is further not a melanocortin receptor agonist, and is specifically not a MC4-R agonist or a MC3-R agonist. Competitive inhibition binding assay was conducted using membranes prepared from hMC3-R, hMC4-R, hMC5-R, and B-16 mouse melanoma cells (containing MC1-R) using 0.4 nM 125I-NDP-MSH (0.2 nM for MCL-R) (New England Nuclear, Boston, Mass., USA) in 50 mM HEPES buffer containing 1 mM MgCl2, 2 mM CaCl2, and 5 mM KCl, at pH 7.2. The assay tube also contained a chosen concentration of the peptides of this invention, for determining inhibition of the binding of 125I-NDP-MSH to its receptor. Non-specific binding was measured by complete inhibition of binding of 125I-NDP-MSH in the assay in the presence of 1 μM α-MSH. Incubation was for 90 minutes at 37° C., after which the assay mixture was filtered and the membranes washed three times with ice cold buffer. The filter was dried and counted in a gamma counter for remaining radioactivity bound to the membranes. 100% specific binding was defined as the difference in radioactivity (cpm) bound to cell membranes in the absence and presence of 1 μM α-MSH. The cpm obtained in the presence of peptides of this invention were normalized with respect to 100% specific binding to determine the percent inhibition of 125I-NDP-MSH binding. Each assay was conducted in triplicate. A peptide did not “inhibit” α-MSH binding, determined by inhibition of binding of 125I-NDP-MSH, when the measured percent inhibition was less than 10%, and preferably when no inhibition was detectable (the measured percent inhibition was 0% or less). Functional assays to determine agonist or antagonist status of a test peptide may be conducted by any means known in the art. In one method, a CAMP assay is performed. Human MC4-R cells are grown to confluence in 96 well plates (plating approximately 250,000 cells per well). Identical sets of cells in triplicate are treated with 0.2 mM isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) and the chosen concentration of the peptide or alternatively the peptide in the presence of 20 nM NDP-MSH. Cells similarly treated but with only 20 nM NDP-MSH serve as positive control in a volume of 200 μL. A buffer blank, as a negative control, is also included. Incubation is for one hour at 37° C. after which the cells are lysed by the addition of 50 μL of a cell lysis buffer. Total CAMP accumulated in 250 μL of this solution is quantitated using a commercially available low pH cAMP assay kit (Amersham BioSciences) by the procedure specified by the kit supplier. Any peptide (not one of this invention) showing CAMP accumulation in the same range as or higher than the positive control (buffer blank in the presence of α-MSH) is considered to be an agonist. A peptide showing accumulation in the same range as the negative control (buffer blank in the absence of α-MSH) is ineffective at the test concentration if the result is similar to the positive control where α-MSH is also present in the assay. A peptide (not one of this invention) showing accumulation in the same range as the negative control is considered to be an antagonist if there is inhibition in CAMP when α-MSH is present in the assay. Similar methods may be employed for MC3-R, using MC3-R cells. Peptides of this invention are ineffective at any concentration, and thus are neither an agonist nor an antagonist with respect to MC4-R. Formulation and Utility. The peptides and pharmaceutical compositions of this invention can be used for both medical applications and animal husbandry or veterinary applications. Typically, the peptide or pharmaceutical composition is used in humans, but may also be used in other mammals. The term “patient” is intended to denote a mammalian individual, and is so used throughout the specification and in the claims. The primary applications of this invention involve human patients, but this invention may be applied to laboratory, farm, zoo, wildlife, pet, sport or other animals. Therapeutic Application in Males. The peptides and pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be used to treat male sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction or impotence. Therapeutic Application in Females. The peptides and pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be used to treat female sexual dysfunction, including without limitation sexual arousal disorder. Diagnostic Application. The peptides of this invention may be used for diagnostic purposes, to diagnose causes of erectile dysfunction in males, or sexual dysfunction in mammals generally. Thus, the peptides may be administered and the erectile reaction of the patient monitored. Salt Form of Peptides. The peptides of this invention may be in the form of any pharmaceutically acceptable salt. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” refers to salts prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic bases or acids including inorganic or organic bases and inorganic or organic acids. Salts derived from inorganic bases include aluminum, ammonium, calcium, copper, ferric, ferrous, lithium, magnesium, manganic salts, manganous, potassium, sodium, zinc, and the like. Particularly preferred are the ammonium, calcium, lithium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium salts. Salts derived from pharmaceutically acceptable organic non-toxic bases include salts of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, substituted amines including naturally occurring substituted amines, cyclic amines, and basic ion exchange resins, such as arginine, betaine, caffeine, choline, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, diethylamine, 2-diethylaminoethanol, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, ethanolamine, ethylenediamine, N-ethyl-morpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, glucamine, glucosamine, histidine, hydrabamine, isopropylamine, lysine, methylglucamine, morpholine, piperazine, piperidine, polyamine resins, procaine, purines, theobromine, triethylamine, trimethylamine, tripropylamine, tromethamine, and the like. When the peptide of the present invention is basic, acid addition salts may be prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic acids, including inorganic and organic acids. Such acids include acetic, benzenesulfonic, benzoic, camphorsulfonic, carboxylic, citric, ethanesulfonic, formic, fumaric, gluconic, glutamic, hydrobromic, hydrochloric, isethionic, lactic, maleic, malic, mandelic, methanesulfonic, malonic, mucic, nitric, pamoic, pantothenic, phosphoric, propionic, succinic, sulfuric, tartaric, p-toluenesulfonic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, and the like. Acid addition salts of the peptides of this invention are prepared in a suitable solvent from the peptide and an excess of an acid, such as hydrochloric, hydrobromic, sulfuric, phosphoric, acetic, trifluoroacetic, citric, tartaric, maleic, succinic or methanesulfonic acid. The acetate salt form is especially useful. Where the peptides of this invention include an acidic moiety, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts may include alkali metal salts, such as sodium or potassium salts, or alkaline earth metal salts, such as calcium or magnesium salts. Pharmaceutical Compositions. The invention provides a pharmaceutical composition that includes a peptide of this invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The carrier may be a liquid formulation, and is preferably a buffered, isotonic, aqueous solution. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers also include excipients, such as diluents, carriers and the like, and additives, such as stabilizing agents, preservatives, solubilizing agents, buffers and the like, as hereafter described. The peptide compositions of this invention may be formulated or compounded into pharmaceutical compositions that include at least one peptide of this invention together with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, including excipients, such as diluents, carriers and the like, and additives, such as stabilizing agents, preservatives, solubilizing agents, buffers and the like, as may be desired. Formulation excipients may include polyvinylpyrrolidone, gelatin, hydroxy cellulose, acacia, polyethylene glycol, manniton, sodium chloride and sodium citrate. For injection or other liquid administration formulations, water containing at least one or more buffering constituents is preferred, and stabilizing agents, preservatives and solubilizing agents may also be employed. For solid administration formulations, any of a variety of thickening, filler, bulking and carrier additives may be employed, such as starches, sugars, fatty acids and the like. For topical administration formulations, any of a variety of creams, ointments, gels, lotions and the like may be employed. For most pharmaceutical formulations, non-active ingredients will constitute the greater part, by weight or volume, of the preparation. For pharmaceutical formulations, it is also contemplated that any of a variety of measured-release, slow-release or time-release formulations and additives may be employed, so that the dosage may be formulated so as to effect delivery of a peptide of this invention over a period of time. In practical use, the peptides of the invention can be combined as the active ingredient in an admixture with a pharmaceutical carrier according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. The carrier may take a wide variety of forms depending on the form of preparation desired for administration, for example, oral, parenteral (including intravenous), urethral, vaginal, nasal, buccal, sublingual, or the like. In preparing the compositions for oral dosage form, any of the usual pharmaceutical media may be employed, such as, for example, water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavoring agents, preservatives, coloring agents and the like in the case of oral liquid preparations, such as, for example, suspensions, elixirs and solutions; or carriers such as starches, sugars, microcrystalline cellulose, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents and the like in the case of oral solid preparations such as, for example, powders, hard and soft capsules and tablets. Because of their ease of administration, tablets and capsules represent an advantageous oral dosage unit form. If desired, tablets may be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques. The amount of active peptide in such therapeutically useful compositions is such that an effective dosage will be obtained. In another advantageous dosage unit form, sublingual constructs may be employed, such as sheets, wafers, tablets or the like. The active peptides can also be administered intranasally as, for example, by liquid drops or spray. The tablets, pills, capsules, and the like may also contain a binder such as gum tragacanth, acacia, corn starch or gelatin; excipients such as dicalcium phosphate; a disintegrating agent such as corn starch, potato starch or alginic acid; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate; and a sweetening agent such as sucrose, lactose or saccharin. When a dosage unit form is a capsule, it may contain, in addition to materials of the above type, a liquid carrier such as a fatty oil. Various other materials may be utilized as coatings or to modify the physical form of the dosage unit. For instance, tablets may be coated with shellac, sugar or both. A syrup or elixir may contain, in addition to the active ingredient, sucrose as a sweetening agent, methyl and propylparabens as preservatives, a dye and a flavoring such as cherry or orange flavor. Peptides may also be administered parenterally. Solutions or suspensions of these active peptides can be prepared in water suitably mixed with a surfactant such as hydroxy-propylcellulose. Dispersions can also be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols and mixtures thereof in oils. These preparations may optionally contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. The pharmaceutical forms suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases, the form must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent that it may be administered by syringe. The form must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating action of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, a polyol, for example glycerol, propylene glycol or liquid polyethylene glycol, suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable oils. Peptides may also be administered by transurethral delivery. The formulation for transurethral delivery may contain one or more selected carriers or excipients, such as water, silicone, waxes, petroleum jelly, polyethylene glycol, propylene glycol, liposomes, sugars such as mannitol and lactose, and/or a variety of other materials, with polyethylene glycol and derivatives thereof particularly preferred. Depending on the peptide administered, it may be desirable to incorporate a transurethral permeation enhancer in the urethral dosage form. Examples of suitable transurethral permeation enhancers include dimethylsulfoxide, dimethyl formamide, N,N-dimethylacetamide, decylmethylsulfoxide (C10MSO), polyethylene glycol monolaurate, glycerol monolaurate, lecithin, alcohols, such as ethanol, detergents, and the like. Transurethral formulations may additionally include one or more enzyme inhibitors effective to inhibit peptide degrading enzymes which may be present in the urethra. Such enzyme inhibiting compounds may be determined by those skilled in the art by reference to the pertinent literature and/or using routine experimental methods. Additional optional components include excipients, preservatives, such as antioxidants, chelating agents, solubilizing agents, such as surfactants, and the like, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art of drug formulation preparation and delivery. Transurethral drug administration can be carried out in a variety of different ways using a variety of urethral dosage forms. For example, the peptide in an appropriate formulation can be introduced into the urethra through a flexible tube, squeeze bottle, pump, or aerosol spray. The peptide may also be contained in coatings, pellets, or suppositories which are absorbed, melted, or bioeroded in the urethra. In certain embodiments, the peptide is included in a coating on the exterior surface of a penile insert. Peptides of this invention may also be administered vaginally. The delivery system can be a solid object such as a tampon, tampon-like device, vaginal ring, cup, pessary, tablet, or suppository. Alternatively it can be a composition in the form of a cream, paste, ointment, or gel having a sufficient thickness to maintain prolonged contact with vaginal epithelium. Alternatively, it can be a coating on a suppository wall or a sponge or other absorbent material impregnated with a liquid drug formulation further containing a solution, lotion, or suspension of bioadhesive particles, for example. Any form of drug delivery system which will effectively deliver the peptide to the vaginal endothelium is intended to be included within the scope of this invention. The peptides of this invention may be therapeutically applied by means of nasal administration. By “nasal administration” is meant any form of intranasal administration of any of the peptides of this invention. The peptides may be in an aqueous solution, such as a solution including saline, citrate or other common excipients or preservatives. The peptides may also be in a dry or powder formulation. In an alternative embodiment, peptides of this invention may be administered directly into the lung. Intrapulmonary administration may be performed by means of a metered dose inhaler, a device allowing self-administration of a metered bolus of a peptide of this invention when actuated by a patient during inspiration. The peptides of this invention may be formulated with any of a variety of agents that increase effective nasal absorption of drugs, including peptide drugs. These agents should increase nasal absorption without unacceptable damage to the mucosal membrane. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,693,608, 5,977,070 and 5,908,825, among others, teach a number of pharmaceutical compositions that may be employed, including absorption enhancers, and the teachings of each of the foregoing, and all references and patents cited therein, are incorporated by reference. If in an aqueous solution, the peptide may be appropriately buffered by means of saline, acetate, phosphate, citrate, acetate or other buffering agents, which may be at any physiologically acceptable pH, generally from about pH 4 to about pH 7. A combination of buffering agents may also be employed, such as phosphate buffered saline, a saline and acetate buffer, and the like. In the case of saline, a 0.9% saline solution may be employed. In the case of acetate, phosphate, citrate, acetate and the like, a 50 mM solution may be employed. In addition to buffering agents, a suitable preservative may be employed, to prevent or limit bacteria and other microbial growth. One such preservative that may be employed is 0.05% benzalkonium chloride. It is also possible and contemplated that the peptide may be in a dried and particulate form. In a preferred embodiment, the particles are between about 0.5 and 6.0 μm, such that the particles have sufficient mass to settle on the lung surface, and not be exhaled, but are small enough that they are not deposited on surfaces of the air passages prior to reaching the lung. Any of a variety of different techniques may be used to make dry powder microparticles, including but not limited to micro-milling, spray drying and a quick freeze aerosol followed by lyophilization. With micro-particles, the peptides may be deposited to the deep lung, thereby providing quick and efficient absorption into the bloodstream. Further, with such approach penetration enhancers are not required, as is sometimes the case in transdermal, nasal or oral mucosal delivery routes. Any of a variety of inhalers can be employed, including propellant-based aerosols, nebulizers, single dose dry powder inhalers and multidose dry powder inhalers. Common devices in current use include metered dose inhalers, which are used to deliver medications for the treatment of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the like. Preferred devices include dry powder inhalers, designed to form a cloud or aerosol of fine powder with a particle size that is always less than about 6.0 μm. Microparticle size, including mean size distribution, may be controlled by means of the method of making. For micro-milling, the size of the milling head, speed of the rotor, time of processing and the like control the microparticle size. For spray drying, the nozzle size, flow rate, dryer heat and the like control the microparticle size. For making by means of quick freeze aerosol followed by lyophilization, the nozzle size, flow rate, concentration of aerosoled solution and the like control the microparticle size. These parameters and others may be employed to control the microparticle size. In one preferred embodiment, a dry powder inhaler is employed which includes a piezoelectric crystal that deaggregates a dry powder dose, creating a small powder “cloud.” Once the powder cloud is generated, an electrostatically charged plate above the powder cloud lifts the drug into the air stream. The user with one relatively easy breath can then inhale the powder. The device may be breath activated, utilizing a flow sensor that activates the electronic components upon the start of inhalation, and thereby eliminating the need for coordination of activation and breathing rhythms by the user. Routes of Administration. If it is administered by injection, the injection may be intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or other means known in the art. The peptides of this invention may be formulated by any means known in the art, including but not limited to formulation as tablets, capsules, caplets, suspensions, powders, lyophilized preparations, suppositories, ocular drops, skin patches, oral soluble formulations, sprays, aerosols and the like, and may be mixed and formulated with buffers, binders, excipients, stabilizers, anti-oxidants and other agents known in the art. In general, any route of administration by which the peptides of invention are introduced across an epidermal layer of cells may be employed. Administration means may thus include administration through mucous membranes, buccal administration, oral administration, dermal administration, inhalation administration, nasal administration, urethral administration, vaginal administration, and the like. Therapeutically Effective Amount. In general, the actual quantity of peptide of this invention administered to a patient will vary between fairly wide ranges depending upon the mode of administration, the formulation used, and the response desired. The dosage for treatment is administration, by any of the foregoing means or any other means known in the art, of an amount sufficient to bring about the desired therapeutic effect. Thus a therapeutically effective amount includes an amount of a peptide or pharmaceutical composition of this invention that is sufficient to therapeutically alleviate sexual dysfunction in a patient, or to prevent or delay onset or recurrence of the sexual dysfunction. The peptide of the formula NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg induces a penile erection response in male rats at oral doses of less than 1 μg/kg, and may be biologically active at oral doses as low as 250 ng/kg. Extrapolating to a human, a human dose of NH2(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg for oral delivery could be as low as 1 mg, and possibly lower. The peptide of the formula NH2—(CH2)6Co-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) had, in rats, an optimal dose response when administered by intranasal means at a dose of about 0.1 μg/kg. Extrapolating to a human, an intranasal dose could be as low as about 1 to about 10 μg. In general, the peptides of this invention are highly active, with dose responses as low as 0.001 μg/kg, and optimal or peak dose responses between about 0.1 μg/kg and 10 μg/kg, depending on the specific peptide and the route of administration. For example, the peptide can be administered at 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, or 500 μg/kg body weight, depending on specific peptide selected, the desired therapeutic response, the route of administration, the formulation and other factors known to those of skill in the art. As shown in FIG. 1, the peptides of this invention typically show a “bell-shaped” dose response. That is, at increasing doses the desired biological or physiological response increases, reaches a peak or optimal response, and may thereafter decrease with further increasing doses. Conventional dose response studies and other pharmacological means may be employed to determine the optimal dose for a desired effect, such as inducing penile erections, with a given peptide, given formulation and given route of administration. Combination Therapy. It is also possible and contemplated to use the peptides of this invention in combination with other drugs or agents. These other drugs and agents may include melanocortin receptor-specific agents that induce erectile activity, including specifically MC3-R and MC4-R agonists, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors, testosterone, prostaglandin and the like. In a preferred embodiment of the invention, peptides of the invention are used in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of a cyclic-GMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor or an alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonist. Similarly, the peptides of this invention may be used in combination with any known mechanical aids or devices. The present invention thus provides methods of treating sexual dysfunction, the methods comprising the step of administering to the patient having or at risk of having sexual dysfunction a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. The peptide of this invention may be administered simultaneously with, prior to or subsequent to administration with a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. Preferably the peptide of this invention is administered within one hour, preferably within less than one-half hour, of administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. However, for certain forms of combination therapy, such as for example in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of a hormone or hormone-related sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent, the hormone or hormone-related sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent may be administered on an independent schedule, such that there is no set or specific temporal relationship between administration of the peptide of this invention and the hormone or hormone-related sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. Thus, for example, the hormone or hormone-related sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent may be administered on a daily or other dose, or by means of patches or other continuous administration schedules, with administration of the peptide of this invention when desired or needed by the patient. The present invention thus provides methods of treating sexual dysfunction, the methods comprising the step of administering to a patient having or at risk of having sexual dysfunction a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention in combination with a compound that is a melanocortin receptor agonist. The present invention further also provides methods of treating sexual dysfunction, the methods comprising the step of administering to a patient having or at risk of having sexual dysfunction a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention in combination with a compound that is a melanocortin receptor agonist and in combination with another compound that is useful in the treatment of sexual dysfunction. In a preferred embodiment of combination therapy the sexual dysfunction is female sexual dysfunction. In an especially preferred embodiment of combination therapy the sexual dysfunction is erectile dysfunction. In a preferred embodiment of the foregoing methods, the melanocortin receptor agonist is an agonist of MC3-R or MC4-R, and preferably MC4-R. The agonist may be a non-selective MC3-R and MC4-R agonist. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions that comprise 1) a peptide of this invention and 2) a compound that is a melanocortin receptor agonist. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions that comprise 1) a peptide of this invention; 2) a compound that is a melanocortin receptor agonist; and 3) a third compound useful for the treatment of sexual dysfunction. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions that comprise 1) a peptide of this invention and 2) a second compound useful for the treatment of sexual dysfunction. Representative agonists of the melanocortin receptor are disclosed in the following publications, which are incorporated here by reference in their entirety: M. E. Hadley et al., Discovery and development of the novel melanogenic drugs, in Integration of Pharmaceutical Discovery and Development: Case Studies, edited by Borschart et al., Plenum Press, New York (1998); R. T. Dorr et al., Evaluation of Melanotan-II, A Superpotent Cyclic Melanotropic Peptide in a Pilot Phase-I Clinical Study. Life Sci 58:1777-1784 (1996); and R. A. H. Adan, Identification of Antagonists for Melanocortin MC3, MC4, and MC5 Receptors. Eur J Pharmacol, 269:331-337 (1994). In one embodiment of the composition above, the agonists are melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) including α-, β-, and γ-MSH and/or adrenocorticotropic hormones (ACTH). In another embodiment of the composition above, the melanocortin receptor agonist is Melanotan-II (MT-II). A preferred melanocortin receptor agonist includes any linear or cyclic melanocortin receptor-specific agonist peptide disclosed in International Application WO 03/006620 or a metallopeptide disclosed in International Application WO 02/064091. A particularly preferred melanocortin receptor agonist is Ac-Nle-cyclo(-Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys)-OH, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,579,968. Alternatively, the agonist may be any agonist disclosed in any of the following patents or patent applications: U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,534,503, 6,472,398, 6,458,790, 6,410,548, 6,376,509, or 6,350,760; U.S. Published Application Nos. 2002/0137664, 2002/0004512, 2002/0143141, or US 2003/0069169; or International Application No. WO 02/18437. The agonist of the melanocortin receptor may preferably be selective for MC4-R. In an embodiment of the composition above, the additional compounds useful for the treatment of sexual dysfunction are preferably selected from but not limited to the group consisting of a phosphodiesterase inhibitor; a cyclic-GMP-specific phosphodiesterase inhibitor; prostaglandins; apomorphin; oxytocin modulators; α-adrenergic antagonists; androgens; selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs); buproprion; vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP); neutral endopeptidase inhibitors (NEP); and neuropeptide Y receptor antagonists (NPY). In an embodiment of the method and composition, the second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent is testosterone. In another embodiment of combination therapy, the second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent is a type V phosphodiesterase inhibitor (PDE-5). For example, the PDE-5 inhibitor may be Viagra®, a brand of sildenafil, or may be 1-[[3-(6,7-dihydro-1-methyl-7-oxo-3-propyl-1-H-pyrazolo[4,3-d]pyrimidin-5-yl]-4-ethoxy-phenyl]sufonyl)-4-methylpiperazine citrate salt, as disclosed in U.S. Published Application No. 2003/0083228. In another embodiment of the composition above, the compound useful for the treatment of sexual dysfunction is an estrogen agonist/antagonist. In one embodiment, the estrogen agonist/antagonist is (−)-cis-6-phenyl-5-[-4-(2-pyrrolidin-1-yl-ethoxy)-phenyl]-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-napth-thalene-2-ol (also known as lasofoxifene) or an optical or geometric isomer thereof; a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, N-oxide, ester, quaternary ammonium salt; or a prodrug thereof. More preferably, the estrogen agonist/antagonist is in the form of a D-tartrate salt. In yet another embodiment of the composition above, the estrogen agonist/antagonist is selected from the group consisting of tamoxifen, 4-hydroxy tamoxifen, raloxifene, droloxifene, toremifene, centchroman, idoxifene, 6-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-5-[4-(2-piperidine-1-yl-ethoxy)-benzyl]-napthalen-2-ol, {4-[2-(2-aza-bicyclo[2.2.1]hept-2-yl)-ethoxy]-phenyl}-[6-hydroxy-2-(4-hydroxy-phenyl)-benzo[b]thiopehn-3-yl]-methanone, EM-652, EM-800, GW 5368, GW 7604, TSE-424 and optical or geometric isomers thereof; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, N-oxides, esters, quaternary ammonium salts, and prodrugs thereof. In yet another embodiment, a peptide of this invention may be used in combination with any known mechanical aids or devices. The present invention also provides kits for the treatment of sexual dysfunction (including erectile dysfunction), the kits comprising: a first pharmaceutical composition including a peptide of this invention; a second pharmaceutical composition comprising a second compound useful for the treatment of sexual dysfunction; and, a container for the first and second compositions. The invention is further illustrated by the following non-limiting examples. EXAMPLE 1 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg The peptide NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Briefly, 2-chlorotrityl chloride resin was loaded with Fmoc-Arg(Boc)2-OH. The resin was added to a reaction vessel suitable for solid phase peptide synthesis, and the peptide synthesis was carried out by the sequential steps of Fmoc deprotection, activation and coupling of an Fmoc-amino acid residue, a ninhydrin test, and washing, with the steps repeated for addition of a new amino acid residue at each step. A Boc protected derivative of aminoheptanoyl was used for coupling at the N-terminus. The peptide was cleaved from the resin by treatment with a mixture of 50% TFA—2.5% Triisopropylsilane (TIS) and 2.5% water in dichloromethane (DCM) for 1 hour. The final product was precipitated by adding cold ether and collected by filtration. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 660, and was made in a trifluoroacetate salt form. EXAMPLE 2 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-NH2 The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-NH2 was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Briefly, Rink amide resin was added to a reaction vessel suitable for solid phase peptide synthesis, with peptide synthesis carried out by the sequential steps of Fmoc-deprotection, activation, coupling of an Fmoc-amino acid residue, a ninhydrin test, and washing, with the steps repeated for addition of a new amino acid residue at each step. A Boc group was used for protecting the side chain guanidine group of Arg as well as for protecting the amino function of aminoheptanoyl. The peptide was cleaved from resin by treatment with a mixture of 95% TFA—2.5% TIS and 2.5% water for 3 hours. The final product was precipitated by adding cold ether and collected by filtration. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with an amide group at the C-terminus and an amine function at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 659, and was obtained in a trifluoroacetate salt form. EXAMPLE 3 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was used to synthesize the peptide. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 675.8, and was obtained in a trifluoroacetate salt form. EXAMPLE 4 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg-NH2 The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg-NH2 was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods using the general method described in Example 2. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with an amide group at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 674.8, and was isolated as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 5 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Briefly, Fmoc-Arg(NO2)-Wang resin was added to a solid phase peptide synthesis reaction vessel, with peptide synthesis carried out by the sequential steps of Fmoc-deprotection, activation and coupling of an Fmoc-amino acid residue, a ninhydrin test, and washing, with the steps repeated for addition of a new amino acid residue at each step. A Boc group was used for protecting the amino function of aminoheptanoyl. The peptide was cleaved from the resin using a mixture of 75% TFA—2.5% TIS—2.5% water in DCM for 1 hour. The final product was precipitated by adding cold ether and collected by filtration. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 705, and was isolated as trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 6 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Cit The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Cit was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 661, and was obtained in a trifluoroacetate salt form. EXAMPLE 7 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Lys The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Lys was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 5 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 632, and was isolated as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 8 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Orn The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Orn was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 5 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 618, and was obtained as trifluoroacetate salt form. EXAMPLE 9 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Ala The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Ala was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 575, and was obtained as trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 10 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Ala-Arg The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Ala-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 549.7, and was obtained as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 11 Synthesis of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ala-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg The peptide NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ala-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 554, and was obtained as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 12 Synthesis of Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg The peptide Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 was employed. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an amine group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 533, and was obtained as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 13 Synthesis of Ac-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg The peptide Ac-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was synthesized by standard solid phase peptide synthesis methods. Using appropriate Fmoc protected amino acids, the method described in Example 1 afforded Fmoc-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-Resin. The Fmoc group was removed and the resin treated with acetic anhydride/pyridine to introduce an acetyl group at the N-terminus. The peptide was cleaved from the resin by its treatment with a mixture of 50% TFA—2.5% TIS and 2.5% water in DCM for 1 hour. The final product was precipitated by adding cold ether and collected by filtration. Final purification was by RP-HPLC using a C-18 column. The peptide is a linear peptide with a free acid at the C-terminus and an acetyl group at the N-terminus of the formula: The peptide has a net molecular weight of 575, and was obtained as a trifluoroacetate salt. EXAMPLE 14 Binding of Peptides to Melanocortin Receptors The binding of the peptides of Examples 1 to 13, inclusive, to melanocortin receptors was evaluated, with results shown on Table 1. Relative binding was determined by competitive inhibition using an α-MSH analog, iodinated NDP-MSH. B16-Fl mouse melanoma cells were used as the source of MC1 receptors and HEK 293 cells, transfected with human melanocortin receptor sequences, were used as the source of MC3, MC4 and MC5 receptors. A standard competitive binding assay protocol as described above was followed, using 125I-NDP-MSH as the radioligand. A “0” percent inhibition was assigned when the raw percent inhibition, as an average of at least triplicate measures, was between −10% and 10%; in the majority of instances, the raw percent inhibition was between −10% and 0% inhibition. TABLE 1 % Inhibition at 10 μM concentration at MC1-, 3-, 4- Peptide and 5-Receptors NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-NH2 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Nal 2-Arg-NH2 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Cit 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Lys 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Orn 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Ala 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Ala-Arg 0 NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ala-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg 0 Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg 0 Ac-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg 0 EXAMPLE 15 Determination of Induction of Penile Erections The ability of the peptides of Examples 1 to 13 to induce penile erection in male rats was evaluated. Male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 200-250 g were kept on a 12 hour on/off light cycle with food and water ad libitum. All behavioral studies were performed between 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. Groups of 4-8 rats were treated with peptides at a variety of doses via intravenous administration. Immediately after administration, rats were placed into individual polystyrene cages (27 cm long, 16 cm wide, and 25 cm high) for behavioral observation. Rats were observed for 30 minutes and the number of yawns, grooming bouts and penile erections were recorded in three 10-minute bins. Each of the peptides of Examples 1 to 13 was observed to positively induce penile erections in male rats by intravenous injection at one or more dose levels, using saline as a control, with results scored positive where the difference in observed penile erections was statistically relevant. EXAMPLE 16 Induction of Penile Erections with NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg The efficacious dose of NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, made as in Example 1 above, to induce penile erection in Sprague Dawley rats by intravenous dosing and oral administration was determined. Male Sprague Dawley rats were administered NH2(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg, in various doses and utilizing intravenous and oral routes of administration, with appropriate controls, as in Example 15, and were observed for erections and side effects, including excessive grooming, yawning, vacuous chewing, hypoactivity, and heaving. NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was efficacious at doses as low as 0.1 to 1 μg/kg of body weight when administered by oral means, and at doses lower than 0.001 μg/kg of body weight when administered by intravenous means. EXAMPLE 17 Induction of Penile Erections Using NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) by Intravenous Dosing The efficacious dose of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), made as in Example 5 above, to induce penile erection in Sprague Dawley rats by intravenous dosing was determined. Male Sprague Dawley rats were administered NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), in various doses and utilizing different routes of administration, with appropriate controls, as in Example 15, and were observed for erections and side effects, including excessive grooming, yawning, vacuous chewing, hypoactivity, and heaving. It was determined that NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) was efficacious at doses as low as 0.001 to 10 μg/kg of body weight when administered by intravenous means, with efficacy determined by induction of penile erection in 100% of animals. The optimal dose response was at 1 μg/kg of body weight. FIG. 1 depicts the dose response profile, with the error bars depicting standard deviation where n (the number of animals) is between 8 and 19, depending on the dose point. EXAMPLE 18 Induction of Penile Erections Using NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) by Intranasal Administration The efficacious dose of NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), made as in Example 5 above, to induce penile erection in Sprague Dawley rats by intranasal administration using a micropipetor to deliver 25 μL of solution into one nostril was determined. Male Sprague Dawley rats were administered NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2), in various doses by intranasal administration, with appropriate controls, and were observed for erections and side effects, including excessive grooming, yawning, vacuous chewing, hypoactivity, and heaving. It was determined that NH2—(CH2)6—CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg(NO2) was efficacious at doses between 0.01 μg/kg and 100 μg/kg of body weight when administered by intranasal means. The peak dose response was at an intranasal dose of 0.1 μg/kg of body weight. EXAMPLE 19 Induced Penile Erections Not Inhibited by MCR-R Antagonist It is known that MC4-R antagonists inhibit the erectile activity of MC4-R agonists in a dose dependent manner. Such antagonists include SHU9119, a nonselective melanocortin antagonist of the formula Ac-Nle-cyc/o(-Asp-His-D-Nal(2′)-Arg-Trp-Lys)-NH2 (Hruby V. J., Lu D., Sharma S. D., et al. Cyclic lactam alpha-melanotropin analogues of Ac-Nle4-cyclo[Asp5, D-Phe7, Lys10-NH2 with bulky aromatic amino acids at position 7 show high antagonist potency and selectivity at specific melanocortin receptors. J Med Chem 38:3454-3461 (1995)). Antagonists such as SHU9119 are known to inhibit MT-II and other known melanocortin receptor-specific agonists that induce erectile activity. SHU9119 was administered to male rats approximately 5 minutes before administration of either NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg or NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-Trp--NH2, with Ac-Nle-cyc/o(Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys)-OH, a known MC4-R agonist, as a positive control. Neither NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg nor NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg-Trp-NH2 was inhibited by administration of SHU9119, and both resulted in erections at a rate equivalent to that obtained without pre-administration of SHU9119. The peptide Ac-Nle-cyc/o(Asp-His-D-Phe-Arg-Trp-Lys)-OH, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,579,968, used as a positive control, was inhibited by SHU9119. EXAMPLE 20 Melanocortin Receptor-Specific Functional Activity Assay Stimulation of intracellular CAMP production by each of the peptides of Examples 1 to 13, inclusive, was determined utilizing transfected HEK-293 cells expressing hMC4-R, notwithstanding that none of the peptides had been found to bind MC4-R at a 10 μM concentration. A standard CAMP stimulation and measurement protocol as described above was followed. None of the peptides exhibited any stimulation of intracellular CAMP, while in parallel experiment NDP acting as positive control for stimulation of MC4-R caused production and accumulation of intracellular CAMP. EXAMPLE 21 Receptor Specificity Screening The peptide NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was tested at 10 μM concentration for binding to a panel of known central and peripheral receptors and neurotransmitters, including steroid receptors, neurotransmitter receptors, brain/gut peptide receptors, growth factor/hormone receptors and other receptors, and for interaction with a panel of known ion channels and enzymes systems. No binding or activity with NH2—(CH2)6CO-Ser(Bzl)-D-Phe(4-Cl)-Arg was detected with any panel members. The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described reactants and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples. Although the invention has been described in detail with particular reference to these preferred embodiments, other embodiments can achieve the same results. Variations and modifications of the present invention will be obvious to those skilled in the art and it is intended to cover in the appended claims all such modifications and equivalents. The entire disclosures of all references, applications, patents, and publications cited above are hereby incorporated by reference. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field) The present invention relates to peptides and pharmaceutical compositions including peptides for the treatment of sexual dysfunction in mammals, including both male erectile dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction in humans, including methods and formulations for the use and administration of the same. 2. Description of Related Art Note that the following discussion refers to a number of publications by author(s) and year of publication, and that due to recent publication dates certain publications are not to be considered as prior art vis-à-vis the present invention. Discussion of such publications herein is given for more complete background and is not to be construed as an admission that such publications are prior art for patentability determination purposes. Sexual dysfunction, including both penile erectile dysfunction or impotence and female sexual dysfunction, is a common medical problem. Significant effort has been devoted over the last twenty or more years to develop methods, devices and compounds for treatment of sexual dysfunction. While more effort has been undertaken for treatment of penile erectile dysfunction, female sexual dysfunction is also an area to which significant research and effort has been devoted. At present, one commonly used orally administered drug for treatment of sexual dysfunction in the male is Viagra®, a brand of sildenafil, which is a phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE-5) inhibitor. PDE-5 inhibitors increase the persistence of cyclic guanosine monophosphate and thereby enhance erectile response. Another drug approved in Europe for treating male erectile dysfunction is Ixense®, a brand of apomorphin that is a non-selective dopa receptor agonist. Oral and nasal formulations of apomorphin are currently undergoing clinical evaluations in the United States. There are several other medical treatment alternatives currently available depending on the nature and cause of the impotence problem. Some men have abnormally low levels of the male hormone testosterone, and treatment with testosterone injections or pills may be beneficial. However, comparatively few impotent men have low testosterone levels. For many forms of erectile dysfunction, treatment may be undertaken with drugs injected directly into the penis, including drugs such as papaverin, prostaglandin El, phenoxybenzamine or phentolamine. These all work primarily by dilating the arterial blood vessels and decreasing the venous drainage. Urethral inserts, such as with suppositories containing prostaglandin, may also be employed. In addition, a variety of mechanical aids are employed, including constriction devices and penile implants. A variety of treatments have also been explored for female sexual dysfunction, including use of sildenafil, although the Food and Drug Administration has not specifically approved such use. Testosterone propionate and various estrogen-related compounds have also been employed to increase or augment female libido. A number of other agents have been shown to induce or facilitate penile erection in laboratory animals. These include very diverse classes of ligands such as oxytocin (Benelli A, Poggioli R, Luppi P, Ruini L, Bertolini A, Arletti R., Oxytocin enhances, and oxytocin antagonism decreases, sexual receptivity in intact female rats. Neuropeptides 27:245-50 (1994)), vasopressin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, melanotropins, and ACTH as well as their analogs. It is well known to those skilled in the art of developing new therapeutic treatments for sexual dysfunction that identification of a new class of therapeutic agents is often achieved by chance. For example, investigations of sildenafil as an agent for treating high blood pressure in humans revealed its effects on facilitating penile erection in men. Similarly, clinical use of apomorphin for treatment of Parkinson's disease uncovered its effects in eliciting penile erections. Human studies on a potent melanotropin agonist as an agent to induce human skin pigmentation established its erectogenic activity. However, the mechanism by which these agents elicit a sexual activity response remains largely unknown. Some understanding of the PDE-5 class of compounds (e.g. sildenafil) has now been developed. The biological mechanism(s) by which presumably centrally acting molecules, such as oxytocin, vasopressin, apomorphin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, melanotropins and ACTH, elicit a sexual function response is still unclear. That at least a portion of the biological mechanism is central is generally understood to be demonstrated by efficacy following intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration. It is conceivable that some or all of these agents may be interacting at more than one individual receptor site involved in a common downstream biological pathway. Melanocortin receptor-specific compounds have been explored for use of treatment of sexual dysfunction. In one report, a cyclic α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (“α-MSH”) analog, called Melanotan-II, was evaluated for erectogenic properties for treatment of men with psychogenic erectile dysfunction. Wessells H. et al., J Urology 160:389-393 (1998); see also U.S. Pat. No. 5,576,290, issued Nov. 19, 1996 to M. E. Hadley, entitled Compositions and Methods for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Psychogenic Erectile Dysfunction and U.S. Pat. No. 6,051,555, issued Apr. 18, 2000, also to M. E. Hadley, entitled Stimulating Sexual Response in Females. A related compound is claimed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,579,968, Compositions and Methods for Treatment of Sexual Dysfunction, issued Jun. 17, 2003, to C. H. Blood and others, and is in clinical trials for treatment of erectile dysfunction. The peptides used in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,576,290 and 6,051,555 are also described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,674,839, issued Oct. 7, 1997, to V. J. Hruby, M. E. Hadley and F. Al-Obeidi, entitled Cyclic Analogs of Alpha - MSH Fragments, and in U.S. Pat. No. 5,714,576, issued Feb. 3, 1998, to V. J. Hruby, M. E. Hadley and F. Al-Obeidi, entitled Linear Analogs of Alpha - MSH Fragments. Additional related peptides are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,576,290, 5,674,839, 5,714,576 and 6,051,555. These peptides are described as being useful for both the diagnosis and treatment of psychogenic sexual dysfunction in males and females. Other peptides are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,284,735 and U.S. Published Patent Applications Nos. 2001/0056179 and 2002/0004512. It has long been believed that erectile response to melanocortin receptor-specific compounds, and both male and female sexual response in general, was related to the central tetrapeptide sequence, His 6 -Phe 7 -Arg 8 -Trp 9 (SEQ ID NO:1) of native α-MSH. In general, all melanocortin peptides share the same active core sequence, His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1), including melanotropin neuropeptides and adrenocorticotropin. MC3-R (the melanocortin-3 receptor) has the highest expression in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, while MC4-R (the melanocortin-4 receptor) is more widely expressed in the thalamus, hypothalamus and hippocampus. A central nervous system mechanism for melanocortins in the induction of penile erection has been suggested by experiments demonstrating penile erection resulting from central intracerebroventricular administration of melanocortins in rats. While the mechanism of His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1) induction of erectile response has never been fully elucidated, it has been generally accepted that the response involves the central nervous system, and binding to MC3-R and/or MC4-R, and according to most researchers, MC4-R. Non-peptides have been proposed which alter or regulate the activity of one or more melanocortin receptors. For example, International Patent Application No. PCT/US99/09216, entitled Isoquinoline Compound Melanocortin Receptor Ligands and Methods of Using Same, discloses two compounds that induce penile erections in rats. However, these compounds were administered by injection at doses of 1.8 mg/kg and 3.6 mg/kg, respectively, and at least one compound resulted in observable side effects, including yawning and stretching. Other melanocortin receptor-specific compounds with claimed application for treatment of sexual dysfunction are disclosed in International Patent Application No. PCT/US99/13252, entitled Spiropiperidine Derivatives as Melanocortin Receptor Agonists. International Patent Application Nos. PCT/US00/14930, PCT/US00/19408, WO 01/05401, WO/00/53148, WO 01/00224, WO 00/74679, WO 01/10842 and the like disclose other compounds that may be so utilized. Most investigators, including those who are inventors of the above-described patents and applications, ascribe the sexual activity of melanotropin ligands to MC4-R. Evidence in favor of this hypothesis comes from the observation that a sexual response elicited by an MC4-R agonist can be blocked by an MC4-R antagonist. However, a few reports also suggest that MC4-R receptors may not be involved in eliciting sexual function response (Vergoni, A. V.; Bertolini, A.; Guidetti, G.; Karefilakis, V.; Filaferro, M.; Wikberg, J. E.; Schioth, H. B., Chronic melanocortin 4 receptor blockage causes obesity without influencing sexual behavior in male rats. J Endocrinol 166:419-26 (2000)). | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment the invention provides a peptide of structural formula l: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In peptides of formula I. R 1 is NH 2 , NH 3 + , NH 2 —R 7 , or H. R 2 is H or a linear or branched C 1 to C 17 alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl chain. R 2 may thus include a C 1 to C 17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, an omega amino derivative of a C 1 to C 17 aliphatic linear or branched chain, or an acylated derivative of an omega amino derivative of a C 1 to C 17 aliphatic linear or branched chain. R 3 and R 4 are independently a C 1 to C 6 aliphatic linear or branched chain, including CH 3 , or an aromatic amino acid side chain moiety, on the proviso that not more than one of R 3 and R 4 is a C 1 to C 6 aliphatic linear or branched chain. In a preferred embodiment, both R 3 and R 4 are aromatic amino acid side chain moieties. Optionally the aromatic amino acid side chain moiety is derived from a natural or synthetic L- or D-amino acid, and is an aromatic substituted aryl or heteroaryl side chain. The aromatic ring or rings of the amino acid side chain moiety may be functionalized with one or more halogens or one or more alkyl or aryl groups. The aromatic amino acid side chain moiety is preferably selected from the following: R 5 is a C 1 to C 6 linear or branched chain or a neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety. Optionally the C 1 to C 6 linear or branched chain is CH 3 . Optionally the neutral hydrogen bonding or positively charged amino acid side chain moiety is an aliphatic or aromatic amino acid side chain moiety derived from a natural or synthetic L- or D-amino acid, wherein the moiety includes at least one nitrogen-containing group, including an amide, imide, amine, guanidine, urea, urethane, or nitrile. The R 5 nitrogen-containing amino acid side chain moiety is preferably selected from the following: The R 5 neutral aliphatic amino acid side chain moiety, wherein the side chain includes hydrogen donors and/or acceptors, is preferably selected from the following: a portion of the backbone, and R 5 is R 6 is OH, NH 2 , or NH—R 7 . R 7 is a C 1 -C 17 chain, including an alkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkene, alkenyl, or aralkyl. In the peptides of formula 1, m is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if m is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by m, such that the amino terminal group is NH 2 . In the peptides of formula 1, n is 0 or 1, on the proviso that if n is 0, then a single H occupies the position specified by n. In an alternative embodiment, R 5 can be R 5 ′ and R 5 ″, such that the invention provides a peptide of structural formula II: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In peptides of formula II, m, n, R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , R 4 , and R 6 are as defined for formula I, and at least one of R 5 ′ and R 5 ″ is as R 5 is defined for formula I, and the remaining of R 5 ′ or R 5 ″ is a lower aliphatic C 1 -C 4 branched or linear alkyl chain, including methyl or ethyl. Peptides of formula I or II contain one or more asymmetric centers and can thus occur as racemates and racemic mixtures, single enantiomers, diastereomeric mixtures and individual diastereomers. The present invention includes all such isomeric forms of the peptides of formula I and II. Certain of the peptides of formula I or II contain one or more alkenes, and thus contain olefinic double bonds, and formulas I and Ii are meant to include both E and Z geometric isomers where relevant. Other peptides of formula I or II may exist as tautomers, such as keto-enol tautomers. The individual tautomers as well as mixtures thereof are included with the definition of formulas I and II. Peptides of formula I or II may be separated into their individual diastereoisomers by any means known in the art, including but not limited to fractional crystallization from a suitable solvent, such as methanol or ethyl acetate or a mixture thereof, or by chiral chromatography using an optically active stationary phase. It is also possible to synthesize a specific diastereoisomer of a peptide of formula I or II by stereospecific synthesis using optically pure starting materials or reagents of known configuration. In a preferred embodiment, the peptides of formula I or II are synthesized using reagents of known configurations, and accordingly have a specific diastereoisomeric form. The pharmaceutical compositions and peptides of the invention are characterized, in part, in that they do not bind to any significant degree, as determined by competitive inhibition assays utilizing radiolabeled α-MSH or analogs thereof, such as [Nle 4 , D-Phe 7 ]-α-MSH (NDP—MSH), to any melanocortin receptor, including specifically MC1-R, MC3-R, MC4-R or MC5-R. Thus the pharmaceutical compositions and peptides exhibit neither agonist nor antagonist activity with respect to any of MC1-R, MC3-R, MC4-R or MC5-R. However, the pharmaceutical compositions and peptides do induce erectile activity in mammalian males, and may be employed for treatment of male sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction, in mammalian males, and for female sexual dysfunction in mammalian females. The invention thus further relates to peptides that are characterized in that they do not significantly bind MC4-R, or any other known melanocortin receptor, but which have some structural similarities to at least one molecular region of peptides that bind one or more melanocortin receptors, and specifically that bind MC4-R, and which further induce an erectile response in mammals. Thus the invention relates to peptides containing a His-D-Phe sequence, or alternatively containing a D-Phe-Arg sequence, or alternatively containing a His-D-Phe-Arg sequence, or a mimic or homolog of any of the foregoing, but which peptides of the invention do not bind to any melanocortin receptor, including specifically MC4-R. The peptides of the invention do not contain a Trp or mimic or homolog thereof, and thus are distinct from peptides or molecules that incorporate the His-Phe-Arg-Trp (SEQ ID NO:1) sequence or mimics or homologs thereof. The peptides of this invention induce erectile responses in a manner similar to agents described in prior art that bind MC4-R. The invention further includes pharmaceutical compositions, including a peptide of this invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention further includes methods for treatment of sexual dysfunction, including treating erectile dysfunction in males or female sexual dysfunction, the methods including administration of a therapeutically effective amount of a peptide of this invention. In an alternative embodiment, the method further includes administration of the peptide in combination with a therapeutically effective amount of a second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent. The second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agent can include an MC4-R agonist, which may be a peptide or a small molecule, a PDE-5 inhibitor, an alpha-andrenergic receptor antagonist, a sexual response related hormone, such as testosterone in males or estrogen in females, or other compounds or devices useful in treatment of sexual dysfunction. The present invention also encompasses pharmaceutical compositions useful in the foregoing method of the present invention, such as compositions including a peptide of formula I or II and one or more second sexual dysfunction pharmaceutical agents, as well as a method of manufacture of a medicament useful to treat sexual dysfunction. The peptides of this invention, and pharmaceutical compositions of this invention, may be used for stimulating sexual response in a mammal. The invention thus also includes a method for stimulating sexual response in a mammal, in which a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition is administered. The mammal may be male or female. In this method, the composition can also include a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The peptide or pharmaceutical composition may be administered by any means known in the art, including administration by injection, administration through mucous membranes, buccal administration, oral administration, dermal administration, urethral administration, vaginal administration, inhalation administration and nasal administration. In a preferred embodiment, administration is by oral administration, including sublingual administration, of a specified amount of a formulation including an appropriate carrier, bulking agent and the like. A first object of the present invention is to provide a pharmaceutical composition for use in treatment of sexual dysfunction wherein the active agent is not melanocortin receptor-specific. A second object is to provide a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of male sexual dysfunction, including erectile dysfunction, which is not melanocortin receptor-specific. Yet another object is to provide a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of female sexual dysfunction that is not melanocortin receptor-specific. An advantage of the present invention is that it provides a peptide-based pharmaceutical for use in treatment of sexual dysfunction which may be administered by delivery systems other than art conventional intravenous, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection, including but not limited to oral delivery systems, nasal delivery systems and mucous membrane delivery systems. Another advantage of the present invention is that it provides a peptide providing a sexual response similar to or superior to that of MC4-R specific agents, but without the side-effects or pharmacological responses unrelated to sexual response seen with MC4-R specific agents. Other objects, advantages and novel features, and further scope of applicability of the present invention will be set forth in part in the detailed description to follow, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. | 20050107 | 20100914 | 20050609 | 90281.0 | 0 | AUDET, MAURY A | PEPTIDE COMPOSITIONS FOR TREATMENT OF SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,029 | ACCEPTED | Method for testing containers, use of the method, and a testing device | A method and device for testing containers, the method calling for a difference in pressure to be generated between the pressure inside the container and the pressure immediately surrounding the container, the behavior of one of these pressures permitting the gas tightness of the container to be assessed. A pressure value is stored and subsequently compared with one of the pressures, the stored pressure value being stored electronically and compared with at least one value of the output signal from a pressure sensor. The container is housed in an enclosure which is connected to a pressure or suction line, and a pressure-value storage unit, a comparator unit and a pressure sensor are associated with the pressure or suction line. | 1-21. (canceled) 22. A method for manufacturing a tight container comprising: constructing a container; monitoring a physical entity which is dependent from leakiness of the container and generating by said monitoring an electric output signal; storing said electric output signal at a first moment to generate a stored signal; comparing said electric output signal at a second deferred moment with said stored signal and concluding from a result signal of said comparing, whether said container is tight or not; further comparing said stored signal with said electric output signal at essentially the same time as said first moment, the result signal of said further comparing being exploited as a zero offset signal. 23. The method of claim 22, further comprising comparing said result signal of said comparing with one or more than one predetermined values. 24. The method of claim 22, wherein said storing comprises analog to digital converting said electric output signal at said first moment. 25. The method of claim 24, further comprising digital to analog reconverting said analog to digital converted output signal. 26. The method of claim 22, further comprising storing said result signal of said further comparing. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein said result signal of said further comparing is exploited as a zero offset signal by superimposing said stored result signal of said further comparing to said result signal. | This invention pertains to a method as described in the preamble to claim 1, uses of this method according to claim 9 or 10, a testing device as described in the preamble to claim 11, and use of said device according to claim 19. This invention pertains to a testing device such as is known from U.S. Pat. No. 5,029,464 and EP-A-0 313 678 and EP-A-0 432 143. From these items a way is known that a pressure differential is to be created between a pressure in the interior of the container and a pressure in said container's environment in order to test the gas tightness of containers and, from the behavior of one of the pressures, it is to be established whether the container under test satisfies the gas-tightness conditions or volume conditions or not. In this process the container to be tested is placed in a sealing chamber that is connected to a pressure medium source or a suction source; said arrangement is to be used to create the above-mentioned pressure differential. After the pressure differential is created, a pressure value for the environment of the container is stored as a starting condition in a reference pressure chamber, which is placed in front of a pressure differential sensor, and is compared with subsequent pressure values for the environment of the container. The above-mentioned documents are thus declared to be an integral part of the present description. A drawback to the known method is the fact that a pressure differential sensor with extremely accurate control valves must be provided to ensure that even very small leaks or slight deviations of the container volume from a nominal volume are detected. The goal set for the present invention is to simplify this known method significantly. The method of the invention as described by the text of claim 1 and the corresponding arrangement as described by that of claim 11 are exceptionally well suited for accomplishing this goal. Accordingly, a pressure differential sensor is no longer used, nor are pneumatic storage chambers; instead, the pressure that is of interest is determined by means of a relative-pressure sensor and converted into an electrical signal; when checking for leaks, this signal is stored at a predetermined time and compared with at least one subsequent value that is determined by this same sensor. When checking volume, a pressure value is pre-specified and stored as a basis for comparison. This obviates the need for awkward devices of the previously known type, namely the pressure differential sensor and, in particular, the stop valves that are quite difficult as regards control characteristics. The method of the invention is implemented in a configuration that is specified in claims 3-6. The preferable procedure is indicated by the text of claim 3 or claim 6, wherein both the source connection to admit the pressure medium or to ensure suction and the sensor input are hooked up to either the interior of the container or the container's environment. The creation of the pressure differential can be done in different ways, with which the specialist is well acquainted from the above-mentioned documents. Thus, for example, the pressure differential can be created by carrying out pressurization or suction at a predetermined level for a predetermined time, and then analyzing both a pressure value that is reached and its plot. In addition, pressurization can be done to a predetermined pressure differential, and then the plot of the pressure value that is of interest can be observed. As is known from the above-mentioned documents, pressurization can also be accomplished by precharging a pre-chamber to a predetermined pressure and then discharging said chamber into the container or into an enclosure that is formed by a sealable chamber. When checking volume, a volume that is dependent on the volume of the container, either the interior volume of said container itself or its volume differential compared to a testing chamber, can be pressurized by a predetermined quantity of pressure medium, or a predetermined amount of gas can be removed from this volume. The volume of the container is then determined from the resulting pressure. Of course, the values that are measured are compared with nominal values or nominal plots, as is also know from the above-mentioned documents. Storage, as described by the text of claim 7, is preferably undertaken in such a way that, with control at a predetermined time, an analog/digital converter is enabled to convert the sensor output signal, and the then stationary output signal of this analog/digital converter is used as a reference value for the subsequent analysis of the sensor output signal. In this process, either another analog/digital converter can be installed behind the sensor output and the output signal of the latter converter can then be digitally compared to that of the storage unit A/D converter or, preferably, a D/A converter is placed immediately behind the storage A/D converter and thus the stored, re-converted signal is fed as an analog reference signal to an analog comparator unit, to which the output signal of the sensor is also fed directly. In addition, and as described by the text of claim 8, a null balance is preferably undertaken by determining, essentially during the value storage process at the comparator, whether an output signal of the device encompasses the null value, at least approximately; if a signal appears that deviates from the null value or from a predetermined minimum value, then said signal is used as a null-balance signal. Preferred embodiments of the device of the invention are specified in claims 12-18. The invention is hereinafter explained by way of examples, using figures. Here: FIG. 1 shows a schematic of an arrangement of the invention, in which the pressurization source and suction source are connected to the environment of the container; FIG. 2 shows a schematic, as per FIG. 1, of a section of the system as shown in FIG. 1, in another embodiment; FIG. 3 similar to FIG. 2, shows the section of a third embodiment; FIG. 4 similar to FIG. 2, shows the section of another preferred embodiment; FIG. 5 shows a functional block diagram of a preferred arrangement as described by the invention for implementing a test method of the invention; FIG. 6 provides a purely schematic illustration of the plot of a measurement curve. As mentioned, FIG. 1 schematically depicts a closed container 1 that is to be checked for leaks or to determine its volume; said container may, for example, be already filled and be in a testing chamber 3. Chamber 3 can be sealed by means of, for example, insert cover 5. Via a controlled valve 7, the test volume, here the volume differential between chamber 3 and container 1, is pressurized by means of a suction or pressure source 9 in such a way that a pressure gradient is created across the walls of container 1. In this embodiment, source 9 empties into chamber 3. At or in chamber 3 is another relative-pressure sensor 11, which converts the input-side pressure value into an electrical output signal. Via a storage control circuit, as indicated in the schematic by S, electrical output signal e1 from sensor 11 is stored in a storage unit 13 in response to a control signal s that is emitted by a time control unit (not shown). Output signal e1o from storage unit 13 is fed to a comparator unit 15 as a pressure reference value. Output signal e1 of sensor 11 is present directly at said comparator unit's second input. After reference value e1o is stored, the plot of the pressure in chamber 3 is monitored at comparator unit 15. Let us now first consider leakage testing. If container 1 is sealed and storage has been done in storage unit 13, then sensor output signal e1 will remain at stored value e1o once all differential-induced shape changes in container 1 have subsided. On the output side of comparator 15, a comparison result that at least approximately equals zero indicates that container 1 is sealed. If leaks are present in container 1, after reference value e1o is stored as mentioned signal value e1 will vary depending on the direction of the pressure gradient across the container wall; the higher the rate of variation, the larger the leak. Comparing the output signal of comparator unit 15 with predetermined nominal values (not shown) provides an indication, on the one hand, as to whether a leak is present as well as, on the other, as to how large said leak is. Depending on the containers to be tested, minor leaks may be tolerated. If the leak in container 1 is large, then absolutely no pressure differential will develop across the walls of container 1: the pressures between the interior of the container and its environment will quickly equalize via the leak. Then, however, on the output side of comparator 15 a null signal will appear, i.e., just as in the case of a sealed container, and lead to testing errors. Therefore, as indicated by the dotted lines, preferably after value e1o is stored in storage unit 13, this stored value is compared to a reference value ref at another comparator unit 17. The output signal of other comparator unit 17 indicates whether a large leak is present or not. Either when a predetermined amount of pressure medium is allowed to enter chamber 3 or when a predetermined amount of gas is removed from said chamber, in the case of a large leak the pressure value indicated by reference value ref will not be reached; this will cause the test result at container 1 to be indicated by the output signal of other comparator 17. To test volume, a predetermined amount of pressure medium is fed to chamber 3 or a predetermined amount of gas is removed therefrom. As indicated by dotted lines at ref1, storage unit 13 is used here as a reference-value storage unit in which reference values corresponding to the nominal volumes of containers that are to be tested are prestored. By comparing above-mentioned volume reference values ref, and the pressure value that actually arisen corresponding to e1 in the volume differential in chamber 3 that is dependent on the interior volume of container 1, i.e., from the output signal of comparator unit 15, a determination is made as to whether container 1 has nominal volume or not, or how large the nominal/actual volume differential is. In the case of the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, where the references used in FIG. 1 are used for the same parts, only source 9 empties into chamber 3. Via a sealed closure 19, the input of sensor 11 is connected to the interior of container 1 that is fitted with an opening. The electronic analyzer, which is placed behind sensor 11, is depicted just as in FIG. 1. As In FIG. 2, FIG. 3 shows another variant in which, compared to FIG. 2, the arrangements of source 9 and sensor 11 are switched. In the case of the arrangement shown in FIG. 4, on the one hand source 9 empties into the interior of a container 1 via sealing connection 19 [and on the other] the input of sensor 11 is connected to the interior of container 1. The electronic analyzer shown in FIG. 1, to which sensor 11 is connected, is provided here as well. The embodiment shown in FIG. 1 or FIG. 4 is preferably used. FIG. 5 shows, in the form of a block diagram, a preferred embodiment of analysis unit I that is partially outlined with dotted lines in FIG. 1. In the preferred embodiment, the output signal of sensor 11 is fed to a converter stage 21, which on the input side comprises an analog/digital converter 21a, which is immediately followed by an digital/analog converter 21b. Like the output signal of sensor 11, the output of digital/analog converter 21b is fed to a differential amplifier unit 23 that is of a known design. The output of differential amplifier unit 23, corresponding to comparator unit 15 of FIG. 1, is connected to another amplifier stage 25, whose output is overlaid 28 on the input signal to amplifier 25 via a storage element 27. Converter unit 21 and storage unit 27 are controlled via a timing signal generator 29. This arrangement works as follows: To store value e1o as shown in FIG. 1, from timing signal generator 29 a conversion cycle at converter unit 21 is enabled, at which point signal value e1o appears at the input of differential amplifier unit 23. At essentially the same time, timing signal generator 29 preferably actuates storage unit 27, causing the output signal value of amplifier 25 to be fed back as a null-value-balance signal to the amplifier input. If when value e1o was stored the output signal of amplifier 25 was not equal to zero, then this signal value is used as a null compensation signal via storage unit 27. As indicated in reference to FIG. 1, the detection of major leaks can be done in different ways by, e.g, feeding the output signal value of converter unit 21 to another comparator (not shown), where said output signal value is compared to reference signal value ref as indicated in FIG. 1 or, as indicated by dotted lines at S1, by switching the differential amplifier output, which is otherwise connected to sensor 11, to a reference potential, such as to ground, immediately before or after, and preferably after, storage unit 27 is set, and then on the output side of amplifier unit 25 directly testing the value of e1o to determine whether said value has reached the reference value as per ref of FIG. 1 or not. Unlike what is indicated in the case of the preferred embodiments mentioned above, it is readily possible to omit the second converter stage, namely digital/analog converter 21b, and instead, as indicated at 22b by dotted lines, to provide an analog/digital converter and then subsequently to process both signals, i.e., e1o and e1, digitally. To check volume, either volume reference values are pre-entered at converter unit 21, provided, as indicated by dotted lines at ref1, or another digital storage unit is connected to digital/analog converter 21b directly in order to convert input digital volume reference values into the corresponding analog signals and thus to use the arrangement shown to perform volume measurement as well. The unit that is shown is exceptionally well suited for in-line testing of containers such as in a carrousel conveyor for, e.g., bottles, plastic bottles, etc. In principle, it is also possible, after a predetermined test pressure is reached, to compare the electrical output signal of the sensor to this value or to several pre-entered values; this can be done on, e.g., a computer, where the sensor output is read in. The differential with respect to the set test pressure, i.e., the pressure drop, is determined by computer (compared to a boundary value entered into the computer or to a value that is determined from a reference leak). | 20050111 | 20060321 | 20050602 | 58134.0 | 0 | GARBER, CHARLES D | METHOD FOR TESTING CONTAINERS, USE OF THE METHOD, AND A TESTING DEVICE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,030 | ACCEPTED | E-commerce system and method relating to program objects | A system for distributing and selling program objects. The system has the ability to download a limited functionality program object from one computer system to another, then to allow a user to view and interact but not control that object without first purchasing the object online. Once this purchase is made, an additional program object or code is provided that gives the user control of the initial program object. | 1-26. (canceled) 27. A computer-implemented method for enabling a user to obtain a program object for use in a host application running on a client computer, the client computer coupled to a server computer via a network, the method comprising the steps of: a. at the client computer, outputting a limited functionality object to the user; b. taunting the user to acquire a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; c. allowing the user to select the limited functionality object; d. upon said selection, sending to the server computer a request for a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; e. receiving functional components at the client computer in response to said request for the full functionality object; f. at the client computer, integrating the received functional components with the limited functionality object to create the full functionality object; and g. at the client computer, integrating the full functionality object with the host application. 28. The method of claim 27 further comprising the step of allowing the user to manipulate the full functionality object. 29. The method of claim 27 wherein the step of receiving the full functionality object further comprises receiving a unique full functionality object at the client computer. 30. The method of claim 27 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide identifying data to the server computer. 31. The method of claim 27 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide payment data to the server computer. 32. The method of claim 27 wherein the host application is a computer game. 33. The method of claim 32 wherein the limited functionality object is a weapon. 34. The method of claim 32 wherein the limited functionality object is a character. 35. The method of claim 32 wherein the limited functionality object is a car. 36. A computer-implemented method for enabling a user to obtain a program object for use in a computer game program running on a client computer, the client computer coupled to a server computer via a network, the method comprising the steps of: a. at the client computer, outputting a limited functionality object to the user; b. allowing the user to select the limited functionality object; c. upon said selection, sending to the server computer a request for a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; d. receiving functional components at the client computer in response to said request for the full functionality object; e. at the client computer, integrating the received functional components with the limited functionality object to create the full functionality object; and f. at the client computer, integrating the full functionality object into the computer game program. 37. The method of claim 36 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide payment data to the server computer. 38. The method of claim 37 further comprising the step of allowing the user to manipulate the full functionality object. 39. The method of claim 36 wherein the step of receiving the full functionality object further comprises receiving a unique full functionality object at the client computer. 40. The method of claim 36 wherein the limited functionality object is a weapon. 41. The method of claim 36 wherein the limited functionality object is a character. 42. The method of claim 36 wherein the limited functionality object is a car. 43. The method of claim 36 wherein the limited functionality object is a sound. 44. A computer-implemented method for enabling a user to obtain a program object for use in a host application running on a client computer, the client computer coupled to a server computer via a network, the method comprising the steps of: a. at the client computer, outputting a limited functionality object to the user; b. taunting the user to acquire a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; c. allowing the user to select the limited functionality object; d. upon said selection, sending to the server computer a request for a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; e. receiving the full functionality object at the client computer; and f. integrating the full functionality object in the host application. 45. The method of claim 44 further comprising the step of allowing the user to manipulate the full functionality object. 46. The method of claim 44 wherein the step of receiving the full functionality object further comprises receiving a unique full functionality object at the client computer. 47. The method of claim 44 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide identifying data to the server computer. 48. The method of claim 44 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide payment data to the server computer. 49. The method of claim 44 wherein the host application is a computer game. 50. The method of claim 49 wherein the limited functionality object is a weapon. 51. The method of claim 49 wherein the limited functionality object is a character. 52. The method of claim 49 wherein the limited functionality object is a car. 53. A computer-implemented method for enabling a user to obtain a program object for use in a computer game program running on a client computer, the client computer coupled to a server computer via a network, the method comprising the steps of: a. at the client computer, outputting a limited functionality object to the user; b. allowing the user to select the limited functionality object; c. upon said selection, sending to the server computer a request for a full functionality object corresponding to the limited functionality object; d. receiving the full functionality object at the client computer; e. integrating the full functionality object into the computer game program. 54. The method of claim 53 further comprising the step of enabling the user to provide payment data to the server computer. 55. The method of claim 54 further comprising the step of allowing the user to manipulate the full functionality object. 56. The method of claim 53 wherein the step of receiving the full functionality object further comprises receiving a unique full functionality object at the client computer. 57. The method of claim 53 wherein the limited functionality object is a weapon. 58. The method of claim 53 wherein the limited functionality object is a character. 59. The method of claim 53 wherein the limited functionality object is a car. 60. The method of claim 53 wherein the limited functionality object is a sound. | FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention is directed to a computerised system to distribute computer program objects, and more particularly, to a system that allows users to gain control over certain features of program objects. COPYRIGHT NOTICE A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains material which is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has no objection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent document or patent disclosure as it appears in the Patent and Trademark Office patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In recent years, there has been enormous growth in Internet, especially for distributing software products. Many systems have been devised to allow users to purchase computer programs via the Internet. In some systems, programs are provided free of charge in limited functionality mode, and once a license fee is paid, a code can be entered to allow use of full functionality of that program. Examples of such systems are described in patents such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,291,598 and 5,375,240 to Grundy. Generally, these systems relate to locking and unlocking specific functionality in a computer program. It is also known to transmit computer games electronically to users via a network. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,944,608 to Reed et al. In programs such as computer games, users like to select and use various components, such as characters, weapons, and missions. There does not exist a system that provides users with additional objects for use in a program that they currently own and are running, where such objects automatically are displayed to the user in the program, but where the objects cannot be controlled by the user until the user decides to acquire them. Accordingly, there does not exist a system that in real-time, and without user intervention, provides an additional component with limited functionality for an existing computer program, and then easily allows users to obtain a corresponding full functionality component. There is a need for a system that automatically provides the user with additional limited functionality objects for an existing program of the user, and that “taunts” the user with these objects thus increasing the likelihood that the user will purchase the corresponding full function object. Moreover, existing technology requires users to shutdown and start a program when there is a change from limited functionality to full functionality. This is undesirable, particularly in multiplayer games. Existing online selling systems for software may provide users with a limited functionality program, where the additional features are hidden from the user, completely disabled or only work for a limited period of time. Thus, the user is not given a full opportunity to be exposed to the complete aspects of the program. Moreover, these systems are directed to selling complete application programs, and not individual features (or objects) for use in programs that a user already owns. These systems also do not provide additional features to be included in an application program for a user to consider and that are created after creation of the application program. It is also important to balance the need for efficiently converting an object from limited functionality to full functionality (for example, in terms of download size, ease of use) with the need for a secure system to prevent piracy. Many people like collecting unique objects. Computer programs often replicate real world domains of interest to collectors and hobbyists, such as model train, model car and roller-coaster environments. When a user purchases such a program, there are a limited number of objects (e.g., train engines and cars) provided with the program for use therein. In some cases, users can design and build their own objects from parts that are provided. However, many collectors would like the ability to customize and purchase unique objects for use in such programs, and trade these objects with other collectors using the same program. There does not exist a computer system that allows for the creation of unique program objects for use in existing computer programs, particularly where such program objects can be used and traded by collectors and other interested people. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a computer-implemented system to allow the downloading of objects to be used in an application program. The objects are downloaded from a server to a user's local or client computer. The server runs a server program which accesses one or more databases. The application program is running on the client computer. The system of the present invention is called herein an e-commerce system (“AES”). For ease of reference, the server is called the AES server system, which comprises AES server software and one or more databases. The application program according to the present invention is called herein an AES enabled client application, or host application for short. The host application can be any computer program that has been enabled to work with the AES system of the present invention. The host application, when AES enabled, includes an AES client, which is also a computer program. The objects of the present invention are typically programming objects that perform a pre-specified function when running on the client computer in conjunction with the host application. According to the present invention, there are two types of objects, namely full functionality objects (“FFO”) and limited functionality objects (“LFO”). A LFO is an object that can be used by the host application but subject to certain restrictions. The FFO is an object without these restrictions. However, both the LFO and FFO will still have certain restrictions and constraints, as appropriate, determined (for example) by the AES system operator. When a user is using the host application, the user may wish to purchase or otherwise acquire a FFO. The user may have a LFO, and wish to purchase or otherwise obtain the corresponding FFO. Alternatively, the user may be aware of the FFO and wish to purchase or obtain it outright. The AES client, in conjunction with the AES server system, can initiate the appropriate process to enable the user to do so. After the downloading required material, the FFO can be used by the host application. An example application of the present invention can be explained as follows. Assume that the host application is an entertainment computer program that allows users to build virtual model train layouts, and to collect and organise virtual model train engines and carriages. When the AES client is coupled to the Internet, it may automatically download from the AES server system a newly designed train engine. This train engine will be downloaded as a LFO, and made available to the user via the host application as part of the user's model train collection. However, being a LFO, the user may be allowed to use the train engine in the AES client but without carriages. If the user wishes to connect carriages, the user will need to obtain the corresponding FFO. As another example, assume that the host application is a program that allows users to drive and race cars. The system operator may make available a series of 1950's collectable cars, with 50 in the set. A user can visit the system operator's website and select the kind of car that they wish to use. Assume that the user selects “Cadillac”. The user is then given the option by the AES server system to choose other details about the car. For example, the user may be allowed to select the State of registration (which will appear on the license plate), the color of the car and type of wheels. In other words, the user can customise the virtual car. Here, in this example, the car is represented as a FFO. (Alternatively, the car could be a LFO if some functionality is withheld until the user decides to acquire the corresponding FFO.) The AES server system will add a further element of uniqueness to each car prior to or during the download phase of the FFO. For example, the AES server system can select the actual license plate numbers and letters for the State selected by the user, e.g., ABC 123. Accordingly, the AES server system can be configured to ensure that each LFO and FFO is unique, and can keep a record of which user obtains this unique car. After downloading of the FFO, the user can display and drive the car in the host application. (If the user acquired a LFO car, the user may be able to view the car, but not drive. The LFO car may also race against the user, using AI technology.) To summarise the above example, in one embodiment of the present invention, there can be three levels of customisation. The first level is the choice of the base product, typically made by the user. The second level is the user selecting and customising features of the product. The third level is the AES server system customising other features, thus creating (if desirable) a unique product. As will be apparent, if unique products are created, then they will be regarded by users as collectables. Many users will value this uniqueness. The present invention allows users to trade and transfer LFOs and FFOs, such as the train engines and cars in the above example. The AES server system can keep track of ownership of objects (LFOs and FFOs), and provide information to users to assist them determining whether they are acquiring a genuine object. Thus, the AES server system can be queried to determine the authenticity of a product (e.g., LFO and FFO). The AES server system can also operate a trading and/or auction website to allow users to purchase new products and to trade products that they have previously purchased. The AES server software can, at the third level of customisation discussed above, keep control over which individual products are actually released. This enables the creation of special unique products. For example, in the car example discussed above, the system operator could decide not to generally release the black open top Cadillac in which President Kennedy was assassinated. This car, made to be identical to that in the real event, such as including license plates and engine numbers, could be auctioned by the system operator via the AES server system (or on another website) to the most interested user. Other famous cars, such as those used in movies, famous events, first in a series, etc., could be released in a similar way. Accordingly, the AES server system can catalog each downloaded object, and keep a record of the product, how it is unique and who it was provided to. The ability to alter a set product in some way, by inserting data into it, or appending data to it, just prior to or as part of the download is an feature of the representative embodiment of the present invention. There are some times, however, where there is less customisation, and all that may be added is a product serial number to assist prevention of piracy. For example, in a traditional combat computer game (host application), the AES server system may make available in the game a character (LFO). The character interacts with the user's character, for example, by shooting at the user's character with a new type of weapon and can run much faster than existing available characters. However, the user cannot control that new character. In short, because the new character is a LFO, the user can interact with it but not control it. If the user wishes to control that character, the user must obtain the FFO version of the character. With the FFO version, the user can select that character (including the associated attributes) for the user to control in the game. In one aspect, the representative embodiment of the present invention has the ability to display program objects (e.g., LFO) of any description to a user, and has the capability to allow the user to ultimately gain control of the program object (e.g., FFO). As will be apparent, the present invention is not limited to the objects discussed above (train engines, cars, characters in computer games). There are many other examples, such as dogs, cats, and aeroplanes. Project objects can include art, sound, text, program code or other forms of computerised objects. The host application can include fantasy and futuristic games. Taking art as an example, the host application may be an art gallery program. The LFO could be a new wing of the art gallery, which comprises low resolution quality images. The FFO would be the same wing added to the gallery with high quality images and descriptions. In a fantasy game, the objects can be an entire mission, a character, a place or a tool. A summary of a sample session using a representative embodiment of the AES of the present invention is now discussed. Example steps include: Step 1: The user visits a website and views available products. The user selects a product, in this case a host application which is a computer game. Step 2: User enters in credit card details, or provides user name and password if user has made prior purchase. Step 3: Credit card information verified. Step 4: User provided with transaction code, and download of product begins. Step 5: Host application installed on client computer, and user plays game. Step 6: While playing game, and provided client computer is coupled to the Internet, AES server system downloads a small program object (LFO) to the client computer. Once download is complete, the object would be displayed to the user in a limited way. Step 7: User sees object in the product, and likes it. User clicks on the object to buy it. Step 8: Using credit card details provided at step 2, payment is validated. AES server system electronically provides user with corresponding FFO. Step 9: The user can use the object without having to restart the game. In one aspect, the AES client taunts the user. It provides the user a new object in a limited way and then enables the user to easily purchase the full functionality of the object. The above description assumes an Internet connection. However, LFOs can be provided on disk, such as CD-ROM. As will become apparent below, the present invention is not so limited to the representative embodiments discussed above, and has many uses outside of games and collectables. As discussed in detail below, the present invention is not so limited, and can be used with a wide variety of client software, including educational programs, reference programs and the like. Generally, the present invention relates to the distribution and integration of computer generated or encoded objects, be they art, sound, music, text, non-physical objects such as environmental variables or artificial intelligence parameters, program source code, program pseudo code, program compiled code or any other computerized objects. In summary, in one embodiment, the present invention has the ability to download a limited functionality program object from one computer system to another, then to allow a user to view and interact but not control that object without first purchasing the object online. Once this purchase is made, an additional program object is provided that gives the user control of the initial program object. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a high level block diagram illustrating the representative hardware and software components of a representative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is flow chart of the steps of the AES client enabled host application operation of a representative embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow chart representing the AES server-side object request operation according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flowchart representing the AES server-side full object purchase operation according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to the drawings, and initially FIG. 1, there is illustrated in block diagram form the representative hardware and software elements and configuration of the AES-based system according to a representative embodiment of the present invention. The representative embodiment of the present invention uses a client-server model to facilitate communications between a user's machine (the client) 14 and the AES server (the server) 2. Client-server architecture is well known in the art and is suited to the functions of the present invention, for example, filling client requests for program objects. An overview of an appropriate hardware configuration for both the client and server is described. Using this configuration, the representative embodiment of the invention can be employed. The client computer 14 runs a host application 19 and an AES client 18. Due to the nature of the software of the present invention, the underlying hardware is not vital for the purposes of the invention. The server 2 can be constructed using any hardware so long as: the server 2 is a computer; the underlying hardware can execute the server software 4; and the server 2 is connected to the Internet 8 or other computer network through some type of gateway 6. Preferably, the connection to the Internet 8 is a permanent connection. The client computer 14 most commonly consists of a personal computer. Similar to the server, the exact selection of hardware is not vital, and indeed the AES client 18 is written to take advantage of new hardware platforms (such as handheld devices) as they become available. For the purposes of the representative embodiment, the client computer 14 is a PC with a modem 16. The modem 16 allows the client computer 14 to be coupled to the Internet 8. The client computer 14 is capable of executing AES enabled software, such as the host application 19 of the representative embodiment. In the representative embodiment, the client computer 14 is used by a typical user to access the Internet and view WebPages or other content, play games and run other application programs. The client computer 14, such as a multimedia personal computer (MPC), comprises a processor (not shown), such as an Intel Pentium processor, RAM (not shown) and a hard disk drive and hard disk (not shown). Although the processor can be any computer processing device, the representative embodiment of the present invention will be described herein assuming that the processor is an Intel Pentium processor or higher. The hard disk of the client computer 14 stores an operating system, such as the Microsoft Windows 98 or Windows NT operating system, which is executed by the processor. The present invention is not limited to the Windows operating system, and with suitable adaptation, can be used with other operating systems. For ease of explanation, the representative embodiment as described herein assumes the Windows 98 operating system. Application program computer code, such as the AES client 18 and host application 19, is stored on a disk that can be read and executed by the processor. In the representative embodiment, the user's computer 14 will have a web browser program (such as, for example, Microsoft Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator). As stated above, the client computer 14 is coupled to the Internet 8. Typically, the computer 14 will be coupled to the Internet 8 via a modem 16. Coupled to the client computer 14 are one or more input devices 20, such as a keyboard, mouse, joystick, trackball, microphone, scanner, and the like. Also coupled to the client computer 14 are one or more output devices 22, such as a monitor, sound speakers, printer, and the like. In the representative embodiment of the present invention, users, through the client software 18 and host application 19, request objects from the server system 2. This procedure requires specialized software running on both the client 14 and server 2. These software processes are described below. As discussed above, the user's client computer 14 is coupled to the Internet 8. Also coupled to the Internet is the server system 2 operated by a system operator. The system operator ideally has a website controlled by the server system 2. The server system 2 runs the server software 4 (implementing, in part, functions of the present invention) and a number of databases 10, 12, 13 (discussed in detail below). The databases 10, 12, 13 can be implemented using a database program. For example, the Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle database programs can be used to implement these databases. This document describes three databases, but as is known in the art, these databases can be combined or spilt, as required. Generally, the server system 2 has four components: 1 the AES specialized server software 4; 2 the object database 10; 3 the user database 12; and 4 the sales database 13. The first of these server components, the server software 4, is described in the AES enabled server section. The three databases (object 10, user 12 and sales 13) are described below. Object Database 10 In the server software 4, objects requested by the user are created and sent to the user on a just-in-time basis. As each base object can, optionally, be modified in many ways, storing all possible user requested objects is inefficient (if possible at all). Due to the number of possible combinations, the Object database 10 stores object templates. As the name implies, object templates are not complete objects themselves. They are used by the server software 4 as a foundation from which to build the requested object. Object templates are different for each type of object but all share a number of common properties. A typical template: 1 contains a pre-packaged limited functionality object of the given type; 2 can be used to create a fully functional object of that type; 3 contains the rule-set for allowed user customization; 4 contains the rule-set for automated server system 2 customization; and 5 may contain specific disallowed or reserved object configurations. The limited functionality object (LFO) is an object that can be used by a host application 19. There are however, restrictions placed on the object unlike standard objects (fully function objects—see below). These restrictions are imposed by the AES server 2 not sending certain functional object components. The host application 19 uses the LFO to allow restricted interaction and experience of the complete object. Each object template in the Object database 10 also can contain the complete set of functional components of a full functionality object (FFO) of its type. In the representative embodiment of the invention, there are two possible methods an AES client 18 can use to obtain a fully functional object. If an LFO of the same type has previously been downloaded, the server software 4 only requests the missing functional components (i.e. the data and/or logic in the FFO that is not in the LFO). Briefly, the Object database 10 then obtains the appropriate components from the template's FFO and returns only those components, not the entire FFO, to the server software 4. This greatly reduces the size of the required data transfer to the client 18. If no LFO of the requested type has been downloaded, the Object database 10 retrieves all the FFO's data and logic. The server software 4 then sends the entire FFO to the client 18. The server software 4 allows users to customize objects before they are downloaded. Not all aspects of an object are necessarily customizable. Object templates in the Object database 10 can contain a set of rules (a rule-set) that the server software 4 uses to determine the object's valid customizations. Using a simple example of a car, the user customization rule-set may allow the user to determine the car's color, trimming and accessories. In addition to the user, the server software 4 can also customize an object. Object templates can contain a rule-set listing the customizations the server software 4 may make before sending the object to the AES client 18. This automated customization allows AES objects to be uniquely identified. Each object can, for example, be encoded with an identification number. This number can then be used for copy protection and/or user registration (see below) depending on how the server software 4 and/or Object database 10 are configured. Another component of each object template can be a rule-set containing reserved or invalid customizations. The server software 4 checks this rule-set to verify that the customizations from both itself and the user are valid. As the server software 4 checks for reserved customizations, the server software 4 can maintain higher degrees of control over object creation. If a car example is examined, a certain number plate combination, for instance ‘ABC-123’, may be reserved for a specific situation or even a particular user. User Database 12 When an FFO is downloaded by an AES client 18, it may be registered to the user. The user's information should be made available to the AES server 2. The User Database 12 stores pertinent user information. Some of this information may be required to perform transactions while other information is used for appropriate marketing and object distribution selection. Information held in the database can include entries such as the user's: 1 full name; 2 postal address; 3 phone number; 4 credit card details; 5 email address; and 6 areas of interest (e.g. model trains, cars, sports, World War II, fantasy and science fiction) To obtain the information, the present invention can use several methods. In the representative embodiment, the information is sought, with consent, from the user during the installation of host application 19. The user may opt however, to provide the information each time they contact the server 2, to enter the information via a WebPages submission or use another data-entry service. Sales Database 13 The Sales Database 13 contains the transactions that have been processed using the server software 2. By storing this information, the Sales Database 13 decreases computer piracy and acts as an object ownership registry. Each sale record in the database 13 can store the following information: 1 a reference to the purchasing user; 2 a reference to the object template used; 3 modifications the user made to the object template; 4 modifications the AES server made to the object template; 5 the unique object identifier assigned to the object after all modifications were made; and 6 the transaction information (date, time, cost, etc.). As Internet access becomes more common throughout the world, the Sales Database 13 will become more effective against computer piracy. As each unique object sent to a user is identifiable, the server software 4 can detect when multiple copies of the object are simultaneously used online. Once-multiple copies are detected, appropriate action can be taken. This type of detection system should hinder and deter computer piracy of AES objects of the present invention. Another advantage of storing extensive transaction records is that an object's ownership can be verified. The server system 2 is similar in this respect to a title register, for example, for land. Before a land purchase, a purchaser verifies the vendor actually owns the land. In much the same way, the AES server 2 assists users transfer their objects to others. The server software 4 can verify the ownership of an object (without releasing user information) and assign the ownership of the object to another user. The object can be transfer to the new owner directly, or via the AES server 2. Client Software Configuration To use the features of the present invention, the user obtains and installs a host application 19. The host application is a computer program (such as, for example, a computer game) that is enabled for use as a client application by the present invention. The host application 19 includes, or is coupled to, the AES client 18. Once the host application is executed, the host application 19 enables the AES client 18. When the AES client 18 is executed, it attempts to contact an AES server 2. As will be appreciated, there can be more than one client computer 14, and more than one server system 2 that communicate. If the AES server 2 is found and an object, either an LFO or FFO, is downloaded, the host application 19 renders that new object using appropriate mediums such as video and sound. In addition to merely rendering the new object, the object is integrated into the host application 19 during the normal execution—the user does not have to issue any specific commands; Detailed procedural features of the host application 19 are described below in AES enabled client application operation. Procedures AES Enabled Client (Host) Application 19 Operation FIG. 2 illustrates the normal operation of an AES client 18. The AES client software 18 is executed from within an AES enabled application, called the host application 19 herein, as a low priority process. While the host application 19 is still running, the AES client 18 follows the stages outlined in FIG. 2 as a background task. The AES client's 18 first requirement is that its host application 19 is running 111. This normally requires the user to execute a program on their PC 14 either using a typed command or clicking an icon. The host application 19 can also be executed, for example, by simply switching on a handheld device or from within an already running program on the user's PC 14 such as a web-browser. Once the host application 19 is running, the AES client 18 commences its operations as a background task. As the AES is an Internet-based technology, the client 18 first checks for Internet connectivity 112. There are numerous ways to verify an Internet connection familiar to those skilled in the art. Each AES client 18 uses a means appropriate to its operating platform. As will be appreciated, other computer networks can be used in addition to or instead of the Internet. If no Internet connection is found, the client 18 ceases operation for a set period of time 113. The client 18 instructs the host application 19 to restart it after that time period has elapsed 114. The AES client 18 contacts the AES server 2 if Internet connectivity is detected 115. As the present invention was designed to allow new objects to be integrated into a running program, the AES client 18 seeks new objects from the AES server 2 while the host application 19 continues to execute. The client 18 contacts the server software 4 and requests new objects 115. Before downloading a new object, the client 14 and server 2 establish communications to determine which, if any, objects are appropriate for the client 116—this is explained below in AES server-side object request operation section. The client 18 checks the outcome of the communications with the server 2. The client 18 firstly determines if a new object was downloaded 117. If not, the return code (or error code) from the server software 4 is checked. That code allows the client 18 to test whether there were new objects 118. If no new objects were found, the client 18 ceases operation and restarts after a given period 113, 114. If testing the return code determines there were new objects but the download failed, the client 18 re-establishes communications with the server software 4 and attempt the operation again 118. After determining that a new object was downloaded 117, the client 18 integrates the object into the running host application 19. The host application 19 has the appropriate components to use the object as a local resource. To render the object to an output device, the client 18 informs the host application 19 of the object's existence 119. As the new object conforms to the application's object standard (i.e. it is in a format readable to the application), the application 19 integrates the object into its running program similar to loading a Dynamic Link Library (DLL). The host application 19 instantiates the new object based on the data received from the AES client 18. After instantiation, the object is available to render, for example, on-screen or to a sound device. As previously explained, the object has all the appropriate code and assets (e.g. 3D models and textures) the host application 18 requires. The host application 19 treats the new object as a standard program object that has a number of functions and properties. By being able to download and integrate new objects into an executing program, the present invention allows users to receive program additions and expansions with ease. As the background download is usually an LFO, the object is partially disabled. To obtain full functionality, the user may choose to download the FFO. Using a command within the host application 19, the user may request the AES client 18 to obtain the object's missing functional components 120. Once the command is received by the client 18, the AES server 2 is again contacted 121. The required processing for this section is explained below in AES server-side full object purchase operation. Depending on the user's decisions during the FFO request (see below), a new FFO may be available to the host application 19. The AES client 18 checks whether an FFO was downloaded 122. If there was a failure during the download, the client 18 returns to its normal operation 115. However, if an FFO was downloaded, the client 18 prepares the new object for integration into the host application 19. As the AES client 18 has determined a new FFO exists on the local system 14, it has the host integrate the object into the application 123. After the host application 19 integrates the FFO into the program, the user can control and interact with the object in its fully functional form 124. The AES client's processing is complete for that object. The client 18 now resumes its background operations 115. AES Server-Side Object Request Operation FIG. 3 represents the sequence of events the AES server 2 and server software 4 take when an AES client 18 requests an LFO. The following description also includes the communications and processing for the AES client 18. The present invention uses a client-server architecture whereby AES clients 18 initiate communications with the server 2. As such, the LFO request commences with an incoming request from a client 125. The server 2 accepts connections on a known port (i.e. the client 18 knows which port on the server machine to contact). This is a standard client-server configuration widely used. LFOs are used to enable the user to preview and interact with new objects as they become available. As older objects have already been considered by the user, the server 2 determines which objects the client 18 already has 126. This is completed by, in effect, obtaining information from the host application 19. The server software 4 requests a list of previously obtained objects from the AES client 18. The client 18 then requests that list from the host application 19. The client 18 sends the obtained list back to the server software 4. The lists contains the LFOs and FFOs present in the host application 19. The server 2 makes a temporary copy of the client object list 127. Using the client object list 127, the server software 4 determines which objects to send to the client 18. This requires two processes. Using standard database retrieval techniques, the server software 4 queries the Object Database 10. To achieve appropriate results, the server software 4 uses the client's object list and application type. Thus, by narrowing the query, the Object Database 10 only returns those objects the client 18 does not have for the appropriate host application 19. The server software 4 now has a list of valid objects that it can send to the client 18. Due to bandwidth considerations, the present invention is configured to send only one object at a time. As broadband Internet access increases, the present invention is easily configurable to allow for simultaneous LFO downloads. In this embodiment however, only one LFO at a time is sent to the client 18. If no objects were returned 130 from the Object Database 128, the server 2 transmits a search failure to the client and the process terminates 131. If multiple objects were returned, the server must choose one LFO to send to the client. Where there are a number of new objects that the client 18 does not have, the server 2 must decide which to send. In so deciding, the server software 4 has two options. Firstly, the server software 4 can simply pick an object at random. This is the simplest option and should ensure an even spread of object distribution. A more complex, but more user orientated, method is to examine user preferences. This option requires extra processing and data storage and is not detailed in this embodiment but is a possible extension of the invention. In the representative embodiment (as illustrated in FIG. 3), the server randomly selects an object 132. After selecting which object to send, the LFO is extracted from the Object Database 10. The server then transfers the LFO to the client 18 (step 132A). The final process the server software 4 completes is to check that the LFO transmits successfully 133. If the client download is successful, the process terminates successfully 135. If there is an error during transmission of the LFO, the process terminates with a download failure 134. The LFO transmission could be retried but as the LFOs are simply for preview purposes, the process can simply start again (see FIG. 1). AES Server-Side Full Object Purchase Operation FIG. 4 illustrates the procedure the AES server software 4 follows when the user, through AES client 18, requests an FFO. This section details the stages of obtaining user and object details, producing the required FFO and the subsequent delivery and charging to the user. The AES server 2 responds to incoming requests on a known communications port. When the user executes the appropriate command in the host application 19, the AES client 18 contacts the AES server 2. The AES client 18 sends a request for an FFO to the AES server's known communication port. At this point, item 136 is entered. The first phase the server software 4 enters is verification of whether the user's information is available 137. This is accomplished by querying the User Database 12. If the user has not previously stored their information, the server 2 instructs the client to get the information from the user 138. To obtain the user information required, including credit card details, the AES client 18 prompts its host application 19. The application 19 uses appropriate input means to obtain the information from the user. The user is also asked if they want their information stored on the AES server 2 (in the User Database 12) for later use. The application 19 passes this information back to the AES client 18. The client 18 then sends the information to the server 2. The server software 4 now has access to the user information. The server software 4 checks whether the user wants that information stored 139. If so, the data is submitted 142 to the User Database 12. When the User Database 12 was first queried 137, it may have found the user's information. If so, the information is extracted from the User Database 12 and stored temporarily 143. The server software 4 now has the user's information temporarily stored and ready for the proposed transaction. The server software 4 verifies the user's credit card details 145. There are numerous ways of accomplishing this task. The method chosen by the server depends on a number of factors: for example the type of credit card, the country the user is from and the cost of the FFO. The server chooses an appropriate method and validate the user's credit card details. It does not however, charge the credit card at this point. If the details are invalid, the user is prompted via the host application 18 to update them 138. Once the credit card details are confirmed, the server software 4 begins customizing the template object (see the customization sections) 146, 147. The server software 4 allows changes from the user and be able to change the object itself. Not all aspects of each object can be modified by the user. Each object template has a rule-set specifying which characteristics can be modified by the user. The server software 4 extracts these characteristics and instructs the AES client 18 to prompt the user, using the host application 19, for appropriate responses to each characteristic. The AES client 18 then sends the user's choices to the server 2. Upon receiving the data, the server 2 applies those changes to the object. To adapt a template object, a series of operations are performed (see AES enabled server). After applying the changes, the object is prepared for transmission to the client 14. To ensure each object's uniqueness, a transaction code is generated 148. The code can be used only once as it uniquely identifies the new object's specifications. The transaction code is sent to the user so a download can be restarted in the case of failure 150. The customized object is sent to the AES client 18 (step 149). It contains the object in its fully functional form and includes all the required functional object components. Thus, the new object is an FFO. To complete the transaction, the FFO is sent to the client 18. After the transmission is complete, the AES client 18 integrates the FFO into the host application 19 as illustrated in FIG. 2. Due to the nature of the Internet, download problems may occur. If the client 18 did not completely receive the object 151 the server must determine why. There are two possibilities. The user may have cancelled the operation by issuing a cancel command in the host application 152. If so, the server 2 should destroy the customized object and void the transaction code so it cannot be used again 153. The server 4 then terminates the process and signals to the client 18 that the download failed 154. If however, the user did not cancel the download (i.e. there was some type of input/output error), the user is asked to restart the download by entering the transaction code 150. Upon receiving the transaction code, the server software 4 attempts to send the customized object again 149. If the object is successfully downloaded 151 the server software 4 ensures no further downloads of the same object occur. As each transaction is uniquely identified by its transaction code, the code is voided 155. To allow for greater copy protection and the server software 4 to act as an ownership verification system, the sales details are stored 156 in the Sales Database 13. The details saved include the user information and the transaction code. The final requirement the server software 4 fulfils is, optionally, charging the user's credit card 158. There are currently a large number of ways to accomplish this task. In the representative embodiment, the server software 4 is constructed in such a way as to make use of the most efficient method in its configuration. As the object has been successfully downloaded and the credit card has been charged, the server software 4 terminates the connection with the client 18 with a success code 159. The server software 4 then terminates the transaction process. Technology Requirements Software Requirements AES Enabled Server The AES Server 2 uses server-side software 4 that is responsible for fulfilling the following functions: (a) transmit limited functionality objects to a remote client, e.g., 14; (b) enable the creation of unique objects for online purchase; (c) accept user customization of said objects; (d) perform automated server customization of same objects; (e) produce unique identifiers for each unique object and attach that identifier to the object and purchasing user via the Sales Database 13; and (f) restrict the online use of a unique object to the registered user. Taking software used for a car collector, the application is able to perform the following. Assume there is a template object for a standard sedan. The template's rule-set allows the user to specify the color, pinstripes and interior type. The server rule-set requires the server to choose the number plate sequence and chassis number. The server software 4 prompts, via the AES client 18 and ultimately the host application 19, the user for his/her choices. The user selects metallic blue paint, silver pinstripes and a leather interior. The server uses a pre-determined list or algorithm and calculates a unique number plate sequence (e.g. ‘W23-176’) and chassis number (e.g. ‘CMBSL-6179’). The final addition to the new object is a unique internal identifier. The object template's reserved configuration rule-set is then checked by the server. If the user and server customizations are not reserved, they are applied to the object template's base object to construct a new object. This new object is created by taking the components of the base object and modifying and/or adding to them. These modifications result in a new set of components being generated—the new object. Subsequent to a successful transmission of the object to the user, the object is registered. The internal identifier is used to register the object to the creator (or user). The server software 4 stores the object identifier, customization information and a reference to the registered user in the Sales Database 13. The server software 4 can then use the database 13 to verify that objects are only being used by the correct user. In this illustration, a new blue car object was created by the server software 4. The object was not extracted from a database as a whole. It was created by taking a base object (that was found in the object database 10) and modifying it on demand. By not having to store each variation of an object in a database, AES servers requires comparatively small amounts of storage. AES Enabled Client Application In the representative embodiment of this invention, the host application 19: (a) queries the AES server over an established Internet connection to determine whether new objects are available for this application; (b) dynamically downloads new limited functionality objects; (c) renders (via video, audio and similar media) limited functionality objects within the application's context; (d) provides mechanisms whereby users may purchase full functionality objects without exiting the application; and (e) renders (via video, audio and similar media) and allows full user interaction with full functionality objects. To illustrate the application's required functionality, it is advantageous to consider a simple example. A user has previously installed an AES enabled car racing program 19. They are currently connected to the internet and begin execution of the car-racing program. While the user is racing, the AES client software 18 contacts the AES server 2. An LFO of a new car is downloaded. The car is then placed into the game, perhaps the next time the user starts a race. Now the user can see the new car and can even race against it. The user cannot, however, drive the car. The AES client 18 has integrated a new game object (the new car) into the game-play without needing to restart. To gain full control of the new car, the user must obtain the extra functional components. From a user's perspective, this is a simple procedure accessed via an integrated command in the application 19. In this example, the user might simply right click on the car and select “Buy” from the context menu. The AES client 18 contacts the AES server 2 requesting the FFO of the new car. If user details or customizations are required, the application 19 provides appropriate input dialogs. That information is transferred to the server software 4 for customization of the car. After the server software 4 has created the new car, the AES client 18 receives the fully functional car and integrates it into the application 19. The user can now gain full control of the car. Data Structures ‘Object’ Definition An ‘object’, as described in these pages, refers to a combination of computer data and/or logic that encapsulates or simulates the realization and/or functionality of a real or imaginary object. The term ‘data’ includes program code, text, art assets such as 3D models and textures, sounds, music and any other computer generated or encoded material that is used to realize the object. Should the object contain ‘logic’, the term ‘logic’ describes the computer code that an application uses to convey and interpret user and computer interaction with the object. ‘Functionality’ means the manner in which an object can be utilized by an application. Limitations can be applied to the type of interaction including what can be done with or to the object, the length of time the object can be used and which applications can use the object. Thus, an object's functionality parameterizes the use of a particular object. Examples of objects are simulations of physical objects such as rocks, machines and animals. The system of the present invention can also handle simulated objects which have no physical appearance such as sounds, music, environmental variables and artificial intelligence modules. Full Functionality Objects The present invention can use objects of varying functionality. A full functionality object (FFO) defines an object that contains its entire program code and assets. It is a complete object that has all its requisite object data and/or logic. The integration of an FFO (or LFO) into a host application 19 can vary depending on which local resources already exist. Where the user has specified to download a completely new FFO, integration involves two stages. The AES client 18 requests and receives the FFO from the server 2. The FFO is integrated into the host application 19 by informing the host application 19 of the presence of the new object. The host application 19 uses the information about the new object, provided by the AES client 18, and instantiates the new FFO. The host application uses the same instantiation technique that is used to instantiate pre-existing objects. One of the present inventions powerful abilities is being able to combine new and previously existing data and/or logic to create an FFO. Prior to acquiring an FFO, the user has often downloaded the equivalent LFO. The present invention therefore, can use the pre-existing LFO to create the requested FFO. As an LFO is a sub-set of the requested FFO (see below), much of the LFO data and/or logic can be reused to form the FFO. The AES client 18 can detect which parts of the FFO need to be obtained from the AES server 2 and which are already present in the LFO. The AES client 18 requests the appropriate parts of the FFO from the AES server 2. In response to the request, the AES server 2 obtains the appropriate components from its databases and transmits only those requested components—not the entire FFO. Upon receipt of the missing data and/or logic from the AES server 2, the AES client 18 assembles the appropriate components from both the LFO and the server software 4. The client 18 combines the data and/or logic and assembles an FFO. It then informs the host application 19 of the new object's existence. The assembly of the FFO varies depending on the type of object and the degree of difference between the LFO and FFO. To illustrate the difference in possible data and/or logic combinations, consider the following examples. Assume there is a host application 19 that allows the user to peruse and drive vintage planes. As the user is examining their planes, the AES client 18 downloads a newly modeled vintage fighter plane. The user can then select the plane and display the plane on screen. To render the plane on screen the LFO must have data such as a 3D model, appropriate textures and animations and possibly data about famous missions the plane flew. The plane however, needs no logic. The application 19 does not need to be able to make the plane fly realistically as it is an LFO; it is limited to being displayed. If the user requests the FFO, so they can fly the plane, the only extra information the application needs is the plane's flight information. The AES client 18 need only request the plane's flight logic from the AES server 2. The flight logic would be a small file and would be quickly downloaded. The AES client 18 can add the flight logic to the plane's LFO resources and instruct the host application 19 that a new, full functionality object is available. The application 19 can now re-instantiate the plane, with the flight logic, and the user can fly the plane. In the above example, only a small addition was required to create the FFO. By simply adding logic to the LFO, an FFO was available to the host application. Below, an example requiring data, rather than logic, for an FFO is illustrated. A music clip contains a number of elements. The main element of a digital music object is the data which represents the actual song. A user may download a clip of a song (and LFO) to evaluate the song before requesting the full version. Using the AES client software 18, the section of the song already downloaded in the clip can be used to create the full song (the FFO). The user does not have to download the entire full version of the song. The data from the LFO is extracted and combined with the missing data from the AES server 2 to form the FFO. The user can then listen to the full version of the song. The example of the music samples versus full versions, demonstrates where the logic of an LFO is already valid for the FFO creation but extra data is required. The following example illustrates a situation involving the need for data and logic to be obtained from the AES server. If a new unit for a game is developed and a user requests an AES enabled application 19 to download the FFO a combination of logic and data is required. The unit's LFO includes a number of assets such as its 3D model, animations, textures and sounds. Logical elements have also been included to allow the application to display and control the unit. This logic and data can be used in the assembly of the unit FFO. The AES client 18 requests the missing logic and data for the FFO. Using a mixture of the previous two examples, the client 18 firstly adds the logic elements to those contained in the LFO. This allows the user to control the new unit. Secondly, missing data elements are requested. This may include extra animations or customized textures to apply to the unit. Again, the data is added to that from the LFO. Thus, using the logic from the LFO and the AES server and the data from the LFO and the AES server, the AES client 18 has constructed a new FFO. The client then integrates the FFO into the host application 19 from which the new object is instantiated. Limited Functionality Objects A limited functionality object (LFO) is a subset of an FFO. An LFO does not contain the entire object. There is adequate data and/or logic for a host application 19 to instantiate the LFO but certain sections of the object are absent as compared to the equivalent FFO (the superset). As the name implies, an LFO can limit the functionality of an object. As such, the manner in which an object can be utilized by an application can be restricted based on a set of criteria. The object's creator can limit, for instance, what actions the LFO can perform, the length of time it can be used and which applications can use it. An example that illustrates a possible use of an LFO is found in terms of music. An AES enabled music application 19 downloads an LFO. The LFO contains a short clip of a new song. The object also contains the name of the song, information about the band, the number of times the clip can be played and the time and date when the clip will expire. The music application allows the user to listen to the clip for the specified time period and number of times. After either criteria expires, the user can only access the song's title and band information. The object is functionally limited as it can no longer be played. By being able to create an LFO from a base template, the AES invention also allows enhanced user previewing. By reducing the functionality of an object, the user can experience the overall impression of the object before deciding to obtain the fully functional version. LFOs allow the application developer to keep the user informed of object additions. LFOs are displayed as they become available, so the user is immediately informed of any new object. An example better demonstrates this unique ability. In the Object Database 10 there may be a number of car objects. When an AES client 18 connects requesting a new car object, the server software 4 queries the Object Database 10 for car objects. The Object Database 10 responds that it has a number of cars. The AES server software 4 chooses a random car object and request its LFO from the Object Database 10. The LFO returned contains most of the components required to operate in the AES client 18. For a car, this would include, for instance, the 3D car model (or mesh), the appropriate textures (or graphics), its physics model and the engine specifications. With these components, the AES client 18 can allow limited user interaction. The components required to actually control the car are not, however, in the LFO. They are omitted and therefore limit the functionality of the car. The user can see the car but is not able to control it unless the rest of the logic and/or data is downloaded from the AES server 2. The above example is a simple demonstration of how an LFO can be used to inform the user of an addition to the original program. In addition to the above capabilities, an LFO can form the basis of an FFO. The process of combining new components with an LFO is described above in the FFO description. User Customization The present invention allows user customization of objects. The customizations are made using an AES enabled host application 19. The possible customization platforms include, but are not limited to, an AES enabled application 19 and from within a web browser. To customize an object, the host application 19, for example, prompts the user for the required details. After the user has supplied the details, the server software 4 creates an object fitting those criteria. The data supplied by the user, although only a small amount, can greatly vary the object's formation and subsequent realization or definition. Not all aspects of an object are necessarily customizable. Each object contains a set of rules (a rule-set) governing which elements a user can customize. The rule-set can take the form of an array, a list or even a bit-set. The actual format of the rule-set depends on the type and context of the object in question. AES Customization In addition to user customizations, the AES server software 4 can also modify objects. Each object template contains a rule-set that defines the customizations a server may make before releasing an object. The rule-set may include requirements such as the required bit-rate of a video object's soundtrack or the sequence of numbers and letters in a car object's license plate. The rule-set can also be used to add unique identification numbers to objects. As explained in Sales database 13, such a number can be used to decrease piracy and confirm ownership. Customization Restrictions To heighten the control over each object type's possible realizations and/or forms, the present invention can use customization restrictions. The restrictions, if any, are contained in a rule-set within each object template. When the user and server customization are complete, the resultant object is compared with the disallowed or reserved configurations. If there is a conflict between the new objects and the restricted configurations, the user and server software 4 again attempt the customization process. By withholding certain configurations, value and rarity can be added to AES objects. This may not be immediately apparent but certain configurations are more valuable than others. For instance, being able to ensure that no imitations of a limited number of a specifically configured objects are released will maintain the rarity and value of the limited objects. The present invention has been described above in the context of browsing on the World Wide Web. However, the present invention is of general applicability and is not limited to this application. While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to representative embodiments, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In recent years, there has been enormous growth in Internet, especially for distributing software products. Many systems have been devised to allow users to purchase computer programs via the Internet. In some systems, programs are provided free of charge in limited functionality mode, and once a license fee is paid, a code can be entered to allow use of full functionality of that program. Examples of such systems are described in patents such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,291,598 and 5,375,240 to Grundy. Generally, these systems relate to locking and unlocking specific functionality in a computer program. It is also known to transmit computer games electronically to users via a network. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,944,608 to Reed et al. In programs such as computer games, users like to select and use various components, such as characters, weapons, and missions. There does not exist a system that provides users with additional objects for use in a program that they currently own and are running, where such objects automatically are displayed to the user in the program, but where the objects cannot be controlled by the user until the user decides to acquire them. Accordingly, there does not exist a system that in real-time, and without user intervention, provides an additional component with limited functionality for an existing computer program, and then easily allows users to obtain a corresponding full functionality component. There is a need for a system that automatically provides the user with additional limited functionality objects for an existing program of the user, and that “taunts” the user with these objects thus increasing the likelihood that the user will purchase the corresponding full function object. Moreover, existing technology requires users to shutdown and start a program when there is a change from limited functionality to full functionality. This is undesirable, particularly in multiplayer games. Existing online selling systems for software may provide users with a limited functionality program, where the additional features are hidden from the user, completely disabled or only work for a limited period of time. Thus, the user is not given a full opportunity to be exposed to the complete aspects of the program. Moreover, these systems are directed to selling complete application programs, and not individual features (or objects) for use in programs that a user already owns. These systems also do not provide additional features to be included in an application program for a user to consider and that are created after creation of the application program. It is also important to balance the need for efficiently converting an object from limited functionality to full functionality (for example, in terms of download size, ease of use) with the need for a secure system to prevent piracy. Many people like collecting unique objects. Computer programs often replicate real world domains of interest to collectors and hobbyists, such as model train, model car and roller-coaster environments. When a user purchases such a program, there are a limited number of objects (e.g., train engines and cars) provided with the program for use therein. In some cases, users can design and build their own objects from parts that are provided. However, many collectors would like the ability to customize and purchase unique objects for use in such programs, and trade these objects with other collectors using the same program. There does not exist a computer system that allows for the creation of unique program objects for use in existing computer programs, particularly where such program objects can be used and traded by collectors and other interested people. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a computer-implemented system to allow the downloading of objects to be used in an application program. The objects are downloaded from a server to a user's local or client computer. The server runs a server program which accesses one or more databases. The application program is running on the client computer. The system of the present invention is called herein an e-commerce system (“AES”). For ease of reference, the server is called the AES server system, which comprises AES server software and one or more databases. The application program according to the present invention is called herein an AES enabled client application, or host application for short. The host application can be any computer program that has been enabled to work with the AES system of the present invention. The host application, when AES enabled, includes an AES client, which is also a computer program. The objects of the present invention are typically programming objects that perform a pre-specified function when running on the client computer in conjunction with the host application. According to the present invention, there are two types of objects, namely full functionality objects (“FFO”) and limited functionality objects (“LFO”). A LFO is an object that can be used by the host application but subject to certain restrictions. The FFO is an object without these restrictions. However, both the LFO and FFO will still have certain restrictions and constraints, as appropriate, determined (for example) by the AES system operator. When a user is using the host application, the user may wish to purchase or otherwise acquire a FFO. The user may have a LFO, and wish to purchase or otherwise obtain the corresponding FFO. Alternatively, the user may be aware of the FFO and wish to purchase or obtain it outright. The AES client, in conjunction with the AES server system, can initiate the appropriate process to enable the user to do so. After the downloading required material, the FFO can be used by the host application. An example application of the present invention can be explained as follows. Assume that the host application is an entertainment computer program that allows users to build virtual model train layouts, and to collect and organise virtual model train engines and carriages. When the AES client is coupled to the Internet, it may automatically download from the AES server system a newly designed train engine. This train engine will be downloaded as a LFO, and made available to the user via the host application as part of the user's model train collection. However, being a LFO, the user may be allowed to use the train engine in the AES client but without carriages. If the user wishes to connect carriages, the user will need to obtain the corresponding FFO. As another example, assume that the host application is a program that allows users to drive and race cars. The system operator may make available a series of 1950's collectable cars, with 50 in the set. A user can visit the system operator's website and select the kind of car that they wish to use. Assume that the user selects “Cadillac”. The user is then given the option by the AES server system to choose other details about the car. For example, the user may be allowed to select the State of registration (which will appear on the license plate), the color of the car and type of wheels. In other words, the user can customise the virtual car. Here, in this example, the car is represented as a FFO. (Alternatively, the car could be a LFO if some functionality is withheld until the user decides to acquire the corresponding FFO.) The AES server system will add a further element of uniqueness to each car prior to or during the download phase of the FFO. For example, the AES server system can select the actual license plate numbers and letters for the State selected by the user, e.g., ABC 123. Accordingly, the AES server system can be configured to ensure that each LFO and FFO is unique, and can keep a record of which user obtains this unique car. After downloading of the FFO, the user can display and drive the car in the host application. (If the user acquired a LFO car, the user may be able to view the car, but not drive. The LFO car may also race against the user, using AI technology.) To summarise the above example, in one embodiment of the present invention, there can be three levels of customisation. The first level is the choice of the base product, typically made by the user. The second level is the user selecting and customising features of the product. The third level is the AES server system customising other features, thus creating (if desirable) a unique product. As will be apparent, if unique products are created, then they will be regarded by users as collectables. Many users will value this uniqueness. The present invention allows users to trade and transfer LFOs and FFOs, such as the train engines and cars in the above example. The AES server system can keep track of ownership of objects (LFOs and FFOs), and provide information to users to assist them determining whether they are acquiring a genuine object. Thus, the AES server system can be queried to determine the authenticity of a product (e.g., LFO and FFO). The AES server system can also operate a trading and/or auction website to allow users to purchase new products and to trade products that they have previously purchased. The AES server software can, at the third level of customisation discussed above, keep control over which individual products are actually released. This enables the creation of special unique products. For example, in the car example discussed above, the system operator could decide not to generally release the black open top Cadillac in which President Kennedy was assassinated. This car, made to be identical to that in the real event, such as including license plates and engine numbers, could be auctioned by the system operator via the AES server system (or on another website) to the most interested user. Other famous cars, such as those used in movies, famous events, first in a series, etc., could be released in a similar way. Accordingly, the AES server system can catalog each downloaded object, and keep a record of the product, how it is unique and who it was provided to. The ability to alter a set product in some way, by inserting data into it, or appending data to it, just prior to or as part of the download is an feature of the representative embodiment of the present invention. There are some times, however, where there is less customisation, and all that may be added is a product serial number to assist prevention of piracy. For example, in a traditional combat computer game (host application), the AES server system may make available in the game a character (LFO). The character interacts with the user's character, for example, by shooting at the user's character with a new type of weapon and can run much faster than existing available characters. However, the user cannot control that new character. In short, because the new character is a LFO, the user can interact with it but not control it. If the user wishes to control that character, the user must obtain the FFO version of the character. With the FFO version, the user can select that character (including the associated attributes) for the user to control in the game. In one aspect, the representative embodiment of the present invention has the ability to display program objects (e.g., LFO) of any description to a user, and has the capability to allow the user to ultimately gain control of the program object (e.g., FFO). As will be apparent, the present invention is not limited to the objects discussed above (train engines, cars, characters in computer games). There are many other examples, such as dogs, cats, and aeroplanes. Project objects can include art, sound, text, program code or other forms of computerised objects. The host application can include fantasy and futuristic games. Taking art as an example, the host application may be an art gallery program. The LFO could be a new wing of the art gallery, which comprises low resolution quality images. The FFO would be the same wing added to the gallery with high quality images and descriptions. In a fantasy game, the objects can be an entire mission, a character, a place or a tool. A summary of a sample session using a representative embodiment of the AES of the present invention is now discussed. Example steps include: Step 1: The user visits a website and views available products. The user selects a product, in this case a host application which is a computer game. Step 2: User enters in credit card details, or provides user name and password if user has made prior purchase. Step 3: Credit card information verified. Step 4: User provided with transaction code, and download of product begins. Step 5: Host application installed on client computer, and user plays game. Step 6: While playing game, and provided client computer is coupled to the Internet, AES server system downloads a small program object (LFO) to the client computer. Once download is complete, the object would be displayed to the user in a limited way. Step 7: User sees object in the product, and likes it. User clicks on the object to buy it. Step 8: Using credit card details provided at step 2, payment is validated. AES server system electronically provides user with corresponding FFO. Step 9: The user can use the object without having to restart the game. In one aspect, the AES client taunts the user. It provides the user a new object in a limited way and then enables the user to easily purchase the full functionality of the object. The above description assumes an Internet connection. However, LFOs can be provided on disk, such as CD-ROM. As will become apparent below, the present invention is not so limited to the representative embodiments discussed above, and has many uses outside of games and collectables. As discussed in detail below, the present invention is not so limited, and can be used with a wide variety of client software, including educational programs, reference programs and the like. Generally, the present invention relates to the distribution and integration of computer generated or encoded objects, be they art, sound, music, text, non-physical objects such as environmental variables or artificial intelligence parameters, program source code, program pseudo code, program compiled code or any other computerized objects. In summary, in one embodiment, the present invention has the ability to download a limited functionality program object from one computer system to another, then to allow a user to view and interact but not control that object without first purchasing the object online. Once this purchase is made, an additional program object is provided that gives the user control of the initial program object. | 20050111 | 20130820 | 20051027 | 94847.0 | 2 | CHEN, QING | CONVERTING A LIMITED PROGRAM OBJECT TO A COMPLETE PROGRAM OBJECT | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,099 | ACCEPTED | Semiconductor integrated circuit having connection pads over active elements | A semiconductor integrated circuit having connection pads arranged over active elements is disclosed. The connection pad is divided into a probing area and a bonding area, and reinforcing structures are formed separately under the respective areas. The reinforcing structure under the probing area is formed using a number of wiring layers less than the number of wiring layers used for forming the reinforcing structure under the bonding area. As a result, the wiring layers under the probing area are efficiently utilized to forms wires for realizing the logical function of the integrated circuit. | 1. A semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function formed on a surface of a semiconductor substrate, comprising: an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area, the connection pad being divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding; a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area formed by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. 2. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1, wherein the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers is utilized to form at least one of the circuit wires under the first reinforcing structure. 3. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1, wherein the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers includes an upper-most one of the plurality of wiring layers. 4. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 1, wherein: the connection pad includes an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area; and the connection pad is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. 5. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 4, wherein the interlayer dielectric film is continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. 6. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 4, wherein the surface of the semiconductor substrate includes an outside area separate from the active element-forming area, and the connection pad is connected to a corresponding one of the active elements through the interlayer contact arranged over the outside area. 7. A semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function formed on a surface of a semiconductor substrate, comprising: an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area, the connection pad being divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding; circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit; a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area, wherein: the circuit wires are formed in at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also in an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; the first reinforcing structure is formed over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers; and the second reinforcing structure is formed over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. 8. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 7, wherein none of the circuit wires is formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. 9. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 7, wherein: the connection pad includes an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area; and the connection pad is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. 10. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 9, wherein the interlayer dielectric film is continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. 11. A semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function formed on a surface of a semiconductor substrate, comprising: an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate for forming a plurality of active elements; a plurality of wiring layers for providing wiring resources over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area, the connection pad being divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding; a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by consuming a first portion of the wiring resources under the probing area provided by at least one of the plurality of wiring layers so that another portion of the wiring resources provided by another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area formed by consuming a second portion of the wiring resources under the bonding area provided by the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. 12. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 11, wherein at least one of the circuit wires is formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. 13. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 11, wherein: the connection pad includes an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area; and the connection pad is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. 14. The semiconductor integrated circuit according to claim 13, wherein the interlayer dielectric film is continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. 15. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function on a surface of a semiconductor substrate, comprising: forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers, the connection pad being arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area; probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad; wherein the forming of the plurality of wiring layers includes: forming a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing and such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and forming a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein the forming of the plurality of wiring layers further includes forming at least one of the circuit wires by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. 17. The method according to claims 15, wherein the connection pad is formed to include an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area, and is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein the connection pad is formed on the interlayer dielectric film that is continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. 19. A method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function on a surface of a semiconductor substrate, comprising: forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers, the connection pad being arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area; probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad; wherein the forming of the plurality of wiring layers includes: forming circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit by utilizing at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also by utilizing an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; forming a first reinforcing structure over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure is positioned between the probing area and the active element-forming area and such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing; and forming a second reinforcing structure over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure is positioned between the bonding area and the active element-forming area and such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. 20. The method according to claim 19, wherein none of the circuit wires is formed by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. 21. The method according to claim 19, wherein the connection pad is formed to include an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area, and is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. 22. The method according to claim 21, wherein the connection pad is formed on the interlayer dielectric film that is continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. | This invention was first described in Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-14080, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND This invention is related to semiconductor integrated circuits having connection pads (pads for external connections) arranged over active elements. Connection pads are often used for probing during testing of a semiconductor integrated circuit. Connection pads are also used for wire bonding when assembling the semiconductor integrated circuit. Previously, the connection pads were not arranged over an active element-forming area where active elements such as transistors are formed, in order to prevent the active elements from being damaged by the mechanical stress applied for the bonding and/or probing. However, the need for miniaturization of the elements increases the number of functions implemented in a semiconductor integrated circuit; and also increases the required number of connection pads to be placed on the semiconductor integrated circuit. Therefore, it may be highly desirable to reduce the chip area of the semiconductor integrated circuit by arranging the connection pads over the active elements. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,662 (Patent Document 1), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, proposes to arrange a bonding pad over the active integrated circuit region by providing a conductive reinforcing structure that includes a grid-shaped metal wiring pattern below the bonding pad. As explained above, connection pads may also be used, before they are used for wire bonding, for probing by probing needles. The probing needle often damages the surface of the pad during the probing, and the damage on the surface of the pad may cause failure of the bonding. For example, Japanese Laid-open Patent No. 2000-164620 (Patent Document 2), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, proposes a countermeasure for this problem. That is, Patent Document 2 proposes to form the pad in a rectangular shape and to divide it in two portions, one for bonding and one for probing. It may be possible to arrange connection pad, which is divided into a bonding area and a probing area, as proposed by Patent Document 2, over the active elements, as proposed by Patent Document 1. Thereby, it would be possible to prevent bonding failure and to reduce the area of the chip. However, even with an advanced manufacturing process that permits the use of a large number of wiring layers, the utilization rate of the wiring layers, or the utilization rate of the wiring resources provided by the wiring layers, may be significantly lowered if the reinforcing structure uses many of the wiring layers. As a result, it becomes difficult to arrange a number of wires necessary to realize the logical function of the integrated circuitry under the connection pad. In fact, a conventional I/O circuitry that was not designed to be arranged under a connection pad may utilize a significant number of wiring layers. Such conventionally designed I/O circuitry generally cannot be placed under the connection pad. SUMMARY An object of this invention is to solve the above-mentioned problems. That is, an object of this invention is to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit that allows to arrange bonding pads over active elements without damaging the active elements, and, at the same time, to improve the utilization efficiency of the wiring resources under the connection pad. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to an exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function is provided on a surface of a semiconductor substrate. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may include an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The semiconductor integrated circuit may further include a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area formed by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers may include an upper-most one of the plurality of wiring layers. Also, the connection pad may include an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area; and the connection pad is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. Furthermore, the interlayer dielectric film may be continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit includes an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may further include circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit; a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element forming area. The circuit wires may be formed in at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also in an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; the first reinforcing structure may be formed over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers; and the second reinforcing structure may be formed over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, preferably; none of the circuit wires is formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to still another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may include an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate for forming a plurality of active elements; a plurality of wiring layers for providing wiring resources over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may further include a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by consuming a first portion of the wiring resources under the probing area provided by at least one of the plurality of wiring layers so that another portion of the wiring resources provided by another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area may be formed by consuming a second portion of the wiring resources under the bonding area provided by the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, at least one of the circuit wires may be formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to an exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function on the surface of a semiconductor substrate is provided. The exemplary method may include forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers. The connection pad may be arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area. The exemplary method may further include probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad. The forming of the plurality of wiring layers may include forming a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing, and such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and forming a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. In the exemplary method, the forming of the plurality of wiring layers may further include forming at least one of the circuit wires by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit may include forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers. The connection pad may be arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area. The exemplary method may further include probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad. The forming of the plurality of wiring layers may include forming circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit by utilizing at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also by utilizing an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; forming a first reinforcing structure over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure is positioned between the probing area and the active element-forming area and such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing; and forming a second reinforcing structure over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure is positioned between the bonding area and the active element-forming area, and such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. In the exemplary method, preferably, none of the circuit wires is formed by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a partial cross-sectional view of an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit according to an exemplary implementation of the invention; FIG. 2 shows a partial plan-view of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 shows a cross-sectional view of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1 during the probing; and FIG. 4 shows a cross-sectional view of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1 during the bonding. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS An exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit according to an exemplary implementation of this invention will be explained in detail, in reference to the drawings. FIG. 1 shows a partial cross-sectional view of a layout of an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit according to an exemplary implementation of invention. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in this figure utilizes six wiring layers. Over the surface of a silicon substrate 12, from the first through the sixth interlayer dielectric films 14 (14a through 14f) and from the first through the sixth wiring layers 16 (16a through 16f) are formed. According to various implementations, the entire surface area of the silicon substrate 12 shown in FIG. 1, except for an outside area 21 on the left-most portion, is the active element-forming area 20 for forming active elements. The active element-formation area 20 is divided into a plurality of active regions 25 by field isolation regions 22, and a plurality of active elements 23 is formed in their respective active regions. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1, CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Silicon) transistors are formed in their respective active regions. Each of the transistors has a gate electrode 24 and source/drain regions 26. The gate electrode 24 is formed over the active region on the surface of the silicon substrate 12. Moreover, sidewall spacers 28 are formed on both sides of the gate electrode 24. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1, the silicon substrate 12 is used as an example of the semiconductor substrate. Other semiconductor substrates such as a SOI (Silicon-on-Insulator) substrate, and substrates with other semiconductive materials may also be used. Moreover, the active elements are not limited to the CMOS transistors. Other active elements, such as bipolar transistors, diodes, thyristors, or the like, may also be formed in the active element-formation area 20. According to various implementations, the first through the sixth interlayer dielectric films 14 (14a through 14f) and the first through the sixth wiring layers 16 (16a through 16f) are provided for forming the wires (circuit wires) 38, which are used for, for example, connecting the active elements to each other, and for connecting the connection pad 30 to the active elements. The first interlayer dielectric film 14a is formed on the surface of the silicon substrate 12 having the active elements 23 thereon. On the first interlayer dielectric film 14a, the first through the sixth wiring layers (16a through 16f) and the second through the sixth interlayer dielectric films (14b through 14f) are alternately stacked one by one. According to various implementations, among these wiring layers 16, the upper-most (the sixth) wiring layer 16f is used for forming the connection pad 30. Under the connection pad 30, the remaining wiring layers, i.e., the first through the fifth wiring layers 16a through 16e can be utilized for other purposes. Typically, the upper-most wiring layer used for forming the connection pad 30 is made of an aluminum alloy (an alloy containing predominantly aluminum). The remaining wiring layers may also be made of an aluminum alloy. Alternatively, the remaining wiring layers may be made of copper or a copper alloy (an alloy containing predominantly copper). According to various implementations, the connection pad 30 is arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area 20, and is divided into a bonding area 34 (at the right side of the pad 30 in the drawing) and a probing area 32 (at the left side of the pad 30 in the drawing). By dividing the connection pad 30 into the probing area 32 and bonding area 34, any defect in the bonding, originated by the damage formed during the probing, can be prevented. According to various implementations, a passivation film 18 is formed to cover the entire upper surface of the semiconductor integrated circuit, i.e., over the surface of the sixth interlayer dielectric film 14f and the outer periphery of the connection pad 30, such that the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 are exposed. According to various implementations, under the probing area 32 and under the bonding area 34 of the connection pad, respective reinforcing structures 36A and 36B are formed. The reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 is formed in order to prevent the active elements under the probing area 34 from being damaged during probing. The reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34 is formed in order to prevent the active elements under the bonding area from being damaged during bonding. The reinforcing structures 36A and 36B include dummy patterns, which do not contribute to the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10, formed in at least one of the wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1, the fourth and the fifth wiring layers (16d and 16e) are used to form the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32. On the other hand, the third through the fifth wiring layers (16c through 16e) are used to form the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34. That is, the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 is formed by using a number of wiring layers less than, by at least one, the number of layers used for forming the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34. According to various implementations, the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 is formed by using one or more of the wiring layers, while the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34 is formed by using the same one or more of the wiring layers, and at least an additional one of the wiring layers. Specifically, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit shown in FIG. 1, the reinforcing structure 36A utilizes the fifth wiring layer 16e, which is immediately under the layer used for forming the connection pad 30 (the sixth wiring layer 16f) and the next lower wiring layer, i.e., the fourth wiring layer 16d. The reinforcing structure 36B uses the same two wiring layers and further utilizes the next lower wiring layer, i.e., the third wiring layer 16c. It should be noted that, as previously explained, the upper-most one of the wiring layers (the sixth wiring layer 16f) is used to form the connection pad 30, and, under the connection pad 30, only the remaining ones of the wiring layers can be utilized for other purposes. Thus, the reinforcing structure 36A and 36B are formed by using the upper-most one, and one or two next lower ones, of the usable ones of the wiring layers 16. Moreover, wires (circuit wires) 38 are formed under the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B. The wires 38 are used for forming the circuitry of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10 by, for example, connecting the active elements 23 with each other. According to various implementations, when the active elements 23 for forming an I/O circuitry are formed in the active element-forming area 30 under the connection pad 30, for example, the wires 38 under the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B connect the active elements with each other and supply power-supply voltages to the transistors. Thereby, the I/O circuitry is constructed. The wires 38 further connect the I/O circuitry to the connection pad 30 and also to internal circuitries of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10. Thus, the wires 38, together with the active elements 23, realize the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit. More specifically, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1, under the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32, the wires 38 formed in the first through the third wiring layers (16a through 16c) and interlayer contacts 40 formed in the first through the third interlayer dielectric films (14a through 14c) connect the active elements 23 with each other. On the other hand, under the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34, wires 38 formed in the first and the second wiring layers 16a and 16b and interlayer contacts 40 formed in the first and the second interlayer dielectric films 14a and 14b connect the active elements 23 with each other. According to various implementations, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1, wires 38 under the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 are formed by utilizing at least the lower-most wiring layer 16a and, optionally, one or more of the next higher wiring layers (16b, 16c, and so on). According to this invention, it is not always necessary, to form wires 38 under both the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 by using at least one of the wiring layers. According to various implementations, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10, the number of the wiring layers utilized for forming the wires 38 under the probing area 32 is larger, at least by one, than the number of the wiring layers utilized for forming the wires 38 under the bonding area 34. In other words, under the probing area, the wires 38 for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit is formed by utilizing at least one of the wiring layers, which is utilized for forming the wires 38 under the bonding area, and at least an additional one of the wiring layers. Thus, among the plurality of wiring layers, or the wiring resources provided by the plurality of wiring layers, one or more upper wiring layers, or the resources provided by the one or more upper layers, are used, or consumed, for forming the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B. On the other hand, one or more lower wiring layers, or the resources provided by the one or more lower wiring layers, are utilized for forming the wires 38 for realizing the logical function of the integrated circuit 10. Moreover, the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 uses a number of wiring layers that is less than the number of wiring layers used by the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34. The reinforcing structure 36A consumes a lesser amount of wiring resources than that consumed by the reinforcing structure 36B. Accordingly, under the probing area 32, a larger number of wiring layers, or a larger amount of wiring resources provided by the larger number of wiring layers, can be utilized to form the wires 38 for realizing the logical function, compared with the smaller number of wiring layers, or the amount of wiring resources, that can be utilized under the bonding area 34. According to various implementations, the connection pad 30 in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1 has an interlayer connection area 35 that is separate from the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34. According to various implementations, the interlayer connection area 35 is located at the left-most portion of the connection pad 30 in the drawing, and is covered with the passivation film 18. According to various implementations, the interlayer connection area 35 is positioned over an outer area 21 of the surface of the semiconductor substrate 12, which is outside of the active element-forming area 20. According to various implementations, the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1 also includes the wires 38 and the interlayer contacts 40 arranged under the interlayer connection area 35 of the connection pad, i.e., over the outer area 21 outside of the active element forming area 20. According to various implementations, the wires 38 and the interlayer contacts 40 are used to connect the connection pad 30 to the active element 23. Specifically, the wires 38 formed in the first through the fifth wiring layers 16a through 16e and the interlayer contacts formed in the first through the sixth interlayer dielectric film 14a through 14f arranged outside of the active element-forming area 20 connects the connection pad 30 to the active element 23. According to various implementations, in the semiconductor integrated circuit, it is not always necessary to arrange the wires 38 and the interlayer contacts 40 for connecting the connection pad 30 to the active element 23 outside of the active element-forming area 20. However, arranging the wires 38 and interlayer contacts 40 outside of the active element-forming area 20 enables to form the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B in the entire area over the portion of the active element-forming area 20, which is located below the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 of the connection pad 30. Thus, the damage to the active elements 23 can be surely prevented. Furthermore, according to various implementations, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1, the interlayer contacts 40 in the sixth interlayer dielectric film 14f, which is immediately under the connection pad 30, are arranged only under the interlayer connection area 35. In other words, no interlayer contact 40 that directly contacts the connect pad 30 is arranged under the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34. And the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 of the connection pad 30 is formed on, and separated from the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B by, a continuous sixth interlayer dielectric film 14f. Although not always necessary for this invention, such exemplary arrangement of the interlayer contact 40 is effective to prevent the degradation of the connection between the connection pad 30 and the active element 23 by probing or bonding. In order to enable the stacking of the plurality of wiring layers 16, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1, the upper surface of each of the interlayer dielectric films 14 is made substantially flat. As a result, the upper surface of the connection pad 30 is substantially flat throughout the probing area 32, the bonding area 34, and the interlayer connection area 35. Next, referring to FIG. 2, the arrangement of the connection pads 30 in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 will be explained. FIG. 2 shows a schematic plan-view of a portion of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 according to this invention. As shown in FIG. 2, the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 has a plurality of connection pads 30. According to various implementations, these pads are arranged along the sides of the silicon substrate 12 diced into an individual semiconductor integrated circuit chip. Specifically, FIG. 2 shows three of the connection pads 30 arranged in the vertical direction in the drawing along the left side 13 of the diced silicon substrate 12. The right portion of the semiconductor substrate 12 shown in FIG. 2 is the active element-forming area 20, and the left portion of the semiconductor substrate 12 is the outer area 21. According to various implementations, each of the pads 30 has generally a rectangular shape, and includes, from left to right in FIG. 2, an interlayer connection area 35, the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34. According to various implementations, under the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34, the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B are formed. Also, under the interlayer connection area 35, the interlayer contacts 40 are arranged. Next, consideration is made regarding the mechanical stresses applied to the connection pad 30 during the probing and the bonding. FIG. 3 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10, according to various implementations, during probing. As shown in FIG. 3, a probe card having a plurality of probing needles (only one of which is shown in the drawing) is pressed onto the semiconductor integrated circuit 10 so that each of the probing needles 42 electrically contacts a corresponding connection pad 30. Therefore, only the mechanical stress in the downward direction is applies to the pad 30 during probing. FIG. 4 shows a schematic cross-sectional view of the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10, according to various implementations, during bonding. According to various implementations, a ball 45 formed at the leading end of the bonding wire 44 is pressed onto the pad 30. According to various implementations, a eutectic alloy is formed at the interface between the ball 45 and the connection pad 30 by applying heat and ultrasonic energy. Thus, the wire 44 is electrically and mechanically connected to the bonding area 34 of the connection pad 30. Thereafter, the other end of the wire 44 is pulled and bonded to a lead frame (not shown). At this time, the connection pad 30 is pulled through the wire 44. Thus, a mechanical stress both in the downward and in the upward direction is applied to the connection pad 30 during the bonding. Moreover, according to various implementations, heat and ultrasonic energy are also applied to the pad 30 during the bonding. It can thus be concluded that the stress applied to the connection pad during bonding is significantly higher than that applied during probing. Based on this consideration, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10, the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B under the probing area 32 and under the bonding area 34 are formed differently. Specifically, the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 is formed using a number of wiring layers that is less than the number of wiring layers used for forming the reinforcing structure 36B under the bonding area 34. If the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B under the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 were not formed separately, a large number of wiring layers 16 necessary for preventing the damage by the higher stress during bonding have to be used to form the reinforcing structure under the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34. On the contrary, in the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit 10 according to this invention, the number of wiring layers used for forming the reinforcing structures 36A and 36B under the probing area 32 and under the bonding area 34 are separately optimized within ranges that are sufficient to prevent damage during probing and bonding, respectively. As a result, the wiring layers 16 under the probing area 32 can be efficiently utilized to form the wires 38 that are part of the circuitry, or the logical function, of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10. That is, according to various implementations, another ones of the wiring layers 16, or the remaining wiring layers, under the probing area 32 that are not used for forming the reinforcing structure 36A can be utilized to form the wires 38 for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10. In other words, according to various implementations, the wiring resources provided by the another ones of the wiring layers 16 under the probing area 32 can be utilized to form the wires 38 for realizing the logical function. The unused wiring layers, or the unconsumed wiring resources, that can be utilized under the reinforcing structure 36A under the probing area 32 enable to form the wires 38 for forming the circuitry under the connection pad 30. Accordingly, the chip area of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10 can be reduced. As has been describe above, in various exemplary semiconductor integrated circuits according to this invention, by optimizing the number of wiring layers used for forming the reinforcing structure, it becomes possible to efficiently utilize the wiring layers under the probing area to form wires that realize the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit, while preventing any damage to the active elements under the connection pad. As a result, the chip area can be reduced. While the exemplary embodiment of the semiconductor integrated circuit 10 shown in FIG. 1 utilizes six wiring layers 16a through 16f, this exemplary implementation may be applied to any semiconductor integrated circuits having a plurality of wiring layers. The connection pad 30 may be arranged either entirely or partly over the active element-formation area 20. In the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 of the connection pad 30 are closely arranged side-by-side so that the connection pad 30, as a whole, has an overall rectangular shape. However, the probing area 32 and the bonding area 34 of the same connection pad 30 may be arranged apart from each other, and electrically connected with each other via a wire in the same wiring layer or in a different wiring layer. The reinforcing structures 36A and 36B are not limited to those shown in FIG. 1, and may include various other patterns. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,751,065, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, discloses, as a stress relief, a metal layer 215 immediately under the bond pad 219. The metal layer 215 may or may not be patterned beneath the bond pad 219. U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,228, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, discloses, as a protection structure, an annular region 21 in a metal layer under the bonding pad 28. The annular region may be floating or form part of the path connecting the pad to the electronic component. Further, “Reliability of Bond Over Active Pad Structures for 0.13-μm CMOS Technology,” 2003 Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1344-1349 by K. J. Hell et al., which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, discloses a structure called BOA Type A, in which metal wiring and vias are placed below the wirebond pad only at the lowest level. That is, no metal wiring or via is placed below the wirebond pad in the layers other than the lowest level in order to protect the active elements located under the wirebond pad. Even in this case, wiring layers in which no metal wiring and via is placed are considered to be used for forming the reinforcing structure. In other words, the wiring resources provided by the wiring layers in which no wiring or via is placed are consumed for forming the reinforcing structure, because these layers cannot be utilized to form the wires for realizing the logical function of the integrated circuit. While this invention has been described in conjunction with the specific embodiments thereof, it is evident that many alternatives, modification, and variations will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, preferred embodiments of the invention as set forth herein are intended to be illustrative, not limiting. There are changes that may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>This invention is related to semiconductor integrated circuits having connection pads (pads for external connections) arranged over active elements. Connection pads are often used for probing during testing of a semiconductor integrated circuit. Connection pads are also used for wire bonding when assembling the semiconductor integrated circuit. Previously, the connection pads were not arranged over an active element-forming area where active elements such as transistors are formed, in order to prevent the active elements from being damaged by the mechanical stress applied for the bonding and/or probing. However, the need for miniaturization of the elements increases the number of functions implemented in a semiconductor integrated circuit; and also increases the required number of connection pads to be placed on the semiconductor integrated circuit. Therefore, it may be highly desirable to reduce the chip area of the semiconductor integrated circuit by arranging the connection pads over the active elements. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,662 (Patent Document 1), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, proposes to arrange a bonding pad over the active integrated circuit region by providing a conductive reinforcing structure that includes a grid-shaped metal wiring pattern below the bonding pad. As explained above, connection pads may also be used, before they are used for wire bonding, for probing by probing needles. The probing needle often damages the surface of the pad during the probing, and the damage on the surface of the pad may cause failure of the bonding. For example, Japanese Laid-open Patent No. 2000-164620 (Patent Document 2), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety, proposes a countermeasure for this problem. That is, Patent Document 2 proposes to form the pad in a rectangular shape and to divide it in two portions, one for bonding and one for probing. It may be possible to arrange connection pad, which is divided into a bonding area and a probing area, as proposed by Patent Document 2, over the active elements, as proposed by Patent Document 1. Thereby, it would be possible to prevent bonding failure and to reduce the area of the chip. However, even with an advanced manufacturing process that permits the use of a large number of wiring layers, the utilization rate of the wiring layers, or the utilization rate of the wiring resources provided by the wiring layers, may be significantly lowered if the reinforcing structure uses many of the wiring layers. As a result, it becomes difficult to arrange a number of wires necessary to realize the logical function of the integrated circuitry under the connection pad. In fact, a conventional I/O circuitry that was not designed to be arranged under a connection pad may utilize a significant number of wiring layers. Such conventionally designed I/O circuitry generally cannot be placed under the connection pad. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>An object of this invention is to solve the above-mentioned problems. That is, an object of this invention is to provide a semiconductor integrated circuit that allows to arrange bonding pads over active elements without damaging the active elements, and, at the same time, to improve the utilization efficiency of the wiring resources under the connection pad. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to an exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function is provided on a surface of a semiconductor substrate. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may include an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The semiconductor integrated circuit may further include a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area formed by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers may include an upper-most one of the plurality of wiring layers. Also, the connection pad may include an interlayer connection area separate from the bonding area and the probing area; and the connection pad is formed on an interlayer dielectric film in which an interlayer contact that contacts the connection pad is arranged under the interlayer connection area. Furthermore, the interlayer dielectric film may be continuous under the probing area and the bonding area of the connection pad. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit includes an active element-forming area for forming a plurality of active elements on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may further include circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit; a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element forming area. The circuit wires may be formed in at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also in an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; the first reinforcing structure may be formed over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers; and the second reinforcing structure may be formed over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, preferably; none of the circuit wires is formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to still another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may include an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate for forming a plurality of active elements; a plurality of wiring layers for providing wiring resources over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and a connection pad formed over the plurality of wiring layers and arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area. The connection pad is divided into a probing area for probing and a bonding area for wire bonding. The exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit may further include a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area formed by consuming a first portion of the wiring resources under the probing area provided by at least one of the plurality of wiring layers so that another portion of the wiring resources provided by another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area may be formed by consuming a second portion of the wiring resources under the bonding area provided by the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers. In the exemplary semiconductor integrated circuit, at least one of the circuit wires may be formed in the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to an exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit having a logical function on the surface of a semiconductor substrate is provided. The exemplary method may include forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers. The connection pad may be arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area. The exemplary method may further include probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad. The forming of the plurality of wiring layers may include forming a first reinforcing structure between the probing area and the active element-forming area by using at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing, and such that another one or more of the plurality of wiring layers can be utilized to form circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit under the first reinforcing structure; and forming a second reinforcing structure between the bonding area and the active element-forming area by using the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers and an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. In the exemplary method, the forming of the plurality of wiring layers may further include forming at least one of the circuit wires by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the first reinforcing structure. In order to solve the above-mentioned problems, according to another exemplary aspect of this invention, an exemplary method for manufacturing a semiconductor integrated circuit may include forming a plurality of active elements in an active element-forming area on the surface of the semiconductor substrate; forming a plurality of wiring layers over the surface of the semiconductor substrate; and forming a connection pad over the plurality of wiring layers. The connection pad may be arranged at least partly over the active element-forming area and divided into a probing area and a bonding area. The exemplary method may further include probing the semiconductor integrated circuit by contacting a probing needle onto the probing area of the connection pad; and bonding a bonding wire to the bonding area of the connection pad. The forming of the plurality of wiring layers may include forming circuit wires for realizing the logical function of the semiconductor integrated circuit by utilizing at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area and the probing area and also by utilizing an additional one of the plurality of wiring layers over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers under the probing area; forming a first reinforcing structure over the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the first reinforcing structure is positioned between the probing area and the active element-forming area and such that the first reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the probing; and forming a second reinforcing structure over the at least one of the plurality of wiring layers such that the second reinforcing structure is positioned between the bonding area and the active element-forming area, and such that the second reinforcing structure prevents the active elements from being damaged during the bonding. In the exemplary method, preferably, none of the circuit wires is formed by utilizing the additional one of the plurality of wiring layers under the bonding area. | 20050111 | 20091208 | 20050728 | 65977.0 | 0 | ANYA, IGWE U | SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT HAVING CONNECTION PADS OVER ACTIVE ELEMENTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,145 | ACCEPTED | Branching filter package | A branching filter package has a SAW filter chip housing area which houses a piezo electric base, on which a transmitting SAW filter and a receiving SAW filter having a different frequency passing band with each other, are formed, and an impedance matching circuit and a branching circuit for the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter. | 1-5. (canceled) 6. A surface acoustic wave (SAW) duplexer comprising: a transmitting SAW filter having a plurality of first SAW resonators connected to the ground; a receiving SAW filter having a plurality of second SAW resonators connected to the ground, wherein a number of the second SAW filters is larger than a number of the first SAW resonators; a single piezoelectric substrate on which the transmitting and receiving SAW filters are formed; a package base board on which the single piezoelectric substrate is mounted; and an antenna terminal formed on the package base board, wherein the antenna terminal is connected to the transmitting and receiving SAW filters. 7. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising: a connecting portion formed on the package base board, wherein the connecting portion is connected to the transmitting and receiving SAW filters; and an impedance matching circuit connected between the antenna terminal and the connecting portion. 8. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 7, wherein the impedance matching circuit has a strip line circuit and an open circuit. 9. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 8, wherein the strip line circuit has an inductance element and the open circuit has a capacitance element. 10. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising a strip line connected between the antenna terminal and the receiving circuit. 11. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising a branching circuit connected between the antenna terminal and the receiving circuit. 12. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 11, wherein the branching circuit is formed by a wiring pattern. 13. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising a branching circuit connected between the antenna terminal and the transmitting circuit. 14. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 13, wherein the branching circuit is formed by a wiring pattern. 15. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, wherein the package base board has a first package base board and a second package base board, and wherein the strip line circuit is formed on the first package base board and the open circuit is formed on the second package base board. 16. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 15, wherein the package base board further has a third package base board disposed between the first and second package base board, and wherein the single piezoelectric substrate is mounted on the third package base board. 17. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 15, further comprising a plurality of ground voltage patterns formed on the third package base board, wherein the ground voltage patterns are electrically connected to the transmitting and receiving SAW filters. 18. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, wherein the surface acoustic wave duplexer has a characteristic impedance between approximately 40 ohms and approximately 50 ohms. 19. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising: a plurality of sub package base boards constituting the package base board; and a plurality of ground voltage patterns formed on one of the sub package base boards, the ground voltage patterns being electrically connected to the transmitting and receiving SAW filters. 20. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, wherein the package base board have a heat radiating opening that radiates a heat generated from the transmitting and receiving SAW filters. 21. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising: a plurality of sub package base boards constituting the package base board; and a spurious eliminating open stub formed on one of the sub package base boards. 22. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 6, further comprising: a transmitting terminal formed on the package base board; a receiving terminal formed on the package base board; a transmitting input matching circuit connected between the transmitting terminal and the transmitting SAW filer; and a receiving input matching circuit connected between the receiving terminal and the receiving SAW filer. 23. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 22, wherein the transmitting and receiving input matching circuits are formed on the package base board. 24. A surface acoustic wave (SAW) duplexer comprising: a transmitting SAW filter having a first input portion, a first output portion, a ground portion and a plurality of first SAW resonators connected to the ground portion; a receiving SAW filter having a second input portion, a second output portion, the ground portion and a plurality of second SAW resonators connected to the ground portion, and wherein a number of the second SAW filters is larger than a number of the first SAW resonators; a single piezoelectric substrate on which the transmitting and receiving SAW filters are formed; a package base board on which the single piezoelectric substrate is mounted; and an antenna terminal formed on the package base board, wherein the antenna terminal is connected to the first and second input portions. 25. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 24, further comprising a strip line connected between the antenna terminal and the receiving circuit. 26. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 24, further comprising a branching circuit connected between the antenna terminal and the receiving circuit. 27. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 26, wherein the branching circuit is formed by a wiring pattern. 28. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 24, further comprising a branching circuit connected between the antenna terminal and the transmitting circuit. 29. A surface acoustic wave duplexer according to claim 28, wherein the branching circuit is formed by a wiring pattern. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/450,997, filed Nov. 29, 1999, and Japan Patent Application No. 149959, filed May 28, 1999, both of which are incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims the priority of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/785,501, filed Feb. 20, 2001, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/305,304, filed May 5, 1999, issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,222,426, and Japan Patent Application No. 10-160088, filed Jun. 9, 1998, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a branching filter that is used in small mobile communication devices such as mobile cellular phones. In particular, the present invention relates to branching filters and the construction of branching filter packages that use a high Radio Frequency (RF) filter as an elastic Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) resonator type filter (called a SAW filter below) to achieve increased miniaturization and high performance. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, the development of small and light-weight mobile communication devices, typified by devices such as mobile cellular phones, is advancing rapidly. With such advances come the demand for further miniaturization and higher performance of branching filters that are used by such mobile communication devices. Devices like the SAW branching filter, which uses a SAW filter, has tremendous potential for achieving further miniaturization of the mobile communication devices. In addition, they are also required to have small insertion losses at the pass band and large attenuation at the attenuation band. SAW branching filters used in conventional mobile communication terminal devices such as mobile cellular phones have been disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. H6-97761. In this type of SAW branching filter, the impedance matching circuit located between the antenna terminal and the receiver terminal, and the receiver filter, are connected in a serial manner. In addition, the phase matching circuit located between the antenna terminal and the receiver terminal, and the receiver filter, are connected in a serial manner. Furthermore, both the transmitting filter and the receiving filter form a ladder type resonator filter by arranging the serial arm SAW resonator and the parallel arm SAW resonator. Due to the fact that such filters possess different center frequencies, for the various filters used for transmitting and receiving, the insertion losses at the frequency pass band is smaller and the attenuation at the frequency damping band is large in comparison. In order to suppress the mutual interference between the transmitting filter and the receiving filter that have different characteristics, it is necessary to maintain insulation between the transmitting SAW branching filter and the receiving branching filter described above. For example, the transmitting filter and the receiving filter are formed on different piezo electric base boards. When the two filters are housed in the same filter package, it is necessary to decide whether to house the two filters in separate cavities that exist in the package (where the transmitting and receiving filters are separated using the wall of the package), or to house the transmitting and receiving filters in one cavity of the package while maintaining proper isolation between the two filters by keeping a certain distance between the two filters. In addition, the phase matching circuit and the impedance matching circuit are also formed together with the transmitting and receiving filters on the same package. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is therefore the objective of the present invention to provide a branching filter package that overcomes the above issues in the related art. By using a SAW filter chip that has a housing area for the housing of piezo electric base board which forms the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter with different frequency passing band, the present invention provides a branching filter package that forms the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter, and the related impedance matching circuit and the branching circuit. The present invention makes is possible to build a highly reliable and miniaturized branching filter. This is achieved by a combination of new designs described in the independent claims. The dependent claims define further advantageous and exemplary combinations of the present invention. This summary of the invention does not necessarily describe all necessary features so that the invention may also be a sub-combination of these described features. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an example of the structure of the SAW branching filter described in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 shows the concrete circuit structure of the SAW branching filter described in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 shows the concrete circuit structure of the SAW branching filter described in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4A-FIG. 4C shows the perspective view of the SAW branching filter when housed in the package in the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 shows the organization of functions of the SAW branching filter when transmitting action is activated in the first form of the operation of the present invention. FIG. 6 shows the organization of functions of the SAW branching filter when receiving action is activated in the first form of the operation of the present invention. FIG. 7 explains the SAW branching filter impedance in the first form of the operation of the present invention. FIG. 8 shows simulation values for the SAW resonator of FIG. 2. FIG. 9 shows simulation values for various branching filters. FIG. 10 shows simulation values for various branching filters. FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B show the serial arm SAW resonator circuit diagram and its equivalent LC circuit diagram. FIG. 12 shows the structure of the SAW branching filter in the second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 shows the structure of the SAW branching filter in the third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 shows the structure of the SAW branching filter in the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 15A to 15C show the plan view of the multi-layer package base board which is used to house the SAW branching filter in the second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 16 shows the structure of the matching circuit connection lines used in the branching filter for the second embodiment. FIG. 17 shows the equivalent LC circuit diagram related to the matching-circuit connection lines used in the branching filter for the second embodiment. FIG. 18 shows a connection line length, an open circuit length, a line width, a line thickness, and a board thickness for each of a transmitting input matching circuit, an antenna end matching circuit, and a receiver output matching circuit. FIG. 19 shows the equivalent LC value of FIG. 14. FIG. 20 shows the change in input impedance Zin according to the changes of the terminal impedance Zn. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The invention will now be described based on the preferred embodiments, which do not intend to limit the scope of the present invention, but exemplify the invention. All of the features and the combinations thereof described in the embodiment are not necessarily essential to the invention. FIG. 1 is the block diagram showing an example of the structure of the SAW branching filter described in the first embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 1, the SAW branching filter 100 comprises the antenna terminal 101, transmitting terminal 103 and receiving terminal 104. The impedance matching LC circuit 102 is connected to the antenna terminal 101. The transmitting side branching circuit (called the Tx-branching circuit from now on) 105 and the transmitting SAW filter 108 are connected between the impedance matching LC circuit 102 and the transmitting terminal 103. The receiving side branching circuit (called the Rx-branching circuit from now on) 106 and the receiving SAW filter 109 are connected between the impedance matching LC circuit 102 and the receiving SAW filter 109. The transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109 have different frequency pass bands. Although the branching circuit 107 is constructed from the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the Rx-branching circuit 106, depending on the design requirements, Tx-branching circuit 105 does not have to be included. FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 shows concrete circuit structure diagrams for the above SAW branching filter 100 which includes both the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the Rx-branching circuit 106. As shown in FIG. 2, the transmitting SAW filter 108 comprises a three stage ladder type SAW resonators made up from two serial arm SAW resonator and a parallel SAW resonator. The serial arm resonator, consists of the first stage number 1 serial arm SAW resonator (TS1) 108a and the second stage number 2 serial arm SAW resonator (TS2) 108b, is connected between the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the transmitting terminal 103. On the other hand, the parallel arm SAW resonator consists of a) the first stage number 1 parallel arm SAW resonator (TP1) 108c, which is connected between the connection point of the first serial arm SAW resonator (TS1) 108a and the second serial arm SAW resonator (TS2) 108b, and ground, and b) the second stage number 2 parallel arm SAW resonator (TP2) 108d, which is connected between the transmitting terminal 103 and ground. Furthermore, each serial arm SAW resonator and each parallel SAW resonator included in the transmitting SAW filter 108 comprises two SAW resonators. The receiving SAW filter 109 comprises of a five stage ladder type SAW resonator made up from three serial arm SAW resonators and parallel arm SAW resonator. The serial arm SAW resonator is connected between the Rx-branching circuit 106 and the receiving terminal 104, and consists of the first stage number 1 serial arm SAW resonator (RS1) 109a, the second stage number 2 serial arm SAW resonator (RS2) 109b, and the third stage number 3 serial arm SAW resonator (RS3) 109c. On the other hand, the parallel arm SAW resonator consists of a) the first stage number 1 parallel arm SAW resonator (RP1) 109d which is connected between the connection point of the number 1 serial arm SAW resonator (RS1) 109a and number 2 serial arm SAW resonator (RS2) 109b, and ground, b) the second stage number 2 parallel arm SAW resonator (RP2) 109e, which is connected between the connection point between the number 2 serial arm SAW resonator (RS2) 109b and the number 3 serial arm SAW resonator (RS3) 109c, and ground, and c) the third stage number 3 parallel SAW resonator (RP3) 109f, which is connected between the transmitting terminal 104 and ground. Furthermore, in order to allow miniaturization of SAW branching filter 100, Tx-branching circuit 105 uses the serial arm type SAW resonator (T×S) 105a, and the Rx-branching circuit 106 uses the serial arm type SAW resonator (R×S) 106a. The impedance matching LC circuit 102 consists of capacitor CANT 102a and inductor LANT 102B. Here as shown in FIG. 3, in order to achieve further miniaturization for SAW branching filter 100, the number 1 serial arm SAW resonator (TS1) 108a used by the transmitting SAW filter 108, and the serial arm SAW resonator (T×S) 105a of the Tx-branching circuit 105, are combined as a combination SAW resonator 108e. Similarly, the number 1 serial arm SAW resonator (RS1) 109a used by the receiving SAW filter 109, and the serial arm type SAW resonator (R×S) 106a of the Rx-branching circuit 106, are combined to form the combined resonator 109g. Next, FIG. 4A shows the perspective view of the package base board 111 which houses the piezo electric base board 110 on which the SAW branching filter 100 described above, consisting of the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109, is formed. As for the package base board, resin base board, low temperature sintering based board, or aluminum base board can be used. In addition, this package base board can be formed using a multiple layered package base board. This will be described in detail in embodiment 2 to embodiment 4. Tx-in and Tx-out shown in FIG. 4A are the input terminal and the output terminal for the transmitting SAW filter 108, respectively. Rx-in and Rx-out are the input terminal and the output terminal for the receiving SAW filter 109, respectively. The output terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the input terminal of the receiving SAW filter 109 are both connected with the antenna terminal 101, which is not shown in FIG. 4A. Furthermore, the output terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 108 is related to the transmitting terminal 103 shown in FIG. 1, and the output terminal of the receiving SAW filter 109 is related to the receiving terminal 104 shown in FIG. 1. In this case, the branching circuit 107 and the frequency regulator LC element 102 are formed on the package base board 111, outside of the piezo electric base board 110. Next, FIG. 4B shows the case in which the branching circuit 107, transmitting SAW filter 108, and the receiving SAW filter 109 are formed on the same piezo electric base board 110. When the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the Rx-branching circuit 106 are included as branching circuit 107, both branching circuits should be housed on the piezo electric base board 110. In addition, in the case where the branching circuit 107 only includes the Rx-branching circuit 106, only the Rx-branching circuit 106 should be housed on the piezo electric base board 110. In FIG. 4B, the necessary connection lines as well as the input and output terminals are omitted, and the Tx-branching circuit 105 is shown in dotted line, and the Rx-branching circuit 106 is shown in solid line. In the case where the structure of the circuit is similar to that shown in FIG. 4B, the impedance matching LC circuit 102 is housed outside of the piezo electric base board 110. Next, FIG. 4C shows the case in which the impedance matching LC circuit 102, the branching circuit 107, the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109 are housed on the same piezo electric base board 110. Similar to the example shown in FIG. 4B, when the branching circuit includes the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the Rx-branching circuit 106, both branching circuits should be housed on the piezo electric base board 110. The Tx-branching circuit 105 is also housed according to the design described above. However, in FIG. 4C, the necessary connection circuits, and the input and output terminal are omitted. The Tx-branching circuit 105 and the Rx-branching circuit 106, which form the SAW branching filter 100, as shown in the above FIG. 4A to FIG. 4C, comprise various serial arm SAW resonators. Next, the first embodiment of the operation of the SAW branching filter is explained using FIG. 5 to FIG. 10. FIG. 5 shows the different functions of each component of the SAW branching filter 100 when it is activated for transmitting operations. FIG. 6 shows the different functions of each component of the SAW branching filter 100 when it is activated for receiving operations. FIG. 7 describes the impedance of the SAW branching filter 100. In general, the branching filter uses only one antenna. Therefore, when a transmitting signal is transmitted and a receiving signal is received, the antenna is shared by both sides and connected directly to both the transmitting related circuit and the receiving related circuit. Due to this reason, the performance of the branching filter has a very large impact on that of small mobile communication devices. As shown in FIG. 5, when the SAW branching filter 100 is used as a transmitter, the transmitting signal from the power amplifier 113 is sent to the transmitting SAW filter 108 through the transmitting terminal 103. The frequency band of the transmitting signal is first regulated by the transmitting SAW filter 108, and sent to antenna 112 via the antenna terminal 101, before it is transmitted. In this case, the receiving part circuit 114A which consists of the Rx-branching circuit 106, and the receiving. SAW filter 109, together with antenna 112, can be viewed as a load circuit with a combined resistance R1. In addition, as shown in FIG. 6, when the SAW branching filter is used as a receiver, the signal received from the antenna 112 is sent to the receiving SAW filter 109 via the antenna terminal 101. The frequency pass band of the received signal is regulated by the receiving SAW filter 109, and sent to the receiving part circuit 114B via the receiving terminal 104. In this case, the transmitting part circuit 115 which consists of the Tx-branching circuit 105 and the transmitting SAW filter 108, together with antenna 112, can be viewed as a load circuit with combined resistance R2. The function of the SAW branching filter 100 during the transmitting operation and the receiving operation can be understood by studying the diagrams shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6. As such, the SAW branching filter 100 must satisfy the following necessary conditions if it is to be considered as a high performance branching filter. Zr×ZANT/(Zr+ZANT)˜50 (1-1) Zr˜8 (1-2) On the other hand, if the SAW branching filter 100 is used as a receiver as shown in FIG. 6, let the input impedance of the transmitting part circuit 115 be Zt 116, this Zt 116 must satisfy the following approximation equations (1-3) and (1-4). Zt×Zr/(Zt+Zr)˜50 (1-3) Zr˜8 (1-4) If the transmitting frequency band of the mobile cellular phone is from 890 MHz to 915 Mhz, and the receiving frequency band is from 935 MHz to 960 MHz, it is possible to set the receiving frequency passing band of the transmitting SAW filter 108, which is contained in the transmitting part circuit 115, to the hyper frequency range from 930 MHz to 960 MHz, through the serial arm SAW resonator 108a and 108b. Due to this reason, the impedance of the transmitting SAW filter 108 can be made to satisfy the approximation equation (1-3). However, it is not possible to set the transmitting frequency pass band of the receiving SAW filter 109, which is contained in the receiving part circuit 114, to the hyper frequency range of 890 MHz to 915 MHz, through the serial arm SAW resonator 109a to 109c. For this reason, the input impedance of the receiving SAW filter 109 can not be made to satisfy the approximation equations (1-1) and (1-2). FIG. 11A shows the circuit diagram of the serial arm SAW resonator used by the SAW branching filter of the present invention. FIG. 11B is the LC equivalent circuit diagram of the serial arm SAW resonator shown in FIG. 11A. Unlike a conventional branching filter in which the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter are formed on different piezo electric base boards, the branching filter described in the present convention has both the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter on the same piezo electric base board. A simulation to compare the impedance characteristic during the transmitting operation was conducted. The subject branching filters of this simulation are the SAW branching filter using the GSM type branching filter found in many mobile cellular phones. The GSM type branching filter does not contain the basic component Tx-branching circuit 105 and inductor LANT and uses the serial arm SAW resonator 106a as the Rx-branching circuit. Therefore, the frequencies used in this simulation are 890 MHz, 915 MHz, 935 MHz, and 960 MHz, within the range of 890 MHz and 960 MHz. In this simulation, the transmitting SAW filter for both the conventional branching filter and the GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) type branching filter used in the present invention are constructed in the same way as the transmitting SAW filter 108 shown in FIG. 2. FIG. 8 shows the cross length (μm) and the electrode logarithm of the SAW resonator which forms the transmitting and receiving SAW filter in SAW branching filter 100. For FIG. 8, as shown in FIG. 2, TS1 and TS2 are the serial arm SAW resonators 108a and 108b, TP1 and TP2 are the parallel SAW resonators 108c and 108d, which form the transmitting SAW filter 108. In addition, RS1 to RS3 are the serial arm SAW resonators 109a to 109c, respectively, and RP1 to RP3 are the parallel arm SAW resonators 109d and 109f, respectively, which form the receiving SAW filter 109. Furthermore, in the simulation, the branching filter used in the present invention is constructed using the serial arm SAW resonator 106a as the Rx-branching circuit 106. The conventional branching filter used in this simulation has the transmitting SAW filter and receiving SAW filter housed on different piezo electric base boards. The Rx-branching circuit and the frequency regulating LC circuit are put on the package base board which carries the different piezo electric base board on which the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter are formed. FIG. 9 shows the type of branching filters, the required parameters and the impedance values of various branching circuits used to obtain the simulation results. In FIG. 9, symbols A and B denote branching filters with conventional construction, symbols C to E denote branching filters constructed as in the present invention. These branching filters are branching filters that use SAW resonators and are used for mobile cellular phones. The transmitting frequency band is from 890 MHz to 915 MHz, and the receiving frequency band is from 935 MHZ to 960 MHz, which are used by the GSM type branching filter. According to FIG. 9, in conventional branching filter A, Tx-branching circuit is not included in the branching circuit (line length LT=0 mm), but rather the Rx-branching circuit with the line length LR=40 mm is included. There is also no frequency regulating LC circuit. Therefore, the input terminal of the transmitting SAW filter and the input terminal of the Rx-branching circuit are directly connected to the antenna terminal. In addition, in the conventional branching filter B, the Tx-branching circuit and the Rx-branching circuit are not included as part of the branching circuit (line length LT and LR=0 mm). There is also no frequency regulating LC circuit. Therefore, the input terminals of both the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter are directly connected to the antenna terminal. In the three types of branching filters C to E used as the subject of this simulation, the Tx-branching circuit 105 is not included as shown in the circuit diagram of FIG. 1. Therefore, the input terminal of the transmitting SAW filter is directly connected the impedance matching LC circuit 102. In addition, in the branching filters C to E, the serial arm SAW resonator 106a is included in the Rx-branching filter circuit 106. The serial arm SAW resonator 106a consists of the first stage serial arm SAW resonator 109a of the receiving SAW filter 109, and the combined resonator 109g. Based on the conditions set above, in the branching filter C, the capacitor CANT (capacitance=10 pF) and the inductor LANT (inductance=7 nH) are available for the impedance matching LC circuit 102 housed outside of the module. In the branching filter D, no capacitor CANT is used, and only the inductor LANT (inductance=7 nH) is available for the impedance matching LC circuit 102. Similarly, in the branching filter E, there is no capacitor CANT, and only the inductor LANT (inductance=10 nH) is available for the impedance matching LC circuit 102. Therefore, in the branching filters C to E of the present invention, the improvement of the frequency characteristic of the module depends on the impedance matching LC circuit 102. In FIG. 10, the real part and the imaginary part of the input impedance Zt 117 and Zt 116 of the transmitting SAW filter 108 for both the branching filter B (conventional) and the branching filter D (the present invention) as shown in FIG. 7, are shown respectively. In addition, the value of the input impedance of various transmitting and receiving SAW filters for frequencies of 890 MHz, 915 MHz, 935 MHz and 960 MHz are also shown. The units of the real part values and the imaginary part values in FIG. 10 are ohms and standardized at 50 ohms. It can be seen from FIG. 10 by comparing the input impedance Zt and Zr of the branching filters B and D, that the impedance in the transmitting pass band of the transmitting SAW filter of the branching filter D used in the present invention becomes much larger. To further compare the detailed data, it can be seen from FIG. 10, that the input impedance Zr of the receiving SAW filter at frequency f=890 MHz for the conventional branching filter B is 0.0127 for the real part and −1.089 for the imaginary part respectively. On the other hand, the input impedance Zr for the branching filter D of the present invention is 3.54 for the real part and 23.20 for the imaginary part. As such, it is apparent that the branching filter of the present invention has improved the frequency characteristic to a very large extent. Furthermore, it can be seen from the results of the impedance characteristics shown in FIG. 9, that the transmitting frequency pass band is from 935 MHz to 960 MHz. The branching filter described in the present invention, whose impedance characteristic was studied in the simulation, is the result of miniaturization due to the combining of the first stage serial arm SAW resonator of the receiving SAW filter in the Rx-branching circuit. In the following, the input impedance at the most interesting frequency range for the performance of mobile cellular phones, i.e. at frequency f=900 MHz, is explained. Looking from the transmitting and receiving SAW filter side at point C 118, shown in FIG. 7, the compound impedance Zin can be calculated according to equation (1-5). Zin=Zt×Zr/(Zt+Zr) (1-5) In such case, the input impedance of transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109 at frequency f=900 MHz is as follows based on FIG. 10. Zt(900)=0.863−j0.626 (1-6) Zt(900)=0.0175−j0.934 (1-7) As such, looking from the transmitting and receiving SAW filter side at point C 118, the impedance Zin can be obtained from equation (1-8). Zin(Tr)(900)=0.2409−j0.501 (1-8) When the impedance Zin (Tr) (900) is adjusted by the inductor LANT 102b in the impedance matching LC circuit 102, the value of the inductance LANT becomes: LANT=4.4 nH (1-9) In this case, when the specific impedance can not reach the expected value, it is necessary to insert an impedance matching circuit. As a matter of fact, for this type of mobile cellular phone, not only at frequency f=900 MHz, but for the transmitting band range between 890 MHz and 915 MHz, an optimal characteristic is required. This optimal characteristic is usually determined through simulation. FIG. 9 shows the results of impedance adjustment using only the inductor LANT 102b at the transmitting frequency band range from 890 MHz to 915 MHz for the branching filters D and E. In addition, the results of impedance adjustment using both the inductor LANT 102b and the capacitor CANT 102a at the transmitting frequency band range from 890 MHz to 915 MHz for the branching filter C are shown in FIG. 9. The value of the inductor LANT 102b and capacitor CANT 102a is matched as one set, at LANT=7.0 nH and CANT=10.0 pF. Furthermore, as explained by the results shown in FIG. 9, by using the branching filter described in the present invention, and housing the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109 on the same piezo electric base board, the characteristic of the frequency pass band of the SAW branching filter can be improved using the impedance matching LC circuit 102 housed outside of the module. In addition, due to the fact that the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter are formed on the same piezo electric base board, when dicing the transmitting and receiving SAW filter 108 and 109 in wafer conditions, it is not necessary to separate the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109. As such, it is not necessary to have the dicing line area on the wafer that was used to ensure proper separation between the transmitting SAW filter 108 and the receiving SAW filter 109 as required by the conventional counterpart. Therefore, it is possible to house more SAW filters on one wafer and improve the yield. On the other hand, from the results shown in FIG. 10, the impedance at the transmitting band range of the receiving SAW filter 109 becomes much larger due to the fact that the serial arm SAW resonator 106a is used for the branching circuit. This improvement is dependent on the impedance looking from the filter side at point C 118 as shown in FIG. 7. That is to say, it can be considered as the result of inserting the serial arm SAW resonator 106a in the input terminal of the receiving SAW filter 109 as the branching circuit. The impedance value after the insertion of the serial arm SAW resonator 106a, used as a branching circuit, needs to be adjusted via the impedance matching LC circuit 102 housed outside of the module. By making the frequency regulating LC circuit into a chip and housing it on the transmitting and receiving filter package base board, or housing it on the piezo electric base board on which the transmitting and receiving SAW filter are formed, it is possible to achieve further miniaturization and higher performance for branching filters which contain SAW resonators. In the following, the second to fourth embodiments of the present invention are explained using FIG. 12 to FIG. 15C. FIG. 12 shows the structure diagram of the SAW branching filter 200 as described in the second embodiment of the present invention. The transmitting and receiving SAW filters 206 and 207 are formed on the same piezo electric base board 208. In addition, the multi-layered package base board which houses the SAW branching filter described in the second embodiment is shown in FIG. 15A to FIG. 15C. The SAW branching filter 200 described in the second embodiment is constructed as follows. First, as shown in FIG. 12, the transmitting SAW filter 206 and the receiving SAW filter 207 are formed on the same piezo electric base board 208. The antenna terminal matching circuit 202 and the branching circuit 205 are located between the receiving SAW filter 207 and the antenna terminal 201, which is connected to antenna 221. The antenna terminal matching circuit 202 consists of a strip line LANT 216 used as an inductor, and the open stub SANT 217 used as a capacitor. In addition, the antenna matching circuit 202 is connected to ground via terminal 218. The transmitting terminal 203 is connected to the output terminal of the power amplifier 215 and the transmitting input matching circuit 213 is connected between the transmitting terminal 203 and the transmitting SAW filter 206. Here, the transmitting input matching circuit 213 consists of a strip line LT 209 used as an inductor and a open stub ST 210 used as a capacitor. In addition, the transmitting input matching circuit 213 is connected to ground via terminal 219. The receiving output matching circuit 214 is connected between the receiving terminal 204 and the receiving SAW filter 207. Here, the receiving output matching circuit 214 consists of a strip line LR 211 as an inductor and a open stub SR 212 as a capacitor. In addition, the receiving output matching circuit 214 is connected to ground via terminal 220. The following explains the SAW branching filter 200 described above when housed on a multi-layer package base board as shown in FIGS. 15A to 15C. The multi-layer package base board described in the present invention basically consists of package base boards 600 to 800 as shown in FIG. 15A to FIG. 15C. In the center part of the package base board 600, a cavity 601 is located in order to provide space for the housing of peizo electric base board 208, which in turn is used to house the transmitting SAW filter 206 and 207. In addition, the electrode pads 602A to 602H, the transmitting terminal 603A, the antenna terminal 603B, and the receiving terminal 603C are formed on the package base board 600. The strip line 605 which is equivalent to the strip line LT 209 of the transmitting input matching circuit 213 is formed between the transmitting terminal 603A and the electrode pad 602H. Although the transmitting terminal 603A is connected with an open stub 604 in the package base board 600, there is no need for such an arrangement in the second embodiment. On the other hand, the electrode pad 602H is connected to the terminal 806 in the multi-layer package base board. The terminal 806 on the package base board 800 is connected with the open stab 805, which in turn corresponds to the open stab ST210. As such, the input terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 206 is connected to electrode pad 602H via methods such as wire bonding. The strip line 606A, which is equivalent to the strip line LANT 216 of the antenna matching circuit 202, is formed between the antenna terminal 603B and the electrode 602D. The antenna terminal 603B is connected to the output terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 206, via terminal 607, wiring 606B and electrode terminal 602D. As shown in FIG. 15C, terminal 607 is connected to terminal 803, and connected to terminal 804 via the branching circuit 801 which corresponds to branching circuit 205. Terminal 804 is connected to the electrode pad 602A located in the multi-layer package base board, and the electrode pad 602A is further connected to the input terminal of the receiving SAW filter 207 using techniques such as wire bonding. In addition, the antenna terminal 603B is connected to terminal 802B of the package base board 800 located in the multi-layer package base board. The open stab 807 which corresponds to open stub SANT 217 of the antenna matching circuit 202 is formed on the package base board 800. The strip line 608, which corresponds to the strip line LR 211 of the receiving output matching circuit 214, is formed between the receiving terminal 603C and the electrode pad 602E. In addition, as shown in FIG. 15C, the receiving terminal 603C is connected to terminal 802C in the multi-layer package base board. The open stub 808 corresponds to open stub SR 212 and is also connected to terminal 802C. The electrode pads 602C and 602G located on the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 701A and 701B located on the package base board 700 in the multi-layer package base board. In addition, the terminals 701A and 701B are located in the ground voltage pattern 701 which is connected to the ground voltage VSS via terminals 703A to 703C and 703H. As such, the electrode pads 602C and 602G located in the package base board 600 are used as ground electrode pads. For example, in the second embodiment, the electrode-pad 602C is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 218 in the antenna terminal matching circuit 202, and the electrode pad 602G is used as ground voltage electrode pad 219 in the transmitting input matching circuit 213. Similarly, the electrode pads 602B and 602F located in the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 702A and 702B of the package base board 700 in the multi-layer package base board. In addition, terminals 702A and 702B are located in the ground voltage pattern 702 which is connected to the ground voltage VSS via terminals 703D to 703G As such, the electrode pads 602B and 602F located in the package base board 600 are used as ground electrode pads. For example, in the second embodiment, the electrode pad 602B is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 218 in the antenna terminal matching circuit 202, and the electrode pad 602F is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 220 in the receiving output matching circuit 214. The piezo electric base board 208, on which the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 206 and 207 are formed, is housed in the chip housing area 704 on the package base board 700. In addition, in the ground voltage pattern 702 of the chip housing area 704, multiple through holes 705 are provided. These through holes 705 are connected to the multiple through holes 809 located on the package base board 800 of the multi-layer package base board. As shown above, for the branching package described in the second embodiment, the transmitting SAW filter 206 and the receiving SAW filter 207 are formed on the same piezo electric base board 208. By housing the piezo electric base board 208 on the multi-layer package base board, it is possible to achieve further miniaturization of the SAW branching filter. In addition, the strip lines LT 209 (605), LR 211 (608) and LANT 216 (606A) are formed on the package base board 600, and the branching circuit 205 (801) and the open stubs ST 210 (805), SR 212 (808) and SANT 217 (807) are formed on the package base board 800. As such, because the strip lines are formed on one package base board, while the branching circuit and the open stabs are formed on another package base board, the SAW branching filter as a whole can be further miniaturized. In addition, since the various ground voltage patterns related to the transmitting input matching circuit 213 and the receiving output matching circuit 214 are installed separately in package base board 700, it is possible to control the worsening of the frequency characteristic caused by the interference between the transmitting SAW filter 206 and the receiving SAW filter 207. Furthermore, due to the fact that the through holes 705 and 809 are arranged in the housing area to be used to house the piezo electric base board forming the transmitting SAW filters 206 and 207 in the package base boards 700 and 800, it is possible to radiate the heat generated from the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 206 and 207 efficiently. As such, the reliability of the SAW branching filter is improved. Next, the operation of the SAW branching filter 200 housed on the multi-layer package base board as described above is explained as follows. First, the impedance adjusting operation of the matching circuit connection lines in the branching filter is explained using FIG. 16 and FIG. 17. The circuit shown in FIG. 16 and the equivalent LC circuit shown in FIG. 17 must satisfy the following equations (2-1) and (2-2). L=ZO×LL/CC (2-1) C=LL/(CC×ZO) (2-2) Here, ZO is the characteristic impedance of the connection circuit, LL is the connection length (cm), and CC=3.0×1010. The impedance Zin of the branching circuit or the SAW filter including the connection circuit shown in FIG. 14 can be calculated using equation (2-3). Zin=(Zn+jWL)/(1+jWC(Zn+jWL)) (2-3) Here W=2pf (f: frequency) Next, the connection line (strip line Lt 209) of the transmitting input matching circuit 213 described in detail in the second embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 12 is explained. If the connection line (strip line Lt209) equivalent length is taken to be 11.85 mm, the line width is taken to be 0.1 mm, the thickness of the base board is taken to be 0.2 mm+0.2 mm=0.4 mm, the thickness of the circuit is taken to be 0.02 mm, and the dielectric constant of the package base board, on which the connection line is formed, is taken to be 5.0 (refer to FIG. 18), the characteristic impedance of the connection line equals to 53.6 ohm. From the above calculation, the equivalent LC value of FIG. 17, as shown in FIG. 19, is L=4.73 nH, and C=1.65 pF. Concerning strip line Lt209 (L=4.73 nH, C=1.65 pF), as shown in FIG. 17, the change in input impedance Zin according to the changes of the terminal impedance Zn is shown in FIG. 20. As it can been seen from FIG. 20, for example, when the terminal impedance Zn equals to 30 ohms, the input impedance Zin becomes 46.7−j18.2. That is to say, the impedance value Zin of the SAW branching filter can be set as expected via the use of the connection lines such as the strip lines. In addition, it is possible to have a circuit with even a lower loss by setting the impedance in the branching circuit 205 to a lower value. In the second embodiment, if the line width of the branching circuit is set to 0.2 mm, and the thickness of the base board is set to 0.4 mm, the characteristic impedance of the branching circuit in the SAW branching filter 200 can be set to 40.2 ohm, which achieves lower SAW branching filter loss. Next, the operation of the open stub (open circuit) of the matching circuit in the branching circuit is explained as follows. The impedance Zinf of this open stab can be calculated using equation (2-4). Zinf=−jcot(2p LL/s) (2-4) Here, the open circuit (open stub ST 210) of the transmitting input matching circuit 213 in the second embodiment is explained concretely. For the transmitting input matching circuit 213, if LL=10.32 mm, the equivalent capacitor Cinf is 2.63 pF. In other words, depending on the use of the open stub ST210, in a specific frequency band range, it is possible to adjust the characteristic impedance of the connection line of the strip line to an expected value. That is to say, depending on the effect of the open circuit (open stab), the imaginary part of the characteristic impedance according to the connection line can be changed from positive values to negative values. FIG. 13 shows the structure diagram of a SAW branching filter 300 for the third embodiment of the present invention. The branching circuit 305, the transmitting SAW filter 306 and the receiving SAW filter 307 are formed on one piezo electric base board 308. In addition, for the third embodiment of the present invention, the multi-layer package base board which is used to house the SAW branching filter is explained through FIG. 15A to FIG. 15C. The SAW branching filter 300 described in the third embodiment is constructed as follows. First, as shown in FIG. 13, the branching circuit 305, the transmitting SAW filter 306, and the receiving SAW filter 307 are formed on a single piezo electric base board 308. The branching circuit 305 is located between the antenna terminal 301, which is linked to antenna 321, and the receiving SAW filter 307. The antenna terminal matching circuit 302 is located between the antenna terminal 301 and the branching circuit 305. Here, the antenna terminal matching circuit 302 consists of the strip line LANT 316 used as an inductor and the open stub SANT 317 used as a capacitor. In addition, the antenna terminal matching circuit 302 is linked to ground via terminal 318. The transmitting terminal 303 is connected to the output terminal of the power amplifier 315. The transmitting input matching circuit 313 is connected between the transmitting terminal 303 and the transmitting SAW filter 306. Here, the transmitting input matching circuit 313 consists of the strip line LT309 used as an inductor and the open stub ST310 used as a capacitor. In addition, the transmitting input matching circuit 313 is connected to ground via terminal 319. The receiving output matching circuit 314 is connected between the receiving terminal 304 and the receiving SAW filter 307. Here, the receiving output matching circuit 314 consists of the strip line LR 311 used as an inductor, and the open stub SR 312 used as a capacitor. In addition, the receiving output matching circuit 314 is connected to ground via terminal 320. FIG. 15A to 15C show the structure of the SAW branching filter 300 described above when housed on a multi-layer package base board and is explained as follows. The multi-layer package base board described in the present invention, in foundation, is derived from the package base boards 600 to 800. In the center area of the package base board 600, a cavity 601 is formed to house the piezo electric base board 308 of the receiving SAW filter 306 and 307. Furthermore, the electrode pads 602A to 602H, the transmitting terminal 603A, the antenna terminal 603A, the antenna terminal 603B and the receiving terminal 603C are formed on the package base board 600. The strip line 605 corresponding to the strip line LT 309 of the transmitting input matching circuit 313 is formed between the transmitting terminal 603A and the electrode pad 602H. In addition, although the open stab 604 is connected to the transmitting terminal 603A in package base board 600, there is no need for such arrangement in the third embodiment. On the other hand, electrode pad 602H is connected to terminal 806 in the multi-layer package base board, and the terminal 806 is connected to the open stab 805 which corresponds to the open stub ST 310 in the package base board 800. Furthermore, the electrode pad 602H is connected to the input terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 306 using a wire bonding method. The strip line 606A, which corresponds to strip line LANT 316 of the antenna matching circuit 302, is connected between the antenna terminal 603B and the electrode pad 602D. The antenna terminal 603B is further connected to the output terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 306 via terminal 607, circuit 606B and electrode terminal 602D. In the third embodiment, since the branching circuit 305 is formed on the piezo electric base board 308 along with the transmitting and receiving SAW filters, there is no need to include branching circuit 801 as shown in FIG. 15C. In addition, antenna terminal 603B is connected to terminal 802B of the package base board 800 in the multi-layer package base board, and the open stab 807 which corresponds to the open stub SANT 317 of the antenna end matching circuit 302 is formed in the package base board 800. The strip line 608, which corresponds to the strip line LR 311 of the receiving output matching circuit 314, is formed between receiving terminal 603C and the electrode pad 602E. In addition, as shown in FIG. 15C, the receiving terminal 603C is connected to the terminal 802C in the multi-layer package base board. In other words, the open stub 808 corresponding to open stub SR 312 and is also connected to the terminal 802C. The electrode pads 602C and 602G in the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 701A and 701B of the package base board 700, in the multi-layer package board 700, respectively. In addition, terminals 701A and 701B are set up in the ground voltage pattern 701 connected to the ground voltage VSS through terminals 703A to 703C and 703H. As such, the electrode pads 602C and 602G in the package base board 600 can be used as ground voltage electrode pads. For example, in the third embodiment, the electrode pad 602C is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 318 in the antenna terminal matching circuit 302, and the electrode pad 602G is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 319 in the transmitting input matching circuit 313. Similarly, the electrode pads 602B and 602F in the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 702A and 702B in the package base board 700 of the multi-layer package board. In addition, terminals 702A and 702B are set up in the ground voltage pattern 702 which is connected to the ground voltage VSS via terminals 703D to 703G, respectively. As such, the electrode pads 602B and 602F in the package base board 600 are used as ground voltage electrode pads. For example, in the third embodiment, the electrode pad 602B is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 318 in the antenna end matching circuit 302, and the electrode pad 602F is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 320 in the receiving output matching circuit 314. The branching circuit 305 and the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 306 and 307 are formed on the piezo electric base board 308, and are housed on the chip housing area 704 on package base board 700. In addition, in the ground voltage pattern 702 of the chip housing area 704, multiple through holes 705 are set up. These through holes 705 are connected to the multiple through holes 809 set up in the package base board 800 of the multi-layer package base board. As shown above, based on the branching filter package describe in the third embodiment, the branching filter circuit 305, the transmitting SAW filter 306 and the receiving SAW filter 307 are formed on a single piezo electric base board 308. Furthermore, the piezo electric base board 308 is housed in the multi-layer package base board, thus enabling further miniaturization of the whole SAW branching filter. Still more, the strip lines LT 309 (605), LR 311 (608) and LANT 316 (606A) are formed on the package base board 700. On the other hand, the open stubs ST 310 (805), SR312 (808) and SANT317 (807) are formed on the package base board 800. That is to say, because the strip lines are formed along with the branching circuit and the open stub on different package base boards, further miniaturization for the whole branching filter is achieved. In addition, because the branching circuit 305 is formed on the piezo electric base board 308 with small loss, it is possible to improve the frequency characteristic of the SAW branching filter 300. Furthermore, with respect to the package base board 700, because the transmitting input matching circuit 313 and the receiving output matching circuit 314 and their related ground voltage pattern are separately setup, it is possible to control the worsening of the frequency characteristic of the SAW branching filter due to the interference between the transmitting SAW filter 306 and the receiving SAW filter 307. In addition, since the through holes 705 and 809 are setup in the housing area which is used to house the piezo electric base board forming the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 306 and 307 on the package base boards 700 and 800, it is possible to radiate the heat generated from the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 306 and 307 efficiently to the outside, and further improve the reliability of the SAW branching filter 300. FIG. 14 shows the structure diagram of the SAW branching filter 400 described in the fourth embodiment of the present invention. The transmitting SAW filter 406 and the receiving SAW filter 407 are formed on a single piezo electric base board 408. In addition, concerning the fourth embodiment, the multi-layer package base board used to house the SAW branching filter is explained using FIG. 15A to FIG. 15C. The SAW branching filter 400 described in the fourth embodiment of the present invention is constructed as follows. First, as shown in FIG. 14, the transmitting SAW filter 406 and the receiving SAW filter 407 are formed on a single piezo electric base board 408. The antenna end matching circuit 402 and the branching circuit 405 are set up between the receiving SAW filter 407 and the antenna terminal 401 connected to antenna 422. Here, the antenna end matching circuit 402 consists of the strip line LANT417 used as an inductor, and the open stub SANT418 used as a capacitor. In addition, the antenna end matching circuit 402 is connected to ground via terminal 419. The transmitting terminal 403 is connected to the output terminal of the power amplifier 416. The transmitting input matching circuit 412 is connected between the transmitting terminal 403 and the transmitting SAW filter 406. Here, the transmitting input matching circuit 412 consists of the strip line LT409 used as an inductor and the open stub ST410 used as a capacitor, and STs411. In addition, the transmitting input matching circuit 412 is connected to ground via terminal 420. Open stab STS411 is used to eliminate spurious noise, with a length which can be calculated from the equation 1=c/(4f(er)1/2). Here, 1 is the length of the open stab (mm), c is the speed of light (300×106 m/s), f is the frequency to be eliminated and er is the specific inductive capacitance. The receiving output matching circuit 415 is connected between the receiving terminal 404 and the receiving SAW filter 407. Here, the receiving output matching circuit 415 consists of the strip line LR413 used as an inductor and the open stub SR414 used as a capacitor. In addition, the receiving output matching circuit 415 is connected to ground via terminal 412. The SAW branching filter 400 constructed as described above when housed on the multi-layer package base board is explained as follows. The multi-layer package base board described in the present invention basically consists of boards similar to package base board 600 to 800. In the center area of the package base board 600, a cavity 601 is formed to house the piezo electric base board 408 of the receiving SAW filter 406 and 407. Furthermore, the electrode pads 602A to 602H, the transmitting terminal 603A, the antenna terminal 603B, the antenna terminal 603B and the receiving terminal 603C are formed on the package base board 600. The strip line 605 corresponding to the strip line LT409 of the receiving input matching circuit 412 is formed between the transmitting terminal 603A and the electrode pad 602H. In addition, the transmitting terminal 603A is connected to open stab 604 corresponding to open stub STS411 on the package base board 600. On the other hand, electrode pad 602H is connected to terminal 806 of the multi-layer package base board. The open stab 805 corresponding to open stub ST410 is connected to the terminal 806 in the package base board 800. The input terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 406 is connected to the electric pad 602H using wire bonding methods. Furthermore, as shown in FIG. 15C, terminal 607 is connected to terminal 803, and connected to terminal 804 via the branching circuit 801 corresponding to branching circuit 405, and the electrode pad 602A is connected to the input terminal of the receiving SAW filter 407 using wire bonding methods. The strip line 606A, which corresponds to the strip line LANT 417 of the antenna end matching circuit 402, is connected between the antenna terminal 603B and the electrode pad 602D. Antenna terminal 603B is connected to the output terminal of the transmitting SAW filter 406 via terminal 607, circuit 606B and electrode terminal 602D. In addition, the antenna terminal 603B is connected to terminal 802B of the package base board 800 in the multi-layer package base board. The open stab 807 corresponding to the open stab SANT 18 of the antenna end matching circuit 402 is also formed in the package base board 800. The strip line 608, which corresponds to the strip line LR413 of the receiving output matching circuit 415, is connected between the receiving terminal 603C and the electrode pad 602E. In addition, as shown in FIG. 15C, the receiving terminal 603 is connected to terminal 802C in the multi-layer package base board. Furthermore, open stab 808 corresponding to open stub SR414 is connected to in terminal 802C. The electrode pads 602C and 602G in the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 701A and 701B of the package base board 700, respectively. In addition, terminals 701A and 701B are set up in the ground voltage pattern 701 connected to the ground voltage VSS via terminals 703A to 703C and 703H. As such, the electrode pads 602C and 602G in the package base board 600 can be used as ground voltage electrode pads. For example, in the fourth embodiment, the electrode pad 602C is used as the ground voltage electrode 419 in the antenna end matching circuit 402, and the electrode pad 602G is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 420 in the transmitting input matching circuit 412. Similarly, the electrode pads 602B and 602F in the package base board 600 are connected to terminals 702A and 702B of the package base board 700 in the multi-layer package base board. In addition, terminals 702A and 702B, are set up in the ground voltage pattern 702 connected to the ground voltage VSS via terminals 703D to 703D. As such, the electrode pads 602B and 602F in the package base board 600 can be used as ground voltage electrode pads. For example, in the fourth embodiment, the electrode pad 602B is used as the ground voltage electrode 419 in the antenna end matching circuit 402, and the electrode pad 602F is used as the ground voltage electrode pad 421 in the receiving output matching circuit 415. The transmitting and receiving SAW filters 406 and 407 are formed on the piezo electric base board 408, and are housed on the chip housing area 704 on package base board 700. In addition, in the chip housing area 704 of ground voltage pattern 702, multiple through holes 705 are set up. These through holes 705 are connected to the multiple through holes 809 set up in the package base board 800 of the multi-layer package base board. As shown above, based on the branching filter package described in the fourth embodiment, the transmitting SAW filter 406 and the receiving SAW filter 407 are formed on a single piezo electric base board 408. Furthermore, the piezo electric base board 408 is housed in the multi-layer package base board, thus enabling further miniaturization of the whole SAW branching filter. Still more, the strip lines LT 409 (605), LR 413 (608) and LANT 417 (606A) are formed on the package base board 700. On the other hand, the open stubs ST410 (805), SR414 (808) and SANT418 (807) are formed on the package base board 800. That is to say, the strip lines are formed along with the branching circuit and the open stub on different package base boards, thus achieving further miniaturization for the whole branching filter. Furthermore, with respect to the package base board 700, because the transmitting input matching circuit 412 and the receiving output matching circuit 415 and their related ground voltage pattern are separately setup, it is possible to control the worsening of the frequency characteristic of the SAW branching filter due to the interference between the transmitting SAW filter 406 and the receiving SAW filter 407. In addition, since the through holes 705 and 809 are setup in the housing area which is used to house the piezo electric base board forming the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 406 and 407 on the package base boards 700 and 800, it is possible to radiate the heat generated from the transmitting and receiving SAW filters 406 and 407 efficiently to the outside, and further improve the reliability of the SAW branching filter 400. Furthermore, in the fourth embodiment, since the open stub STS 411 is set up in the transmitting input matching circuit 412, it is possible to set the spurious band attenuation in the SAW branching filter 400 to an expected value. Although the present invention has been described by way of exemplary embodiments, it should be understood that many changes and substitutions may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit and the scope of the present invention which is defined only by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a branching filter that is used in small mobile communication devices such as mobile cellular phones. In particular, the present invention relates to branching filters and the construction of branching filter packages that use a high Radio Frequency (RF) filter as an elastic Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) resonator type filter (called a SAW filter below) to achieve increased miniaturization and high performance. 2. Description of the Related Art In recent years, the development of small and light-weight mobile communication devices, typified by devices such as mobile cellular phones, is advancing rapidly. With such advances come the demand for further miniaturization and higher performance of branching filters that are used by such mobile communication devices. Devices like the SAW branching filter, which uses a SAW filter, has tremendous potential for achieving further miniaturization of the mobile communication devices. In addition, they are also required to have small insertion losses at the pass band and large attenuation at the attenuation band. SAW branching filters used in conventional mobile communication terminal devices such as mobile cellular phones have been disclosed in Japanese Patent Application Laid-Open No. H6-97761. In this type of SAW branching filter, the impedance matching circuit located between the antenna terminal and the receiver terminal, and the receiver filter, are connected in a serial manner. In addition, the phase matching circuit located between the antenna terminal and the receiver terminal, and the receiver filter, are connected in a serial manner. Furthermore, both the transmitting filter and the receiving filter form a ladder type resonator filter by arranging the serial arm SAW resonator and the parallel arm SAW resonator. Due to the fact that such filters possess different center frequencies, for the various filters used for transmitting and receiving, the insertion losses at the frequency pass band is smaller and the attenuation at the frequency damping band is large in comparison. In order to suppress the mutual interference between the transmitting filter and the receiving filter that have different characteristics, it is necessary to maintain insulation between the transmitting SAW branching filter and the receiving branching filter described above. For example, the transmitting filter and the receiving filter are formed on different piezo electric base boards. When the two filters are housed in the same filter package, it is necessary to decide whether to house the two filters in separate cavities that exist in the package (where the transmitting and receiving filters are separated using the wall of the package), or to house the transmitting and receiving filters in one cavity of the package while maintaining proper isolation between the two filters by keeping a certain distance between the two filters. In addition, the phase matching circuit and the impedance matching circuit are also formed together with the transmitting and receiving filters on the same package. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore the objective of the present invention to provide a branching filter package that overcomes the above issues in the related art. By using a SAW filter chip that has a housing area for the housing of piezo electric base board which forms the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter with different frequency passing band, the present invention provides a branching filter package that forms the transmitting SAW filter and the receiving SAW filter, and the related impedance matching circuit and the branching circuit. The present invention makes is possible to build a highly reliable and miniaturized branching filter. This is achieved by a combination of new designs described in the independent claims. The dependent claims define further advantageous and exemplary combinations of the present invention. This summary of the invention does not necessarily describe all necessary features so that the invention may also be a sub-combination of these described features. | 20050111 | 20090120 | 20050609 | 93714.0 | 0 | SUMMONS, BARBARA | BRANCHING FILTER PACKAGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,147 | ACCEPTED | Image sensors for reducing dark current and methods of manufacturing the same | An image sensor includes a substrate region of a first conductivity type, a photodiode region of a second conductivity type located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region of the first conductivity type located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, and a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region. The image sensor further includes a first channel region of the first conductivity type located in the substrate and aligned below the transfer gate, a second channel region of the second conductivity type located in the substrate between said transfer gate and the first channel region, and an floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts the second channel region. | 1. An image sensor, comprising: a substrate region of a first conductivity type; a photodiode region of a second conductivity type located in said substrate; a hole accumulated device (HAD) region of the first conductivity type located at a surface of said substrate and over said photodiode region; a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said HAD region; a first channel region of the first conductivity type located in said substrate and aligned below said transfer gate; a second channel region of the second conductivity type located in said substrate between said transfer gate and said first channel region; and a floating diffusion region which is located in said substrate and which electrically contacts said second channel region. 2. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein said floating diffusion region has an impurity concentration which is higher than an impurity concentration of said second channel region. 3. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein an impurity concentration of said first channel region is greater than an impurity concentration of said substrate. 4. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein an impurity concentration of said HAD region is greater than the impurity concentration of said substrate. 5. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein said second channel region is isolated from said photodiode by said HAD region and said first channel region. 6. The image sensor of claim 2, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said floating diffusion region. 7. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region. 8. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of said photodiode region. 9. The image sensor of claim 2, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said floating diffusion region, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region, and wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of said photodiode region. 10. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein said transfer gate partially overlaps said photodiode region. 11. The image sensor of claim 10, wherein said transfer gate partially overlaps said HAD region, and wherein degree of overlap by said transfer gate of said HAD region is less than a degree of overlap by said transfer gate of said photodiode region. 12. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein said first channel region contacts said HAD region and said photodiode region. 13. The image sensor of claim 1, further comprising: a reset gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said floating diffusion region; and a drain region located in the surface of the substrate adjacent the reset gate opposite the floating diffusion region. 15. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein the first conductivity type is a P conductivity type and the second conductivity type is an N conductivity type. 16. The image sensor of claim 1, wherein the first conductivity type is N conductivity type and the second conductivity type is a P conductivity type. 17. An image sensor comprising an active pixel array and a CMOS control circuit connected to said active pixel array, wherein said active pixel array comprises a matrix of pixels, and wherein each of said pixels comprises: a substrate region of a first conductivity type; a photodiode region of a second conductivity type located in said substrate; a hole accumulated device (HAD) region of the first conductivity type located at a surface of said substrate region and over said photodiode region; a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate region adjacent said HAD region; a first channel region of the first conductivity type located in said substrate and aligned below said transfer gate; a second channel region of the second conductivity type located in said substrate between said transfer gate and said first channel region; and a floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts said channel region. 18. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein each of said pixels further comprises: a reset gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said floating diffusion region; and a drain region located in the surface of the substrate adjacent the reset gate opposite the floating diffusion region. 19. The image sensor of claim 18, wherein each of said pixels still further comprises: an amplifying transistor having a gate electrically connected to said floating diffusion region, a drain electrically connected to a power supply voltage, and a source; and a select transistor having a gate electrically connected to said CMOS circuitry, a drain electrically connected to the source of said amplifying transistor, and a source electrically connected to an output line of said pixel array. 20. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein said floating diffusion region has an impurity concentration which is higher than said second channel region, wherein an impurity concentration of said first channel region is greater than an impurity concentration of said substrate, and wherein an impurity concentration of said HAD region is greater than the impurity concentration of said substrate. 21. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein said second channel region is isolated from said photodiode by said HAD region and said first channel region. 22. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said floating diffusion region, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region, and wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of said photodiode region. 23. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein said transfer gate partially overlaps said photodiode region. 24. The image sensor of claim 23, wherein said transfer gate partially overlaps said HAD region, and wherein degree of overlap by said transfer gate of said HAD region is less than a degree of overlap by said transfer gate of said photodiode region. 25. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein said first channel region contacts said HAD region and said photodiode region. 26. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein the first conductivity type is a P conductivity type and the second conductivity type is an N conductivity type. 27. The image sensor of claim 17, wherein the first conductivity type is N conductivity type and the second conductivity type is a P conductivity type. 28. An image sensor, comprising: a substrate of a first conductivity type; a photodiode region of a second conductivity type located in said substrate; a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over said photodiode region; a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said HAD region; a first channel region of the first conductivity type located in said substrate and below said transfer gate; a second channel region of the second conductivity type located at the surface of said substrate between said transfer gate and said first channel region; and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, wherein said BCCD region electrically contacts said second channel region. 29. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein an impurity concentration of said BCCD region is higher than an impurity concentration of said second channel region. 30. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein an impurity concentration of said first channel region is less than an impurity concentration of said substrate. 31. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein an impurity concentration of said HAD region is greater than the impurity concentration of said substrate. 32. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein said second channel region is isolated from said photodiode region by said HAD region and said first channel region. 33. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said BCCD region. 34. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region. 35. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of said photodiode region. 36. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said BCCD region, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region, and wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of photodiode region. 37. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein said first channel region contacts said HAD region and said photodiode region. 38. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein the first conductivity type is a P conductivity type and the second conductivity type is an N conductivity type. 39. The image sensor of claim 28, wherein the first conductivity type is an N conductivity type and the second conductivity type is a P conductivity type. 40. An image sensor comprising a plurality of pixels which are operatively connected to charge coupled devices (CCDs), wherein each of said pixels comprises: a substrate of a first conductivity type; a photodiode region of a second conductivity type located in said substrate; a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over said photodiode region; a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said HAD region; a first channel region of the first conductivity type located in said substrate and below said transfer gate; a second channel region of the second conductivity type located at the surface of said substrate between said transfer gate and said first channel region; and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, wherein said BCCD region electrically contacts said second channel region. 41. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein an impurity concentration of said BCCD region is higher than an impurity concentration of said second channel region. 42. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein an impurity concentration of said first channel region is greater than an impurity concentration of said substrate, wherein an impurity concentration of said HAD region is greater than the impurity concentration of said substrate, and wherein said second channel region is isolated from said photodiode region by said HAD region and said first channel region. 43. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein an implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said BCCD region, wherein the implantation depth of said second channel region is less than an implantation depth of said HAD region, and wherein the implantation depth of said first channel region is less than an implantation depth of said photodiode region. 44. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein said first channel region contacts said HAD region and said photodiode region. 45. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein the first conductivity type is a P conductivity type and the second conductivity type is an N conductivity type. 46. The image sensor of claim 40, wherein the first conductivity type is an N conductivity type and the second conductivity type is a P conductivity type. 47. A method of manufacturing an image sensor, comprising: implanting impurities of a first conductivity type in a substrate of the first conductivity type to define a first channel region which extends to a first depth from a surface of the substrate; implanting impurities of a second conductivity type in the substrate surface to define a second channel region which is located over the first channel region and extends to a second depth from the substrate surface, wherein the first depth is greater than the second depth; forming a transfer gate electrode over the substrate surface and over the first and second channel regions; implanting impurities of the first conductivity type in the substrate to define a hole accumulated device (HAD) region which extends to a third depth from the substrate surface and which is adjacent the gate electrode; implanting impurities of the second conductivity type in the substrate to define a photodiode region which is buried in the substrate and extends to a fourth depth from substrate surface, wherein the fourth depth is greater than the third depth; implanting impurities of the second conductivity type in the substrate to define a diffusion region which electrically contacts the second channel region, wherein the HAD region is located over the photodiode region. 48. The method of claim 47, wherein said diffusion region has a higher impurity concentration than said second channel region. 49. The method of claim 47, wherein the impurities of the HAD region are implanted prior to the impurities of the photodiode region. 50. The method of claim 47, wherein the impurities of the photodiode region are implanted prior to the impurities of the HAD region. 51. The method of claim 47, wherein the image sensor is a CMOS image sensor, and wherein diffusion region is a floating diffusion region of the CMOS image sensor. 52. The method of claim 47, wherein the image sensor is a CCD image sensor, and wherein the diffusion region is a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region of the CCD image sensor. 53. The method of claim 47, wherein the first conductivity type is a P conductivity type and the second conductivity type is an N conductivity type. 54. The method of claim 47, wherein the first conductivity type is N conductivity type and the second conductivity type is a P conductivity type. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to image sensors. More particularly, the present invention relates to image sensors configured to reduce dark current and to methods of manufacturing images sensors to reduce dark current. 2. Description of the Related Art Certain types of image sensors utilize photodiodes to capture incident light and convert the light to an electric charge capable of image processing. Examples include Charge Coupled Device (CCD) image sensors and Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors (CIS), respectively illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2. The CCD sensor of FIG. 1 is generally configured by an array of photo-detectors that are electrically connected to vertical CCDs functioning as analog shift registers. The vertical CCDs feed a horizontal CCD which in turn drives an output amplifier. In contrast, the CIS device of FIG. 2 is characterized by an array of photo detectors have access devices (e.g., transistors) for connection to word lines and bit lines. The word lines are connected to a row decoder circuit, and the bit lines are connected to a column decoder circuit through column amplifiers. The column amplifiers drive an output amplifier as shown. The configuration of the CIS device is analogous to that of a CMOS memory device. One drawback with the used of photodiodes relates to their propensity to accumulate electrical charge in the absence of incident light. The result is commonly referred to as “dark current”. Dark current from a photodiode may manifest itself as a “white” pixel in the processed image, thus degrading image quality. Dark current is generally caused by a number of different factors, including plasma damage, stresses, implant damage, wafer defects, electric fields, and so on. However, one particularly major source of dark current is dangling silicon bonds which exist on the surface of the silicon substrate of the image sensor. At relatively high thermal ranges, these dangling silicon bonds generate negative charges that can be accumulated by the photodiode even in the absence of incident light. Such high thermal ranges can occur, for example, when a cell phone having an image sensor is utilized for an extended period of time. There is a general demand in the industry for image sensors which exhibit reduced dark current, such as the dark current caused by dangling silicon bonds on a silicon substrate surface. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to one aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in said substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over said photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and aligned below the transfer gate, a second channel region located in the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts said second channel region. According to another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes an active pixel array and a CMOS control circuit connected to the active pixel array. The active pixel array includes a matrix of pixels, and each of the pixels includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and aligned below the transfer gate, a second channel region located in the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts the second channel region. According to still another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and below the transfer gate, a second channel region located at the surface of the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, where the BCCD region electrically contacts the second channel region. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor circuit is provided which includes a plurality of pixels which are operatively connected to charge coupled devices (CCDs). Each of pixels includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and below the transfer gate, a second channel region located at the surface of the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, where the BCCD region electrically contacts the second channel region. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method of manufacturing an image sensor is provided which includes implanting impurities in a substrate to define a first channel region which extends to a first depth from the substrate surface, implanting impurities in the substrate surface to define a second channel region which is located over the first channel region and extends to a second depth from the substrate surface, forming a transfer gate electrode over the substrate surface and over the first and second channel regions, implanting impurities in the substrate to define a hole accumulated device (HAD) region which extends to a third depth from the substrate surface and which is adjacent the gate electrode, implanting impurities in the substrate to define a photodiode region which is buried in the substrate and extends to a fourth depth from substrate surface, and implanting impurities in the substrate to define a diffusion region which electrically contacts the second channel region, where the HAD region is located over the photodiode region. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other aspects and features of the present invention will become readily apparent from the detailed description that follows, with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a schematic block diagram of an Coupled Device (CCD) image sensor; FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of a Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor (CIS); FIG. 3 is a schematic block diagram of a CIS device of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is an equivalent circuit diagram of a photo-detector element of the CIS device of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of the photo-detector element of FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a graphical view for explaining the accumulation of charges in a photodiode region of a CIS device not having a second channel configuration; FIG. 7 is a graphical view for explaining the lack of accumulation of charges in a photodiode region of CIS device having a second channel configuration according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a schematic block diagram of a CCD image sensor of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of a photo-detector element of the CCD image sensor FIG. 8; FIG. 10 is a graphical view for explaining the accumulation of charges in a photodiode region of a CCD image sensor not having a two-channel configuration; FIG. 11 is a graphical view for explaining the lack of accumulation of charges in a photodiode region of a CCD image sensor having a two-channel configuration according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIGS. 12(A) through 12(G) are schematic cross-sectional views for explaining a method of manufacturing a CIS device according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention will now be described by way of several preferred but non-limiting embodiments. An image sensor according to a first embodiment of the present invention will be described with reference to FIGS. 3-7. FIG. 3 illustrates an example in which an embodiment of the present invention is configured as a CMOS image sensor (CIS) 10. The CIS 10 generally includes an active pixel array 20 and CMOS control circuitry 30. As is schematically shown in FIG. 3, the pixel array 20 includes a plurality of active pixels 22 generally arranged in matrix form. Word lines are respectively connected to the pixels 22 of each row of the pixel array 20, and bit lines are respectively connected to the pixels 22 of each column of the pixel array 20. The CMOS circuitry 30 includes a row decoder 32 for selecting rows (word lines) of the pixel array 20, and a column decoder 31 for selecting columns (bit lines) of the pixel array 20. Selected bit lines are connected to an output amplifier 40 via switching elements 50 controlled by the CMOS circuitry 30. An equivalent circuit diagram of an example of an active pixel 22 is shown in FIG. 4. A photodiode PD of the active pixel 22 captures incident light and converts the captured light into an electric charge. The electric charge is selectively transferred from the photodiode PD to a floating diffusion region FD via a transfer transistor Tx. The transfer transistor Tx is controlled by a transfer gate TG signal. The floating diffusion region FD is connected to the gate of a driver transistor Dx which functions as is a source follower (amplifier) for buffering an output voltage. The output voltage is selectively transferred to an output line OUT by a select transistor Sx. The select transistor Sx is controlled by a select signal SEL. A reset transistor Rx is controlled by a reset signal RS and resets charges accumulated in the floating diffusion region FD to a reference level. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional schematic view of an embodiment of the photodiode PD, transfer transistor Tx and reset transistor Rx illustrated in FIG. 4. For purposes of explanation, the photodiode PD is contained in a photo diode section of a P type substrate region 100, the reset transistor Rx is contained in a floating diffusion section of the P type substrate region 100, and the transfer transistor Tx is connected therebetween. Referring to FIG. 5, the photodiode (PD) of this example is configured by an N type PD region 142 located in the surface of the photo diode section of the substrate region 100. Negative charges accumulate in the PD region 142 when light is incident on the surface of the substrate region 100. To reduce the presence of dangling silicon bonds on the surface of the substrate region 100, a P+ type hole accumulated device (HAD) region 140 is interposed between the surface of the substrate region 100 and the PD region 142. The HAD region 140 causes a recombination of negative charges at the surface region of the substrate region 100 located over the PD region 142, thus avoiding the accumulation of such charges in the PD region 142. The floating diffusion section of the substrate 100 includes an N+ type floating diffusion region 152, an N+ type drain region 154, and a gate 134 extending there between. In this example, the gate 134 receives the reset signal RS, the drain region 154 is connected to VDD, and the floating diffusion region 152 is connected to the floating node FD illustrated in FIG. 4. The drain region 154, the floating diffusion region 152, and the gate 134 define the reset transistor Rx of FIG. 4. Still referring to FIG. 5, a transfer gate 132 is located over the surface of the substrate region 100 between the HAD region 140 and the floating diffusion region 152. Further, a first P− type channel region 112 is located in the substrate region 100 and aligned below the transfer gate 132, and a second N− type channel region 114 is located in the substrate region 100 between the transfer gate 132 and the first channel region 112. The floating diffusion region 152 electrically contacts the second channel region 114 as depicted by the arrow A of FIG. 5. In the example of this embodiment, the floating diffusion region 152 has an impurity concentration which is greater than the impurity concentration of the second channel region 114, the first channel region 112 has an impurity concentration which is greater than an impurity concentration of the substrate region 100, and the HAD region 140 has an impurity concentration which is greater than the impurity concentration of the substrate 100. Also, in this example, first channel region 112 contacts both the HAD region 140 and the PD region 142, thereby isolating the second channel region 114 from the PD region 142 by the HAD region 140. Further, in the example of this embodiment, an implantation depth of the second channel region 114 is less than an implantation depth of the floating diffusion region 152 and less than an implantation depth the HAD region 140. Also, in this example, the implantation depth of the first channel region 112 is less than an implantation depth of the PD region 142 and less than an implantation depth of the floating diffusion region 152. Still further, in the example of this embodiment, the transfer gate 132 partially overlaps the PD region 142 and the HAD region 140, where the degree of overlap the HAD region 140 is less than the degree of overlap of the PD region 142. FIGS. 6 and 7 are potential distribution diagrams for explaining the effects of the second channel region 114 of FIG. 5. In particular, FIG. 6 shows the potential distribution in the case where no second channel region 114 is provided (i.e., only the first channel region 112 is provided), and FIG. 7 shows the potential distribution where both the first and second channel regions 112 and 114 are provided (i.e., as in FIG. 5). As described previously, the presence of the HAD region 140 functions to prevent the presence of dangling silicon bonds on the substrate surface from introducing charges into the PD region 142, thus reducing dark current. However, charges may still result from dangling silicon bonds which are present at the substrate surface beneath the gate electrode 132, and these charges can accumulate in the PD region to cause dark current. The present embodiment overcomes this problem by including the second channel region between the substrate surface and the first channel region. That is, as can be seen from a comparison of FIGS. 6 and 7, the provisioning of the second channel region 114 alters the potential distribution below the gate electrode of the transmission transistor. More precisely, by electrically coupling the N+ type floating diffusion region to the N type second channel region, the potential distribution continuously increases beneath the gate electrode in a direction towards the floating diffusion region. As such, electrons which form at the substrate surface (for example, from silicon dangling bonds) beneath the gate electrode will drift to the floating diffusion region, and not to the PD region 142. Charges are therefore not accumulated in the PD region 142, thus reducing dark current. In contrast, as illustrated in FIG. 6, when the second channel region 114 is not provided, the potential distribution increases in a direction towards the PD region from a middle region beneath the gate electrode. As such, electrons which form at the surface beneath the gate electrode will drift into the PD region, thus increasing dark current. FIG. 8 illustrates an example in which an embodiment of the present invention is configured as a CCD image sensor 200. The CCD image sensor 200 generally includes a plurality of pixels 210 each having a photodiode and a transfer gate, a vertical CCD 220, horizontal CCD 230, and floating diffusion region 240, and a source follower (amplifier) 250. FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional schematic view of an embodiment of the photodiode region and transfer transistor of a pixel 210 illustrated in FIG. 8. Referring to FIG. 9, the photodiode of this example is configured by an N type photodiode region 310 located in a P type layer 302 formed over an N type semiconductor substrate 300. Negative charges accumulate in the photodiode region 310 when light is incident through an opening 372 of a light shielding layer 370. Reference number 340 denotes P type isolation regions. To reduce the presence of dangling silicon bonds on the surface of the P type layer 302, a P+ type hole accumulated device (HAD) region 312 is interposed between the surface of the P type layer 302 and the N type photodiode region 310. The HAD region 312 causes a recombination of negative charges at the surface region of the P type layer 302, thus avoiding the accumulation of such charges in the N type photodiode region 310. Still referring to FIG. 9, a transfer gate 360 is located over the surface of the P type layer 302 between the HAD region 312 and an N+ type buried channel CCD (BCCD) 320. Further, a first P− type channel region 332 is located in the P type layer 302 and below the transfer gate 360, and a second N− type channel region 334 is located in the P type layer 302 between the transfer gate 360 and the first channel region 332. The BCCD 320 electrically contacts the second channel region 334. In the example of this embodiment, the BCCD 320 has an impurity concentration which is greater than the impurity concentration of the second channel region 334, the first channel region 332 has an impurity concentration which is greater than an impurity concentration of the P type layer 302, and the HAD region 312 has an impurity concentration which is greater than the impurity concentration of the P type layer 302. Also, in this example, the first channel region 332 contacts both the HAD region 312 and the photodiode region 310, thereby isolating the second channel region 334 from the photodiode region 310. Further, in the example of this embodiment, an implantation depth of the second channel region 334 is less than an implantation depth of the BCCD 320 and less than an implantation depth the HAD region 312. Also, in this example, the implantation depth of the first channel region 332 is less than an implantation depth of the photodiode region 310 and less than an implantation depth of the BCCD 320. Still further, although not shown in FIG. 9, the transfer gate 360 may partially overlap the photodiode region 310 and the HAD region 312, and the degree of overlap of the HAD region 312 may be less than the degree of overlap of the photodiode region 310 in a manner such as that shown in the device of FIG. 5. FIGS. 10 and 11 are potential distribution diagrams for explaining the effects of the second channel region 334 of FIG. 9. In particular, FIG. 10 shows the potential distribution in the case where no second channel region 334 is provided (i.e., only the first channel region 332 is provided), and FIG. 11 shows the potential distribution where both the first and second channel regions 332 and 334 are provided (i.e., as in FIG. 9). As can be seen from a comparison of FIGS. 10 and 11, the provisioning of the second channel region 334 alters the potential distribution below the gate electrode of the transmission transistor. More precisely, by electrically coupling the N+ type BCCD to the N type second channel region, the potential distribution continuously increases beneath the gate electrode in a direction towards the floating diffusion region. As such, electrons which form at the substrate surface (for example, from silicon dangling bonds) beneath the gate electrode will drift to the floating diffusion region, and not into the N type the photodiode region. Charges are therefore not accumulated in the photodiode region, thus reducing dark current. In contrast, as illustrated in FIG. 10, when the second channel region 114 is not provided, the potential distribution increases in a direction towards the photodiode region from a middle region beneath the gate electrode. As such, electrons which form at the surface beneath the gate electrode will drift into the photodiode region, thus increasing dark current. An exemplary method of manufacturing the device illustrated in FIG. 5 will now be described with reference to FIGS. 12A through 12G. Initially, as shown in FIG. 12A, a LOCOS or STI region 102 is formed in a semiconductor substrate 100 to define an active area of the substrate 100. Then, as shown in FIG. 12B, a mask layer 110 is patterned over the surface of the substrate 100 with an opening which defines a transistor region 104. P type impurities are then implanted through the opening to define a P− type channel region 112. In this example, boron is implanted at 30 KeV to obtain an impurity concentration of about 1*1012/cm2. As illustrated in FIG. 12C, an N− type channel region 114 is then formed by implantation of N type impurities through the opening in the mask layer 110. In this example, arsenic is implanted at 30 KeV to obtain an impurity concentration of about 5*1012/cm2. As shown, the resultant is two channel regions 112 and 114, where the N− type channel region 114 is located between the P− type channel region 112 and the opening in the mask layer 110. Referring to FIG. 12D, an insulating layer and conductive layer are deposited and patterned to define gate structures over the active region of the substrate 100. In particular, a first gate structure is aligned over the channel regions 112 and 114, and is defined by a gate insulating layer 122 and a gate electrode 132. A second gate structure is spaced from the first gate structure, and is defined by a gate insulating layer 124 and a gate electrode 134. Next, as illustrated in FIG. 12E, a P+ type HAD region 140 is formed by implanting P type ions through an opening in a mask (not shown), where the opening is aligned over a photodiode region of the device. In this example, BF2 is implanted at 50 KeV to obtain an impurity concentration of about 5*1013/cm2. The N type photodiode region 142 is then formed, as shown in FIG. 12F, by implantation of N type impurities through an opening in a mask layer. In this example, arsenic is implanted at 400 KeV to obtain an impurity concentration of about 1.7*1012/cm2. Here, the mask layer may optionally be the same as that used to form the HAD region 140. Also, as shown by reference character W of FIG. 12F, the gate electrode 132 may optionally overlap the photodiode region 142. Referring lastly to FIG. 12G, the N+ type floating diffusion region 152 and the N+ type drain region 154 are then formed by implantation of N type impurities. In each of the embodiments described above, the photodiode region, the second channel region, and the floating diffusion region (or CCD region) are all defined by N type impurities, and the first channel region and substrate (or layer) are defined by P type impurities. However, the invention may also be configured such that the photodiode region, the second channel region, and the floating diffusion region (or CCD region) are defined by P type impurities, and the first channel region and substrate (or layer) are defined by N type impurities. Although the present invention has been described above in connection with the preferred embodiments thereof, the present invention is not so limited. Rather, various changes to and modifications of the preferred embodiments will become readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Accordingly, the present invention is not limited to the preferred embodiments described above. Rather, the true spirit and scope of the invention is defined by the accompanying claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to image sensors. More particularly, the present invention relates to image sensors configured to reduce dark current and to methods of manufacturing images sensors to reduce dark current. 2. Description of the Related Art Certain types of image sensors utilize photodiodes to capture incident light and convert the light to an electric charge capable of image processing. Examples include Charge Coupled Device (CCD) image sensors and Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors (CIS), respectively illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2 . The CCD sensor of FIG. 1 is generally configured by an array of photo-detectors that are electrically connected to vertical CCDs functioning as analog shift registers. The vertical CCDs feed a horizontal CCD which in turn drives an output amplifier. In contrast, the CIS device of FIG. 2 is characterized by an array of photo detectors have access devices (e.g., transistors) for connection to word lines and bit lines. The word lines are connected to a row decoder circuit, and the bit lines are connected to a column decoder circuit through column amplifiers. The column amplifiers drive an output amplifier as shown. The configuration of the CIS device is analogous to that of a CMOS memory device. One drawback with the used of photodiodes relates to their propensity to accumulate electrical charge in the absence of incident light. The result is commonly referred to as “dark current”. Dark current from a photodiode may manifest itself as a “white” pixel in the processed image, thus degrading image quality. Dark current is generally caused by a number of different factors, including plasma damage, stresses, implant damage, wafer defects, electric fields, and so on. However, one particularly major source of dark current is dangling silicon bonds which exist on the surface of the silicon substrate of the image sensor. At relatively high thermal ranges, these dangling silicon bonds generate negative charges that can be accumulated by the photodiode even in the absence of incident light. Such high thermal ranges can occur, for example, when a cell phone having an image sensor is utilized for an extended period of time. There is a general demand in the industry for image sensors which exhibit reduced dark current, such as the dark current caused by dangling silicon bonds on a silicon substrate surface. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in said substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over said photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of said substrate adjacent said HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and aligned below the transfer gate, a second channel region located in the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts said second channel region. According to another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes an active pixel array and a CMOS control circuit connected to the active pixel array. The active pixel array includes a matrix of pixels, and each of the pixels includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and aligned below the transfer gate, a second channel region located in the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a floating diffusion region which is located in the substrate and which electrically contacts the second channel region. According to still another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor is provided which includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and below the transfer gate, a second channel region located at the surface of the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, where the BCCD region electrically contacts the second channel region. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, an image sensor circuit is provided which includes a plurality of pixels which are operatively connected to charge coupled devices (CCDs). Each of pixels includes a substrate, a photodiode region located in the substrate, a hole accumulated device (HAD) region located at a surface of the substrate and over the photodiode region, a transfer gate located over the surface of the substrate adjacent the HAD region, a first channel region located in the substrate and below the transfer gate, a second channel region located at the surface of the substrate between the transfer gate and the first channel region, and a buried channel charge coupled device (BCCD) region located in the substrate, where the BCCD region electrically contacts the second channel region. According to another aspect of the present invention, a method of manufacturing an image sensor is provided which includes implanting impurities in a substrate to define a first channel region which extends to a first depth from the substrate surface, implanting impurities in the substrate surface to define a second channel region which is located over the first channel region and extends to a second depth from the substrate surface, forming a transfer gate electrode over the substrate surface and over the first and second channel regions, implanting impurities in the substrate to define a hole accumulated device (HAD) region which extends to a third depth from the substrate surface and which is adjacent the gate electrode, implanting impurities in the substrate to define a photodiode region which is buried in the substrate and extends to a fourth depth from substrate surface, and implanting impurities in the substrate to define a diffusion region which electrically contacts the second channel region, where the HAD region is located over the photodiode region. | 20050111 | 20070508 | 20051222 | 91791.0 | 0 | PRENTY, MARK V | IMAGE SENSORS FOR REDUCING DARK CURRENT AND METHODS OF MANUFACTURING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,164 | ACCEPTED | Semiconductor device with Schottky electrode including lanthanum and boron, and manufacturing method thereof | A semiconductor device and its manufacturing method. The semiconductor device has a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 310, a GaAs buffer layer 321 that is formed on the semi-insulating GaAs substrate 310, AlGaAs buffer layer 322, a channel layer 323, a spacer layer 324, a carrier supply layer 325, a spacer layer 326, a Schottky layer 327 composed of an undoped In0.48Ga0.52P material, and an n+-type GaAs cap layer 328. A gate electrode 330 is formed on the Schottky layer 327, and is composed of LaB6 and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 327, and ohmic electrodes 340 are formed on the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328. | 1-6. (canceled) 7. A method of manufacturing a semiconductor device that has (i) an epitaxial layer that comprises a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer and (ii) a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer, the manufacturing method including: an epitaxial process of forming an epitaxial layer by forming in sequence a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer that is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P on a semi-insulating substrate by epitaxial growth using one of Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition method and Molecular-Beam Epitaxial method; and an electrode forming process of forming a Schottky electrode by evaporating material whose main constituents are La and B onto the Schottky layer, wherein the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of the material. 8. The method of manufacturing the semiconductor device according to claim 7, wherein the Schottky layer is composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGaP, and the Schottky layer is formed in the epitaxial process, the Schottky layer being composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGap. 9. The method of manufacturing the semiconductor device according to claim 8, wherein the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB6, and LaB6 is evaporated onto the Schottky layer in the electrode forming process. 10. The method of manufacturing the semiconductor device according to claim 9, wherein the vapor deposition of the material is performed with an electron-beam vapor deposition method. 11. The method of manufacturing the semiconductor device according to claim 7, wherein the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB6, and LaB6 is evaporated onto the Schottky layer in the electrode forming process. 12. The method of manufacturing the semiconductor device according to claim 7, wherein the vapor deposition of the material is performed with an electron-beam vapor deposition method. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION (1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor device with a Schottky junction electrode made of a compound semiconductor and its manufacturing method. (2) Description of the Related Art In recent years, a Field Effect Transistor (hereinafter, referred to simply as FET), made of a compound semiconductor, for example, III-V family materials such as GaAs or InP, has been widely employed for wireless communication and especially as a power amplifier, a switch and the like of a cell phone terminal. Among FETs made of GaAs out of FETs made of a compound semiconductor, a Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor (hereinafter, referred to simply as PHEMT) is generally utilized. Here, PHEMT is a FET with good high-frequency wave characteristics including a strain channel layer generated by bonding two types of semiconductors whose lattice constants are a little different. The FETs made of GaAs, for example, include the strain channel layer generated by bonding InGaAs and AlGaAs. In the GaAs PHEMT like this, however, an AlGaAs layer that is composed of AlGaAs has a Schottky contact with a gate electrode; parts of both sides in the portion of the AlGaAs layer that do not touch the gate electrode are exposed by recess etching. As a result, a natural oxide film is formed on the surface of the AlGaAs layer, and its surface level density increases even if the AlGaAs layer is protected by a protective insulation film. Especially when the PHEMT is a power FET, the power FET does not work well because of frequency dispersion of current characteristic. A prior art to solve the problem is “Manufacturing Method of Field Effect Transistor” (Japanese Laid-Open Patent application No. 09-045894 (pp. 3-4, FIG. 1)). The prior art resolves the problem by using an InGaP layer that is composed of InGaP that can better restrain the formation of the natural oxide film on the surface of a semiconductor layer than AlGaAs as the semiconductor layer that has the Schottky contact with the gate electrode. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional diagram of a conventional GaAs PHEMT. In the GaAs PHEMT shown in FIG. 1, an epitaxial layer 120 is formed on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 110 that is composed of semi-insulating GaAs. Here, the epitaxial layer 120 is made up of a GaAs buffer layer 121 that is composed of a 1-μm-thick undoped GaAs material and lessens a lattice mismatch between the epitaxial layer 120 and a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 110; an AlGaAs buffer layer 122 that is composed of an undoped AlGaAs material; a channel layer 123 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped In0.2Ga0.8As material and in which carriers run; a spacer layer 124 that is composed of a 5-nm-thick undoped InGaP material; a carrier supply layer 125 that is a planer-doped only one atom layer with Si, n-type impurity ions; a Schottky layer 126 that is composed of a 30-nm-thick undoped InGaP material; and an n+-type GaAs cap layer 127 that is composed of a 100-nm-thick n+-type GaAs. Additionally, on the Schottky layer 126, a gate electrode 130 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 126 is formed; and at two parts on the n+-type GaAs cap layer 127, two ohmic electrodes 140 are formed. Further, in the vicinity of the ohmic electrodes 140, two element separation regions 150 are formed; in the vicinity of the gate electrode 130, an insulation film 160 that is composed of SiN or SiO is formed. As is described above, the conventional GaAs PHEMT can restrain an increase in the surface level density because in the conventional GaAs PHEMT, a semiconductor layer that is composed of InGaP including In and P as constituents is used as the Schottky layer 126. Therefore, the formation of a natural oxide film on the surface of the Schottky layer is restrained. However, the conventional GaAs PHEMT has a problem explained below. In the process of manufacturing the conventional GaAs PHEMT, since heat of about 300° C. is added to the Schottky layer and the gate electrode, diffusion at the Schottky interface between the gate electrode and the Schottky layer occurs. As a result, a problem arises in that the Schottky characteristic deteriorates. At this time, leak current of the Schottky junction between a Gate and a Source is larger than that of the conventional PHEMT having the Schottky layer that is composed of AlGaAs, and deterioration such as strain of a device is seen also in RF characteristics. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing forward current-voltage characteristics between a Gate and a Source of the PHEMT that has a Schottky layer that is composed of InGaP and the gate electrode that is composed of Ti. In FIG. 2, the broken line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of PHEMT before heat processing at 400° C., while the solid line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and Source of PHEMT after the heat processing at 400° C. It is apparent from FIG. 2 that the leak current at a time of low bias increases due to the 400° C. heat processing and that the Schottky junction is greatly deteriorated. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing, it is the object of the present invention to provide a semiconductor device and its manufacturing method. The semiconductor can restrain an increase in the surface level density and has superior thermal stability. To achieve the above-mentioned object, the semiconductor of the present invention is a semiconductor device comprising: a Schottky layer; and a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer. The Schottky layer is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, and the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B. Here, it is acceptable that the Schottky layer is composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGaP, and that the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB6. Additionally, it is agreeable that the semiconductor device is a transistor or a diode. As noted above, the semiconductor device is made up of the Schottky layer that is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, and a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer, and a portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of a material whose main constituents are La and B. Therefore, the semiconductor device can restrain an increase in the surface level density of the Schottky layer, and has superior thermal stability and good Schottky characteristics. Additionally, the present invention provides a method of manufacturing a semiconductor device that has (i) an epitaxial layer that comprises a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer and (ii) a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer. The manufacturing method includes an epitaxial process of forming an epitaxial layer by forming in sequence a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer that is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P on a semi-insulating substrate by epitaxial growth using one of Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition method and Molecular-Beam Epitaxial method; and an electrode forming process of forming a Schottky electrode by evaporating material whose main constituents are La and B onto the Schottky layer. In this process, the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of the evaporated material. Here, it is possible that the Schottky layer is composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGaP, and that the Schottky layer is formed in the epitaxial process, the Schottky layer being composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGap. Moreover, it is acceptable that the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB6, and LaB6 is evaporated onto the Schottky layer in the electrode forming process. Furthermore, it is agreeable that the vapor deposition of the material is performed with an electron-beam vapor deposition method. Hereby, the Schottky electrode can be formed by vapor deposition, and it has the effect of allowing manufacture of the semiconductor device with simple process. As further information about technical background to this application, Japanese patent application No. 2003-031214 filed on Feb. 7, 2003 is incorporated herein by reference. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other subjects, advantages and features of the invention will become apparent from the following description thereof taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings that illustrate a specific embodiment of the invention. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional diagram showing the structure of a conventional PHEMT. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing forward current-voltage characteristics between a Gate and a Source of the conventional PHEMT. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional diagram showing the structure of a GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4A˜FIG. 4D are cross-sectional diagrams showing the structures of the GaAs PHEMTs indicating a manufacturing method for the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flowchart showing the method of manufacturing the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a diagram showing forward current-voltage characteristics between a Gate and a Source of the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a diagram showing forward current-voltage characteristics between the Gate and the Source of the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment of the present invention and the conventional PHEMT. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional diagram showing the structure of an InP PHEMT according to the second embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The semiconductor device according to the present embodiments of the present invention will be explained below with reference to the figures. The First Embodiment FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional diagram showing the structure of a GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment. In the PHEMT according to the first embodiment, an epitaxial layer 320 is formed on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 310 that is composed of the semi-insulating GaAs material. Here, the epitaxial layer 320 is made up of a GaAs buffer layer 321 that is composed of a 1-μm-thick undoped GaAs material and lessens a lattice mismatch between the epitaxial layer 320 and the semi-insulating GaAs substrate 310; an AlGaAs buffer layer 322 that is composed of a 100-nm-thick undoped AlGaAs material; a channel layer 323 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped In0.2Ga0.8As material and in which carriers run; a spacer layer 324 that is composed of a 5-nm-thick undoped Al0.25Ga0.75As material; a carrier supply layer 325 that is planer-doped only one atom layer with Si, n-type impurity ions so that the dose of Si is 5×1012 cm−2; a spacer layer 326 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped Al0.25Ga0.75As material; a Schottky layer 327 that is composed of a 10-nm-thick undoped In0.48Ga0.52P material; and an n+-type GaAs cap layer 328 that is composed of a 100-nm-thick n+-type GaAs material. By the way, the Schottky layer 327 is described as being composed of In0.48Ga0.52P material, but it may be composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, for example, InGaP or InAlGaP. Moreover, on the Schottky layer 327, a gate electrode 330 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 327 is formed. At two parts on the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328, two ohmic electrodes 340 are formed. Further, in the vicinity of the ohmic electrodes 340, two element separation regions 350 are formed. In the vicinity of the gate electrode 330, an insulation film 360 that is composed of SiN or SiO is formed. Here, the gate electrode 330 is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B, for example, LaB6. Next, a manufacturing method of the GaAs PHEMT with the structure described above is explained following the cross-sectional diagram shown in FIG. 4 and the flowchart shown in FIG. 5. It should be noted that the same elements in FIG. 3 are given the same characters and their detailed explanations are omitted here. For a start, as shown in FIG. 4A, on the semi-insulative GaAs substrate 310, using an MOCVD (metal organic chemical vapor deposition) method or MBE (molecular-beam epitaxial) method, epitaxial growth is performed in sequence to form the GaAs buffer layer 321, the AlGaAs buffer layer 322, the channel layer 323, the spacer layer 324, the carrier supply layer 325, the spacer layer 326, the Schottky layer 327 and the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328 to form the epitaxial layer 320 (Step S510). Then, the element separation regions 350 are formed by shaping a pattern to form the element separation regions 350 with a photo resist 410 and doping the ions into the region where the element separation regions 350 are formed (Step S520). By the way, the element separation regions 350 may be formed by performing mesa etching to the regions where the element separation regions 350 in the epitaxial layer 320 are formed. Next, as shown in FIG. 4B, an aperture is formed in the region where the ohmic electrodes 340 are formed by shaping a pattern to form the ohmic electrodes 340 with the photo resist and performing etching, and the ohmic electrodes 340 are formed by evaporating an ohmic metal that is made of a Ni/Au/Ge alloy and lifting-off the photo resist (Step S530). Now, as shown in FIG. 4C, an aperture is formed in the region where the gate electrode 330 is formed by shaping a pattern to form the gate electrode 330 with the photo resist 420 and performing etching. By performing recess etching, the aperture is formed in the region where the gate electrode 330 between the ohmic electrodes 340 on the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328 is formed, and an aperture 430 is acquired (Step S540). At this time, since the etching selectivity between the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328 and the Schottky layer 327 is large, a part of the n+-type GaAs cap layer 328 can be selectively removed by the recess etching to form the aperture 430, using a liquid mixture of phosphoric acid, hydrogen peroxide solution and water, and therefore, it is possible to perform stable recess etching. Next, as shown in FIG. 4D, the gate electrode 330 is formed by evaporating the gate metal that is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B, for example, LaB6, using an electron-beam vapor deposition method and the like and lifting off the photo resist (Step S550). Now, evaluation results of the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment are shown. FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 are diagrams showing the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment. In FIG. 6, the dotted line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 before heat processing at 400° C.; the solid line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 after heat processing at 400° C. Additionally, in FIG. 7, the solid line shows the forward current-the voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 after heat processing at 400° C.; the broken line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of Ti after heat processing at 400° C.; and the dotted line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of Mo after heat processing at 400° C. In view of FIG. 6, it is apparent that the PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 according to the first embodiment is different from the conventional PHEMT having the gate electrode that is composed of Ti because its leak current does not increase after the heat processing at 400° C., and therefore, it has a thermally stable Schottky characteristic. Moreover, seeing FIG. 7, it is apparent that the PHEMT having a gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 has a higher Schottky barrier than the conventional PHEMT having a gate electrode that is composed of Ti, and the PHEMT having a gate electrode that is composed of LaB6 has a higher Schottky barrier than the PHEMT having a gate electrode that is composed of Mo (another high-melting point metal) by about 0.1V. Therefore, the PHEMT has good Schottky characteristics. As is described above, according to the first embodiment, the Schottky layer 327 is composed of In0.48Ga0.52P material and the gate electrode 330 is composed of LaB6 material, a high-melting point metal (melting point: 2806° C.). Consequently, interdiffusion by heat processing between the Schottky layer 327 and the gate electrode 330 can be restrained, and it is possible to obtain a PHEMT with superior thermal stability. Furthermore, according to the first embodiment, the Schottky layer 327 is composed of In0.48Ga0.52P material. Therefore, the PHEMT according to the first embodiment can restrain an increase of the surface level density of the Schottky layer. Additionally, according to the first embodiment, the Schottky layer 327 is composed of In0.48Ga0.52 P material and the gate electrode 330 is composed of LaB6. Consequently, the PHEMT according to the first embodiment can realize the PHEMT with good Schottky characteristics. Moreover, according to the first embodiment, the gate electrode 330 is formed by vapor deposition. Therefore, the PHEMT can be manufactured with a simple process. By the way, according to the first embodiment, the PHEMT is exemplified as a semiconductor device having (1) the gate electrode 330 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 327 and (2) the Schottky layer 327. But it is acceptable that the semiconductor device is another semiconductor device having (1) the gate electrode 330 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 327 and (2) the Schottky layer 327, for example, a Schottky diode. Furthermore, according to the first embodiment, the gate electrode 330 is described to be composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B, but it is acceptable that the gate electrode is a lamination layer in which a layer that is composed of another material is formed on the layer that is composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B. At this time, in the process of forming the gate electrode 330, the lamination layer is formed by evaporating the gate metal that is composed of another material onto the gate electrode 330 after evaporating the gate metal that is composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B onto the gate electrode 330. The Second Embodiment FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional diagram showing the structure of an InP PHEMT according to the second embodiment of the present invention. In the PHEMT according to the second embodiment, an epitaxial layer 820 is formed on a semi-insulating InP substrate 810 that is composed of the semi-insulating InP. Here, the epitaxial layer 820 is made up of an InAlAs buffer layer 821 that is composed of a 1-μm-thick undoped InAlAs material and lessens a lattice mismatch between the epitaxial layer 820 and the semi-insulating InP substrate 810; a channel layer 822 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped In0.53Ga0.47As material and in which carriers run; a spacer layer 823 that is composed of a 5-nm-thick undoped InAlGaAs material; a carrier supply layer 824 that is planer-doped only one atom layer with Si, n-type impurity ions so that the dose is 5×1012 cm−2; an InAlAs layer 825 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped InAlAs material; a Schottky layer 826 that is composed of a 10-nm-thick undoped InP material; and an n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827 that is composed of a 100-nm-thick n+-type InGaAs material. By the way, the Schottky layer 826 is described to be composed of InP but it may be composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, for example, InAlGaP. Additionally, on the Schottky layer 826, a gate electrode 830 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 826 is formed; and at two parts on the n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827, two ohmic electrodes 840 are formed. Further, in the vicinity of the ohmic electrodes 840, two element separation regions 850 are formed. In the vicinity of the gate electrode 830, an insulation film 860 composed of SiN or SiO is formed. Here, the gate electrode 830 is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B, for example, LaB6. Next, a manufacturing method of the InP PHEMT with the structure described above is explained. It should be noted that the figures are omitted because the InP PHEMT according to the second embodiment is manufactured by a method similar to the manufacturing method of the GaAs PHEMT according to the first embodiment. For a start, on the semi-insulative InP substrate 810, using an MOCVD method or an MBE method, epitaxial growth is performed in sequence to form the InAlAs buffer 821, the channel layer 822, the spacer layer 823, the carrier supply layer 824, the InAlAs layer 825, the Schottky layer 826, the n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827 which form the epitaxial layer 820. Then, the element separation regions 850 are formed by shaping a pattern to form the element separation regions 850 with a photo resist and doping the ions into the region where the element separation regions 850 are formed. Next, an aperture is formed in the region where the ohmic electrodes 840 are formed by shaping a pattern to form the ohmic electrodes 840 with the photo resist and performing etching. The ohmic electrodes 840 are formed by evaporating an ohmic metal that is made of a Ni/Pt/Au alloy and lifting-off the photo resist. Now, an aperture is formed in the region where the gate electrode 830 is formed by shaping a pattern to form the gate electrode 830 with the photo resist and performing etching. By performing recess etching, the aperture is formed in the region where the gate electrode 830 between the ohmic electrodes 840 on the n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827 is formed, and an aperture is acquired. At this time, since the etching selectivity between the n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827 and the Schottky layer 826 is large, a part of the n+-type InGaAs cap layer 827 can be selectively removed by the recess etching to form the aperture, using a liquid mixture of phosphoric acid, hydrogen peroxide solution and water. Therefore, it is possible to perform stable recess etching. Next, the gate electrode 830 is formed by evaporating the gate metal that is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B, for example, LaB6, using the electron-beam vapor deposition method or the like and lifting off the photo resist. As is described above, according to the second embodiment, the Schottky layer 826 is composed of InP and the gate electrode 830 is composed of LaB6, a high-melting point metal. Consequently, interdiffusion by heat processing between the Schottky layer 826 and the gate electrode 830 can be restrained, and it is possible to realize the PHEMT with superior thermal stability. Additionally, according to the second embodiment, the Schottky layer 826 is composed of InP and the gate electrode 830 is composed of LaB6. Therefore, the PHEMT according to the second embodiment can realize the PHEMT with good Schottky characteristics. Moreover, according to the second embodiment, the Schottky layer 826 is composed of InP. Consequently, the PHEMT according to the second embodiment can realize the PHEMT that can restrain an increase of the surface level density of the Schottky layer. Furthermore, according to the second embodiment, the gate electrode 830 is formed by vapor deposition. Therefore, the PHEMT can be manufactured with a simple process. By the way, according to the second embodiment, the PHEMT is exemplified as the semiconductor device having (1) the gate electrode 830 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 826, and (2) the Schottky layer 826. But it is acceptable that the semiconductor device is another semiconductor device having (1) the gate electrode 830 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 826, and (2) the Schottky layer 826, for example, a Schottky diode. Additionally, according to the second embodiment, the gate electrode 830 is described to be composed of a material whose main constituents are La and B, but it is acceptable that the gate electrode is a lamination layer in which a layer that is composed of another material is formed on the layer that is composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B. At this time, in the process of forming the gate electrode 830, the lamination layer is formed by evaporating the gate metal that is composed of another material onto the gate electrode 830 after evaporating the gate metal that is composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B onto the gate electrode 830. As is apparent from the above explanation, since the semiconductor device according to the present invention is made up of the Schottky layer that is composed of the compound semiconductor including In and P, and the Schottky electrode having a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer composed of the material whose main constituents are La and B, it has the effect of realizing a semiconductor device that is thermally stable and has good Schottky characteristics. Moreover, because the semiconductor device according to the present invention has the Schottky layer that is composed of the compound semiconductor including In and P, it has the effect of realizing a semiconductor device that can restrain an increase of the surface level density of the Schottky layer. Furthermore, since the Schottky electrode in the semiconductor device according to the present invention is formed by vapor deposition, it enables manufacture the PHEMT with simple process. Consequently, since the present invention can restrain the increase of the surface level density in the Schottky layer and can provide a semiconductor device with superior thermal stability and good Schottky characteristics, its practical value is extremely high. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>(1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a semiconductor device with a Schottky junction electrode made of a compound semiconductor and its manufacturing method. (2) Description of the Related Art In recent years, a Field Effect Transistor (hereinafter, referred to simply as FET), made of a compound semiconductor, for example, III-V family materials such as GaAs or InP, has been widely employed for wireless communication and especially as a power amplifier, a switch and the like of a cell phone terminal. Among FETs made of GaAs out of FETs made of a compound semiconductor, a Pseudomorphic High Electron Mobility Transistor (hereinafter, referred to simply as PHEMT) is generally utilized. Here, PHEMT is a FET with good high-frequency wave characteristics including a strain channel layer generated by bonding two types of semiconductors whose lattice constants are a little different. The FETs made of GaAs, for example, include the strain channel layer generated by bonding InGaAs and AlGaAs. In the GaAs PHEMT like this, however, an AlGaAs layer that is composed of AlGaAs has a Schottky contact with a gate electrode; parts of both sides in the portion of the AlGaAs layer that do not touch the gate electrode are exposed by recess etching. As a result, a natural oxide film is formed on the surface of the AlGaAs layer, and its surface level density increases even if the AlGaAs layer is protected by a protective insulation film. Especially when the PHEMT is a power FET, the power FET does not work well because of frequency dispersion of current characteristic. A prior art to solve the problem is “Manufacturing Method of Field Effect Transistor” (Japanese Laid-Open Patent application No. 09-045894 (pp. 3-4, FIG. 1)). The prior art resolves the problem by using an InGaP layer that is composed of InGaP that can better restrain the formation of the natural oxide film on the surface of a semiconductor layer than AlGaAs as the semiconductor layer that has the Schottky contact with the gate electrode. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional diagram of a conventional GaAs PHEMT. In the GaAs PHEMT shown in FIG. 1 , an epitaxial layer 120 is formed on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 110 that is composed of semi-insulating GaAs. Here, the epitaxial layer 120 is made up of a GaAs buffer layer 121 that is composed of a 1-μm-thick undoped GaAs material and lessens a lattice mismatch between the epitaxial layer 120 and a semi-insulating GaAs substrate 110 ; an AlGaAs buffer layer 122 that is composed of an undoped AlGaAs material; a channel layer 123 that is composed of a 20-nm-thick undoped In 0.2 Ga 0.8 As material and in which carriers run; a spacer layer 124 that is composed of a 5-nm-thick undoped InGaP material; a carrier supply layer 125 that is a planer-doped only one atom layer with Si, n-type impurity ions; a Schottky layer 126 that is composed of a 30-nm-thick undoped InGaP material; and an n + -type GaAs cap layer 127 that is composed of a 100-nm-thick n + -type GaAs. Additionally, on the Schottky layer 126 , a gate electrode 130 that has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer 126 is formed; and at two parts on the n + -type GaAs cap layer 127 , two ohmic electrodes 140 are formed. Further, in the vicinity of the ohmic electrodes 140 , two element separation regions 150 are formed; in the vicinity of the gate electrode 130 , an insulation film 160 that is composed of SiN or SiO is formed. As is described above, the conventional GaAs PHEMT can restrain an increase in the surface level density because in the conventional GaAs PHEMT, a semiconductor layer that is composed of InGaP including In and P as constituents is used as the Schottky layer 126 . Therefore, the formation of a natural oxide film on the surface of the Schottky layer is restrained. However, the conventional GaAs PHEMT has a problem explained below. In the process of manufacturing the conventional GaAs PHEMT, since heat of about 300° C. is added to the Schottky layer and the gate electrode, diffusion at the Schottky interface between the gate electrode and the Schottky layer occurs. As a result, a problem arises in that the Schottky characteristic deteriorates. At this time, leak current of the Schottky junction between a Gate and a Source is larger than that of the conventional PHEMT having the Schottky layer that is composed of AlGaAs, and deterioration such as strain of a device is seen also in RF characteristics. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing forward current-voltage characteristics between a Gate and a Source of the PHEMT that has a Schottky layer that is composed of InGaP and the gate electrode that is composed of Ti. In FIG. 2 , the broken line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and the Source of PHEMT before heat processing at 400° C., while the solid line shows the forward current voltage characteristic between the Gate and Source of PHEMT after the heat processing at 400° C. It is apparent from FIG. 2 that the leak current at a time of low bias increases due to the 400° C. heat processing and that the Schottky junction is greatly deteriorated. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the foregoing, it is the object of the present invention to provide a semiconductor device and its manufacturing method. The semiconductor can restrain an increase in the surface level density and has superior thermal stability. To achieve the above-mentioned object, the semiconductor of the present invention is a semiconductor device comprising: a Schottky layer; and a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer. The Schottky layer is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, and the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of material whose main constituents are La and B. Here, it is acceptable that the Schottky layer is composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGaP, and that the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB 6 . Additionally, it is agreeable that the semiconductor device is a transistor or a diode. As noted above, the semiconductor device is made up of the Schottky layer that is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P, and a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer, and a portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of a material whose main constituents are La and B. Therefore, the semiconductor device can restrain an increase in the surface level density of the Schottky layer, and has superior thermal stability and good Schottky characteristics. Additionally, the present invention provides a method of manufacturing a semiconductor device that has (i) an epitaxial layer that comprises a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer and (ii) a Schottky electrode that is formed on the Schottky layer and has a Schottky contact with the Schottky layer. The manufacturing method includes an epitaxial process of forming an epitaxial layer by forming in sequence a semiconductor layer and a Schottky layer that is composed of a compound semiconductor including In and P on a semi-insulating substrate by epitaxial growth using one of Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition method and Molecular-Beam Epitaxial method; and an electrode forming process of forming a Schottky electrode by evaporating material whose main constituents are La and B onto the Schottky layer. In this process, the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of the evaporated material. Here, it is possible that the Schottky layer is composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGaP, and that the Schottky layer is formed in the epitaxial process, the Schottky layer being composed of one of InGaP, InP and InAlGap. Moreover, it is acceptable that the portion of the Schottky electrode that touches the Schottky layer is composed of LaB 6 , and LaB 6 is evaporated onto the Schottky layer in the electrode forming process. Furthermore, it is agreeable that the vapor deposition of the material is performed with an electron-beam vapor deposition method. Hereby, the Schottky electrode can be formed by vapor deposition, and it has the effect of allowing manufacture of the semiconductor device with simple process. As further information about technical background to this application, Japanese patent application No. 2003-031214 filed on Feb. 7, 2003 is incorporated herein by reference. | 20050111 | 20061205 | 20050609 | 99424.0 | 0 | PHAM, THANH V | SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE WITH SCHOTTKY ELECTRODE INCLUDING LANTHANUM AND BORON, AND MANUFACTURING METHOD THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,218 | ACCEPTED | Fibrous composite articles and method of making the same | Fibrous composite articles and method of manufacturing the same are disclosed. The preferred fibrous materials have average fiber lengths of less than about 2 millimeters, and are obtained from industrial hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, and/or the culms of various species of vegetable bamboo. The fibers are combined with a binder resin and, optionally, a sizing agent to form a mat that is consolidated under heat and pressure to form the composite articles. The formed articles exhibit strength and durability characteristics at least roughly equivalent, if not superior, to those of conventional wood-based fibrous composite articles. | 1-30. (canceled) 31. A method of making a fibrous composite article, the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing fibers comprising a species selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and mixtures thereof; (b) refining the fibers; (c) combining the refined fibers with a binder resin; (d) forming a mat comprising the fibers and binder resin; and, (e) consolidating the mat under heat and pressure to produce a fibrous composite article. 32. The method of claim 31, wherein step (c) further comprises combining the refined fibers and binder resin with a sizing agent and, step (d) further comprises forming a mat comprising the fibers, binder resin, and sizing agent. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the fibers are refined to an average fiber length of about 0.1 mm to about 2 mm. 34. The method of claim 31 wherein the fibers have a specific gravity of about 1 to about 1.2. 35. The method of claim 31, wherein the binder resin is a thermosetting binder resin selected from the group consisting of amino resins, modified amino resins, phenolic resins, modified phenolic resins, and mixtures thereof. 36. The method of claim 31, wherein the fibers have a pre-consolidation moisture content of about 3 wt. % to about 5 wt. %. 37. The method of claim 35, wherein the fibers have a pre-consolidation moisture content of about 4 wt. % to about 4.5 wt. %. 38. The method of claim 32, wherein the sizing agent is a wax present in an amount of about 1 wt. % to about 3 wt. %, based on the weight of the fibers prior to cure. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the wax is present in an amount of about 1.5 wt. % to about 2.5 wt. %, based on the weight of the fibers prior to cure. 40. The method of claim 31, wherein the consolidation step includes a press temperature of about 375° F. to about 450° F. 41. The method of claim 40, wherein the press temperature is about 400° F. to about 425° F. 42. The method of claim 31, wherein the fiber comprises a hemp hurd fiber. 43. The method of claim 31, wherein the fiber comprises a kenaf hurd fiber and the consolidation step comprises a three-stage press cycle of about 60 seconds to about 90 seconds, wherein a first stage includes a press cycle time of about 10 seconds to about 20 seconds, a second stage includes a press cycle time of about 30 seconds to about 40 seconds; and a third stage includes a press cycle time of about 20 seconds to about 30 seconds. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the consolidation step comprises a three-stage press cycle of about 70 seconds to about 80 seconds. 45. The method of claim 31, wherein the fiber comprises a fiber of vegetable bamboo culms. 46. The method of claim 45, wherein the fiber comprises a fiber of a culm of a vegetable bamboo species selected from the group consisting of high-node (Phyllostachys promineus), thunder (P. praecox f. prevenalis), red (P. iridescens), and mixtures thereof. 47. The method of claim 45, wherein the consolidation step comprises (a) a first press period having a press cycle time of about 20 seconds to about 30 seconds, (b) a breathing period, having a cycle time of 10 seconds to about 15 seconds; and, (c) a second press period, having a press cycle time of about 35 seconds to about 75 seconds. 48. The method of claim 47, wherein said first and second press periods utilize a pressure in a range of about 700 psi to about 1200 psi. 49. The method of claim 48, wherein the pressure is in a range of about 800 psi to 1100 psi. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention generally relates to fibrous consolidated composite articles, and to methods of making the same and, more specifically, the invention relates to composite articles made from the fibers of hemp hurd, kenaf, vegetable bamboo, and/or mixtures thereof. 2. Brief Description of Related Technology One type of molded composite article is a cellulosic (or woody) composite which includes man-made boards of bonded wood sheets and/or lignocellulosic materials, commonly referred to in the art by the following exemplary terms: fiberboards such as hardboard, medium density fiberboard, and softboard; particleboards such as chipboard, flakeboard, particleboard, strandboard, and waferboard. Wood composites also include man-made boards comprising combinations of these materials. These wood composites can be used as columns, floors, ceilings, walls, doors, siding and stairs in the construction of homes, offices, and other types of buildings, as well as furniture components, such as chairs, tables, countertops, cabinets, and cabinet doors, for example. Many different methods of manufacturing wood composites are known in the art such as, for example, those described in Hsu et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,514,532 and Newman et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,828,643, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. The principal processes for the manufacture of fiberboard include: (a) wet felted/wet pressed or “wet” processes; (b) dry felted/dry pressed or “dry” processes; and, (c) wet felted/dry pressed or “wet-dry” processes. Synthetic binder resins, such as amino resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, phenol-formaldehyde resins, or modified phenol-formaldehyde resins, are often used as binders in these processes. Other binders include, but are not limited to, starches, asphalt, and gums. Cellulosic fibers such as, for example, wood fibers are prepared by the fiberization of woody chip material in a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, and/or a thermochemical refiner. Generally, in a wet process, the cellulosic fibers are blended in a vessel with large amounts of water to form a slurry. The slurry preferably has sufficient water content to suspend a majority of the wood fibers and preferably has a water content of at least 95 percent by weight (wt. %). The water is used to distribute a synthetic resin binder, such as a phenol-formaldehyde resin over the wood fibers. This mixture is deposited onto a water-pervious support member, such as a fine screen or a Fourdrinier wire, and pre-compressed, whereby much of the water is removed to leave a wet mat of cellulosic material having, for example, a moisture content of at least about 50 wt. % based on the weight of dry cellulosic material. The wet mat is transferred to a press and consolidated under heat and pressure to form the molded wood composite. A wet-dry forming process can also be used to produce wood composites. Preferably, a wet-dry process begins by blending cellulosic material (e.g., wood fibers) in a vessel with a large amount of water. This slurry is then blended with a resin binder. The blend is then deposited onto a water-pervious support member, where a large percentage (e.g., 50 wt. % or more) of the water is removed, thereby leaving a wet mat of cellulosic material having a water content of about 40 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, for example. This wet mat is then transferred to a zone where much of the remaining water is removed by evaporation by heat to form a dried mat. The dried mat preferably has a moisture content of about 10 wt. % or less. The dried mat can be finished at this point or transferred to a press and consolidated under heat and pressure to form a higher density wood composite which may be a flat board or a molded product, for example. The product can be molded into various shapes or geometries depending on the intended use. In a dry forming process, filler material, such as cellulosic fibers, is generally conveyed in a gaseous stream or by mechanical means. For example, the fibers supplied from a fiberizing apparatus (e.g., a pressurized refiner) may be coated with a thermosetting synthetic resin, such as a phenol-formaldehyde resin, in a blowline blending procedure, wherein the resin is blended with the fiber with the aid of air turbulence. Thereafter, the resin-coated fibers from the blowline can be randomly formed into a mat by air blowing the fibers onto a support member. Optionally, the fibers, either before or after formation of the mat, can be subjected to pre-press drying, for example in a tube-like dryer. The formed mat, typically having a moisture content of less than about 10 wt. %, and preferably about 5 wt. % to about 10 wt. %, then is pressed under heat and pressure to cure the thermosetting resin and to compress the mat into an integral consolidated structure. As an alternative to conventional pressing, steam injection pressing is a consolidation step that can be used, for example, under certain circumstances in the dry and wet-dry process production of consolidated cellulosic composites. In steam injection pressing, steam is injected through perforated heating press platens, into, through, and then out of a mat that includes the synthetic resin and the filler material. The steam condenses on surfaces of the filler and heats the mat. The heat transferred by the steam to the mat as well as the heat transferred from the press platens to the mat cause the resin to cure. The cost of manufacturing fiberboards is sensitive to the cost of raw materials. Traditionally, wood clearly has been the most important raw material in fiberboard manufacture, and because of its abundance, its costs have remained reasonably low. However, as the supply of preferred wood begins to diminish, its cost correspondingly increases. The raw material cost of wood may achieve a level where wood-alternatives may be considered viable options in the manufacture of fiberboards. Known non-wood raw material substitutes for fiberboard manufacture are limited to mineral fibers and to biological lignocellulosic fibers derived from annual plants such as bagasse, bamboo stalks, barley stalks, corn stalks, cotton stalks, flax shives, jute stalks, kenaf stalks, oat stalks, rice stalks/husks, rye stalks, sugarcane, and wheat stalks/straw. These raw materials can serve as viable substitutes for wood in wood-based fiberboards, however, these raw materials also suffer certain disadvantages in that they may not exhibit structural characteristics comparable to those of wood-based fiberboards. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide a nonwood-based, fibrous composite having strength and durability characteristics, and other related structural characteristics at least roughly equivalent to those of traditional wood-based, fibrous composite products. Furthermore, it would be desirable to provide nonwood-based, fibrous composites having structural characteristics superior to those of traditional wood-based, fibrous composites. It also would be desirable to provide an abundant raw material alternative to wood as a source for the fibers in the manufacture of fibrous composites. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION One aspect of the invention is a nonwood fibrous composite article containing fibrous material having an average fiber length of less than about 2 millimeters (mm) and a cured, binder resin, the resin preferably being present in an amount of about 2 percent by weight (wt. %) to about 8 wt. % based on the weight of the fibrous material prior to curing, wherein the fibrous material comprises a species selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. Another aspect of the invention is a method of making fibrous composite articles. The method includes the steps of providing and refining fibers selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. The fibers are combined with a binder resin to form a mat and, thereafter, the mat is compressed and dried to produce the fibrous composite article. Optionally, the mat may include a sizing agent prior to compression. The formed composite is advantageous in that it does not utilize woody raw materials and, instead, employs the fibrous material of a more plentiful resource, i.e., an annual plant. Further features of the invention may become apparent to those skilled in the art from a review of the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the appended claims. While the invention is susceptible of embodiments in various forms, described hereinafter are specific embodiments of the invention with the understanding that the present disclosure is intended as illustrative, and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments described herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The invention is directed to a fibrous composite article containing fibrous material having an average fiber length of less than about 2 mm and a cured, binder resin preferably present in an amount of about 2 wt. % to about 8 wt. % based on the weight of the fibrous material prior to curing, wherein the fibrous material comprises a species selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. The invention also is directed a method of making the fibrous composite articles. The inventive method includes the steps of providing and refining fibers selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. The fibers are combined with a binder resin to form a mat and, thereafter, the mat is compressed and dried to produce the fibrous composite article. Optionally, the mat may include a sizing agent prior to compression. The formed composite is advantageous in that it does not utilize woody raw materials and, instead, employs the fibrous material of a more plentiful resource, i.e., an annual plant. The fibrous material comprising the article preferably has a fiber length of about 0.3 mm to about 1.6 mm and a specific gravity of about one to about 1.2. Such fiber lengths can be obtained by subjecting a mass of the fiber source to the action of one or more conventional refiners such as, for example, a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, a thermochemical refiner, and/or a combination of these refiners. The mass of fibers subjected to the refining process typically are obtained from the species selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. The obtained fibers typically have a fiber length of less than about 2 mm prior to undergoing the fibrization processing in the aforementioned refiner(s). In the art of consolidated composite products, moisture content (percentage) is expressed as the weight of water contained in the fibrous material divided by the dry weight of the fibrous material. Thus, fibrous material containing 50% water and 50% dry fibrous material has a moisture content of 100%. The fibrous material specified according to the present invention desirably has a moisture content of less than about 30% and, preferably, has a moisture content of less than about 10%. More preferably, however, the fibrous material has a pre-consolidation moisture content of about 3 wt. % to about 5 wt. %, and most preferably it has a moisture content of about 4 wt. % to about 4.5 wt. %. Generally, a desired and/or preferred moisture content of the fibrous material can be achieved by subjecting the fibrous material to pre-consolidation drying, for example in a tube-like dryer to remove the water. According to the invention nonwood-based fibers for use in the invention include fibers having the aforementioned characteristics and include those obtained from industrial hemp, kenaf, and from various species of vegetable bamboo. Each of these nonwood-based fibers are described in more detail below along with any desirable characteristic properties and processing conditions. Industrial hemp is an annual fiber crop that is readily obtained from the stem stalks of Cannabis sativa, which is native to north-central Asia, northern Europe, India, Italy, the territories of the former Soviet Republic, the United States, and other northern climate regions. These stem stalks include two major fibers: a long bast (outer skin) fiber and a hurd (or core) fiber. The bast fibers have been used in the past for a variety of purposes, including twine, cordage, packing, and with cotton or flax in toweling and heavy fabrics. The long bast fibers have an average fiber length of about 55 millimeters (mm). Of less value are the shorter hurd fibers which, heretofore, have generated little value, and are typically discarded as an undesired by-product of processes for obtaining the bast fibers. Contrary to prevailing public perceptions, industrial hemp is not synonymous with “marijuana,” the sale of which is prohibited in many areas of the world including the United States. Industrial hemp contains less than one percent of the hallucinogenic chemical constituent, δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), so active in “marijuana.” In contrast, “marijuana” contains about 3% to about 15% of the hallucinogenic THC. Hemp is a hearty annual plant, as its seeds germinate quickly and, under good weather conditions, can become vigorous plants within as little as about three weeks to about five weeks. Within about ten weeks, a hemp plant can grow to heights in excess of about six feet, and within about sixteen weeks the plant can grow to a height of about sixteen feet. The hemp hurd fibers typically have an average fiber length of less than about 2 mm. Hemp hurd fibers for use in the invention preferably have an average fiber length of about 0.2 mm to about 0.8 mm, and more preferably the fibers have an average fiber length of about 0.5 mm to about 0.75 mm. The original hemp hurd fibers as obtained from the hemp stem stalks can be refined to a desired size by conventional refiners such as, for example, a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, and/or a thermochemical refiner. The chemical composition of hemp hurd fibers is generally similar to that of many wood-based fibers, with the exception that hemp hurd fibers have a higher ash content (see Table I, below). Cellulose, hemi-cellulose, and lignin are chemical constituents that are believed to provide the hemp hurd fibers with the strength characteristics desirable for combating external stresses, as well as other characteristics that contribute to good fiber/fiber bonds and good fiber/resin bonds, and water resistance. The balance of each of the fibers and wood materials listed in Table I comprises water. TABLE I Constituent Hemp Hemp (wt. %) Bast Fiber Hurd Fiber Eucalyptus Pine Lignin 4 21 26 28 Cellulose 65 40 46 42 Hemicellulose 12 18 27 25 Ash 5 4 1 1 A formed article using hemp hurd fibers may have a smoothness value of about 2 to about 5, and preferably about 2.1 to about 3.8. Smoothness value is measured using a 60° light reflectance technique generally known by those having ordinary skill in the art. Additionally, the formed article typically has an internal bond strength of about 140 psi (about 965 kPa) to about 250 psi (about 1723 kPa), and preferably about 150 psi (about 1034 kPa) to about 200 psi (about 1378 kPa). The article has a cleavage value of about 45 pounds (about 20 kilograms (kg)) to about 65 pounds (about 29 kg), and preferably about 60 pounds (about 27 kg) to about 65 pounds (about 29 kg). Other exemplary physical property data for products prepared in accordance with the invention are summarized in Table II, below. TABLE II Internal Hemp Resin OOP OOP 24-hour 24-hour Bond Smoothness Smoothness Hurd Content Caliper Specific Water Caliper Strength Cleavage Value Value Fiber (wt. %) (inches) Gravity Gain (%) Swell (%) (psi) (lbs) (Coarse) (Fine) Fine 3 0.124 1.05 28.4 18.8 186.4 58.5 2.1 3.1 Coarse 3 0.127 1.03 28.7 19.2 140.2 47.6 2.4 3.7 Fine 5 0.123 1.05 26.7 15.8 247.1 64.8 2.3 3.8 Coarse 5 0.126 1.03 24 14.5 187.2 53.5 2.4 3.8 Another suitable nonwood-based fiber for use in the invention is kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), which is an annual dicotyledonous fiber crop with stem stalks that can be used in the manufacture of pulp and paper products. Kenaf is a native of tropical Africa and the East Indies, where it is used for a variety of purposes, including rope, rugs, bagging, and twine, as well as for food due to the relatively high protein content of its leaves. Kenaf can be grown in southern regions of the United States such as, Alabama, California, Florida, Lousisana, Mississippi, and Texas. Kenaf stem stalks have two major fibers: a long bast fiber typically having an average length of about 2.5 millimeters (mm) found in the outer bark of the stem stalk, and a woody hurd (or core) fiber having an average length of less than about 2 mm, such as about 0.6 mm. The bast fibers account for about 25% to about 40% of the weight of the plant, while the woody hurd fibers account for the balance. Kenaf is a hearty annual plant as its seeds germinate quickly, usually within about three days to about five days, and under good weather conditions can become vigorous plants within as little as about five weeks to about six weeks. Within about sixteen weeks, a kenaf plant can grow to heights in excess of about eleven feet, and within about twenty weeks the plant can grow to a height of about eighteen feet. See generally, T. Sellers, Jr. et al. Kenaf Core as a Board Raw Material, Forest Products Journal, Vol. 43, pp. 69-71 (July/August 1993); S. W. Neill et al., 1989 Kenaf Variety Trial, Mississippi Agricultural & Forestry Experiment Station (MAFES), Information Sheet No. 1326, pp. 1-5 (April 1990), the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. Kenaf has been found to be a viable alternative to wood fibers because, for example, the annual yield of kenaf (dry basis) is about 6 tons/acre to about 12 tons/acre. In contrast southern pine trees typically require about 20 to about 25 years to produce an annual yield of about 10 tons/acre. With the annual abundance of kenaf comes the costs of harvesting, transporting, and storage. These costs, however, are likely to be outweighed by the benefits of the finished composite articles. As noted above, kenaf hurd fibers typically have an average length of less than about 2 mm, such as about 0.6 mm. Kenaf fibers for use in the invention preferably have an average fiber length of about 0.2 mm to about 0.8 mm, and more preferably the fibers have an average fiber length of about 0.5 mm to about 0.75 mm. The original kenaf hurd fibers as obtained from the kenaf stem stalks can be refined to a desired size by conventional refiners such as, for example, a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, and/or a thermochemical refiner. The chemical composition of kenaf bast fibers and kenaf hurd fibers are relatively similar, however the hurd fibers have slightly less of lignin, cellulose, extractives, and ash, and slightly higher amounts of sugar and acetyl, when compared to the bast fibers. The average chemical compositions of both of the bast fibers and core fibers are provided below in Table III. TABLE III Constituent Kenaf Kenaf (wt. %) Bast Fiber Hurd Fiber Lignin 21.1 18.7 Cellulose 44.4 37.6 Sugars 68.6 70.2 Extractives 2.7 1.9 Ash 4.6 2.2 Acetyl 2.7 4.0 Simply substituting kenaf fibers for conventional wood-based fibers in the manufacture of composite articles, however, is not enough to make a suitably sturdy product. The present inventors have found that blister and central core delamination could pose significant problems when using kenaf fibers instead of the conventional wood-based materials. In order to overcome these problems the present inventors discovered that the moisture content and the press cycle conditions are preferably adjusted because the moisture/steam permeability of kenaf hurd fiber mats is much lower than that of wood fiber mats, if all other material and processing conditions remain unchanged. While not intending to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the cell wall structure of the kenaf hurd fibers and the relatively low density of the kenaf material is responsible for the permeability characteristics. Once the mat is pressed and the thermosetting binder resin begins to cure, there are not enough microchannels for the water/steam present in the fibers (near the core of the mat) to escape. Accordingly, a preferred press cycle has been developed that comprises a first press period, a breathing period, and a second press period. During the breathing period, the pressure is reduced to allow moisture from within the fibers to vent. At the end of the second press period, when the pressure is released, internal stresses caused by steam pressure trapped inside the panel are reduced and the bonding between the fibers and the resin is more complete. The more complete bonding eliminates the problem of blistering and central core delamination. Preferred press cycle time for the first press period is about 20 seconds to about 30 seconds, more preferably about 25 seconds to about 30 seconds. A preferred breathing period is about 10 seconds to about 15 seconds, more preferably about 10 seconds to about 12 seconds. A preferred time period for the second press period is about 35 seconds to about 75 seconds, more preferably about 40 seconds to about 50 seconds. The preferred pressure during the various press periods ranges from about 700 psi (about 4823 kPa) to about 1200 psi (about 8268 kPa), more preferably about 800 psi (about 5521 kPa) to about 1100 psi (about 7579 kPa). During the preferred breathing period, the pressure is reduced to about 50 psi (about 345 kPa) to about 100 psi (about 690 kPa). A formed article using kenaf fibers may have a smoothness value of about 2 to about 5, and preferably about 2.5 to about 4.2. Additionally, the formed article typically has an internal bond strength of about 210 psi (about 1447 kPa) to about 290 psi (about 2000 kPa), and preferably about 218 psi (about 1503 kPa) to about 279 psi (about 1923 kPa). The article may have a cleavage value of about 80 pounds (about 36 kg) to about 100 pounds (about 45 kg), and preferably about 82 pounds (about 37 kg) to about 95.7 pounds (about 43.4 kg). A hardwood can be included with kenaf fibers. Hardwoods suitable for use in combination with kenaf fibers include those obtained from broadleafed or deciduous trees such as, for example, aspen, birch, hackberry, hickory, maple, mulberry, oak, and sycamore. When hardwood is used with kenaf fibers, the weight ratio of hardwood to kenaf is about 0.25:1 to about 0.67:1, preferably in a ratio of about 0.4:1 to about 0.5:1. Press operating conditions likely will change depending upon the amount of hardwood present and, based on the foregoing teachings, such conditions are determinable by those having ordinary skill in the art. Various physical property data of exemplary articles of the invention having a mixture of hardwood and kenaf fibers are summarized in Table IV, below. Softwoods, such as pine (e.g., masson pine) and fir, also can be included with kenaf fibers in weight ratios similar to those recited herein for hardwood. TABLE IV Internal Hardwood OOP OOP 24-hour 24-hour Bond Smoothness Smoothness to Kenaf Caliper Specific Water Caliper Strength Cleavage Value Value Ratio (inches) Gravity Gain (%) Swell (%) (psi) (lbs) (Coarse) (Fine) 100:0 0.125 1.04 24 15.3 279 95.7 7.1 4.4 40:60 0.124 1.05 25.7 16.9 254 81.9 5.2 3.1 30:70 0.125 1.04 25.4 17.8 218 91.1 5.3 2.9 20:80 0.119 1.06 24.8 17.3 253 90.3 4.2 2.5 0:100 0.121 1.02 24.4 17.7 224 82 4.8 1.9 Yet another suitable nonwood-based fiber for use in the invention is that obtained from vegetable bamboo (Bambusoideae). More specifically, useful vegetable bamboo fibers are obtained from a species selected from the group consisting of high-node (Phyllostachys promineus), thunder (P. praecoxf prevenalis), red (P. iridescens), and mixtures thereof. These bamboo species each include a jointed culm (the visible above-ground portion of the bamboo plant) and a subterranean jointed rhizome whose buds develop into new plants. Generally, these bamboo species can be grown in tropical or subtropical regions of the world, and are native to Africa, South America, the South Pacific, and various Asian countries including, but not limited to, China, India, and Japan. In the past, vegetable bamboo plants have been planted, for example, in China, for bamboo shoot production which is highly profitable as a vegetable. The remaining culms of these vegetable bamboo plants, however, are regarded as a by-product and are burned by farmers as a low-cost fuel, for example. The culms of vegetable bamboo grow very quickly and can reach a final height and diameter within as little as about five weeks to about eight weeks. However, unlike hemp and kenaf, vegetable bamboo require about three years to about five years to mature. Despite the longer maturation period, vegetable bamboo are believed to be a more plentiful resource for fiber, than are wood-based plants, such as southern pine trees which typically require about 20 to about 25 years to produce an annual yield of about 10 tons/acre. The vegetable bamboo fibers for use in the invention preferably have an average fiber length of about 0.2 mm to about 0.8 mm, and more preferably the fibers have an average fiber length of about 0.5 mm to about 0.75 mm. The fibers as obtained from the culms of vegetable bamboo plants can be refined to a desired size by one or more conventional refiners such as, for example, a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, and/or a thermochemical refiner. More specifically, bamboo stems of about ½-inch to about 2.5 inches in diameter and about 6 feet to about 7 feet in length, and having a moisture content of about 15% are chipped by 3-inch and 4-inch disc chippers. The chips are soaked in water at room temperature for about 4 hours to about 12 hours. After soaking in water the chips are refined to the desired fiber size by two refining plates (Type C and Type D plates). Type C plates have open end rims which provide shorter retention times during refining and render longer but coarser fibers. Type D plates have one side with sealed end rim which provides longer retention times during refining and render shorter and finer fibers and smaller particle size for bamboo nodes. The chemical composition of vegetable bamboo fibers is generally similar to that of most wood-based fibers, with the exception that vegetable bamboo fibers contain extractives (see Table V, below). While there may be some compositional similarities between the fibers obtained from vegetable bamboo and those obtained from wood, the physical structure of bamboo is noticeably different from that of wood, in that the culm is divided into sections by highly-lignified nodes. Furthermore, the hardness of the bamboo culm is largely determined by the amount of vascular bundles and their scattering pattern on the cross-section of the culm. The balance of each of the materials listed in Table V comprises water. TABLE V Constituent Vegetable (wt. %) Bamboo Fiber Eucalyptus Pine Lignin 22 to 26.2 26 28 Cellulose 39 to 60 46 42 Hemicellulose 189 to 22.5 27 25 Ash 0.7 to 2.7 1 1 Extractives 6.1 to 9.7 0 0 A formed article using vegetable bamboo fibers may have a smoothness value of about 2 to about 9, and preferably about 2 to about 4.2. Additionally, the formed article typically has an internal bond strength of about 160 psi (about 1103 kPa) to about 400 psi (about 2758 kPa), preferably about 180 psi (about 1241 kPa) to about 375 psi (about 2585 kPa), and more preferably about 225 psi (about 1551 kPa) to about 375 psi (about 2585 kPa). The article may have a cleavage value of about 65 pounds (about 29 kg) to about 95 pounds (about 43 kg), and preferably about 67.2 pounds (about 30.5 kg) to about 92.5 pounds (about 42 kg). Additional, exemplary physical property data for products prepared using each of the three vegetable bamboo species are provided below in Table VI. TABLE VI Internal Vegetable OOP OOP 24-hour 24-hour Bond Modulus Modululs Bamboo Caliper Specific Weight Caliper Strength Cleavage of Elasticity of Rupture Smoothness Species (inches) Gravity Gain (%) Swell (%) (psi) (lbs) (psi) (psi) Value Thunder 0.127 1.03 25.5 14.1 364 79.9 657 7024 — (A) Thunder 0.127 1.03 25.3 13.5 288 76.8 611 6506 — (B) Thunder 0.125 1.04 24.8 12.1 399 92.5 634 6704 1.7-8.3 (C1)* Thunder 0.125 1.04 25.1 12.5 316 34.9 613 6107 1.7-8.3 (C2)** High- 0.125 1.04 28.7 16.4 234 72.3 539 4849 1.8-8.6 Node Red 0.128 1.01 28.5 15.2 172 76.2 556 5027 2-8.8 Mixture*** 0.129 1.01 26.7 15.4 162 67.2 523 4785 2-8.9 *= Tempered **= Untempered ***= 1:1:1 weight ratio of Thunder (C1):High-Node:Red. Suitable (thermosetting) binder resins generally include, but are not limited to, amino resins, phenolic resins, and derivatives and mixtures thereof, which are described, for example, in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 15, pp. 176-208 (2d. ed. 1970). Preferred resins for use in accordance with the invention include phenolic resins, including modified phenolic resins. Preferred phenolic resins include those described in Teodorczyk U.S. Pat. No. 5,367,040, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. While the phenolic resin may be in a powdered, high molecular weight form, the powdered form typically is more expensive to manufacture and, therefore, an aqueous form of the resin is generally preferred. Many suitable phenolic resins are available commercially. Generally, a phenolic resin is a reaction product of a phenolic component and an aldehyde, the reaction occurring in the presence of an alkaline compound. The phenolic component of the phenolic resin for use in accordance with the invention may include phenol, cresol, xylenols, other substituted phenols, and/or mixtures thereof Examples of substituted phenols include o-cresol, p-cresol, p-tertbutylphenol, p-nonylphenol, p-dodecylphenol, and bi-functional xylenols (e.g., 3,5-xylenols). A mixture of cresols, phenol, and xylenols (commonly known as cresylic acid) may be useful in accordance with a commercial scale practice of the inventive method due to its abundance and relatively low cost. The aldehyde component of the phenolic resin for use in accordance with the invention is not limited to aldehyde itself, but encompasses any aldehyde, formaldehyde, and derivatives thereof which are known to be useful in conjunction with the manufacture of phenolic resins. Thus, references herein to the aldehyde component of the resin include aldehydes, formaldehydes, and derivatives thereof. Formaldehyde is the preferred aldehyde. Derivatives of formaldehyde include, for example, paraformaldehyde, hexamethylenetetramine, acetaldehyde, glyoxal, and furfuraldehyde. By way of example, the ratio of the aldehyde component to the phenolic component may be in a range of about 2.0 moles aldehyde or less per mole of phenolic component, more specifically about 0.5 moles to about 1.2 moles aldehyde per mole of phenolic component, for example, about 0.8 moles to about 1.0 moles aldehyde per mole of phenolic component. If a bi-functional phenolic compound is used (e.g., 3,5-xylenols), the equivalent molar ratio (i.e., the ratio of moles of aldehyde to the number of free positions on the phenolic ring available for reaction with the aldehyde) can be in a range of about 0.4:1 to about 0.66:1. However, the invention is not limited to these ranges. As noted above, formation of the phenolic resin for use in accordance with the invention occurs in the presence of an alkaline compound (sometimes referred to as “caustic”) that is used: (a) to achieve methylolation of the phenol; (b) to speed the reaction between the aldehyde and phenolic compound; and, (c) to solubilize the formed resin. Various suitable alkaline compounds are known in the art, and include, for example, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or mixtures thereof. Although higher proportions of caustic may be used and those skilled in the art will be able to select suitable caustic levels, the amount of caustic added to the phenolic/aldehyde mixture may be in a range of about 0.05 moles to about 0.2 moles of alkaline compound per mole of phenolic compound. Such an amount of caustic generally assures very beneficial properties of the formed product while allowing for a sufficiently rapid resin cure. Optionally, an amount of dihydroxybenzene modifier (e.g., resorcinol) may be added to the phenolic resin. Examples of dihydroxybenzenes include resorcinol, hydroquinone, and catechol. Unsubstituted and substituted resorcinols including mixtures thereof, also may be used. The reaction between the phenolic resin and the modifier preferably occurs without the further addition of caustic, until a desired chain length is reached to produce a modified phenolic resin. Though resorcinol is the preferred modifier compound, other modifier compounds that may be reacted with a phenol-formaldehyde resin include aminophenols and phenylenediamines. Examples of aminophenols include ortho-hydroxyaniline, meta-hydroxyaniline, and para-hydroxyaniline. Examples of phenylenediamines include ortho-phenylenediamine, meta-phenylenediamine, and para-phenylenediamine. When included, the modifier compound is preferably present in a range of about one mole to about ten moles of the phenol compound per mole of resorcinol, and preferably about five moles to about ten moles phenol per mole of resorcinol. The molar ratio of aldehyde to total phenolics (i.e., the phenolic components plus dihydroxybenzene modifier) is preferably greater than about 1:1, more preferably is in a range of about one mole to about 1.8 moles formaldehyde per mole of phenolics, and most preferably about 1.1 moles to about 1.4 moles formaldehyde per mole phenolics. Generally, the thermosetting binder resin is present in the pre-consolidated mat in an amount of about 2 wt. % to about 8 wt. %, based on the weight of the fibrous material prior to cure and, preferably, in an amount of about 3 wt. % to about 7 wt. %. A sizing agent preferably is incorporated into the pre-consolidated mat with the fibrous material and the thermosetting binder resin. The sizing agent is used to cover surfaces of the individual fibers thereby reducing the surface energy of the fibers, and rendering the fibers hydrophobic. Rendering the fibers hydrophobic enables better control of linear expansion, thickness swelling, surface deterioration, and strength loss caused by the swelling of fibers absorbing water. Additionally, hydrophobic, consolidated articles are more amenable to the application of sealers, paints, and other finishing coatings because these materials do not penetrate or soak into the consolidated fibrous mat. Suitable sizing agents include waxes of relatively high molecular weights (e.g., about 200 to about 1000) obtained as the residues or distillates of crude oil. Such waxes preferably are chemically inert and water-insoluble. Such waxes are commercially-available under the tradename CITGO 60/40 from Citgo. When used, the sizing agent is present in the pre-consolidated mat in an amount of about one percent by weight (wt. %) to about 3 wt. %, based on the weight of the fibrous material prior to cure, and more preferably in an amount of about 1.5 wt. % to about 2.5 wt. %. The mat is placed and/or formed in a mold of suitable pressing apparatus and consolidated to form the molded composite article. The pressing apparatus preferably has press platens capable of operating at a temperature in a range of about 125° F. (about 52° C.) to about 500° F. (about 260° C.), preferably about 375° F. (about 190° C.) to about 450° F. (about 232° C.), and more preferably about 400° F. (about 204° C.) to about 425° F. (about 218° C.). The press platen operating temperature will likely depend on the type of thermosetting binder resin and particular fiber used, for example. Press times generally are relatively short, and are preferably in a range of about 30 seconds to about three minutes, preferably about 60 seconds to about 150 seconds, and more preferably about 60 seconds to about 90 seconds. A preferred press operation includes a three-stage press cycle of about 60 seconds to about 90 seconds wherein a first stage includes a press cycle time of about 10 seconds to about 20 seconds, a second stage includes a breathing time period of about 30 seconds to about 40 seconds, and a third stage includes a press cycle time of about 20 seconds to about 30 seconds. During the second stage breathing time period the pressure exerted by the press platens on the mat is reduced by about 50 psi to about 200 psi, preferably by about 75 psi to about 100 psi. A more preferred press operation includes a press cycle time of about 70 seconds to about 80 seconds. These consolidation parameters, however, are variable depending upon the materials and apparatus being used. As will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, desirable pressing temperatures vary according to, but not limited to, the following criteria: the thickness of the composite; the type of fibrous material being pressed; the moisture content of the fibrous material; the press time; and the specific thermosetting binder resin. Alternatively, steam injection press methods can be used to consolidate a mat comprising the fibrous material, resin, and sizing agent. In the steam injection method, the mat is introduced into a suitable pressing apparatus having perforated press platens and steam injection capability. Steam is injected into the mat through the press platens so as to cure the resin. The steam injection press apparatus may include press platens having apertures, one of the platens being used for injecting the steam through the apertures, and another platen (e.g., a bottom platen) being used to vent the steam or liquid condensate through the apertures. In such an embodiment, the steam may enter the top side of the mat evenly over its entire surface, then flow from the top surface to the bottom surface, and finally exit through the bottom platen. Alternatively, the steam may be injected and exhausted through the same (e.g., bottom) platen. The pressure in the press is preferably in a range of about 100 pounds per square inch gauge (psig) to about 400 psig, and more preferably in a range of about 200 psig to about 300 psig. The temperature of the steam is preferably in a range of about 300° F. (about 150° C.) to 390° F. (about 200° C.), while the press platens are preferably at a temperature of about 300° F. (about 150° C.) to 390° F. (about 200° C.). Press times generally are relatively short, and are preferably in a range of about fifteen seconds to about five minutes, and more preferably about twenty seconds to about one minute, e.g. about thirty seconds. However, these press times, temperatures, and pressures may be adjusted depending upon the fibrous materials, the particular thermosetting binder resin, and the apparatus being used. For example, as will be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art, desirable press temperatures vary according to various factors, such as the thickness of the mat to be pressed, the type of fibrous material being pressed, the moisture content of the fibrous material, the desired press time, and the type of resin used. Process parameters and apparatus for steam injection pressing are described more fully in K. Walter, Steam Pressing Experience from Operating Plants and Future Possibilities, (G. Siempelkamp Gmbh and Co.) and in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,195,428; 5,134,023; and 4,890,849, the respective disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. After the consolidation step, the formed composite article is removed from the press and cooled to ambient temperature. The molded composite article made from hemp hurd and/or kenaf hurd has superior surface quality which helps achieve a higher coating quality which in turn adds more value to the finished product. The formed composite articles can have a density akin to medium density boards (i.e., a density in a range of about 30 pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3) to about 45 lbs/ft3) or high density boards (i.e., a density of about 45 lbs/ft3 or greater). Furthermore, the formed composite articles can have various thicknesses, ranging from about ⅛-inch to about two inches, and more specifically the articles can have thickness of about ⅛-inch, ¼-inch, ⅓-inch, ⅜-inch, ½-inch, ⅝-inch, ⅔-inch, ¾-inch, ⅞-inch, 1-inch, 1¼-inches, 1¼-inches, 1⅓-inches, 1⅜-inches, 1½-inches, 1⅝-inches, 1⅔-inches, 1¾-inches, 1⅞-inches, 2-inches. These composites can be used as columns, floors, floor underlayment, roof sheathings, ceilings, walls, partition systems, doors, doorskins, and stairs in the construction of homes, offices, and other types of buildings, as well as furniture components, such as chairs, tables, countertops, cabinets, and cabinet doors, and other uses, such as bulletin boards, for example. The foregoing description is given for clearness of understanding only, and no unnecessary limitations should be understood therefrom, as modifications within the scope of the invention may be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention generally relates to fibrous consolidated composite articles, and to methods of making the same and, more specifically, the invention relates to composite articles made from the fibers of hemp hurd, kenaf, vegetable bamboo, and/or mixtures thereof. 2. Brief Description of Related Technology One type of molded composite article is a cellulosic (or woody) composite which includes man-made boards of bonded wood sheets and/or lignocellulosic materials, commonly referred to in the art by the following exemplary terms: fiberboards such as hardboard, medium density fiberboard, and softboard; particleboards such as chipboard, flakeboard, particleboard, strandboard, and waferboard. Wood composites also include man-made boards comprising combinations of these materials. These wood composites can be used as columns, floors, ceilings, walls, doors, siding and stairs in the construction of homes, offices, and other types of buildings, as well as furniture components, such as chairs, tables, countertops, cabinets, and cabinet doors, for example. Many different methods of manufacturing wood composites are known in the art such as, for example, those described in Hsu et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,514,532 and Newman et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,828,643, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. The principal processes for the manufacture of fiberboard include: (a) wet felted/wet pressed or “wet” processes; (b) dry felted/dry pressed or “dry” processes; and, (c) wet felted/dry pressed or “wet-dry” processes. Synthetic binder resins, such as amino resins, urea-formaldehyde resins, phenol-formaldehyde resins, or modified phenol-formaldehyde resins, are often used as binders in these processes. Other binders include, but are not limited to, starches, asphalt, and gums. Cellulosic fibers such as, for example, wood fibers are prepared by the fiberization of woody chip material in a pressurized refiner, an atmospheric refiner, a mechanical refiner, and/or a thermochemical refiner. Generally, in a wet process, the cellulosic fibers are blended in a vessel with large amounts of water to form a slurry. The slurry preferably has sufficient water content to suspend a majority of the wood fibers and preferably has a water content of at least 95 percent by weight (wt. %). The water is used to distribute a synthetic resin binder, such as a phenol-formaldehyde resin over the wood fibers. This mixture is deposited onto a water-pervious support member, such as a fine screen or a Fourdrinier wire, and pre-compressed, whereby much of the water is removed to leave a wet mat of cellulosic material having, for example, a moisture content of at least about 50 wt. % based on the weight of dry cellulosic material. The wet mat is transferred to a press and consolidated under heat and pressure to form the molded wood composite. A wet-dry forming process can also be used to produce wood composites. Preferably, a wet-dry process begins by blending cellulosic material (e.g., wood fibers) in a vessel with a large amount of water. This slurry is then blended with a resin binder. The blend is then deposited onto a water-pervious support member, where a large percentage (e.g., 50 wt. % or more) of the water is removed, thereby leaving a wet mat of cellulosic material having a water content of about 40 wt. % to about 60 wt. %, for example. This wet mat is then transferred to a zone where much of the remaining water is removed by evaporation by heat to form a dried mat. The dried mat preferably has a moisture content of about 10 wt. % or less. The dried mat can be finished at this point or transferred to a press and consolidated under heat and pressure to form a higher density wood composite which may be a flat board or a molded product, for example. The product can be molded into various shapes or geometries depending on the intended use. In a dry forming process, filler material, such as cellulosic fibers, is generally conveyed in a gaseous stream or by mechanical means. For example, the fibers supplied from a fiberizing apparatus (e.g., a pressurized refiner) may be coated with a thermosetting synthetic resin, such as a phenol-formaldehyde resin, in a blowline blending procedure, wherein the resin is blended with the fiber with the aid of air turbulence. Thereafter, the resin-coated fibers from the blowline can be randomly formed into a mat by air blowing the fibers onto a support member. Optionally, the fibers, either before or after formation of the mat, can be subjected to pre-press drying, for example in a tube-like dryer. The formed mat, typically having a moisture content of less than about 10 wt. %, and preferably about 5 wt. % to about 10 wt. %, then is pressed under heat and pressure to cure the thermosetting resin and to compress the mat into an integral consolidated structure. As an alternative to conventional pressing, steam injection pressing is a consolidation step that can be used, for example, under certain circumstances in the dry and wet-dry process production of consolidated cellulosic composites. In steam injection pressing, steam is injected through perforated heating press platens, into, through, and then out of a mat that includes the synthetic resin and the filler material. The steam condenses on surfaces of the filler and heats the mat. The heat transferred by the steam to the mat as well as the heat transferred from the press platens to the mat cause the resin to cure. The cost of manufacturing fiberboards is sensitive to the cost of raw materials. Traditionally, wood clearly has been the most important raw material in fiberboard manufacture, and because of its abundance, its costs have remained reasonably low. However, as the supply of preferred wood begins to diminish, its cost correspondingly increases. The raw material cost of wood may achieve a level where wood-alternatives may be considered viable options in the manufacture of fiberboards. Known non-wood raw material substitutes for fiberboard manufacture are limited to mineral fibers and to biological lignocellulosic fibers derived from annual plants such as bagasse, bamboo stalks, barley stalks, corn stalks, cotton stalks, flax shives, jute stalks, kenaf stalks, oat stalks, rice stalks/husks, rye stalks, sugarcane, and wheat stalks/straw. These raw materials can serve as viable substitutes for wood in wood-based fiberboards, however, these raw materials also suffer certain disadvantages in that they may not exhibit structural characteristics comparable to those of wood-based fiberboards. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide a nonwood-based, fibrous composite having strength and durability characteristics, and other related structural characteristics at least roughly equivalent to those of traditional wood-based, fibrous composite products. Furthermore, it would be desirable to provide nonwood-based, fibrous composites having structural characteristics superior to those of traditional wood-based, fibrous composites. It also would be desirable to provide an abundant raw material alternative to wood as a source for the fibers in the manufacture of fibrous composites. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>One aspect of the invention is a nonwood fibrous composite article containing fibrous material having an average fiber length of less than about 2 millimeters (mm) and a cured, binder resin, the resin preferably being present in an amount of about 2 percent by weight (wt. %) to about 8 wt. % based on the weight of the fibrous material prior to curing, wherein the fibrous material comprises a species selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. Another aspect of the invention is a method of making fibrous composite articles. The method includes the steps of providing and refining fibers selected from the group consisting of hemp hurd, kenaf hurd, vegetable bamboo culms, and combinations thereof. The fibers are combined with a binder resin to form a mat and, thereafter, the mat is compressed and dried to produce the fibrous composite article. Optionally, the mat may include a sizing agent prior to compression. The formed composite is advantageous in that it does not utilize woody raw materials and, instead, employs the fibrous material of a more plentiful resource, i.e., an annual plant. Further features of the invention may become apparent to those skilled in the art from a review of the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the appended claims. While the invention is susceptible of embodiments in various forms, described hereinafter are specific embodiments of the invention with the understanding that the present disclosure is intended as illustrative, and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodiments described herein. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050111 | 20080819 | 20050811 | 96935.0 | 0 | THEISEN, MARY LYNN F | FIBROUS COMPOSITE ARTICLES AND METHOD OF MAKING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,264 | ACCEPTED | Liquid transfer articles and method for producing the same using digital imaging photopolymerization | A liquid transfer article is provided including a support assembly and an imaged surface formed directly on the surface of the support assembly by digital photopolymerization. The support assembly is in the form of a polymeric base, and the liquid transfer article is formed by providing a liquid photopolymer on the surface of the base and then irradiating the polymer with a light source to form the image. The liquid transfer article is reimagable and may be used in gravure printing processes, as well as other printing applications. | 1. A maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system for producing a cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate having an imaged surface layer with x, y, and z dimensions, said imaged surface layer being usable in graphic arts reproduction applications to provide accurate metering of a liquid and to transfer the liquid to another surface, said system comprising: a support assembly adapted to receive at least a first layer of a cross-linkable liquid photopolymer; a light source for irradiating said cross-linkable liquid photopolymer layer, said light source and said support assembly are adapted to be held stationary at least during formation of the imaged surface layer of the cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate; a spatial light modulator having individually controllable elements in a matrix of x, y dimensions disposed between said light source and said support assembly; and a microprocessor connected to said spatial light modulator and adapted to control operation of said individually controllable elements such that said spatial light modulator provides light from said light source at various wavelengths and intensities in an image pattern toward said support assembly in order to form the imaged surface layer with x, y, and z dimensions in the cross-linkable liquid photopolymer layer in one step. 2. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said light source comprises a visible light source. 3. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said individually controllable elements are micromirrors. 4. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said support assembly is a generally flat surface. 5. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said wavelengths are varied by a color wheel provided between said light source and said spatial light modulator. 6. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said graphic arts reproduction applications includes intaglio and anilox. 7. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said imaged pattern may take the form of any indicia including numbers, letters, and graphics. 8. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said cross-linkable liquid photopolymer is selected from the group consisting of acrylates, epoxies, urethanes, unsaturated polyesters, and combinations thereof. 9. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1 wherein said microprocessor is adapted to differentiate properties in the x, y, and z dimensions of said imaged surface layer by selecting a light intensity or wavelength for each individual micromirror. 10. The maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1, wherein said microprocessor is adapted to control the wavelength or light intensity of the light provided by said spatial light modulator in order to vary properties such as depth, mechanical strength, hardness, and degree of cross-linking in said cross-linkable liquid photopolymer. 11. A method of making a cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate having an imaged surface layer with x, y, and z dimensions comprising using the maskless digital imaging photopolymerization system of claim 1. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein said imaged surface layer is produce by building up a plurality of said imaged surface layers one on top of each other. 13. The method of claim 11, further comprises removing non-linked portions of said liquid photopolymer and subjecting said printing plate to a detackification process. 14. A cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate produced by the method of claim 11. 15. A cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate produced by the method of claim 12. 16. The cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate of claim 14, wherein said imaged surface layer may take the form of any indicia including numbers, letters, and graphics. 17. The cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate of claim 14, wherein said imaged surface layer has a well depth from about 0.4 mm to about 1.0 mm. 18. The cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate of claim 14, wherein said imaged surface layer is an anilox surface. 19. The cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate of claim 14, wherein said imaged surface layer is provided on a base layer. 20. The cross-linked photopolymerized printing plate of claim 14, wherein said imaged surface layer is provided on a base layer comprising polymeric films, foams, fabrics, flexible metal, laminates, subbing layers, paper sheets, and combinations thereof. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation and claims the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/119,061 filed Apr. 9, 2002. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to graphic arts reproduction, and more particularly to a liquid transfer article for use in transferring an accurately metered quantity of a liquid to another surface and a method for producing it by digital imaging photopolymerization. One example of a liquid transfer article is a surface on a cylinder, belt, sleeve or plate that is used in printing processes to transfer a specified amount of a liquid coating material, such as ink or other substances, from the liquid transfer article to another surface or substrate. The volumetric capacity of the liquid transfer article is dependent upon the selection of size, shape, and number of cells per unit area. Cells comprise discrete areas on the surface of the liquid transfer article which hold the liquid. Varying these factors permits a high degree of precision in determining print densities. In addition, by controlling the location of the cells on the surface, a precise, predetermined image may be transferred to a receiving surface. One example of such an article is a gravure surface which includes a pattern of cells or depressions adapted for receiving the liquid coating material. The area of the surface at a common level surrounding the pattern of cells is the land area surface. When the liquid coating material is applied to the article, the cells are filled with the liquid while the remaining land area surface of the article is removed by a wiper or doctor blade. Since the liquid coating material is contained only in the pattern defined by the cells, it is this pattern of liquid that is transferred to the other surface when contacted by the liquid transfer article. Another example of a liquid transfer article is an anilox surface. The major difference between a gravure surface and an anilox surface is that the entire anilox surface is patterned whereas with a gravure surface only portions are patterned to form a predetermined image. The anilox surface is typically etched with an array of closely spaced, shallow cells or depressions. The liquid coating material flows into the cells as the anilox surface contacts a reservoir. The anilox surface is then scraped with the doctor blade to remove excessive liquid coating material. The remaining liquid coating material in the cells transfers over to another surface when contacted. In both types of liquid transfer articles, care needs to be taken to ensure that the land area surface is as smooth as possible. If the land area surface of the liquid transfer article is too coarse, removing the excessive liquid coating material from the land area surface of the coarse article becomes problematic resulting in the transfer of too much liquid onto the receiving surface and/or on the wrong location. Therefore, the land area surface of the liquid transfer article should be finished and the cells clearly defined so that they can accept a desired amount of the liquid coating material. Prior art methods of producing liquid transfer articles having involved either etching a surface of a copper-plated printing element with chemicals or a high energy beam, such as a laser or an electron beam, or photopolymerization of a polymer onto a support base. In the former method, chemical etching is a time-consuming process that involves that use of multiple images in order to prepare a surface for etching. Laser etching, although faster than chemical etching, results in the formation of cells with a new recast surface about each cell and above the original surface or land surface area of the liquid transfer article. The recast surfaces have an appearance of a miniature volcano crater about each cell. This is caused by solidification of the molten material thrown from the surface when struck by the high-energy beam and their formation causes significant problems. As mentioned above, in order to transfer the liquid coating material in a controlled manner determined by the cell pattern, excess liquid has to be completely removed from the liquid transfer surface, for example by a doctor blade. Any excess liquid coating material remaining on the liquid transfer surface after running under the doctor blade will be deposited on the receiving product where it is not wanted and/or in undesired amount. With a laser-etched liquid transfer surface, the doctor blade cannot completely remove excess liquid from the image transfer surface due to the recast surfaces which retain some of the liquid. Thus, it is desirable in most printing applications to have a liquid transfer article which is void of recast surfaces. Additionally, it has been noted that it is extremely difficult to control the depth and size of all the cells using laser-etching techniques which produce liquid transfer articles having printed patterns. Specifically, the laser is generally required to be activated only where cells are required and inactivated when no cells are required. Unfortunately, the laser start and stop response is not the same response that is achieved once the laser is operating for a set period. For example, when the laser is started, the first few pulses of radiation are less than the energy content of the laser beam for pulses produced after the laser has been operating for a suitable time. This in turn results in the shape and depth of the first few cells in the surface of the article being different from consecutive successive wells formed in the surface of the article. Consequently, the cells defining the boundary of the pattern are not the same depth and/or size as the cells contained within the center of the pattern and therefore would be incapable of containing a desired volume of liquid. This results in the boundary of the pattern transferred to a receiving surface being off shaded with respect to the overall pattern. In other words, the edges of the printed pattern are somewhat fuzzy. This can result in different shades of the printed pattern being transferred to the receiving surface. Although laser-etching techniques provide an effective means for producing wells or depressions in the surface of liquid transfer articles, the non-uniformity of the few start and stop pulses of the laser can produce an inferior quality liquid transfer article. As such, typical finely engineered, copper-plated, engraved gravure print rollers are extremely expensive. With the latter method of photopolymerization, typically a printing plate is formed by first placing a negative on a supporting glass plate. An optically transparent release film is then placed on top of the negative which is subsequently coated with a layer of photopolymerizable resin. A backing sheet is then placed on top of the photopolymerizable resin, and the backing sheet is then covered by another glass sheet. Irradiation by actinic light, such as UV light, through the top glass/backing sheet combination forms a solid floor layer of photoresin, which adheres to the backing sheet. The thickness of the floor layer is less than the total thickness of the photoresin. Irradiation through the lower glass plate negative release sheet selectively hardens the photoresin to form an image-printing surface which mirrors the image on the negative. The hardened regions adhere to the floor layer, but not to the transparent release sheet. Subsequent processing removes unhardened (liquid) photoresin to reveal a relief image. When following the teachings of the prior art, the photopolymerizable resin layer can be placed on the glass plate and a capping blade can be drawn across the resin layer so as to level the layer of resin on the glass plate. The result is a relatively constant thickness resin layer formed on the supporting glass plate in the printing plate production assembly. The uniform layer of resin is then exposed to a UV light source through the negative so as to produce cross-linked solid areas in the resin layer which form a printing image or pattern in the resin layer. The non-cross-linked liquid portions of the resin layer are then removed from the plate, and the result is a selectively relieved cross-linked resin-printing pattern on the plate. The photo negatives required for this type of process can be both costly and time-consuming to produce. U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,848 to Gillette, et al attempts to overcome the above-mentioned problems by disclosing a method of producing liquid transfer articles by extruding a predetermined thickness layer of a photopolymerizable resin, and then moving the extruded resin layer past a variable intensity light source. The intensity of the light source can be controlled by a preprogrammed microprocessor in several ways. One way of providing the variable intensity light source involves the use of a bank of lights which can be selectively turned “on” and “off”, or can be selectively dimmed or brightened, by the use of microprocessor-controlled switches or rheostats. Selective cross-linking of the resin can be performed within the extrusion die, or the resin can be extruded onto a moving transparent support plate, and the variable intensity light source can be positioned above or below the support plate. In either case, the variable intensity light source may be controlled by a preprogrammed microprocessor, as described above. Alternatively, the intensity of the light source may be controlled by the use of preprogrammed video signals in conjunction with a suitable video image-producing device. Although, the method disclosed by Gillette, et al is an improvement over previous methods, there still remains a need for faster printing plate production by photopolymerization, as the printing plate of Gillette is formed incrementally by serially cross-linking adjacent section of a layer of cross-linkable resin. Accordingly, there remains a need in this art for a liquid transfer article which can be accurately imaged without a mask or laser, thereby lowering costs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention addresses the above-mentioned needs by providing a liquid transfer article for graphic arts reproduction having an imaged surface produced by digital imaging photopolymerization using a digital light processor. By image surface, it is meant the areas bounded by sidewalls of land areas provided in the liquid transfer article. The liquid transfer article may be utilized for example, in intaglio process such as direct and indirect gravure printing processes. Further, the liquid transfer article may also be useful in other graphic arts reproduction processes wherein anilox surfaces are utilized. While the present invention will be described with reference to the preferred embodiments relating to printing techniques, it should be understood that the liquid transfer article of the present invention may be used in any graphic arts reproduction process or system requiring the accurate metering of a liquid to one surface and the transfer of such liquid to another surface. The imaged surface is formed by a digital light processing technique in which a flat polymeric base layer is provided. A quantity of liquid photopolymer is provided on at least a portion of the surface of the base layer, and irradiated with a light source reflected from a mirror-type spatial light modulator. The light source photopolymerizes selected portions of the liquid photopolymer such that after removal of the non-linked polymer, land surface areas of the imaged surface are formed on the surface of the base layer. The resulting liquid transfer article may then be mounted onto a printing device and used to print in a conventional manner. Once the particular printing job for which the image was produced has been completed, the liquid transfer article may be demounted and, if desired, the imaged surface may be removed so that the liquid transfer article surface can receive a new image. The imaged surface is preferably removed by an abrading mechanism, which mechanically grinds, scrapes, or cuts away the land surface areas thereof until the base layer is exposed. Using a mirror-type spatial light modulator having a matrix of individually addressable micromirrors permits the simultaneous control of a desired image pattern definition in the x, y, and z dimensions. Additionally, the differentiation of the properties in the z dimension can also be controlled by selecting the gray-scale intensity or wavelength for each individual micromirror. Simultaneously controlling the wavelength or light intensity of each micromirror in the matrix permits the formation of the liquid transfer article having a cured photopolymer on the base layer which varies in properties such as depth, mechanical strength, hardness, and degree of cross-linking. Because the liquid transfer article may be provided in the form of a replaceable sleeve or plate, the printer need not tie up a printing cylinder for each liquid transfer article, wherein the sleeves or plates may be readily demounted and stored. Further, as the image on the liquid transfer article is replaceable, the printer need not maintain a large inventory of sleeves or plates. This reduces costs. Lastly, as the land surface areas of the imaged surface are formed digitally, without the use of a mask or a laser, there is no degradation in quality of the printed image. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising a polymer base layer and a photoresin layer having an imaged surface provided on the polymer base layer, wherein the photoresin layer has been formed directly onto the polymer base layer by digital imaging photopolymerization utilizing a mirror-type spatial light modulator. By photoresin, it is meant any photocurable or photopolymerizable resin material. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a method of making a liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising the steps of providing a base layer, and providing a liquid photopolymer on at least a portion of the surface of the base layer. The method further includes irradiating the liquid photopolymer with a desired image pattern from a digital light processor reflecting light from a light source for a time sufficient to photopolymerize the liquid photopolymer and form an imaged surface directly on the base layer. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a digital imaging photopolymerization system for providing a cross-linked photopolymerized liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is described. The system comprises a support assembly adapted to receive at least a first layer of a cross-linkable photopolymer, and a light source for irradiating the cross-linkable photopolymer layer. The system further includes a mirror-type spatial light modulator disposed between the light source and the support assembly, the modulator reflecting light from the light source in an image pattern toward the support assembly, and a microprocessor controlling at least the operation of the mirror-type spatial light modulator such that the image pattern is formed in the cross-linkable photopolymer layer. In accordance with yet another aspect of the invention, a method of making a reimagable liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising the steps of providing a base layer, and providing an imaged surface on the surface of the base layer by digital imaging photopolymerization utilizing a mirror-type spatial light modulator to form a liquid transfer article. The method further includes mounting the liquid transfer article on a printing device and printing a substrate using the liquid transfer article, and demounting the liquid transfer article from the printing device and removing the imaged surface from the base layer such that the liquid transfer article is adapted to receive a new imaged surface thereon. These, and other features and advantages of the present invention, will become apparent from the following detailed description, the accompanying drawings, and the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following detailed description of the embodiments of the present invention can be best understood when read in conjunction with the following drawings, where like structure is indicated with like reference numerals and in which: FIG. 1 is a front view of a first illustrative embodiment of a liquid transfer article with an imaged surface formed according to the methods of the present invention, which may be used with a printing device as a printing plate; FIG. 2 is a sectional side view of the liquid transfer article of FIG. 1 taken along section line 2-2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an image processing device used according to the methods of the present invention to produce a liquid transfer article which may be used in the preparation of a gravure printing plate; FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of the liquid transfer article of FIG. 1 taken along section line 2-2 as the image is being removed by an abrading mechanism; and FIG. 5 is an elevated view, partially cut-away, of a second illustrative embodiment of a liquid transfer article with an image surface formed according to the methods of the present invention, which may be used with a printing device as a printing plate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS While the liquid transfer article of the present invention will be described with reference to its preferred use as a liquid transfer article used in intaglio processes, such as direct and indirect gravure printing, it will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art that the plate may be modified for use in other graphic arts processes including direct and indirect flexographic printing processes. Moreover, the liquid transfer article may be used in any process or system requiring the accurate metering of a liquid to one surface and the transfer of such liquid to another surface. FIGS. 1 and 2 illustrate a first exemplary embodiment of a liquid transfer article 10 provided as flat plate comprised generally of a flat polymeric base layer 12 with an imaged surface 14 provided in a developed photoresin layer 13. By “image surface,” it is meant the areas bounded by sidewalls of land areas 16 provided in the liquid transfer article, as best seen in FIG. 2. The base layer 12 can be any flexible material that is conventionally used in photosensitive elements. Examples of such materials include, but are not limited to, polymeric films, foams, and fabrics. Flexible metal or paper sheets, or laminates of any of these, can also be used as the base layer 12. A preferred material for photoresin layer 13 is a polymer formed from a liquid resin that is provided as an initial undeveloped layer to the liquid transfer article 10. The liquid resin is a photocurable or photopolymerizable material that is sensitive to radiation commonly in the visible and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (that is from about 300 to about 500 nm) and is developed as described herein. The terms “photocurable” and “photopolymerizable” are generally recognized as essentially the same in the art of gravure printing plates. Additionally, liquid photoresins or photopolymers are known in the art and commercially available from a number of companies, such as stereolithography acrylate (SL 5149) and hybrid epoxyacrylate (SL5170), both available from Ciba Speciality Chemicals, PHOTOMER 4770, available from Henkle, or SGL-1, available from Spectra Group Limited, Inc. Accordingly, any photopolymer formulation including at least one photopolymerizable monomer that can be polymerized upon exposure to the actinic radiation noted above may be used in the practice of this invention. The formulation may also include one or more polymerization initiators that have sensitivity to the actinic radiation noted above, such as Irgacure 369 (Ciba), Irgacure 819 (Ciba), Darocure 1173 (Ciba), H-Nu 470 (Spectra Group Limited, Inc.). In most cases, the initiator will be sensitive to any visible or ultraviolet radiation. A more detailed discussion on other desirably compositions and the photochemical processes involved in using photopolymers, photocolorizable polymers or photoresponsive coatings with digital light processing technology is provided for in U.S. Pat. No. 6,200,646 to Neckers et al., which is herein fully incorporated by reference. The thickness of the developed polymer base layer 12 can be varied, as long as it is sufficient to sustain the wear of a printing press, but thin enough to be flexible for wrapping around the printing form. A preferred polymer base material is a photoresin cured to a thickness of about 0.25 mm to about 0.4 mm. The polymer base layer 12 may be coated with one or more “subbing” layers to improve adhesion of the developed photoresin layer 13. The backside of the polymer base 12 may be coated with antistatic agents and/or slipping layers or matte layers to improve handling and “feel” of the article. The imaged surface 14 may take the form of any indicia including numbers, letters, graphics, etc. needed to perform the print job. Generally, for gravure applications, the imaged surface 14 will be formed of discrete cells and each cell will have a well depth below the land surface areas 16 of the photoresin layer 13 from about 0.05 to about 1.00 mm, wherein a surface 17 (FIG. 2) of the support layer 12 forms the bottom of each well. It is to be appreciated that well depth of the imaged surface 14 may vary over the land surface areas 16 of the resin layer 13 depending on the desired amounts of a liquid coating material, such as ink, that are to be transferred from a specific region of the liquid transfer article 10 to another surface. With reference also to FIG. 3, the resin layer 13 is formed from the development of a liquid photoresin 15 which is provided on the polymeric base layer 12 using a digital light imaging system 18. The liquid photoresin layer 15 is a photocurable or photopolymerizable material that is sensitive to radiation commonly in the visible and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum (that is from about 300 to about 500 nm). Accordingly, the liquid photoresin layer 15 and the initial liquid resin provided to form the base layer 12 may be the same. A preferred formulation for the liquid photoresin layer 15 contains SL 5149 and 1.5% w of Irgacure 819. It has been found that with the imaging system 18, the preferred formulation produces land areas 16 having very fine details with no doming or rounding. As shown in FIG. 3, the imaging system 18 includes a light source 20, a condenser 22, a digital light processor 24, and projection optics 26. The light source 20 provides actinic radiation to cure or polymerize the liquid photoresin layer 15 onto the polymer base layer 12. Preferably, the light source 20 is a light source, such as a metal halide lamp. The metal halide lamp should be unfiltered and have sufficient wattage, such as 270W, to suitably cross-link the intended portions of liquid photoresin layer 15 with both visible and ultraviolet light. Lamps of higher light intensity will increase the rate of polymerization and may also be used. The condenser 22 focuses the divergent spectral radiation of the light source 20 into parallel rays such that a sufficient concentration of actinic radiation is available to form with the imaging system 18 the land surface areas 16 of the imaged surface 14 in the liquid resin layer 15. As such, the condenser 22 receives light from the light source and provides collimated light to the digital light processor 24. Preferably, the condenser 22 comprises a convex lens 28 at a first end and an adjustable slit 30 at the other end, the slit being in the focal plane of the lens. Alternatively, the condenser 22 may be a single mirror. The condenser 22 may also comprise a plurality of lenses, one or more lenses in combination with at least one mirror, a plurality of mirrors, or a combination of one or more mirrors with at least one lens. The digital light processor 24 selectively modulates the received collimated light into a desired image pattern and directs the desired image pattern to the projection optics 26. The projection optics 26 are conventional and used to focus and position the image output onto the liquid photoresin layer 15 to form the land surface areas 16 of the imaged surface 14. In a typical application the projection optics will provide a 16:9 aspect ratio (width to height), however, other aspect ratios may be used. The projection optics are preferably formed by a so-called Dyson imaging system including a field lens, aperture lens, and spherical imaging mirror. The input and output numerical aperture is 0.167. The magnification is 1 to 1. In the preferred embodiment, the object and the image size is 10.2×13.6 mm. The digital light processor 24 converts digital content into a digital bit stream that can be read by an included mirror-type spatial light modulator 32. Preferably, the digital content is composed on a microprocessor 34 that is in communication with the digital light processor 24 for image generation by the imaging system 18. However, other sources of the digital content, such as memory chips, analog-to-digital decoders, video processors, digital signal processors, may also be processed by the digital light processor 24. Generally, the mirror-type spatial light modulator 32 is an individually addressable matrix of modulating micromirrors that build digital images based on the provided digital bit stream. Mirror-type spatial light modulators include devices which tilt each micromirror by electrostatic force, devices which tilt each micromirror by mechanical deformation of a fine piezoelectric element, and the like. One suitable spatial light modulator 32 is the Digital Micromirror Device developed by Texas Instruments. The DMD semiconductor is an optical switch or a reflective spatial light modulator that consists of a matrix of about 1 million digitally-controlled microscopic mirrors. Each digitally controlled microscopic mirror is mounted on a hinge structure to allow each mirror to tilt at an angle from a horizontal plane between two states, +theta degrees for “on” or −theta degrees for “off.” For the DMD semiconductor, the mirror tilt angle is ±10 degrees from the is plane of the silicon substrate. As data “1” of the bit stream is written to a memory cell of the light modulator 32, the associated micromirror tilts by +theta degrees which directs a pixel of light from the light source 20 onto the liquid resin layer 15, via the projection optics 26. As data “0” of the bit stream is written to a memory cell of the light modulator, the associated micromirror tilts by −theta degrees which directs the light away from the projection optics 26, and preferably into a light absorber (not shown). Each microscopic mirror can be electrically switched “on” and “off” up to approximately 50,000 times per second in accordance with the provided digital bit stream. As such, the wavelength or gray scale of incident light from the light source 20 is controlled by the duration of time that a micromirror is in the “on” state. By controlling the wavelength or gray scale of the light source 20, for each pixel, a desired image pattern 40 is formed from the actinic radiation 38 of the light source 20. By this method, the land surface areas 16 of the imaged surface 14 may be formed relatively quickly as practically all of the incident light from the light source 20 is reflected toward the liquid resin layer 15. Additionally, because the light modulator 32 has a plurality of micromirrors arranged in a matrix, a full frame image of information on resin layer 15 is photo-curable at one time. Furthermore, because each micromirror has a size of about 16 by 16 micrometers and the micromirrors are spaced less than 17 microns from each other, this close spacing of the micromirrors results in images that are projected as seamless, with higher resolution and little apparent pixellation. Moreover, with each micromirror being rectangular shaped, each reflected incident of light creates a rectangular pixel with extremely sharp edges 42 (FIG. 2) in the developed resin layer 13. This is unlike the circular or rounded pixels created by laser imaging. Accordingly, the land surface areas 16 of the imaged surface 14 are formed by the light processor 24 reflecting actinic radiation in a precise pattern and with the proper amount of intensity from the light source 20, through the projection unit 26, and onto the support base 12, thereby permitting cross-linking of the supported liquid photoresin layer 15 in one step. Furthermore, it is to be appreciated that such an arrangement permits longer exposure times with gray scale modulation than scanning systems which must cross-link the photoresin linearly across a moving surface of the photoresin. Moreover, each light-modulating element of the digital light processor 24 has the advantage of a consistent spot size, shape, and location which permits the formation of sharp images with well-defined boundaries. The currently available DMD semiconductor from Texas Instruments permits imaging resolutions up to 1024 pixels by 768 pixels. However, the full-frame imaging approach of the present invention can also easily be applied to any projection device that may result in higher resolutions and improved print quality. In order that the invention may be more readily understood, reference is made to the following method steps, which are intended to be illustrative of a preferred use of the imaging system 18 of the invention, but are not intended to be limiting in scope. In using the imaging system 18 to produce the liquid transfer article 10, preferably, the polymer base layer 12 is formed separately from the imaging system 18 using a large area, pulsed UV curing unit, such as a Xenon Corporation RC-500B. In this manner, the base layer 12 is then provided to the imaging system 18 on a support assembly 36 as a stock material. Alternatively, the polymer base 12 may be formed by the imaging system 18 directly or by an optional back flash step. The back-flash step is a blanket exposure of a quantity of a liquid resin to actinic radiation through the support assembly 36 to form the base layer 12. Any of the conventional radiation sources discussed above may be used for the back flash step. Exposure times generally range from a few seconds up to about a minute. Preferably, the polymer base layer 12 is formed using a formulation of 98.5% SL 5149 and 1.5% Irgacure 819 which is cured to a thickness of about 0.1 mm to about 0.4 mm. It should, however, be appreciated by those persons skilled in the art that any other formulation which provides a suitable support base upon which the developed photoresin layer 13 bonds may be used. Additionally, it should be appreciated that the polymer base layer 12 is of an appropriate shape and size for use as a printing plate. Generally, the shape of polymer base layer 12 will be rectangular, as illustrated in FIG. 1. Next, a quantity of the liquid photoresin 15 is provided to cover either a portion or the entire base layer 12. The liquid photoresin 15 is preferably the same formulation used to form the polymer base layer 12. However, the liquid photo resin 15 may contain other additives depending on the final properties desired for the photoresin layer 13. Such additives include sensitizers, rheology modifiers, thermal polymerization inhibitors, tackifiers, plasticizers, colorants, antioxidants, or fillers. As shown in FIG. 3, the support assembly 36, carrying both the liquid photoresin layer 15 and the base layer 12 thereon, is positioned relative to the imaging system 18 to accommodate the production of the liquid transfer article 10 of a desired size. The support plate 36 may be movable to automate the positioning of a new plate having a base and a quantity of photoresin thereon under the imaging system 18. However, the support assembly 36 is preferably stationary at least during the exposure of the liquid photoresin layer 15 with actinic radiation. With the support assembly 36 in proper alignment with the imaging system 18, actinic radiation 38 from light source 18 is then directed through condenser 22 towards the light modulation elements 32 of the light processing device 24. The actinic radiation is then processed into the desired image pattern 40 based on an inputted digital bit stream and reflected by the micromirror device 24 through projection unit 26 and onto selected portions of the liquid photoresin layer 15 for activation and hardening. It is to be appreciated that the desired image pattern 40 projected by the light processing device 24 at one instance is a full-frame image, such as illustrated in FIG. 1. For liquid transfer articles requiring well depths deeper than 1.0 mm, several layers of the developed photoresin 13 can be polymerized sequentially upon each other in this manner. As generally known in the art, the actinic radiation exposure time can vary from a few seconds to several minutes, depending upon the intensity and spectral energy distribution of the radiation, its distance from the imaging element, and the nature, size, and thickness of the photopolymerizable relief imaging layer. Additionally, the processing temperature will vary depending upon the application, the desired image size, and the photocompositions used in the process. Once the liquid photoresin layer 15 has been properly hardened by the projected image pattern 40, any excess, undeveloped photoresin is washed away in a developer leaving the crossed-linked land surface areas 16 of the developed photoresin layer 13 upon the base layer 12 and formed around imaged surfaces 14 (FIG. 2). As generally known in the art, the choice of the developer will depend primarily on the chemical nature of the photopolymerizable material to be removed. Typically, development is usually carried out at about room temperature, in which the developers can be organic solvents, aqueous or semi-aqueous solutions, and water. Suitable organic solvent developers include aromatic or aliphatic hydrocarbon and aliphatic or aromatic halohydrocarbon solvents, or mixtures of such solvents with suitable alcohols. Suitable semi-aqueous developers usually contain water, a water miscible organic solvent, and an alkaline material. Suitable aqueous developers usually contain water and an alkaline material. The developer can be applied in any convenient manner, including immersion, spraying and brush or roller application. Brushing aids can be used to remove the undeveloped portions of the composition. However, washout is frequently carried out in an automatic processing unit which uses a developer and mechanical brushing action to remove the unexposed portions of the plate, leaving a developed resin layer 13 constituting the land surface areas 16 of the imaged surface 14 upon the polymer base layer 12. Following solvent development, the relief printing plates are generally blotted or wiped dry and then dried in a forced air or infrared oven. Drying times and temperatures may vary, however, typically the plate is dried for 60 to 120 minutes at 60 degrees C. High temperatures are not recommended because the support can shrink and this can cause registration problems. Detackification is an optional post-development treatment which can be applied if the surface is still tacky, such tackiness not generally being removed in post-exposure. Tackiness can be eliminated by methods well known in the art, such as is treatment with bromine or chlorine solutions. Such treatments have been disclosed in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,400,459 to Greetzmacher, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,400,460 to Fickes et al. Detackification can also be accomplished by exposure to radiation sources having a wavelength not longer than 300 nm, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,806,506 to Gibson. Most photoresin printing plates are uniformly post-exposed to ensure that the photopolymerization process is complete and that the plate will remain stable during printing and storage. This post-exposure step may utilize the same radiation source used to expose the polymer base layer 12. If desired, for increased durability, any suitable ceramic coating, such as a refractory oxide or metallic carbide coating, may be applied to the surface of the developed photoresin layer 13. For example, tungsten carbide-cobalt, tungsten carbide-nickel, tungsten carbide-cobalt chromium, tungsten carbide-nickel chromium, chromium-nickel, aluminum oxide, chromium carbide-nickel chromium, chromium carbide-cobalt chromium, tungsten-titanium carbide-nickel, cobalt alloys, oxide dispersion in cobalt alloys, aluminum-titania, copper-based alloys, chromium based alloys, chromium oxide, chromium oxide plus aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, titanium plus aluminum oxide, iron based alloys, oxide dispersed in iron based alloys, nickel and nickel based alloys, and the like may be used. Preferably chromium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide or mixtures thereof could be used as the coating material, with chromium oxide being the most preferred. Because the process of the present invention forms the land surface areas 16 bounding the imaged surface 14 directly onto the surface 17 of the polymer base 12 with no intervening mask, there is no distortion of the image, which remains sharp and well defined. In addition, the photoresin layer 13 may be removed from the surface 17 of the polymeric base layer 12 and new images built up on the surface. For example, as schematically illustrated in FIG. 4, showing the photoresin layer 13 partially removed, the land surface areas 16 may be removed by a suitable polymer abrading mechanism 44 which mechanically grinds, scrapes, or cuts away the image until the surface 17 of the base layer 12 remains. The reprocessed base layer 12 may then be provided upon which a new imaged surface may be formed as previously described. Because the images for each printing job may be stored in computer memory, the printer need not stock in inventory multiple liquid transfer articles. Rather, each printing job may be created and the same polymer support base imaged repeatedly, reducing both storage and materials cost. Further, because each print job is digitally imaged directly on the base layer 12, the print quality is high. Moreover, this technique enables liquid transfer articles of variable widths to be rapidly produced. With regard to other printing arrangements, FIG. 5 illustrates a preferred, exemplary embodiment of the present invention in which the liquid transfer article 10 formed by the above described methods, is then provided in the form a replaceable sleeve 46 mounted on a conventional printing cylinder 48. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the liquid transfer article 10 may be adapted to be mounted on a variety of other carriers, such as for example, the flat plate embodiment of FIG. 1. In one method, the cylinder 48 is hollow and may include an interior chamber (not shown) which is used as a compressed air chamber through which air may be passed for expanding the sleeve 46 during mounting and dismounting operations. The cylinder 48 may include a plurality of spaced apart, radially-extending apertures 50 from which air in the chamber may exit to or which may be used to expand the sleeve 46 during mounting and dismounting operations. The air is introduced into the chamber by an air hose 52 which can communicate with the apertures of the cylinder 48. The sleeve 46 is typically mounted onto the cylinder 48 by introducing air at a pressure of about 80-120 psi (5.6 to 8.4 kg/cm2) to expand the sleeve and permit it to be slipped onto the cylinder. While certain representative embodiments and details have been shown for purposes of illustrating the invention, it will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art that various changes in the methods and apparatus disclosed herein may be made without departing from the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to graphic arts reproduction, and more particularly to a liquid transfer article for use in transferring an accurately metered quantity of a liquid to another surface and a method for producing it by digital imaging photopolymerization. One example of a liquid transfer article is a surface on a cylinder, belt, sleeve or plate that is used in printing processes to transfer a specified amount of a liquid coating material, such as ink or other substances, from the liquid transfer article to another surface or substrate. The volumetric capacity of the liquid transfer article is dependent upon the selection of size, shape, and number of cells per unit area. Cells comprise discrete areas on the surface of the liquid transfer article which hold the liquid. Varying these factors permits a high degree of precision in determining print densities. In addition, by controlling the location of the cells on the surface, a precise, predetermined image may be transferred to a receiving surface. One example of such an article is a gravure surface which includes a pattern of cells or depressions adapted for receiving the liquid coating material. The area of the surface at a common level surrounding the pattern of cells is the land area surface. When the liquid coating material is applied to the article, the cells are filled with the liquid while the remaining land area surface of the article is removed by a wiper or doctor blade. Since the liquid coating material is contained only in the pattern defined by the cells, it is this pattern of liquid that is transferred to the other surface when contacted by the liquid transfer article. Another example of a liquid transfer article is an anilox surface. The major difference between a gravure surface and an anilox surface is that the entire anilox surface is patterned whereas with a gravure surface only portions are patterned to form a predetermined image. The anilox surface is typically etched with an array of closely spaced, shallow cells or depressions. The liquid coating material flows into the cells as the anilox surface contacts a reservoir. The anilox surface is then scraped with the doctor blade to remove excessive liquid coating material. The remaining liquid coating material in the cells transfers over to another surface when contacted. In both types of liquid transfer articles, care needs to be taken to ensure that the land area surface is as smooth as possible. If the land area surface of the liquid transfer article is too coarse, removing the excessive liquid coating material from the land area surface of the coarse article becomes problematic resulting in the transfer of too much liquid onto the receiving surface and/or on the wrong location. Therefore, the land area surface of the liquid transfer article should be finished and the cells clearly defined so that they can accept a desired amount of the liquid coating material. Prior art methods of producing liquid transfer articles having involved either etching a surface of a copper-plated printing element with chemicals or a high energy beam, such as a laser or an electron beam, or photopolymerization of a polymer onto a support base. In the former method, chemical etching is a time-consuming process that involves that use of multiple images in order to prepare a surface for etching. Laser etching, although faster than chemical etching, results in the formation of cells with a new recast surface about each cell and above the original surface or land surface area of the liquid transfer article. The recast surfaces have an appearance of a miniature volcano crater about each cell. This is caused by solidification of the molten material thrown from the surface when struck by the high-energy beam and their formation causes significant problems. As mentioned above, in order to transfer the liquid coating material in a controlled manner determined by the cell pattern, excess liquid has to be completely removed from the liquid transfer surface, for example by a doctor blade. Any excess liquid coating material remaining on the liquid transfer surface after running under the doctor blade will be deposited on the receiving product where it is not wanted and/or in undesired amount. With a laser-etched liquid transfer surface, the doctor blade cannot completely remove excess liquid from the image transfer surface due to the recast surfaces which retain some of the liquid. Thus, it is desirable in most printing applications to have a liquid transfer article which is void of recast surfaces. Additionally, it has been noted that it is extremely difficult to control the depth and size of all the cells using laser-etching techniques which produce liquid transfer articles having printed patterns. Specifically, the laser is generally required to be activated only where cells are required and inactivated when no cells are required. Unfortunately, the laser start and stop response is not the same response that is achieved once the laser is operating for a set period. For example, when the laser is started, the first few pulses of radiation are less than the energy content of the laser beam for pulses produced after the laser has been operating for a suitable time. This in turn results in the shape and depth of the first few cells in the surface of the article being different from consecutive successive wells formed in the surface of the article. Consequently, the cells defining the boundary of the pattern are not the same depth and/or size as the cells contained within the center of the pattern and therefore would be incapable of containing a desired volume of liquid. This results in the boundary of the pattern transferred to a receiving surface being off shaded with respect to the overall pattern. In other words, the edges of the printed pattern are somewhat fuzzy. This can result in different shades of the printed pattern being transferred to the receiving surface. Although laser-etching techniques provide an effective means for producing wells or depressions in the surface of liquid transfer articles, the non-uniformity of the few start and stop pulses of the laser can produce an inferior quality liquid transfer article. As such, typical finely engineered, copper-plated, engraved gravure print rollers are extremely expensive. With the latter method of photopolymerization, typically a printing plate is formed by first placing a negative on a supporting glass plate. An optically transparent release film is then placed on top of the negative which is subsequently coated with a layer of photopolymerizable resin. A backing sheet is then placed on top of the photopolymerizable resin, and the backing sheet is then covered by another glass sheet. Irradiation by actinic light, such as UV light, through the top glass/backing sheet combination forms a solid floor layer of photoresin, which adheres to the backing sheet. The thickness of the floor layer is less than the total thickness of the photoresin. Irradiation through the lower glass plate negative release sheet selectively hardens the photoresin to form an image-printing surface which mirrors the image on the negative. The hardened regions adhere to the floor layer, but not to the transparent release sheet. Subsequent processing removes unhardened (liquid) photoresin to reveal a relief image. When following the teachings of the prior art, the photopolymerizable resin layer can be placed on the glass plate and a capping blade can be drawn across the resin layer so as to level the layer of resin on the glass plate. The result is a relatively constant thickness resin layer formed on the supporting glass plate in the printing plate production assembly. The uniform layer of resin is then exposed to a UV light source through the negative so as to produce cross-linked solid areas in the resin layer which form a printing image or pattern in the resin layer. The non-cross-linked liquid portions of the resin layer are then removed from the plate, and the result is a selectively relieved cross-linked resin-printing pattern on the plate. The photo negatives required for this type of process can be both costly and time-consuming to produce. U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,848 to Gillette, et al attempts to overcome the above-mentioned problems by disclosing a method of producing liquid transfer articles by extruding a predetermined thickness layer of a photopolymerizable resin, and then moving the extruded resin layer past a variable intensity light source. The intensity of the light source can be controlled by a preprogrammed microprocessor in several ways. One way of providing the variable intensity light source involves the use of a bank of lights which can be selectively turned “on” and “off”, or can be selectively dimmed or brightened, by the use of microprocessor-controlled switches or rheostats. Selective cross-linking of the resin can be performed within the extrusion die, or the resin can be extruded onto a moving transparent support plate, and the variable intensity light source can be positioned above or below the support plate. In either case, the variable intensity light source may be controlled by a preprogrammed microprocessor, as described above. Alternatively, the intensity of the light source may be controlled by the use of preprogrammed video signals in conjunction with a suitable video image-producing device. Although, the method disclosed by Gillette, et al is an improvement over previous methods, there still remains a need for faster printing plate production by photopolymerization, as the printing plate of Gillette is formed incrementally by serially cross-linking adjacent section of a layer of cross-linkable resin. Accordingly, there remains a need in this art for a liquid transfer article which can be accurately imaged without a mask or laser, thereby lowering costs. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention addresses the above-mentioned needs by providing a liquid transfer article for graphic arts reproduction having an imaged surface produced by digital imaging photopolymerization using a digital light processor. By image surface, it is meant the areas bounded by sidewalls of land areas provided in the liquid transfer article. The liquid transfer article may be utilized for example, in intaglio process such as direct and indirect gravure printing processes. Further, the liquid transfer article may also be useful in other graphic arts reproduction processes wherein anilox surfaces are utilized. While the present invention will be described with reference to the preferred embodiments relating to printing techniques, it should be understood that the liquid transfer article of the present invention may be used in any graphic arts reproduction process or system requiring the accurate metering of a liquid to one surface and the transfer of such liquid to another surface. The imaged surface is formed by a digital light processing technique in which a flat polymeric base layer is provided. A quantity of liquid photopolymer is provided on at least a portion of the surface of the base layer, and irradiated with a light source reflected from a mirror-type spatial light modulator. The light source photopolymerizes selected portions of the liquid photopolymer such that after removal of the non-linked polymer, land surface areas of the imaged surface are formed on the surface of the base layer. The resulting liquid transfer article may then be mounted onto a printing device and used to print in a conventional manner. Once the particular printing job for which the image was produced has been completed, the liquid transfer article may be demounted and, if desired, the imaged surface may be removed so that the liquid transfer article surface can receive a new image. The imaged surface is preferably removed by an abrading mechanism, which mechanically grinds, scrapes, or cuts away the land surface areas thereof until the base layer is exposed. Using a mirror-type spatial light modulator having a matrix of individually addressable micromirrors permits the simultaneous control of a desired image pattern definition in the x, y, and z dimensions. Additionally, the differentiation of the properties in the z dimension can also be controlled by selecting the gray-scale intensity or wavelength for each individual micromirror. Simultaneously controlling the wavelength or light intensity of each micromirror in the matrix permits the formation of the liquid transfer article having a cured photopolymer on the base layer which varies in properties such as depth, mechanical strength, hardness, and degree of cross-linking. Because the liquid transfer article may be provided in the form of a replaceable sleeve or plate, the printer need not tie up a printing cylinder for each liquid transfer article, wherein the sleeves or plates may be readily demounted and stored. Further, as the image on the liquid transfer article is replaceable, the printer need not maintain a large inventory of sleeves or plates. This reduces costs. Lastly, as the land surface areas of the imaged surface are formed digitally, without the use of a mask or a laser, there is no degradation in quality of the printed image. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, a liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising a polymer base layer and a photoresin layer having an imaged surface provided on the polymer base layer, wherein the photoresin layer has been formed directly onto the polymer base layer by digital imaging photopolymerization utilizing a mirror-type spatial light modulator. By photoresin, it is meant any photocurable or photopolymerizable resin material. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, a method of making a liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising the steps of providing a base layer, and providing a liquid photopolymer on at least a portion of the surface of the base layer. The method further includes irradiating the liquid photopolymer with a desired image pattern from a digital light processor reflecting light from a light source for a time sufficient to photopolymerize the liquid photopolymer and form an imaged surface directly on the base layer. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a digital imaging photopolymerization system for providing a cross-linked photopolymerized liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is described. The system comprises a support assembly adapted to receive at least a first layer of a cross-linkable photopolymer, and a light source for irradiating the cross-linkable photopolymer layer. The system further includes a mirror-type spatial light modulator disposed between the light source and the support assembly, the modulator reflecting light from the light source in an image pattern toward the support assembly, and a microprocessor controlling at least the operation of the mirror-type spatial light modulator such that the image pattern is formed in the cross-linkable photopolymer layer. In accordance with yet another aspect of the invention, a method of making a reimagable liquid transfer article for use in graphic arts reproduction is provided comprising the steps of providing a base layer, and providing an imaged surface on the surface of the base layer by digital imaging photopolymerization utilizing a mirror-type spatial light modulator to form a liquid transfer article. The method further includes mounting the liquid transfer article on a printing device and printing a substrate using the liquid transfer article, and demounting the liquid transfer article from the printing device and removing the imaged surface from the base layer such that the liquid transfer article is adapted to receive a new imaged surface thereon. These, and other features and advantages of the present invention, will become apparent from the following detailed description, the accompanying drawings, and the appended claims. | 20050110 | 20090623 | 20050825 | 69058.0 | 0 | CHEA, THORL | LIQUID TRANSFER ARTICLES AND METHOD FOR PRODUCING THE SAME USING DIGITAL IMAGING PHOTOPOLYMERIZATION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,387 | ACCEPTED | Tailgate counterbalancing hinge | A tailgate counterbalancing hinge assembly includes a linear torque rod, a first end assembly and a second end assembly. One end assembly pivotally retains the tailgate while permitting the torque rod to be rigidly coupled to the tailgate for movement with the tailgate about a pivot axis. The other end assembly pivotally retains the tailgate and permits the end of the torque rod o be rigidly retained with respect to the vehicle body. The assemblies are easily mounted in the vehicle using brackets that are secured to the tailgate and a vehicle body hinge pin to simplify installation and repair of the assembly. | 1. A hinge assembly for removably mounting a closure member between spaced apart body side panels of a vehicle body for movement about a pivotal axis between open, closed and removal positions comprising: a pair of bushings secured at opposite ends of the closure member, said pair of bushings having an axis that is coincident with the pivotal axis; a vehicle body hinge pin for mounting on each of the spaced apart body side panels and configured to rotatably support each of said pair of bushings thereon; at least one of said pair of bushings including a slot that permits the one of said pair of bushings to engage at least a portion of said vehicle body hinge pin when the closure member is in the removal position; a linear torque rod having a first end that is rotationally fixed relative to the spaced apart body side panels and a second end that is rotationally fixed relative to one of said pair of bushings, and said linear torque rod being twisted when the closure member is pivoted away from the removal position to produce a bias toward the removal position; and a securing member that secures said linear torque rod to the closure member to rotationally fix said second end of said linear torque rod relative to said one of said pair of bushings. 2. The assembly as recited in claim 2, wherein said securing member and said pair of bushings are secured to the closure member for movement with the closure member. 3. The assembly as recited in claim 2, wherein said securing member includes an opening that is coincident with the pivotal axis and receives said second end of said linear torque rod there through, said opening corresponding in shape to a cross-sectional shape of said second end. 4. The assembly as recited in claim 3, wherein said securing member includes a clamp, said clamp includes first and second clamping portions that clamp on said linear torque rod to rotationally fix said second end. 5. The assembly as recited in claim 4, wherein said first and second clamping portions form said opening. 6. The assembly as recited in claim 4, wherein said securing member includes a first and second walls that are angled relative to each other, and said first wall includes said opening and said second wall includes said clamp. 7. A tailgate counterbalancing hinge comprising: a first end assembly including a support for pivotally carrying a tailgate adjacent to a body panel and rotationally fixing a torque rod, the support including a pivot member, and a retainer bushing pivotally received by said pivot member and including a stem locking member for locking said bushing with respect to the tailgate; a second end assembly including a support for pivotally carrying the tailgate adjacent to an opposed body panel, the support including a key with a mount for securing said key to said opposed body panel, a pivot body having a receiver portion for reception of said key, at least one of said key or said receiver portion forms an angle relative to vertical such that when the tailgate is positioned at said angle said receiver receives said key, and a pivot bushing received in an opening in said tailgate and carrying said pivot body; and a torque rod having a first end secured for movement with said retainer bushing and a second end secured with respect to said pivot body. 8. The hinge as recited in claim 7, wherein said key mounts on said opposed body panel at an angle between 5° and 75° relative to vertical. 9. The hinge as recited in claim 7, wherein said receiver portion includes a receiver opening that forms an angle between 5° and 75° relative to vertical when the tailgate is in a vertical position. 10. The hinge as recited in claim 9, wherein said receiver opening corresponds in shape to said key such that when said key is received in said receiver opening said receiver and said key are rotationally locked with respect to each other about a pivotal axis of the tailgate. 11. A method for assembling a removable closure member between vehicle body pillars comprising: (a) installing a linear torque rod along a pivotal axis of a closure member; (b) rotationally fixing a first end of the linear torque rod with respect to the closure member; (c) positioning the closure member along the pivotal axis at an angle between vertical and horizontal; (d) rotationally fixing a second end of the linear torque rod with respect to the vehicle body pillars while at the angle. 12. The method as recited in claim 11, wherein the step (b) includes securing a clamp to the closure member and clamping the first end in the clamp. 13. The method as recited in claim 12, wherein the clamp includes an opening having a shape that corresponds to a cross-sectional shape of the linear torque rod and the step (a) includes inserting the linear torque rod through the opening to rotationally fix the linear torque rod about the pivotal axis. 14. The method as recited in claim 11, wherein the step (c) includes positioning the closure member along the pivotal axis at an angle between 5° and 75° relative to the vertical position. 15. The method as recited in claim 15, wherein the step (d) includes connecting a bushing to at least one end of the closure member, receiving a pivot member in the bushing, and rotationally fixing the pivot member relative to the vehicle body pillars. 16. The method as recited in claim 11, wherein the step (d) includes connecting the linear torque rod to the pivot member to rotationally fix the second end relative to the vehicle body pillars. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of unpublished application PCT/US04/06262 filed on Mar. 2, 2004, which claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/386,884, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,796,592. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to vehicle body closure panels, in which a torque rod with end assemblies forms a counterbalanced pivot connection between a tailgate and vehicle body pillars, the counterbalance biasing the torque rod to an unbiased tailgate position permitting tailgate removal from the vehicle body. Vehicle body closure members, such as a tailgate, are pivotally mounted between body side panels forming the pillars at the rear of the vehicle. The tailgate pivots about a hinge axis between a horizontal, open position and a vertical, closed position. The mounting assemblies for the tailgate permit the tailgate to be removed. For example, the tailgate may include hinge pins that extend outwardly along the hinge axis that removably connect into brackets carried on the vehicle body. When the tailgate is pivoted to a predetermined intermediate position between open and closed, at least one of the hinge pins slips through a slot in the connecting bracket as the tailgate is lifted at one end from the truck body. Several known tailgate mounting assemblies include a spring bias for assisting movement and counterbalancing the weight of a tailgate during opening and closing movements. In one example, a torque rod provides spring biasing between the tailgate and the vehicle body side pillars. Disadvantageously, the torque rod forms a portion of the pivot assembly and, therefore, is typically pre-installed into the tailgate before mounting the tailgate between the side pillars. This complicates the assembly procedure. Moreover, the torque rod may require particularly configured ends that complicate production of the parts before assembly. Another known tailgate uses hinge pin trunions for pivoting, and the torque rod is preformed and installed into the tailgate in a complex and intricate procedure. For example, during assembly of the tailgate, one end of the rod has to be aligned with an aperture that exposes the end for attachment outside of the tailgate while the other end is aligned with a reinforcement plate located inside the tailgate. All of the aligning must be performed while the torque rod is carried within the interior of the tailgate and the procedure may be difficult and time consuming. Moreover, numerous auxiliary components are required to assemble the torque rod to the tailgate. Other types of springs that are used in place of the torque rod are difficult to install within the confines of tailgates made of inner and outer panels that are joined together before the hinge assembly is mounted. Moreover, such assemblies may be difficult to repair and replacement parts are complex and expensive. There is a need for a simplified tailgate hinge mechanism that is less complex and less laborious to install. This invention addresses these needs and provides enhanced capabilities while avoiding the shortcomings of the prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A tailgate counterbalancing hinge includes a torque rod having first and second end assemblies, at least one of the end assemblies being readily attachable to and removable from the torque rod. The first end assembly includes a first support for pivotally carrying the tailgate adjacent to a body side panel. The first support includes a cup, and a retainer bushing pivotally received by said cup includes a stem for locking said bushing with respect to the tailgate. The second end assembly includes a second support for pivotally carrying a tailgate adjacent to an opposite body panel. The second support includes a key and a spriget that combines the key with a mounting stem for securing the key to the body panel. A pivot body includes a slot aligned for reception of the key. A bushing is received in an opening in said tailgate and carries the pivot body. The torque rod has a first end securely received in the first end assembly for movement with the bushing, and a second end securely received in the second end assembly by the pivot body. In one example, the torque rod includes a faceted cross-section at least at one end. The cross-section may be longitudinally continuous for ease of manufacture of the torque rod or may be formed only on parts of the rod. One example method for assembling a selectively removable tailgate between vehicle body panels receiving a first end of the torque rod in a retainer bushing with a faceted cross-section receiver, receiving a second end of the torque rod in a cup with a faceted cross-section receiver, retaining the retainer bushing with respect to the tailgate, and retaining the cup by slidably receiving the cup with respect to a spriget fixed to a body pillar. By sliding the retainer bushing over a spriget's key, fixed to the vehicle body pillar, the pillar pivotally supports a retainer bushing. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be more clearly understood by reference to the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawing in which like reference characters refer to like parts throughout the views and in which: FIG. 1 shows a perspective view of a vehicle having a tailgate assembly. FIG. 2 shows a cross-sectional view of selected portions of an example hinge assembly. FIG. 3 shows an exploded view of the hinge assembly of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 shows an exploded view of selected portions of another example hinge assembly embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIG. 1, an example motor vehicle 10 is shown having a vehicle body 12 that includes a rear compartment or bed 14 enclosed by side panels 16 and 18 as well as a tailgate 20. A counterbalance hinge assembly 22 pivotally supports the tailgate 20 between the side panels 16 and 18 in a manner to be described in greater detail below. The tailgate 20 is pivotally supported between pillars formed by the side panels 16 and 18. In the example shown, side panels 16 and 18 and the tailgate 20 are formed by respective inner and outer panels 24 and 26 of sheet metal joined at the ends by overlapping flanges or the like. In other examples, other materials may be used in constructing the side panels 16 and 18 and the tailgate 20. The example counterbalance hinge assembly 22 includes a torque rod 30, which is linear and aligned along a pivotal axis between the side panels 16 and 18. The torque rod 30 carries first and second end assemblies 32 and 34. The first and second end assemblies 32 and 34 enable the torque rod 30 to be secured with respect to the tailgate 20 at one end, and with respect to the side panels 16 and 18 at a second end. In the example shown in FIG. 2, the first end assembly 32 pivotably supports the tailgate 20 at the left body pillar including inner panel 24. The first end assembly 32 forms a left side vehicle hinge pin that includes a pivot member 40 having a cylindrical boss 42 and a mounting stem 44. The mounting stem 44 secures the pivot member 40 to the vehicle pillar at the inner panel 24. In one example, the stem 44 may be a square housing received in a square opening in the inner panel 24 of the left side panel 16, and secured in position by welds, adhesive or other fasteners. In other examples, the stem 44 may include a threaded member that is received in a weld nut 45 mounted on a surface of the inner panel 24. The first end assembly 32 receives an end of the torque rod to be secured to the tailgate 20. This connection includes a bushing 46, which is pivotally or rotatably received about the cylindrical boss 42. In one example, the bushing 46 includes a cylindrical receptacle 48 and a stem 50. The stem 50 includes an exterior configuration that is faceted to be retained in an opening 52 in a tailgate wall 23 of the tailgate 20. As used herein, a facet refers to any cross-section having at least one surface discontinuity that prevents rotation within a correspondingly shaped, compatible piece. In other examples, the bushing 46 is welded or otherwise attached to the tailgate wall 23. One example stem 50 is modified or faceted to mount to the tailgate 20. In another example, the surface of the receptacle 48 may fit in an enlarged opening in the tailgate wall 23 aligned with the pivotal axis and extending through a portion of the tailgate wall 23. The receptacle 48, or the stem 50 may be configured exteriorly or otherwise fastened to avoid relative rotation between the bushing 46 and tailgate wall 23 so that the bushing 46 that receives the torque rod pivots with the tailgate 20. FIG. 3 illustrates an exploded view of the example counterbalance hinge assembly 22 of FIG. 2. The stem 50 includes a chamber 66 that receives an end portion of the torque rod 30. The end portion is faceted and corresponds to the chamber 66 as shown to lock the bushing 46 to the torque rod 30. In one example, the torque rod 30 comprises a hexagonal shaft end and the opening 66 is compatibly configured to avoid relative rotation between the bushing 46 and the torque rod end 67. The second end assembly 34 includes a vehicle hinge pin for pivotally carrying the tailgate 20 adjacent to the right side panel 18 and includes a spriget 70. The spriget 70 combines a key 78 with a mounting stem 72 for securing the key 78 to the right hand side panel 18. The mounting stem 72 is received in an opening 76. A fastener such as nut 77 (FIG. 2) or the like may be used to fasten the stem 72 to the side panel 18. The key 78 has an elongated shape, the elongated shape being aligned in a direction intermediate the vertical, closed and the horizontal, open positions of the tailgate 20 to define a removal direction along the elongated axis of the key body 78. The key 78 is received in the slot 83 of a bushing 90 and in the slot 84 of the pivot body 80. The second end assembly 34 also includes a pivot body 80 having a cylindrical body 82 with a radial slot 84 aligned for reception of the key 78. The pivot body 80 includes a stem 86 having a chamber 88 adapted to receive and secure the right end 87 of the torque rod 30. The assembly 34 also includes a bushing 90 which can be mounted within an opening 85 of the tailgate wall 23. The bushing 90 includes a chamber 92 adapted to pivotally receive body 82 of the pivot body 80. In one example, the bushing 90 includes a stem 94 received in the correspondingly configured opening 85. The configuration of the opening 85 may non-rotatably retain the bushing 90 in the inner wall of the tailgate 20. The bushing 90 may be retained in the opening 85 by a retainer, for example, a snap ring 91 engaged in a groove on the stem 94. In one example, the stem 86 includes a groove 89 that receives a snap ring 91 at a position adjacent the end of stem 94. When assembled, the right hand end 87 of the torque rod 30 is retained in a stationary position by the pivot body 80 passing through the bushing 90 mounted in the tailgate 20. The rigid connection to the body side panel 18 is made by the bracket 74 and spriget 70 as assembled as discussed above. The left hand end 67 of the torque rod 30 is retained by the tailgate wall 23 to move with the tailgate 20. Thus, as the tailgate 20 is moved between the upright, closed position and the horizontal, open position, the torque rod 30 twists. In one example, the unbiased position of the torque rod 30 occurs when the tailgate 20 is aligned with the elongated axis of the key 78, whereby spring tension is introduced to pivot the tailgate 20 away from the closed position when it is unlatched, and to raise it to the closed position when it has been unlatched from its open position. FIG. 4 is an exploded view of another example counterbalance hinge assembly 22 with demonstrates a modification that eases assembly and repair. The stem 50 of the bushing 46 is correspondingly sized to fit in the opening 85 of a tailgate panel attachment bracket 54. The attachment bracket 54 may provide the benefit of reinforcing the end panel of the tailgate and simplifying the formation of opening 52 that receives the bushing 46. Rather than trying to form a properly sized and configured opening 56 in the tailgate wall 23, the bracket 54 with opening 85 is placed next to an enlarged opening 56 in the tailgate wall 23. The openings 85 and 56 are aligned with the pivotal axis extending through the tailgate 20. In one example, an upper flange 58 is bolted to the tailgate wall 23 of the tailgate 20 with a bolt and nut 60 and 62. In other examples, welds or other fasteners secure the flange 58. The opening 85 is configured to avoid relative rotation between the stem 50 and the opening 56 such that when assembled, both the installation bracket 54 and the bushing 46 pivot with the tailgate 20. The bracket 54 includes a releasable engagement clamp 104 on a flange 64 that is angled relative to the flange 58. The clamp 104 includes a clamp seat 106 raised up through the tailgate wall 23 to align the clamp 104 on the pivotal axis. In the example shown, the bracket 54 includes an offset arm, bent as shown, to provide a raised position for the clamp 104 above the plane of the flange 64. The seat 106 includes a cavity 108 which is aligned with the pivotal axis extending through the opening 56 and the bushing 46. A clamping flange 110 includes a recess 112 configured in compliance with the faceted segment of the torque rod 30 such that clamping of the flange 110 against the clamping seat 106 rotationally fixes the torque rod 30 with respect to the bracket 54, and thus the tailgate 20. The raising of the clamp 104 to align the axis of the torque rod 30 with the pivotal axis by the raised seat 106 provides room for fasteners, such as the head of a rivet extending through aligned apertures in the seat 106 and the flange 110. In one example, a single rivet 114 is used to retain one side of the flange 110 with the seat 106. On the opposite side, the flange 110 includes a weld nut 116 that threadably receives a fastener 118 extending from beneath the seat 106. The opening 98 in a bracket 96 is aligned with opening 85, and mounted to the outside of the tailgate wall 23. The bushing 90 carried by the bracket includes a chamber 92 adapted to pivotally receive body 82 of the pivot body 80. In one example, the bushing 90 includes a stem 94 received in the correspondingly configured opening 98. The configuration of the opening 98 rotationally fixes the bushing 90 to the tailgate wall 23. As a result, the counterbalance hinge assembly 22 may provide the benefit of loose assembly, and thus can be positioned before spring tension is applied to the counterbalance hinge assembly 22. In one example assembly method, brackets 54 and 96 are attached to the tailgate 20, by welding such that configured openings 85 and 119 align with the openings 52 and 98 in the tailgate wall 23. This may beneficially enable configured openings 85 and 119 to be preferably sized, shaped and positioned after the tailgate has been manufactured, and overcomes the difficulty of shaping, sizing and aligning the apertures of the original tailgate panel stampings. The fastener 118 is initially installed in a pre-production or fabrication assembly procedure, for example, and left loose for tightening at the assembly plant. At the assembly plant, the entire bracket 54 is secured by welding or other fastening means to the tailgate 20. An aperture at the bottom of the tailgate receives the clamp 104 of the bracket 54. The torque rod 30, carrying pivot body 80 at end 87, is positioned such that end 67 is inserted through opening 98 to extend across the vehicle body 12 through the tailgate 20 and into the faceted, complementary hole formed by the recesses 112 and 108. The torque rod 30 is inserted through the bushing 90, which is already attached to bracket 96 in a prior operation. The fastener 118 is then tightened to provide proper biasing between the vertical, closed and horizontal, open positions. The assembly discussed above provides an assembly for simply removably mounting a closure member between spaced apart body side panels of a vehicle body by using a linear torque rod extending across the tailgate. The assemblies provide means for connecting the torque rod in driving engagement with the vehicle body hinge pin within the bushing and independently of the rotatable support of the bushing on the hinge pin. The illustrative examples permit the bushing 90 to be received laterally downwardly over at least a portion of the vehicle body hinge pin when the tailgate 20 is in the removal position. Accordingly, the torque rod 30 is twisted in tension when the closure member is pivoted to either the closed or open positions from the removal position. This tension provides a counterbalancing effort to assist with pivotal movement of the tailgate 20. The counterbalance hinge assembly 22 may permit facile removal of the closure member from the vehicle body when the closure member is in the removal position. Although a preferred embodiment of this invention has been disclosed, a worker of ordinary skill in this art would recognize that certain modifications would come within the scope of this invention. For that reason, the following claims should be studied to determine the true scope and content of this invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to vehicle body closure panels, in which a torque rod with end assemblies forms a counterbalanced pivot connection between a tailgate and vehicle body pillars, the counterbalance biasing the torque rod to an unbiased tailgate position permitting tailgate removal from the vehicle body. Vehicle body closure members, such as a tailgate, are pivotally mounted between body side panels forming the pillars at the rear of the vehicle. The tailgate pivots about a hinge axis between a horizontal, open position and a vertical, closed position. The mounting assemblies for the tailgate permit the tailgate to be removed. For example, the tailgate may include hinge pins that extend outwardly along the hinge axis that removably connect into brackets carried on the vehicle body. When the tailgate is pivoted to a predetermined intermediate position between open and closed, at least one of the hinge pins slips through a slot in the connecting bracket as the tailgate is lifted at one end from the truck body. Several known tailgate mounting assemblies include a spring bias for assisting movement and counterbalancing the weight of a tailgate during opening and closing movements. In one example, a torque rod provides spring biasing between the tailgate and the vehicle body side pillars. Disadvantageously, the torque rod forms a portion of the pivot assembly and, therefore, is typically pre-installed into the tailgate before mounting the tailgate between the side pillars. This complicates the assembly procedure. Moreover, the torque rod may require particularly configured ends that complicate production of the parts before assembly. Another known tailgate uses hinge pin trunions for pivoting, and the torque rod is preformed and installed into the tailgate in a complex and intricate procedure. For example, during assembly of the tailgate, one end of the rod has to be aligned with an aperture that exposes the end for attachment outside of the tailgate while the other end is aligned with a reinforcement plate located inside the tailgate. All of the aligning must be performed while the torque rod is carried within the interior of the tailgate and the procedure may be difficult and time consuming. Moreover, numerous auxiliary components are required to assemble the torque rod to the tailgate. Other types of springs that are used in place of the torque rod are difficult to install within the confines of tailgates made of inner and outer panels that are joined together before the hinge assembly is mounted. Moreover, such assemblies may be difficult to repair and replacement parts are complex and expensive. There is a need for a simplified tailgate hinge mechanism that is less complex and less laborious to install. This invention addresses these needs and provides enhanced capabilities while avoiding the shortcomings of the prior art. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A tailgate counterbalancing hinge includes a torque rod having first and second end assemblies, at least one of the end assemblies being readily attachable to and removable from the torque rod. The first end assembly includes a first support for pivotally carrying the tailgate adjacent to a body side panel. The first support includes a cup, and a retainer bushing pivotally received by said cup includes a stem for locking said bushing with respect to the tailgate. The second end assembly includes a second support for pivotally carrying a tailgate adjacent to an opposite body panel. The second support includes a key and a spriget that combines the key with a mounting stem for securing the key to the body panel. A pivot body includes a slot aligned for reception of the key. A bushing is received in an opening in said tailgate and carries the pivot body. The torque rod has a first end securely received in the first end assembly for movement with the bushing, and a second end securely received in the second end assembly by the pivot body. In one example, the torque rod includes a faceted cross-section at least at one end. The cross-section may be longitudinally continuous for ease of manufacture of the torque rod or may be formed only on parts of the rod. One example method for assembling a selectively removable tailgate between vehicle body panels receiving a first end of the torque rod in a retainer bushing with a faceted cross-section receiver, receiving a second end of the torque rod in a cup with a faceted cross-section receiver, retaining the retainer bushing with respect to the tailgate, and retaining the cup by slidably receiving the cup with respect to a spriget fixed to a body pillar. By sliding the retainer bushing over a spriget's key, fixed to the vehicle body pillar, the pillar pivotally supports a retainer bushing. | 20050110 | 20070102 | 20050908 | 95799.0 | 1 | LYJAK, LORI LYNN | TAILGATE COUNTERBALANCING HINGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,508 | ACCEPTED | Diverter, liquid-level indicator and chemical pre-treatment and post-treatment implementations useful in waterless urinals | A diverter (170, 270) atop the upper wall (110) of a cartridge (100) and over the opening (114, 115) therein avoids direct access of urine to the opening and the sealant (105) within the cartridge. The diverter is spaced by standoffs (182, 282) from the upper wall to provide a urine flow passage. A float (274) can be incorporated in the diverter to provide a visible signal of the presence of collected urine on the cartridge upper wall. A pre-treatment chemically-constituted tablet (210) held by a retainer (200) in the diverter provides sanitizing and/or deodorizing means. Post-treatment chemically-constituted tablets (224a) or pellets (224b) placeable at the outlet of the cartridge protect the drain pipe from corrosion and other harm. | 1. In a urine cartridge having an upper wall and an opening therein for receipt of urine and for entry of the urine into the cartridge, a diverter for avoiding direct access of the urine to the opening, comprising: a shell placeable on the upper wall of the cartridge and over the opening therein; and a spacer spacing said shell from the upper wall to permit urine to flow into the upper wall opening of the cartridge. 2. A diverter according to claim 1 in which said shell includes an essentially fluid-obstructing upper surface bounded by a periphery which is spaced from the upper wall of the cartridge by said spacer, whereby said essentially fluid-obstructing upper surface is configured to direct the urine towards said periphery and thence onto the cartridge upper wall for entry into the upper wall opening. 3. A diverter according to claim 2 further including a float moveable towards and away from the cartridge upper wall and floatable upon any urine collected on the cartridge upper wall, and an indicator associated with said float and disposed to evidence the existence of any such upper wall collected urine. 4. A diverter according to claim 3 in which a viewer is associated with said essentially fluid-obstructing upper surface to act with said float as said indicator. 5. A diverter according to claim 2 in which said essentially fluid-obstructing upper surface of said shell includes an opening therein, and further comprising: a protective cap in said fluid-obstructing upper surface of said shell and closing the opening therein from fluid flow therein, said protective cap including a viewing window; a float moveable towards and away from the cartridge upper wall and floatable upon any urine collected on the cartridge upper wall, said float having a viewable surface which is viewable through said protective cap viewing window when said float is caused to float upon urine collected on the cartridge upper wall and move upwards to said viewing window of said protective cap and thereby to evidence the existence of such upper wall collected urine. 6. A diverter according to claim 5 further including: a tablet disposed as an agent which is capable of providing any such function as a deodorant and a sanitizing agent; and a retainer engageable with said shell for supporting said tablet. 7. A diverter according to claim 6 in which said retainer comprises an open-structured cup for supporting said tablet and for exposing said tablet to any urine collected in the upper wall. 8. A diverter according to claim 7 in which said open-structured cup comprises an outer ring-like member, an inner ring-like member, and a plurality of spokes connecting said inner and outer ring-like members, said inner ring-like member having a passage therein for enabling contact of said float with any urine collected in the upper wall. 9. A diverter according to claim 8 in which said shell at its periphery includes latches for engagement with said outer ring-like member and for securing said open- structured cup to said shell. 10. A diverter according to claim 3 in which one of said float and said shell have a magnet secured thereto and the other of said flat and said shell incorporate a ferromagnetic part therein whereby, when said float is moved towards said shell, said float and said shell are magnetically latched together thereby to evidence the existence of any such upper wall collected urine. 11. A diverter according to claim 5 further comprising: a tubular housing having an end secured to said shell upper surface and extending therefrom, and being positioned coaxially with the shell upper surface opening for housing said float; and a spacing mechanism positioned between said float and said tubular housing for centering and guiding said float within said housing. 12. A diverter according to claim 11 in which said spacing mechanism comprises a plurality of ribs spaced from one another and forming a minimum contact between said float and said housing. 13. A diverter according to claim 11 further including a support on the inside of said tubular housing for supporting said float and for limiting travel thereof towards the shell upper surface. 14. A diverter according to claim 5 further comprising: a tubular housing secured to and extending from said shell upper surface and positioned coaxially with the shell upper surface opening for housing said float; and a plurality of ribs formed on said float and dimensioned to provide a minimal frictional and guiding contact with said housing for centering said float within said housing and for providing a plurality of fluid passages therebetween. 15. A diverter according to claim 14 in which said float includes a concave-shaped bottom surface facing the urine cartridge upper wall, and said ribs extend beyond said concave-shaped bottom surface to form tips and thereby to encourage flow of any urine from said float and to discourage residual urine deposits thereon. 16. A diverter according to claim 15 further comprising a ridge surrounding the shell upper surface opening for encouraging flow of urine towards said shell periphery. 17. A diverter according to claim 16 in which said protective cap has a mushroom-shaped configuration comprising: an enlarged head; a relatively smaller hollow stem extending from said enlarged head through the shell upper surface opening for receipt in said hollow stem of a portion of said float; and an indentation formed beneath said enlarged head adjacent said hollow stem for discouraging flow of urine onto said stem. 18. A diverter according to claim 11 in which said tubular housing includes a second end spaced from said end which secures said tubular housing to said shell upper surface, and a latching mechanism at said second end engageable with the cartridge upper wall opening for securing said diverter to the cartridge. 19. A diverter according to claim 1 further including: a tablet disposed as an agent which is capable of providing any such function as a deodorant and a sanitizing agent; and a retainer engageable with said shell for supporting said tablet in said shell. 20. A diverter according to claim 19 in which said retainer comprises an open-structured cup for supporting said tablet and for exposing said tablet to any urine collected in the upper wall. 21. A diverter according to claim 20 in which said open-structured cup comprises an outer ring-like member, an inner ring-like member, and a plurality of spokes connecting said inner and outer ring-like members, said inner ring-like member having a passage therein for enabling contact of said float with any urine collected in the upper wall. 22. A diverter according to claim 21 in which said shell at its periphery includes latches for engagement with said outer ring-like member and for securing said open-structured cup to said shell. 23. A diverter according to claim 1 further including: an attachment facilitator comprising at least one opening medium in said cartridge upper wall; a coupling mechanism secured to said shell and disposed to engage said upper wall opening for enabling said shell to be coupled to said upper wall and, thus, to said cartridge. 24. A diverter according to claim 23 in which said coupling mechanism comprises a peg for frictionally engaging said upper wall opening. 25. A diverter according to claim 23 in which said coupling mechanism comprises latches for latching said latches into said upper wall opening facilitator. 26. A diverter according to claim 25 in which said opening medium comprises slots for mutual latching with said latches. 27. A urine cartridge comprising: an inlet compartment for receipt of urine; an outlet compartment having a terminus for transfer of the urine from said inlet compartment to an external drain; a post-treatment chemical agent which is capable of forestalling corrosion and other harm to the drain; and an agent holder for supporting said post-treatment chemical agent in said outlet. 28. A urine cartridge according to claim 27 in which said agent holder comprises a discharge section including a conduit which defines said outlet compartment terminus and an enclosure for enclosing said post-treatment chemical agent. 29. A urine cartridge according to claim 28 in which said discharge section enclosure further includes at least one chamber which is closed at a first end in said outlet compartment and open at a second end adjacent said terminus for enabling flow of the urine from said conduit into contact with said post-treatment chemical agent. 30. A urine cartridge according to claim 29 further including a flow director in said conduit for directing flow of urine towards said chamber second end and into contact with said post-treatment chemical agent. 31. A urine cartridge according to claim 30 in which said flow director comprises ribs extending substantially along the length of said conduit and terminating adjacent to said chamber second end. 32. A urine cartridge according to claim 30 in which said flow director comprises a ledge in said conduit angled towards said chamber second end. 33. A urine cartridge according to claim 30 in which said flow director comprises a ledge in said conduit angled towards said chamber second end and a pair of ribs extending substantially along the length of said conduit and terminating adjacent to said chamber second end. 34. A urine cartridge according to claim 29 further including a plug secured to and closing said second end, said plug having openings therein for permitting fluid access to said chamber at said second end and contact with exposed portions of said post-treatment chemical agent in said chamber. 35. A urine cartridge according to claim 34 in which said plug is provided with an open basket-like weave to form said plug openings. 36. A urine cartridge according to claim 35 in which said plug and said discharge section enclosure each have oriented respective pair of openings and chambers which are aligned in an orientation with respect to one another for holding pairs of said post-treatment chemical agent therein. 37. A urine cartridge according to claim 36 further including an opening in said discharge section and a pin extending from said plug engageable together with a keyed interference fit therebetween for effecting the discharge section-plug chamber-to-opening orientation. 38. A urine cartridge according to claim 35 in which said discharge section chambers have inner walls of tubular configuration and said post-treatment discharge control agents comprise pellets shaped as spheroids which rest against said inner chamber walls to provide a minimum contact therewith to facilitate a downward pellet movement as fluid erodes said pellets. 39. In a urine cartridge having an upper wall and an opening therein for receipt of urine and for entry of the urine into the cartridge, the improvement comprising a float moveable towards and away from the cartridge upper wall and floatable upon any urine collected on the cartridge upper wall, said float having a viewable surface which is viewable when said float is caused to float upon urine collected on the cartridge upper wall and thereby to evidence the existence of such upper wall collected urine. 40. A urine cartridge according to claim 39 further comprising a protective cap including a viewing window placed over said float for enabling viewing of said float viewable surface. 41. A urine cartridge comprising: an upper wall having an opening therein for receipt of urine and for entry of the urine into the cartridge; a plurality of tool holes in the cartridge upper wall and positioned exterior of said diverter when placed on the cartridge having an upper wall; said diverter including a shell placeable on the upper wall of the cartridge and over the opening therein and a spacer spacing said shell from the upper wall to permit urine to flow into the upper wall opening of the cartridge; and a tool having prongs for engaging the tool holes in the cartridge upper wall and for inserting and removing the cartridge from a urinal. 42. A urine cartridge according to claim 39 further comprising a diverter placeable on said cartridge upper wall for avoiding direct access of the urine to the opening, and in which said plurality of tool holes in the cartridge upper wall are positioned exterior of said diverter when said diverter is placed on the cartridge. 43. A urine cartridge according to claim 39 in which said tool holes form a communication between the interior and exterior of said cartridge. 44. In an odor trap cartridge containing wastewater and liquid odor sealant floating thereon and having an access entry thereto, a method for conserving the quantity of the liquid odor sealant, comprising the step of diverting incoming wastewater from direct access to the entry. 45. A method according to claim 42 in which said diverting step comprises the step of shielding the access entry from the incoming wastewater. 46. A method according to claim 43 wherein said shielding step comprises the steps of placing a shield over the access entry and spacing the shield therefrom. 47. A method according to claim 44 wherein said shielding step further comprises the step of chemically treating the wastewater prior to its gaining access to the entry. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit, and is a continuation-in-part of both U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/535,463 filed 09 Jan. 2004 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 09/579,921 filed 14 Jun. 2004, and is a continuation-in-part of the following provisional and nonprovisional applications: Ser. No. 10/647,603 (Docket No. 7148-108A-US), filed 25 Aug. 2003; Ser. No. 10/744,708 (Docket No. 7148-111A-US), filed 23 Dec. 2003; Application No. 60/535,463 (Docket No. 7148-117-PR), filed 09 Jan. 2004; and any of their predecessor applications. REFERENCE REGARDING FEDERAL SPONSORSHIP Not Applicable REFERENCE TO MICROFICHE APPENDIX Not Applicable 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a diverter, a liquid level indicator and a liquid conditioner and, more particularly, to improved devices and methods therefor for use in a urinal, such as in a waterless urinal. 2. Description of Related Art and Other Considerations In waterless urinals, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,053,197 and No. 6,xxx,xxx [Ser. No. 09/855,735 (filed 14 May 2001)] and U.S. patent application, Ser. No. 10/143,103 (filed 07 May 2002), it has been observed that urine can be directed with some intensity through the opening of the cartridge and impinge with sufficient force on the sealant therein to adversely affect its sealing function collect and that, because of blockages within the cartridge, urine can collect on its upper surface and possible flow therefrom to create a sanitary problem. Further, in the mechanism described in above-mentioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,xxx,xxx, such collected urine may corrode or otherwise disrupt the mechanical and electrical operations of the liquid flow meter described therein. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION These and other problems are successfully addressed and overcome by the present invention, along with attendant advantages, by placing a diverter atop the upper wall of the cartridge and over the opening therein for avoiding direct access of urine to the opening. The diverter is spaced from the upper wall to provide a urine flow passage. An indicator, such as a float, can be incorporated in the diverter to provide a visible signal of the presence of collected urine on the cartridge upper wall. Further, a pre-treatment chemically-constituted tablet or other substance may be incorporated in the diverter to provide sanitizing and/or deodorizing means. Additionally, one or more post-treatment chemically-constituted tablet or pellets may be placed at the outlet of the cartridge to protect the drain pipe from corrosion and other harm. Several advantages are obtained derived from these arrangements. The life of the cartridge is increased. Fewer replacements of cartridges are possible. The need to service cartridges is minimized. Profitability is increased. Other aims and advantages, as well as a more complete understanding of the present invention, will appear from the following explanation of exemplary embodiments and the accompanying drawings thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a view, in cross-section, of a cartridge for use in a urinal with a first embodiment of a urinal diverter positioned thereon and secured to its top; FIG. 2 is an exploded view, in perspective, of the cartridge, per se, illustrated in FIG. 1; FIGS. 3 and 4 are perspective views taken respectively from the top and bottom of the cartridge, per se, shown in FIG. 1; FIGS. 5-7 respectively are side, top and bottom views of the cartridge, per se, shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view of the cartridge, per se, shown in FIG. 5 taken along line 8-8 thereof; FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view of the cartridge, per se, shown in FIG. 5 taken along line 9-9 thereof; FIG. 10 is cross-sectional view of the cartridge, per se, shown in FIG. 7 taken along line 10-10 thereof; FIGS. 11 and 12 are perspective views of the bottom portion of the cartridge, per se, depicted in FIGS. 1-10, taken respectively from its upper and under sides FIGS. 13-15 respectively are side, top and bottom views of the cartridge bottom portion shown in FIGS. 11 and 12; FIG. 15A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the cartridge bottom portion taken along cutaway line 15A of FIG. 15; FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of the cartridge bottom portion taken along line 16-16 of FIG. 13; FIG. 16A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the cartridge bottom portion taken along cutaway line 16A of FIG. 16; FIG. 17 a cross-sectional view of the cartridge bottom portion taken along line 17-17 of FIG. 16; FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional view of the cartridge bottom portion taken along line 18-18 of FIG. 15; FIG. 19 is a cross-sectional view of the cartridge bottom portion taken along line 19-19 of FIG. 15; FIG. 20 is a bottom view, in perspective, of a second embodiment of the diverter illustrated in FIG. 1, with a urine pre-treatment tablet and a retainer for the tablet latched to the diverter; FIG. 21 is a cross-sectional view of the diverter, tablet and retainer taken along line 21-21 of FIG. 20; FIG. 22 is a perspective view of the underside of the diverter shown in FIG. 23; FIGS. 23 and 24 respectively are top and side views of the second embodiment of the diverter, per se, illustrated in FIG. 22; FIG. 24A is a cross-sectional view of a standoff spacer detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 24A of FIG. 24; FIG. 24B is a cross-sectional view of the standoff spacer detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 24B of FIG. 24; FIG. 24C is a perspective view of the standoff spacer detail and pre-treatment tablet retainer latch of the diverter illustrated in FIGS. 24, 24A and 24B; FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of the diverter taken along line 25-25 of FIG. 23; FIG. 25A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 25A of FIG. 25; FIG. 26 is a bottom view of the diverter, per se, depicted in FIG. 22; FIG. 27 is a cross-sectional view of the diverter taken along line 27-27 of FIG. 26; FIG. 27A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 27A of FIG. 27; FIG. 27B is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 27B of FIG. 27; FIG. 28 is a perspective view of the retainer, per se, depicted in FIGS. 20 and 21; FIGS. 29 and 30 are top and side views of the retainer depicted in FIG. 28; FIG. 31 is a cross-sectional view of the retainer taken along line 31-31 of FIG. 30; FIG. 32 is a perspective view of the urine pre-treatment tablet, per se, depicted in FIGS. 20 and 21; FIG. 33 is a cross-sectional view of the pre-treatment tablet taken along line 31-31 of FIG. 32; FIG. 34 is a side view of the cartridge-gripping core of the cartridge key illustrated in FIG. 29; FIG. 35 is a perspective view of the first embodiment of the diverter, pre-treatment and retainer depicted in FIG. 1; FIGS. 36 and 37 respectively are top and bottom views of the first embodiment of the diverter, pre-treatment and retainer depicted in FIG. 35; FIG. 38 is a side view of the tip side of the first embodiment of the diverter, pre-treatment and retainer depicted in FIG. 35; FIG. 39 is a cross-sectional view of the first embodiment of the diverter, pre-treatment and retainer taken along line 39-39 of FIG. 38; FIG. 40 is a side view of the first embodiment of the diverter, per se, depicted in FIG. 1; FIG. 40A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 40A of FIG. 40; FIG. 41 is a cross-sectional view of the diverter, per se, taken along line 41-41 of FIG. 40; FIG. 41A is a cross-sectional view of a detail of the diverter taken along cutaway line 41A of FIG. 41; FIG. 42 is a perspective view tablet a float used in the diverter depicted in FIG. 1; FIG. 43 is a side view of the float illustrated in FIG. 42; FIG. 44 is a cross-sectional view of the float taken along line 44-44 of FIG. 43; FIG. 45 is a perspective view of a see-through protective cap used in the diverter depicted in FIG. 1; FIG. 46 is a side view of the protective cap shown in FIG. 45; FIG. 47 is a cross-sectional view of the protective cap taken along line 47-47 of FIG. 46; FIGS. 48 and 49 are perspective views of a plug placeable in the bottom portion of any of the cartridges depicted in FIGS. 1-5, 7-10 and 53-55; FIGS. 50-52 respectively are side, bottom and bottom views of the plug shown in FIGS. 48 and 49; FIGS. 53 and 54 are perspective views of cartridges, similar to the cartridge illustrated in FIG. 1, with alternatively packaged post-treatment chemicals, embodied respectively as sticks and spheroids, used to treat urine as it exits the cartridge; and FIG. 55 is a perspective view of a cartridge placed in a part of a waterless urinal as connected to a drain pipe. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Accordingly, as depicted in FIGS. 1-19, an odor trap 98 comprises a cartridge 100, which is sometimes referred to as an “oil sealant-preserving drain odor trap.” Cartridge assembly 100, acting as a flow trap for urine or other generally fluid waste products, comprises a top portion 102 and a bottom portion 104. Wastewater 103, such as a fluid with urine therein, and an oily liquid odor sealant 105 floating on the wastewater is contained within the cartridge. Alternate embodiments of a diverter, such as diverter 270, can be secured to top portion 102. Top portion 102 has a cylindrical configuration defined by a tubular wall 106 terminated by an opening 108 at its lower end and a top wall 110 at its upper end. The top wall is sloped downwardly to a flat, generally horizontal flat center portion 112 in which an entry opening 114 is disposed, to act as a urine inlet. As depicted in FIG. 6, opening 114 comprises a tripartite arrangement of three arced slots 114a, 114b and 114c. A hole 115 is centrally positioned within center portion 112. As will be described with respect to FIGS. 20-47, slots 114a, 114b and 114c and hole 115 are adapted to hold either of the two diverters depicted therein to cartridge 100. Top portion 102 is further provided with three keys 116 of which one may be of different length than the other two (e.g., see FIG. 2) for purposes of properly placing and orienting cartridge 100 within a urinal, as more fully described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,644,339 (the parent application of above-noted Ser. No. 10/647,603). Top wall 110 is provided with a recess 117, for example as shown in FIG. 5 at its outer periphery to accept a seal, such as O-ring seal 228 (see FIG. 44). Recess 117 has a small dimension sufficient to minimize the trapping of urine therein. Top wall 110 of top portion 102 is further provided with three openings 118 which act as air vents that communicate with the interior of cartridge 100. In the event that one or two may become clogged, such as by urine when the urinal is in use, there will be at least one that remains open. Openings 118 also provide a means by which a tool may be inserted therein for the purpose of inserting and removing the cartridge into and from a urinal, as also described in above-noted co-pending provisional application No. 60/535,463, now patent application Ser. No. xx/xxx,xxx [Attorney Docket No. 7148-125]. Accordingly, for purposes of their use as tool engagement means, it is preferred that the outermost two openings be approximately diagonally opposed to one another. However, the placement or use of these openings may be otherwise designed to accommodate other tool configurations. As best shown in FIG. 9, the interior of top portion 102 is divided by a bowed vertical separator 120 into two compartments, respectively an inlet compartment 122 and an outlet compartment 124. Vertical separator 120 is secured or molded to the interior surface of tubular wall 106 and to the underside of top wall 110 in any convenient manner. The bottom end of the vertical separator terminates in an end or terminus 121b which is disposed to be connected to a baffle 150. When top and bottom portions 102 and 104 are placed together and a discharge section 128 (FIGS. 11-19) of bottom portion 104 extends into outlet compartment 124, inlet compartment 122 and outlet compartment 124 have generally equal volumes. It is important that the compartment volumes be made as equal as possible to ensure that the pressures on both sides of vertical separator 120 remain equal during use of the cartridge. Such pressure equality helps to minimize syphoning or, alternatively, to maximize resistance to syphoning between the compartments and, of particular importance, of sealant 105 from the inlet compartment to the outlet compartment. Thus, the usable life of the cartridge is improved by avoiding premature failure thereof. Additionally, any impediment to liquid flow in minimized. Vertical separator 120 is bowed, e.g., curved or bent, to accommodate centrally positioned entry opening 114 which needs to fully communicate with inlet compartment 122. The illustrated curved bowing of the vertical separator further enables air vent openings 118 also to communicate with the inlet compartment. It is to be understood, however, that the vertical separator need not be curved as illustrated; it may take any configuration that will effect its purpose, that is, to provide equally volumed compartments and to oblige the communications of openings 114 with the inlet compartment. Therefore, for example, if the air vent openings were not used as a means to cooperate with a cartridge inserting and removing tool, as above described, and/or entry opening 114 were not centrally positioned in top wall 110, or for any other reason apart from its compartment volume-defining purpose, vertical separator 120 may be otherwise configured. Bottom portion 104, as depicted in FIGS. 2 and 11-19, comprises a pan 126 and a discharge section 128 extending upwardly therefrom. The pan includes a wall 130 terminating at an edge 132 (FIG. 16) which provides a tongue-in-groove engagement with tubular wall 106 at its lower end opening 108, as best seen in FIG. 17, to provide a fluid-tight engagement between top and bottom portions 102 and 104. The inner surfaces of pan 126 are rounded to prevent sharp angled corners and are smoothed to enhance fluid flow and to discourage build up of matter and bacteria or other debris. Upwardly extending discharge section 128, which as described above extends into outlet compartment 124 of top portion 102, includes a tube 134 that communicates with outlet compartment 104 and opens at an exit port area 136 through pan 126 for discharge of fluids, e.g., wastewater fluid 103, and other undesired matter from the outlet compartment to a drain 220 (FIG. 55). The discharge section also includes a pair of tubular chambers 138 for receipt of post-treatment chemicals for treating the exiting urine, as contained in control stick 224a or pellets 224b (FIGS. 53-55), as more fully described in co-pending application, Ser. No. ______ (provisional application No. 60/579,921). Chambers 138 are closed at walls 140 (see FIGS. 11 and 18) at one of their ends at the uppermost part of upwardly extending discharge section 128 to prevent flow of fluids thereinto from the outlet compartment, and are open at their other ends 142 (see FIGS. 12 and 18). As shown in FIGS. 16, 16A and 19, a flow director 144 in tube 134 adjacent exit port area 136 comprises an angled part which is adapted to direct fluid flow towards ends 142 of tubular chambers 138 for impacting control stick or pellets 224. Such directed fluid flow is also implemented by a pair of vertically extending ribs 145 which are formed on the walls of tube 144, and by an inclination on top wall 140 towards tube 134 and ribs 145. A key 146 and a keyway 148 are provided respectively on the interior surface of tubular wall 106 (see FIGS. 2 and 9) and on the backside of upwardly extending discharge section 128 (see FIGS. 11, 13 and 16). The key and keyway are disposed to provide an orientation and proper alignment between top and bottom portions 102 and 104 and, through the orienting mechanism of keys 116 with the urinal, to place exit port area 136 adjacent exterior drain 220 from cartridge 100. As depicted in FIGS. 2 and 8, a baffle 150 is disposed to be secured to curved vertical separator 120 for improved direction and flow of fluids through the cartridge in a region from inlet compartment 122 to outlet compartment 124, as more fully described in co-pending patent application, Ser. No. xx/xxx,xxx (U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/579,921, filed 14 Jun. 2004) [Attorney Docket 7148-119-US]. Cartridge 42 is provided with an upper wall 44 in which a central opening 46 may be disposed. Opening 46 may comprise a simple hole or one configured as a tripartite arrangement of three arced slots 46a, 46b and 46c, centered about a generally horizontal flat center portion 48 as best shown in FIG. 1A. A hole is centrally positioned within center portion 112. As will be described with respect to FIGS. 36-43, slots 114a, 114b and 114c and hole 115 are adapted to hold either of the two diverters depicted therein to cartridge 100. In the illustrated configuration, cartridge 42 is disposed to receive urine through central opening 46 and transported to a drain such as may be connected to a urinal. Such a cartridge may take any form, for example, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,053,197, 6,245,411, 6,644,339 and 6,xxx,xxx [Ser. No. 09/855,735 (filed 14 May 2001)]. One embodiment of the urine diverter depicted in FIGS. 20-27. Here a diverter 170 is positionable atop cylinder upper wall 110, e.g., as shown in FIG. 1, for protectively covering cartridge openings 114 and 115 at center portion 112, primarily to provide a circuitous path for flow of urine to the opening. Therefore, urine is prevented from directly contacting and entering into the openings. Diverter 170 includes a shell 172 and, if desired, a deodorant and/or sanitizing tablet 210 and a tablet retainer 200 (see FIGS. 28-33) for retaining the tablet within shell 172. The diverter is slightly spaced from upper wall 110 of cartridge 100 to assure a clear path for flow of the urine and to space retainer 200 and tablet 210 from the cartridge upper wall. As shown in detail in FIGS. 24 and 24A-24C, such spacing is effected by use of a standoff 182, depending from shell 172 and comprising a large portion 182a and a smaller portion 182b. Portion 182b is made as small as possible to permit the smallest contact of the diverter with the cartridge and, therefore, to provide the largest possible unobstructed flow path. Shell 172, as for example shown in FIGS. 21 and 27, comprises an upper surface 184, terminated by a periphery 186 with a downwardly depending flange 188, and a central opening 190. Upper surface 184 slopes downwardly towards periphery 186 to encourage flow of urine towards the periphery. Inwardly-facing bumps or protuberances 191 are formed on large portion 182a of standoffs 182, as best shown in FIGS. 27 and 27B. A tubular housing 194 (see FIGS. 21, 22 and 26) preferably of cylindrical configuration is secured at one end to the under surface of shell 172 and terminates in a securing mechanism 198 at its free end. A smaller diameter, slightly conical end 102 is formed at the free end, and is sized to form an interference fit within opening 115 in top cartridge upper wall 110. With reference to FIGS. 28-31, tablet retainer 200 comprises and open-structured cup 202 for supporting a tablet 210 (see FIGS. 32 and 33) and for exposing the tablet to any urine collected in top wall 110 of top portion 102. The open-structured cup comprises an outer ring-like member 204, an inner ring-like member 206, and a plurality of spokes 208 connecting inner and outer ring-like members 206 and 204. The dimension of the periphery of outer ring-like member 206 and that of the inner surface on flange 184 of shell 172 are correlated to enable the outer ring-like member to fit within the flange and to latch over bumps 191 so as to latch retainer 200 to shell 172 and, thereupon, to hold tablet 210 in position as shown in FIGS. 20 and 21 and spaced slightly above cartridge top wall 110. In addition, tablet 210 is configured generally as a donut having an inner cylindrical opening 212 which is adapted to fit over the outer periphery of inner ring-like member 204. The contents of tablet 210 include a formulation of citric acid, quaternary ammonium and triclosan, and a binder to hold the formulation together. The citric acid is used (1) to adjust the ph in the cartridge, between 5.5 and 3.0 ph to ensure that the contents remain acidic, and to prevent alkalinity which would otherwise degrade the sealant, (2) to inhibit biological growth and/or (3) to act as a cleaning agent, e.g., to remove scale and other minerals, stains, etc., within the cartridge and drain pipe. The binder, a polymer binding medium which holds and permits release of the agents held therein. It is believed that the quaternary ammonium comprises a surfactant having a negative ion which is adapted to combine with a positive ion surfactant and to form precipitants. The problem to be avoided is to inhibit the breakdown of the sealant by positive ion surfactants, such cleaning agents used in urinals. While a negative ion surfactant, such as Hyamine 1622, trademark of Rohm and Haas, has been found to be useful, the requirement is one that militates against the breakdown of the sealant. Triclosan, trademark of ______, is a biocide which is designed to combine with polymers and to protect the sealant from bacteria. The binder is formulated from a slightly soluble material, e.g., N, N-ethylenebisstearamide, which can be slowly worn away by water such as to the extent that its life will last at least to the life of the cartridge. Another embodiment of the urine diverter depicted in FIGS. 35-47. Here diverter 270 is positionable atop cylinder upper wall 110, as shown in FIG. 1, for protectively covering cartridge openings 114 and 115 at center portion 112, primarily to provide a circuitous path for flow of urine to the opening. Therefore, urine is prevented from directly contacting and entering into the openings. Diverter 270 includes a shell 272, a urine level detector, comprising a float 274 and a see-through protective cap 276, and, if desired, a deodorant and/or sanitizing tablet 210 and a tablet retainer 200 (see FIGS. 28-33) for retaining the tablet within shell 272. The diverter is slightly spaced from upper wall 110 of cartridge 100 to assure a clear path for flow of the urine and to space retainer 200 and tablet 210 from the cartridge upper wall. As shown in detail in FIGS. 40 and 40A, such spacing is effected by use of a standoff 282, depending from shell 272 and comprising a large portion 282a and a smaller portion 282b. Portion 282b is made as small as possible to permit the smallest contact of the diverter with the cartridge and, therefore, to provide the largest possible unobstructed flow path. Shell 272, as for example shown in FIGS. 41 and 41A, comprises an upper surface 284, terminated by a periphery 286 with a downwardly depending flange 288, and a central opening 290. Upper surface 284 slopes downwardly towards periphery 286 to encourage flow of urine towards the periphery and away from opening 290. Further, a rim 292 surrounds opening 290 also to encourage the outward urine flow and, in particular, to prevent urine from entering opening 290. Inwardly-facing bumps 291 are formed on large portion 282a of standoffs 282. A tubular housing 294 (see FIGS. 35 and 37-41) preferably of cylindrical configuration is secured at one end 296 (FIG. 41) to the under surface of shell 272 about opening 290 and terminates in a latching mechanism 298 at its second end 300. An inwardly directed circular protuberance 302 is formed at end 300. The second end is also formed with cut-away portions 304 which dissect protuberance 302 into legs 303 to permit a bending of the latching mechanism. Latching mechanism 298 comprises pairs of facing teeth 306 at the ends of legs 303 which are adapted to latch into arced slots 114a, 114b and 114c of cartridge top portion 102 for securing diverter 270 to cartridge 100. Also formed in the under surface of shell 272 about opening 290 and within the interior of tubular housing 294 is a recess 296 (FIG. 41) in which a ring 298 of ferromagnetic material (see FIG. 35) is molded. With reference now to FIGS. 42-44, float 274 comprises a generally tubular body 318 from which a stem 320 extends from its upper surface. Its lower surface 322 is concavely formed so that any liquids thereon will flow off the concave surface and not collect thereon or leave deposits after the liquid has evaporated. A plurality of ribs 324 are placed about body 318, and extend slightly below concave surface 322 so as to help any liquid to collect and form drops for facilitating the removal of liquid from the float. Ribs 104 are configured with a generally triangular cross-section to form outer peripheries having a small surface which, in aggregation, delineate a cylindrical surface that fits closely within the inner surface of shell-depending tubular cylindrical housing 324. Accordingly, ribs 324 permit the float to move between the under surface of shell 272 and cartridge upperwall 110. The float is retained within tubular cylindrical housing 294 on protuberances 302 therein. Insertion of the float within the housing is permitted by flexure of its lower or second end 300 through the medium of cut-away portions 304. Float 274 preferably is molded from a material that can be tinted so as to make it easily viewable, such as by a bright red and/or florescent shade, especially from the top of stem 320. When tablet retainer 200 is used, a passage within inner ring-like member 204 enables contact of the float with any urine collected in the upper wall of cartridge 100. A magnet 326, having the shape of a toroid, is secured to float 274 about its stem 320 and, upon upward movement of the float, latches to ferromagnetic washer 298 and holds the float against shell 272. Protective cap 276, as illustrated in FIGS.45-47, is configured to resemble a mushroom and comprises an enlarged head 330 and a relatively smaller stem 332 extending therefrom. Stem 332 is recessed to form a hollow 334, and is sized to extend through shell upper surface opening 292 and thereby to receive float stem 320. An indentation 336 (FIG. 47) is formed beneath enlarged head 330 adjacent hollow stem 332 and helps to discourage flow of urine onto the hollow stem. Indentation 336 thus acts as an adjunct to rim 292 formed about shell opening 290 to help in controlling the flow of urine. Protective cap 276 is formed from a clear or translucent material, such as of acrylic plastic, to enable viewing of float 274 and, in particular, the top of its stem 320. As shown in FIGS. 48-52, a plug 410 is disposed to be attached to bottom portion 104 within a part of exit port area 136 and to operate as a closure to open ends 142 of tubular chambers 138. A pin 412 extends from the top side of plug 412 and is disposed to engage with a keyed interference fit coupling within an opening 414 (see FIGS. 34B and 46) in bottom portion 104 to join the two parts together. Both pin 412 and opening 414 have mating ribs that, when inter-engaged, orient plug 410 with tubular chambers 138. The plug is formed with a pair of tubular openings 416 having the same dimensions as those of tubular chambers 138 of bottom portion discharge tube section 128. One side of tubular openings 416 is formed to provide an open basket-like weave 418 with openings 420, and a base 422 which is adapted to support a holder of post-treatment discharge control chemical agents, configured as sticks 424a or pellets 424b. It is through openings 420 that fluid is directed by the two-part flow director comprising angled ledge 144 and ribs xxx in tube 134. A pair of such post-treatment discharge control sticks 424a or pellets 424b, of which one each is illustrated in FIGS. 53 and 54 and identified generally in FIG. 55 by indicium 424, are disposed to be placed within tubular chambers 138. Each one of pellets 424b, as having a spheroid shape, rests against the inner wall of tubular chambers 138 with a smaller contact than does the contact between stick 424a with the inner wall and, therefore, is the preferable shape, as being more likely to move downwardly as fluid slowly erodes the post-treatment discharge chemicals. Each post-treatment discharge control stick or pellet includes citric acid and, if desired, quaternary ammonium, a biocide and cleaning agents held in a time-release binder. Its use is primarily as a descaling agent to help maintain a clean drain pipe, and especially in environments where the cartridge use pattern is such that additional descaling is needed. The post-treatment discharge control sticks or pellets may be used alone or in conjunction with pretreatment control tablet 410. When all the above-described components are assembled together, they form cartridge 100 as depicted, for example, in FIGS. 1 and 36. This assembled cartridge is then adapted to be placed within a waterless urinal 426, a portion of which is illustrated in FIG. 55, which is coupled to a drain 420 with exit port area 136 as provided through the orienting mechanism of keys 116. An O-ring seal is placed within recess 117 in the periphery of top wall 110. While pretreatment control tablet 410 and post-treatment discharge control agents 424a or 424b are described herein as integral parts of the present invention, it is to be understood that they can be used alone, in other environments. In a like manner, cartridge 100 of the present invention may employ other means, aside from tablet 410 and agents 424, to obtain the desired anti-bacterial, cleaning, etc., purposes. Furthermore, both the tablet and stick/pellet agent can be composed of any number of other agents and ingredients depending upon the end result desired. Also, the diverter may be used alone, without any pretreatment tablet. Although the invention has been described with respect to particular embodiments thereof, it should be realized that various changes and modifications may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>These and other problems are successfully addressed and overcome by the present invention, along with attendant advantages, by placing a diverter atop the upper wall of the cartridge and over the opening therein for avoiding direct access of urine to the opening. The diverter is spaced from the upper wall to provide a urine flow passage. An indicator, such as a float, can be incorporated in the diverter to provide a visible signal of the presence of collected urine on the cartridge upper wall. Further, a pre-treatment chemically-constituted tablet or other substance may be incorporated in the diverter to provide sanitizing and/or deodorizing means. Additionally, one or more post-treatment chemically-constituted tablet or pellets may be placed at the outlet of the cartridge to protect the drain pipe from corrosion and other harm. Several advantages are obtained derived from these arrangements. The life of the cartridge is increased. Fewer replacements of cartridges are possible. The need to service cartridges is minimized. Profitability is increased. Other aims and advantages, as well as a more complete understanding of the present invention, will appear from the following explanation of exemplary embodiments and the accompanying drawings thereof. | 20050109 | 20090818 | 20051110 | 98066.0 | 0 | RIVELL, JOHN A | DIVERTER, LIQUID-LEVEL INDICATOR AND CHEMICAL PRE-TREATMENT AND POST-TREATMENT IMPLEMENTATIONS USEFUL IN WATER-FREE URINALS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,550 | ACCEPTED | Inflatable product provided with electric pump | An inflatable product includes an inflatable body and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body. The electric pump includes a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body and permanently held by the inflatable body. Preferably, the electric pump includes a fan and a motor connected to the fan, and the fan is rotated by the motor in a first direction to pump the inflatable body or in a second direction opposite the first direction to deflate the inflatable body. | 1. An inflatable product comprising: an inflatable body; and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body, the electric pump comprising a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body and permanently held by the inflatable body. 2. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electric pump comprises a fan and a motor connected to the fan, and the fan is rotated by the motor in a first direction to pump the inflatable body or in a second direction opposite the first direction to deflate the inflatable body. 3. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a battery to supply the electric pump with power. 4. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 3, wherein the battery is a rechargeable battery. 5. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 4, further comprising a chamber housing the battery and the electric pump. 6. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a rectifier via which the electric pump is electrically connected to an electric power. 7. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a cigarette plug via which the electric pump is electrically connected to an electric power. 8. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a connector via which the electric pump is electrically connected to an electric power. 9. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, further comprising a battery and a connector via which the electric pump is electrically connected to an electric power, so that the electric pump is selectively actuated by the battery or the electric power. 10. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 9, wherein the battery is a rechargeable battery. 11. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electric pump uses a direct current. 12. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electric pump uses an alternating current. 13. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 1, wherein the pump body is located in the inflatable body. 14. The inflatable product as claimed in claim 13, wherein the air outlet is located in the inflatable body. 15. An inflatable product comprising: an inflatable body; and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body, the electric pump comprising a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/459,690, filed on Jun. 11, 2003, which is divisional application U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/738,331, filed on Dec. 18, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,793,469, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/542,477, filed Apr. 4, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,332,760. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates in general to an inflatable product provided with an electric pump. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B, a conventional electric pump 14 for inflating an airbed has a fan and motor 142 inside. A plurality of batteries 144 are loaded into the electric pump 14 to supply the power. The airbed 10 is provided with a valve 12. In operation, the electric pump 14 is connected to the valve 12 in direction B and then rotated in direction A to fasten the connection between the electric pump 14 and the airbed 10. Then, the airbed 10 is pumped by the electric pump 14. SUMMARY In an embodiment of the present invention, an inflatable product comprising an inflatable body and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body is provided. The electric pump comprises a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body and permanently held by the inflatable body. The electric pump preferably comprises a fan and a motor connected to the fan, and the fan is rotated by the motor in a first direction to pump the inflatable body or in a second direction opposite the first direction to deflate the inflatable body. In one preferred embodiment, the pump body is located in the inflatable body. Preferably, the air outlet is also located in the inflatable body. In another embodiment of the invention, an inflatable product comprising an inflatable body and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body is provided. The electric pump comprises a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention can be more fully understood by reading the subsequent detailed description and examples with references made to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1A depicts a conventional airbed; FIG. 1B is a sectional view along line I-I in FIG. 1A; FIG. 2 locally depicts an airbed in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3A shows the inflating operation of the airbed of the first embodiment; FIG. 3B shows the deflating operation of the airbed of the first embodiment; FIG. 4 locally depicts an airbed in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a perspective diagram of the electric pump of the second embodiment; FIGS. 6A, 6B and 6C show the inflating operation of the airbed of the second embodiment; FIGS. 7A and 7B show the deflating operation of the airbed of the second embodiment; FIG. 8A is an exploded perspective diagram of a local portion of an airbed in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8B is a perspective diagram of the electric pump of the airbed of the third embodiment; FIG. 8C is a sectional view of a socket of the airbed along line VIII-VIII in FIG. 8A; FIG. 8D is a top view of the socket shown in FIG. 8A; FIG. 8E depicts the electric pump and the socket assembled together in accordance with the third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8F depicts the cover, the electric pump and the socket assembled together in accordance with the third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9A is an exploded perspective diagram of a local portion of an airbed in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9B is a perspective diagram of the electric pump of the airbed of the fourth embodiment; FIG. 9C depicts a set of sockets of the fourth embodiment; FIG. 9D is a sectional view of a socket of the airbed along line VIIII-VIIII in FIG. 9A; FIG. 9E depicts the cover, the electric pump and the socket assembled together in accordance with the fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10A is a perspective diagram of a local portion of an airbed in accordance with a fifth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10B is a sectional view of the electric pump along line X-X of FIG. 10A; FIG. 11 is a perspective diagram of an electric pump of an airbed in accordance with a sixth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12A is a perspective diagram of a cover, electric pump and socket of an airbed in accordance with a seventh embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12B is a sectional view of the socket along line XI-XI of FIG. 12A; FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of an airbed in an inflating operation in accordance with an eighth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram of the airbed in a deflating operation in accordance with the eighth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a perspective diagram of an electric pump of an airbed in accordance with a ninth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a perspective diagram of an electric pump of an airbed in accordance with a tenth embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION Referring to FIG. 2, an airbed 26 of a first embodiment of the present invention is provided with a detachable electric pump 20, a built-in battery case 22 and a built-in socket 24. The battery case 22 has a cover 221 on which electrodes 222 are provided. Also, on the bottom of the battery case 22 are provided electrodes 223 corresponding to the electrodes 222 of the cover 221. An O-ring 244 and an electrode 242 are provided on the inner wall of the socket 24, wherein the electrode 242 is electrically connected to the electrodes 222, 223 of the battery case 22. Furthermore, the electric pump 20 is substantially cylindrical and has an electrode 202 on its side surfaces, an air inlet 204 and an air outlet 206 on its ends and a check valve 208 inside. The check valve 208 of the electric pump allows air to flow in a single direction from the inlet 204 to the outlet 206. In operation, batteries are loaded into the battery case 22. The electric pump 20 is fitted into the socket 24 and then rotated so that the electrode 202 of the electric pump 20 physically contacts the electrode 242 of the socket 24. Then, the electric pump 20 is actuated to pump outside air into the airbed 26 as shown in FIG. 3A. The O-ring 242 in the socket 24 prevents the airbed 26 from leaking. In deflating operation, the user detaches the electric pump 20 from the socket 24 to deflate the airbed 26, as shown in FIG. 3B. It is understood that the O-ring can be provided on the side surfaces of the electric pump 20 instead of in the socket 24 to prevent the airbed from leaking. Referring to FIG. 4, an airbed of a second embodiment of the present invention is provided with a detachable electric pump 30, a cap 37 for the electric pump 30, a built-in battery case 32 and a built-in socket 34. The battery case 32 has a cover 321 on which electrodes 322 are provided. Also, on the bottom of the battery case 32 are provided electrodes 323 corresponding to the electrodes 322 of the cover 321. Furthermore, an arrow symbol 36 is marked on the airbed and besides the socket 34. Flanges 342 are formed at the rim of the socket 34, while electrodes 344 are provided on the inner wall of the socket 34 and are electrically connected to the electrodes 322, 323 of the battery case 32. Furthermore, the electric pump 30 is substantially cylindrical and has a flange 301 on its side surfaces, two electrodes 302 provided on the flange 301, an air inlet 304 and an air outlet 306 on its ends. Also referring to FIG. 5, symbols “on”, “off” and “open” are marked on the side surfaces and the end of the electric pump 30. In operation, batteries are loaded into the battery case 32 to supply the electric pump 30 with the power. The electric pump 30 in this embodiment is used to inflate or deflate the airbed. In inflating operation, the electric pump 30 is fitted into the socket 34 with the air outlet 306 inside the airbed and the air inlet 304 outside the airbed. The electric pump 30 is rotated to change the positions of symbols “on”, “off” and “open”. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “on” as shown in FIG. 6A, the electrodes 302 of the electric pump 30 physically contact the electrodes 344 of the socket 34 to actuate the electric pump 30. Then, outside air is pumped into the airbed as shown in FIG. 6B. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “off”, the electric pump 30 is stopped. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “open”, the electric pump 30 is detachable from the socket 34. FIG. 6C depicts the airbed full of air, wherein the air outlet of the electric pump 30 is closed by the cap 37 to seal the airbed after the inflating operation. In the deflating operation, the electric pump 30 is fitted in reverse into the socket 34, with the air inlet 304 inside the airbed and the air outlet 306 outside the airbed. The electric pump 30 is rotated to change the positions of symbols “on”, “off” and “open” on its side surfaces. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “on” as shown in FIG. 7A, the electrodes 302 of the electric pump 30 physically contact the electrodes 344 of the socket 34 to actuate the electric pump 30. Then, air inside the airbed is pumped out as shown in FIG. 7B. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “off”, the electric pump 30 is stopped. When the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “open”, the electric pump 30 is detachable from the socket 34. In either of the inflating and deflating operations, the flanges 342 of the socket 34 are used for confining the flange 301 of the electric pump 30, thus preventing the electric pump 30 from separating with the socket 34 when the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbols “on” and “off”. However, the flanges 342 are spaced apart at the rim of the socket 34 to avoid confining the flange 301 of the electric pump 30 when the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “open”. Thus, the electric pump 30 is detachable from the socket 34 when the arrow symbol 36 points at the symbol “open”. Referring to FIG. 8A, an airbed of the third embodiment of the present invention is provided with a cover 44, an electric pump 42 and a built-in socket 46. The cover 44 is circular, with a plurality of recesses 443 provided on its side surfaces. Such an arrangement increases the friction on the side surfaces, facilitates the rotation of the cover 44. Furthermore, the cover 44 is closed at its top end and is opened at its bottom end. At the bottom end of the cover 44 is provided a pair of inward arcuate flanges 441. The arcuate flanges 441 extend to the bottom rim of the cover 44 to engage the socket 46 mounted on the body 40 of the airbed. The electric pump 42 is cylindrical. On the side surfaces of the electric pump is provided a switch 421 and a connector 423. Also referring to FIG. 8B, a plurality of rechargeable batteries 429 are provided in the electric pump 42 to supply the motor 422 with power. The connector 423 is used for connecting an external power (alternating current or direct current) to charge the batteries 429 or directly to actuate the electric pump 42. For example, the connector 423 is connected to a cigarette lighter (direct current) of a car via a cigarette plug 600. Alternatively, the connector 423 is connected to a alternating current power supply via a rectifier 700 which converts the alternating current into a direct current for the electric pump. Furthermore, at the ends of the electric pump 42 are provided a protruding air inlet 427 and a protruding air outlet 425. Outward flanges 424, 426 are respectively provided at the air inlet 427 and air outlet 425. The socket 46 is a cylindrical housing, while an annular flange 467 is provided on the side surfaces of the socket 46 to define an upper portion and a lower portion of the socket 46. The annular flange 467 is welded together with the body 40 of the airbed so that the lower portion of the socket 46 is buried in the airbed. Referring to FIG. 8C, the socket 46 has a large hole 465 at its top end and a small hole at its bottom end. The large hole 465 at the top end is circular. The small hole 466 at the bottom end is shown in FIG. 8D, the shape of which matches those of the air inlet 427 and air outlet 425 of the electric pump 42. Furthermore, the socket 46 has grooves 461 formed on the outer surface of the upper portion and other grooves 463 formed at the inner circumferences of the hole 466 at the bottom end. In the inflating operation, the electric pump 42 is put in the socket 46, with the air outlet 425 of the electric pump 42 aligning with the bottom hole 466 of the socket 46. Then, the electric pump 42 is rotated so that the flanges 426 of the electric pump 42 enter the grooves 463 at the bottom end of the socket 46. Thus, the electric pump 42 and the socket 46 are firmly connected together, as shown in FIG. 8E. The user pushes the switch 421 of the electric pump 42 to pump outside air into the body 40 of the airbed. The air flows from the air inlet 427, through the air outlet 425 and bottom hole 466, to the inside of the airbed. If the airbed is used on the water, then the cover 44 is necessarily assembled together with the socket 46. The user rotates the cover 44 so that the inner flanges 441 enter the grooves 461 of the socket 46. Thus, the cover 44 and the socket 46 are firmly connected together. The cover 44 protects the electric pump 42 from water. In the deflating operation, the electric pump 42 is fitted in reverse into the socket 46, with the air inlet 427 of the electric pump 42 aligning with the bottom hole 466 of the socket 46. Then, the electric pump 42 pumps air inside the airbed out. Referring to FIG. 9A, an airbed of the fourth embodiment of the present invention is provided with a cover 54, an electric pump 52 and a set of sockets 56, 56′ built in the body of the airbed. The cover 54 is circular, with a plurality of recesses 543 provided on its side surfaces. Such an arrangement increases the friction on the side surfaces, facilitates the user to rotate the cover 54. Furthermore, the cover 54 is closed at its top end and is opened at its bottom end. At the bottom end of the cover 54 is provided a pair of inward arcuate flanges 541. The arcuate flanges 541 extend to the rim of the bottom end of the cover 54 for engaging the socket 56. The electric pump 52 is cylindrical. On the side surfaces of the electric pump 52 are provided a switch 521, an connector 523 and circumferential flanges 529, 529′. Furthermore, a plurality of rechargeable batteries (not shown) are provided in the electric pump 52 to supply the power. The connector 523 is used for connecting an external power to charge the batteries or directly to actuate the electric pump 52. Referring to both FIGS. 9A and 9B, at the ends 524, 520 of the electric pump 52 are provided a protruding air inlet 527 and a protruding air outlet 525. A pair of outward flanges 528 are provided at the air inlet 527, with grooves 528′ formed between the flanges 528 and the end 524. Another pair of outward flanges 526 are provided at the air outlet 525 to form grooves 526′ between the flanges 526 and the end 520. Referring to FIG. 9C, the set of sockets include a top socket 56 and a bottom socket 56′ connected by a flexible sleeve 560. The top socket 56 is welded together with the body 50 of the airbed. The top and bottom sockets 56, 56′ have the same structure and therefore only the top socket 56 is now introduced. The top socket 56 has a top surface 564 with a through hole 561 provided on the top surface 564. Furthermore, the top socket 56 has a pair of inward flanges 562 protruding from the top surface 564 toward the through hole 561. Referring to FIG. 9D, an annular groove 563 is formed in the socket 56. In the inflating operation, the electric pump 52 is inserted into the set of sockets 56, 56′ on the airbed 50. The protruding air outlet 525 of the electric pump 52 is fitted into the bottom socket 56′. The rubber pad 522 eliminates any gaps between the bottom sockets 56′ and the electric pump 52 through which the airbed possibly leaks. The circumferential flanges 529 of the electric pump 52 enter the groove 563 of the socket 56. Then, the electric pump 52 is rotated so that the flanges 529 of the electric pump 52 are confined in the grooves 563 by the flanges 562 of the top socket 56. Then, the user pushes the switch 521 on the electric pump 52 to pump the airbed. After the airbed is filled with air, the user assembles the cover 54 and the electric pump 52 as shown in FIG. 9E, with the flanges 541 of the cover 54 received in the grooves 528′ of the electric pump 52. The cover 54 prevents the airbed from leaking though the air inlet 527. In the deflating operation, the electric pump 52 is reversely disposed with the air inlet 527 connected to the bottom socket 56′. Also, the flanges 528 of the electric pump 52 are confined in the grooves 563 by the flanges 562 of the top socket 56. Then, the user pushes the switch 521 on the electric pump 52 to pump air in the airbed out. It is noted that the electric pump 52 is not protected from water. Nevertheless, the electric pump 52 can be modified to be waterproof, introduced in the following fifth embodiment. Refer to FIGS. 10A and 10B. Reference numeral 64 is a cover and reference numeral 62 is a waterproof electric pump. The waterproof electric pump 62 of the fifth embodiment is similar with the electric pump 52 of the fourth embodiment except that (1) the waterproof electric pump 62 has no connector on its side surfaces; (2) the switch 621 of the waterproof electric pump 62 is covered by a waterproof rubber strip 622. The waterproof rubber strip 622 is so thin that the user can still push the switch 621 from outside the rubber strip 622 to actuate the electric pump 62. FIG. 11 depicts another waterproof electric pump 66 in accordance with a sixth embodiment of the present invention, wherein a recess 662 is provided on the side surfaces of the electric pump 66. A switch 664 and a connector 666 are provided in the recess 662, while a lid 668 is rotatably mounted on the side surfaces of the electric pump 66 to protect the switch 664 and the connector 666 from water. Referring to FIGS. 12A and 12B, an airbed of a seventh embodiment of the invention is provided with a socket 76, an electric pump 72 and a cover 74. The socket 76 has threads 762 on its inner surfaces, while the electric pump 72 has threads 722 on its outer surfaces so that the electric pump 72 and the socket 76 can be screwed together. Furthermore, the electric pump 72 has rubber pads 724 on both ends. The arrangement of rubber pads 724 eliminates any gaps between the socket 76 and the electric pump 72 through which the airbed possibly leaks, when the electric pump 72 and the socket 76 are screwed together. Furthermore, it is noted that the cover 74 is mounted on the electric pump 72 rather than the socket 76 to prevent an air leakage. Referring to FIG. 1A, an airbed 80 of an eighth embodiment of the invention is provided a cover 85, a chamber 84, a fan 81 received in the chamber 84, a motor 82 for rotating the fan 81, a plurality of rechargeable batteries 88 for supplying the motor 82 with power, and a switch 83 for actuating the motor 82. The motor 82 is also connected to an external power to charge the batteries 88 or directly to actuate the motor 82. The external power supplies an alternating current via a rectifier 87 or supplies a direct current via a cigarette plug (not shown). The chamber 84 has a nozzle 841 communicating the chamber 84 and the outside of the airbed 80, and a hole communicating the chamber 84 and the inside of the airbed 80. In the inflating operation, the user pushes the switch 83 to actuate the motor 82 and fan 81. Then, outside air is pumped into the airbed 80 through the nozzle 841 and the hole 842. After the airbed 80 is filled with air, the user closes the nozzle with the cover 85 to prevent the airbed from leaking. Referring to FIG. 1B, in the deflating operation, the user takes away the cover 85 and pushes the switch 83 to rotate the motor 82 and fan 81 in reverse. Then, air inside the airbed 80 is pumped out. In the eighth embodiment, the fan 81 is received in a chamber 84 and is driven by an outside motor 82. However, it is understood that the fan and motor can be housed together to operate. Referring to FIG. 14, in a ninth embodiment of the present invention, a motor 92 and a fan 91 with helical blades 911 are assembled and are received in a housing 93. The motor 92 is actuated by rechargeable batteries (not shown) or by an external power (not shown) via a connector 98, wherein the external power supplies an alternating current or a direct current. The housing 93 is mounted on the airbed (not shown) and has a first hole 94 communicating the outside of the airbed and a second hole communicating the inside. In the inflating operation, the fan 91 and motor 92 pump outside air into the airbed through the holes 94, 95. When the airbed is filled with air, the cover 96 is screwed to the housing 93 to prevent an air leakage. In the deflating operation, the cover 96 is taken away. The fan 91 is rotated by the motor 92 in reverse to pump air inside the airbed out. Referring to FIG. 15, in a tenth embodiment of the present invention, a first fan and motor 100 and a second fan and motor 200 are housed in different chambers. The first and second fans and motors 100, 200 are permanently or detachably connected to the airbed (not shown). Furthermore, the motors 100 and 200 are actuated by rechargeable batteries (not shown) or by an external power (not shown) via a connector 150. In the inflating operation, the first fan and motor 100 is actuated to pump the airbed (not shown) while the second fan and motor 200 is at rest. In the deflating operation, the first fan and motor 100 is at rest while the second fan and motor 200 is actuated to pump air inside the airbed out. In conclusion, the invention provides various ways to pump an airbed or other inflatable products. While the invention has been described by way of example and in terms of the preferred embodiment, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed embodiments. To the contrary, it is intended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements as would be apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the scope of the appended claims should be accorded the broadest interpretation so as to encompass all such modifications and similar arrangements. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates in general to an inflatable product provided with an electric pump. 2. Description of the Related Art Referring to FIGS. 1A and 1B , a conventional electric pump 14 for inflating an airbed has a fan and motor 142 inside. A plurality of batteries 144 are loaded into the electric pump 14 to supply the power. The airbed 10 is provided with a valve 12 . In operation, the electric pump 14 is connected to the valve 12 in direction B and then rotated in direction A to fasten the connection between the electric pump 14 and the airbed 10 . Then, the airbed 10 is pumped by the electric pump 14 . | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In an embodiment of the present invention, an inflatable product comprising an inflatable body and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body is provided. The electric pump comprises a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body and permanently held by the inflatable body. The electric pump preferably comprises a fan and a motor connected to the fan, and the fan is rotated by the motor in a first direction to pump the inflatable body or in a second direction opposite the first direction to deflate the inflatable body. In one preferred embodiment, the pump body is located in the inflatable body. Preferably, the air outlet is also located in the inflatable body. In another embodiment of the invention, an inflatable product comprising an inflatable body and an electric pump for pumping the inflatable body is provided. The electric pump comprises a pump body and an air outlet, wherein the pump body is wholly or partially recessed into the inflatable body. | 20050110 | 20151215 | 20050602 | 76453.0 | 12 | SAFAVI, MICHAEL | INFLATABLE PRODUCT HAVING AN INFLATABLE BODY AND PROVIDED WITH ELECTRIC PUMP HAVING PUMP BODY RECESSED INTO THE INFLATABLE BODY | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,561 | ACCEPTED | Methods and apparatus for operating gas turbine engines | A gas turbine engine assembly includes at least one propelling gas turbine engine and an auxiliary engine used for generating power. The propelling gas turbine engine includes a fan assembly and a core engine downstream from said fan assembly. The core engine includes a compressor, a high pressure turbine, a low pressure turbine, and a booster turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement such that the booster turbine is rotatably coupled between the high and low pressure turbines. The auxiliary engine includes at least one turbine and an inlet. The inlet is upstream from the high pressure turbine and is in flow communication with the propelling gas turbine engine core engine, such that a portion of airflow entering the propelling engine is extracted for use by the auxiliary engine. | 1. A method for assembling a gas turbine engine assembly, said method comprising: providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine that includes a fan, a core engine including a booster compressor, a high pressure compressor, a high pressure turbine, and a low pressure turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement; and coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, at least a portion of the airflow entering the propelling gas turbine engine is selectively extracted from the propelling gas turbine engine upstream from the core engine high pressure turbine, and channeled to the auxiliary engine for generating power. 2. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from the propelling gas turbine engine upstream from the high pressure turbine and is channeled to the auxiliary engine at a higher pressure than a pressure of the airflow entering the propelling gas turbine engine. 3. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be extracted from at least one interstage location of the compressor between an inlet and a discharge of the compressor. 4. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from the propelling engine at a location between the compressor and the high pressure turbine. 5. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine further comprises providing a core drive fan upstream from the core engine high pressure compressor and rotatably coupled to the high pressure turbine. 6. A method in accordance with claim 5 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from at least one of an interstage of the core drive fan and a discharge of the core fan drive. 7. A method in accordance with claim 5 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from a location between the core drive fan and the compressor. 8. A method in accordance with claim 5 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from a location between the fan assembly and the core drive fan. 9. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine further comprises providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine that includes a booster fan upstream from the compressor and rotatably coupled to the booster turbine. 10. A method in accordance with claim 9 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from at least one interstage location between an inlet of the booster fan and an exit of the booster fan. 11. A method in accordance with claim 9 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from a location between the fan assembly and the booster fan. 12. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine further comprises coupling the auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, airflow may be selectively extracted from at least one interstage location between an inlet of the fan assembly and a discharge of the fan assembly. 13. A method in accordance with claim 1 wherein coupling a control system to the auxiliary engine further comprises coupling a control system including at least one adjustable air throttle valve to the auxiliary engine to selectively control extraction of air from the propelling engine. 14. A gas turbine engine assembly comprising: at least one propelling gas turbine engine comprising a fan assembly and a core engine assembly downstream from said fan assembly, said core engine comprising a booster compressor, a high pressure compressor, a high pressure turbine assembly, and a booster turbine assembly and a low pressure turbine assembly coupled together in serial-flow arrangement such that said booster turbine is rotatably coupled to said booster fan; and an auxiliary engine used for generating power, said auxiliary engine comprising at least one turbine and an inlet, said inlet coupled upstream from said booster turbine and in flow communication with said propelling gas turbine engine core engine, such that a portion of airflow entering said at least one propelling engine is extracted for use by said auxiliary engine. 15. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said auxiliary engine receives air that has been extracted from said at least one propelling gas turbine engine upstream from said core engine high pressure turbine. 16. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said auxiliary engine receives airflow extracted from at least one of an interstage of said compressor and a discharge of said compressor. 17. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said auxiliary engine receives airflow extracted from a location between said compressor and said high pressure turbine. 18. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said core engine further comprises a booster fan rotatably coupled to said booster turbine, said auxiliary engine receives airflow extracted from at least one of an interstage between an inlet of said booster fan and an exit of said booster fan. 19. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said core engine further comprises a booster fan rotatably coupled to said booster turbine, said auxiliary engine receives airflow selectively extracted from a location between said booster fan and said compressor. 20. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said auxiliary engine receives airflow selectively extracted from a location between said fan assembly and said compressor. 21. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said auxiliary engine receives airflow selectively extracted from at least one interstage location between an inlet of said fan assembly and an exit of said fan assembly. 22. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said core engine further comprises a booster fan rotatably coupled to said booster turbine, said auxiliary engine receives airflow selectively extracted from a location between said booster fan and said fan assembly. 23. A gas turbine engine assembly in accordance with claim 14 wherein said core engine further comprises a booster fan rotatably coupled to said booster turbine, said auxiliary engine receives airflow selectively extracted from a location between said booster fan and said fan assembly. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/799,523 filed Mar. 12, 2004, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/352,446 filed Jan. 28, 2003, both of which are assigned to assignee of the present invention, and both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to the gas turbine engines, and, more particularly, to methods and apparatus for operating gas turbine engines used for aircraft propulsion and auxiliary power. Gas turbine engines typically include a compressor for compressing air. The compressed air is mixed with a fuel and channeled to a combustor, wherein the fuel/air mixture is ignited within a combustion chamber to generate hot combustion gases. The combustion gasses are channeled to a turbine, which extracts energy from the combustion gases for powering the compressor, as well as producing useful work. The exhaust gases are then discharged through an exhaust nozzle, thus producing a reactive, propelling force. Modern aircraft have increased hydraulic and electrical loads. An electrical load demanded of gas turbine engines increases as flight computers, communication equipment, navigation equipment, radars, environmental control systems, advanced weapon systems, and defensive systems are coupled to aircraft. A hydraulic load demanded of gas turbine engines increases as flight controls, pumps, actuators, and other accessories are coupled to the aircraft. Within at least some known aircraft, mechanical shaft power is used to power hydraulic pumps, electrical generators and alternators. More specifically, electrical and hydraulic equipment are typically coupled to an accessory gearbox that is driven by a shaft coupled to the turbine. When additional electrical power or hydraulic power is required, additional fuel is added to the combustor until a predefined maximum temperature and/or power operating level is reached. Because the density of air decreases as the altitude is increased, when the aircraft is operated at higher altitudes, the engine must work harder to produce the same shaft power that the engine is capable of producing at lower altitudes. As a result of the increased work, the turbine may operate with increased operating temperatures, such that the shaft power must be limited or reduced to prevent exceeding the engine predefined operating limits. Within at least some known gas turbine engines, electrical power and hydraulic power is also generated by an auxiliary power unit (APU). An APU is a small turbo-shaft engine that is operated independently from the gas turbine engines that supply thrust for the aircraft. More specifically, because APU operation is also impacted by the air density and is also operationally limited by predefined temperature and performance limits, APUs are typically only operated when the aircraft is on the ground, or in emergency situations while the aircraft is in flight. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, a method for assembling a gas turbine engine assembly is provided. The method comprises providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine that includes a core engine including a compressor, a high pressure turbine, and a booster turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement, and coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, at least a portion of the airflow entering the propelling gas turbine engine is selectively extracted from the propelling gas turbine engine upstream from the core engine high pressure turbine, and channeled to the auxiliary engine for generating power. In another aspect, a gas turbine engine assembly is provided. The gas turbine engine assembly includes at least one propelling gas turbine engine and an auxiliary engine used for generating power. The propelling gas turbine engine includes a fan assembly and a core engine downstream from said fan assembly. The core engine includes a compressor, a high pressure turbine, a low pressure turbine, and a booster turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement such that the booster turbine is rotatably coupled between the high and low pressure turbines. The auxiliary engine includes at least one turbine and an inlet. The inlet is upstream from the booster turbine and is in flow communication with the propelling gas turbine engine core engine, such that a portion of airflow entering the propelling engine is extracted for use by the auxiliary engine. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exemplary schematic view of a gas turbine engine assembly; and FIG. 2 is an exemplary schematic view of an alternative embodiment of a gas turbine engine assembly. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 is an exemplary schematic view of a gas turbine engine assembly 10 including a propelling gas turbine engine 11 and an auxiliary power unit or auxiliary power engine 12 that are coupled together, as described in more detail below, in a combined cycle. More specifically, gas turbine engine assembly 10, as described in more detail below, facilitates producing shaft power and propelling force for an aircraft (not shown). Gas turbine engine 11 includes a core engine 13 and a fan assembly 14 and a low pressure turbine assembly 16. Fan assembly 14 and low pressure turbine 16 are coupled by a first shaft 18. Core engine 13 includes a core drive fan 20, a high-pressure compressor 22, a combustor (not shown), and a high-pressure turbine 24. In the exemplary embodiment, core drive fan 20, compressor 22, the combustor, and turbines 24 and 16 are coupled together in axial flow communication. Core drive fan 20, compressor 22, and high pressure turbine 24 are coupled by a second shaft 28. Gas turbine engine 11 also includes an inlet side 32 and an exhaust side 34. In one embodiment, engine 11 is a F118-GE-100 turbofan engine commercially available from General Electric Aircraft Engines, Cincinnati, Ohio. In operation, inlet air, represented by arrow 40, enters fan assembly 14, wherein the air is compressed and is discharged downstream, represented by arrow 41, at an increased pressure and temperature towards core engine 13 and more specifically, towards core drive fan 20 wherein the air is channeled towards compressor 22. In one embodiment, engine 11 includes a bypass duct (not shown), such that a portion of air 41 discharged from fan assembly 14 is channeled into the bypass duct rather than entering core engine 11. Highly compressed air 45 from compressor 22 is delivered to the combustor wherein it is mixed with fuel and ignited. Combustion gases propel turbines 24 and 16, which drive compressor 22, core drive fan 20, and fan assembly 14, respectively. In the exemplary embodiment, core engine exhaust 44 is discharged from engine 11 to generate a propelling force from gas turbine engine assembly 10. In the exemplary embodiment, core engine exhaust 44 is channeled to a variable area bypass injector 50 that is coupled in flow communication with core engine exhaust 44 and engine exhaust 52 discharged from or auxiliary power engine 12. In an alternative embodiment, core engine exhaust 44 is channeled to a mixing damper (not shown) that is coupled in flow communication with core engine exhaust 44. In another alternative embodiment, core engine exhaust flow 44 and fan air are discharged separately from auxiliary engine exhaust 52 to produce thrust. Auxiliary power engine 12 is coupled in flow communication to engine 11, as described in more detail below, and includes a compressor 60, a high-pressure turbine 62, and a low-pressure turbine 64. Compressor 60 and high-pressure turbine 62 are connected by a first shaft 66, such that as combustion gases propel turbine 62, turbine 62 drives compressor 60. Auxiliary engine 12 also includes a second shaft 68 that is coupled to low-pressure turbine 64 to provide shaft power output, represented by arrow 70, for use in the aircraft. For example, power output 70 may be used to drive equipment, such as, but not limited to alternators, generators, and/or hydraulic pumps. In one embodiment, auxiliary power engine 12 is a turbo-shaft engine, such as a T700-GE-701 engine that is commercially available from General Electric Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, and that has been modified in accordance with the present invention. Auxiliary ducting (not shown) couples auxiliary power engine 12 to engine 11 to enable a portion of compressed air 41 channeled towards core engine 13 to be directed to auxiliary power engine 12. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, auxiliary airflow, represented by arrow 80 is extracted from core engine 13 at a location upstream from core engine turbine 24. Moreover, in the exemplary embodiment, airflow 80 is bled from high-pressure compressor 22 and is routed towards auxiliary engine compressor 60. In an alternative embodiment, auxiliary power engine 12 is coupled in flow communication to a pair of engines 11 and receives high pressure airflow 80 from each engine 11. In another alternative embodiment, a pair of auxiliary power engines 12 are coupled in flow communication to a single engine 11 and both receive high pressure airflow 80 from engine 11. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, compressor 22 is a multi-staged compressor and air 80 may be extracted at any compressor stage within compressor 22 based on pressure, temperature, and flow requirements of auxiliary engine 12. In another embodiment, air 80 is extracted upstream or downstream from compressor 22 from any of, or any combination of, but is not limited to being extracted from, a booster interstage, a booster discharge, a fan interstage, a fan discharge, a compressor inlet, a compressor interstage, or a compressor discharge bleed port. In a further alternative embodiment, air 80 is extracted upstream from compressor 22. In one embodiment, approximately up to 10%, or more, of air flowing into compressor 22 is extracted for use by auxiliary engine 12. In a further embodiment, approximately up to 10% or more, of air flowing into fan assembly 14 is extracted for used by auxiliary engine 12. In another embodiment, air is extracted from any of, or any combination of, but is not limited to being extracted from, a location intermediate, or between, fan assembly 14 and core drive fan 20, core drive fan 20 and compressor 22, and compressor 22 and turbine 24. In an alternative embodiment, engine 11 supplies pressurized or compressed air to auxiliary power engine 12. For example, in one embodiment, compressed air supplied to an aircraft cabin is routed to auxiliary power engine 12 after being used within the aircraft environmental control system. In a further embodiment, auxiliary power engine 12 receives a mixture of airflow from engine 11 and ambient airflow. Auxiliary airflow 80 directed towards auxiliary engine 12 is at a higher pressure and temperature than inlet airflow 40 entering gas turbine engine assembly 10. Moreover, because auxiliary airflow 80 is at an increased pressure and temperature than the pressure and temperature of airflow 40 entering gas turbine engine assembly 10, a density of airflow 80 is substantially similar to the density of airflow that enters auxiliary engine 12 at lower altitudes. Accordingly, because the power output of auxiliary engine 12 is proportional to the density of the inlet air, during operation of core engine 11, auxiliary engine 12 is operable at higher altitudes with substantially the same operating and performance characteristics that are available at lower altitudes by auxiliary engine 12. For example, when used with the F110/F118 family of engines, auxiliary engine 12 produces approximately the same horsepower and operating characteristics at an altitude of 30-40,000 feet, as would be obtainable if auxiliary engine 12 was operating at sea level independently. Accordingly, at mission altitude, a relatively small amount of high-pressure air taken from core engine 11 will enable auxiliary power engine 12 to output power levels similar to those similar from auxiliary power engine 12 at sea level operation. In the exemplary embodiment, auxiliary airflow 80 is channeled through an intercooler 90 prior to being supplied to auxiliary engine compressor 60. Intercooler 90 has two airflows (not shown) flowing therethrough in thermal communication with each other, and accordingly, intercooler 90 is designed to exchange a substantial amount of energy as heat, with minimum pressure losses. In the exemplary embodiment, auxiliary airflow 80 is the heat source and a second airflow is used as a heat sink. In one embodiment, the second airflow is fan discharge airflow. In another embodiment, the second airflow is ambient airflow routed through an engine nacelle and passing through intercooler 90 prior to being discharged overboard. More specifically, the operating temperature of auxiliary airflow 80 is facilitated to be reduced within intercooler 90 as the transfer of heat increases the temperature of the other airflow channeled through intercooler 90. In an alternative embodiment, turbine engine assembly 10 does not include intercooler 90. Intercooler 90 facilitates increasing an amount of power per pound of bleed air 80 supplied to auxiliary power engine 12 without increasing flow rates or changing existing turbine hardware. A control system 92 is coupled to a generator control system (not shown) and facilitates regulating the operating speed of auxiliary power engine 12. In one embodiment, control system 92 throttles inlet air 80 supplied to engine 12 by control of a variable flow area throttle valve 94 and/or controls engine backpressure by control of a variable flow area exit nozzle 96 or a variable area bypass injector 50 to facilitate controlling the operation of auxiliary power engine 12. Exhaust airflow 52 from auxiliary power engine 12 is channeled towards core engine exhaust 44 at a discharge pressure that is substantially the same as the discharge pressure of exhaust flow 44 discharged from core engine 13. Specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, auxiliary engine exhaust airflow 52 is routed through variable area bypass injector 50 which facilitates mixing exhaust flow 44 exiting core engine 13 with auxiliary engine exhaust airflow 52. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, exhaust airflow 52 is reintroduced to core engine exhaust flow 44 upstream from a propelling core engine nozzle (not shown). The mixed exhaust flow 98 is then discharged through an engine nozzle (not shown). In an alternative embodiment, exhaust airflow 52 is not mixed with core engine exhaust flow 44, but rather is discharged to ambient independently from exhaust flow 44. Accordingly, when operated, auxiliary power engine 12 facilitates providing increased shaft power production for use within the aircraft. More specifically, because auxiliary power engine 12 is selectively operable for shaft power production, auxiliary power engine 12 may be used only when needed, thus facilitating fuel conservation for the aircraft. In addition, the design of gas turbine assembly 10 enables auxiliary power engine 12 to be operated independently of propelling engine 11, such that an operating speed auxiliary power engine 12 is independent of an operating speed of core engine 11. As such, auxiliary power engine 12 may operated during non-operational periods of core engine 11, and moreover, may be used to provide power necessary to start operation of engine 11. Operation of auxiliary power engine 12 facilitates improving surge margin of engine 11 by bleeding airflow 80 as needed, such that altitude, installation, or distortion effects may be overcome. Moreover, by removing high pressure extraction, auxiliary power engine 12 also facilitates improving an operating performance of core engine 11 while generating significant power. Additionally the hydro mechanical or digital controls of propelling engine 11 and auxiliary power engine 12 are arranged to mutually exchange operational status and performance parameter values (pressure, temperature, RPM, etc) from one to the other. FIG. 2 is an exemplary schematic view of an alternative embodiment of a gas turbine engine assembly 100 including a propelling gas turbine engine 11 and an auxiliary power unit or auxiliary power engine 12 that are coupled together, as described in more detail below, in a combined cycle. Engine 100 is substantially similar to engine 10 shown in FIG. 1 and components in engine 100 that are identical to components of engine 10 are identified in FIG. 2 using the same reference numerals used in FIG. 1. Similarly to gas turbine engine assembly 10, gas turbine engine 100, as described in more detail below, facilitates producing shaft power and propelling force for an aircraft (not shown). Gas turbine engine 11 includes core engine 13, fan assembly 14, low pressure turbine assembly 16, a booster fan 102, and a booster turbine 104. Fan assembly 14 and low pressure turbine 16 are coupled by first shaft 18. Booster fan 102 and booster turbine 104 are coupled together by a second shaft 110, and compressor 22 and high pressure turbine 24 are coupled by a third shaft 112. Core engine 13 includes core drive fan 20, high-pressure compressor 22, a combustor (not shown), and high-pressure turbine 24. In the exemplary embodiment, booster fan 102, compressor 22, the combustor, and turbines 24, 26, and 16 are coupled together in axial flow communication. Gas turbine engine 11 also includes an inlet side 32 and an exhaust side 34. In operation, inlet air, represented by arrow 40, enters fan assembly 14, wherein the air is compressed and is discharged downstream, represented by arrow 41, at an increased pressure and temperature towards core engine 13 and more specifically, towards booster fan 102 wherein the air is channeled towards compressor 22. In one embodiment, engine 11 includes a bypass duct (not shown), such that a portion of air 41 discharged from fan assembly 14 is channeled into the bypass duct rather than entering core engine 11. Auxiliary power engine 12 is coupled in flow communication to engine 102 via auxiliary ducting (not shown) such that a portion of compressed air 41 channeled towards core engine 13 may be directed to auxiliary power engine 12. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, auxiliary airflow 80 is extracted from core engine 13 at a location upstream from core engine turbine 24. Moreover, in the exemplary embodiment, airflow 80 is bled from high-pressure compressor 22 and is routed towards auxiliary engine compressor 60. In an alternative embodiment, auxiliary power engine 12 is coupled in flow communication to a pair of engines 100 and receives high pressure airflow 80 from each engine 100. In another alternative embodiment, a pair of auxiliary power engines 12 are coupled in flow communication to a single engine 100 and both receive high pressure airflow 80 from engine 100. More specifically, in the exemplary embodiment, compressor 22 is a multi-staged compressor and air 80 may be extracted at any compressor stage within compressor 22 based on pressure, temperature, and flow requirements of auxiliary engine 12. In another embodiment, air 80 is extracted upstream or downstream from compressor 22 from any of, or any combination of, but is not limited to being extracted from, a booster interstage, a booster discharge, a fan interstage, a fan discharge, a compressor inlet, a compressor interstage, or a compressor discharge bleed port. In a further alternative embodiment, air 80 is extracted upstream from compressor 22. In another embodiment, air is extracted from any of, or any combination of, but is not limited to being extracted from, a location intermediate fan assembly 14 and booster fan 102, intermediate booster fan 102 and compressor 22, and intermediate compressor 22 and turbine 24. The above-described power system is cost-effective and increases shaft power production. The power system includes an auxiliary turbine engine coupled in flow communication with a gas turbine engine including a booster turbine, such that inlet air provided to the auxiliary turbine is drawn from air flowing through the core engine. As such, higher density air is provided to the auxiliary engine than would be provided had the auxiliary engine received ambient inlet airflow through conventional means, such as through normally aspired means. Accordingly, a small amount of high-pressure air taken from the main engine will enable a smaller engine to output power levels similar to those of sea level operation. As a result, the increased density of air facilitates increased shaft turbine power production from the auxiliary engine in a cost-effective and reliable manner. Exemplary embodiments of gas turbine assemblies are described above in detail. The assemblies are not limited to the specific embodiments described herein, but rather, components of each assembly may be utilized independently and separately from other components described herein. For example, each turbine component and/or auxiliary turbine engine component can also be used in combination with other core engine and auxiliary turbine engine components. While the invention has been described in terms of various specific embodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that the invention can be practiced with modification within the spirit and scope of the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to the gas turbine engines, and, more particularly, to methods and apparatus for operating gas turbine engines used for aircraft propulsion and auxiliary power. Gas turbine engines typically include a compressor for compressing air. The compressed air is mixed with a fuel and channeled to a combustor, wherein the fuel/air mixture is ignited within a combustion chamber to generate hot combustion gases. The combustion gasses are channeled to a turbine, which extracts energy from the combustion gases for powering the compressor, as well as producing useful work. The exhaust gases are then discharged through an exhaust nozzle, thus producing a reactive, propelling force. Modern aircraft have increased hydraulic and electrical loads. An electrical load demanded of gas turbine engines increases as flight computers, communication equipment, navigation equipment, radars, environmental control systems, advanced weapon systems, and defensive systems are coupled to aircraft. A hydraulic load demanded of gas turbine engines increases as flight controls, pumps, actuators, and other accessories are coupled to the aircraft. Within at least some known aircraft, mechanical shaft power is used to power hydraulic pumps, electrical generators and alternators. More specifically, electrical and hydraulic equipment are typically coupled to an accessory gearbox that is driven by a shaft coupled to the turbine. When additional electrical power or hydraulic power is required, additional fuel is added to the combustor until a predefined maximum temperature and/or power operating level is reached. Because the density of air decreases as the altitude is increased, when the aircraft is operated at higher altitudes, the engine must work harder to produce the same shaft power that the engine is capable of producing at lower altitudes. As a result of the increased work, the turbine may operate with increased operating temperatures, such that the shaft power must be limited or reduced to prevent exceeding the engine predefined operating limits. Within at least some known gas turbine engines, electrical power and hydraulic power is also generated by an auxiliary power unit (APU). An APU is a small turbo-shaft engine that is operated independently from the gas turbine engines that supply thrust for the aircraft. More specifically, because APU operation is also impacted by the air density and is also operationally limited by predefined temperature and performance limits, APUs are typically only operated when the aircraft is on the ground, or in emergency situations while the aircraft is in flight. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, a method for assembling a gas turbine engine assembly is provided. The method comprises providing at least one propelling gas turbine engine that includes a core engine including a compressor, a high pressure turbine, and a booster turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement, and coupling an auxiliary engine to the propelling gas turbine engine such that during operation of the propelling gas turbine engine, at least a portion of the airflow entering the propelling gas turbine engine is selectively extracted from the propelling gas turbine engine upstream from the core engine high pressure turbine, and channeled to the auxiliary engine for generating power. In another aspect, a gas turbine engine assembly is provided. The gas turbine engine assembly includes at least one propelling gas turbine engine and an auxiliary engine used for generating power. The propelling gas turbine engine includes a fan assembly and a core engine downstream from said fan assembly. The core engine includes a compressor, a high pressure turbine, a low pressure turbine, and a booster turbine coupled together in serial-flow arrangement such that the booster turbine is rotatably coupled between the high and low pressure turbines. The auxiliary engine includes at least one turbine and an inlet. The inlet is upstream from the booster turbine and is in flow communication with the propelling gas turbine engine core engine, such that a portion of airflow entering the propelling engine is extracted for use by the auxiliary engine. | 20050110 | 20090623 | 20050929 | 68473.0 | 0 | CASAREGOLA, LOUIS J | METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR OPERATING GAS TURBINE ENGINES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,841 | ACCEPTED | Child walker | A child walker is provided that includes a frame having a plurality of wheels. The walker includes a handle that is positionable in a first position and a second position. A seat is attached to the frame when the handle is in the first position. When the handle is in the second position, it is positioned to be gripped by a standing child. | 1. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame supported by the wheeled base, the frame having a first end, a second end spaced from the first end, and an opening between the first and second ends; and a handle positionable between the first and second ends. 2. A child walker as defined in claim 1 wherein the handle is adjustable relative to the upper frame between a first position and a second position, the handle being positioned to be gripped by a standing child in the second position. 3. A child walker as defined in claim 1 wherein the handle is resilient and biases the first and second ends away from one another. 4. A child walker as defined in claim 2 further comprising a seat mounted to the upper frame for supporting a child in a suspended upright seated position. 5. A child walker as defined in claim 4 wherein the seat is positioned distally to the handle when the handle is in the first position. 6. A child walker as defined in claim 4 wherein the seat is at least one of removable and collapsible. 7. A child walker as defined in claim 1 wherein the upper frame includes a tray. 8. A child walker as defined in claim 1 wherein at least one of the wheeled base and the upper frame is U-shaped. 9. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame supported by the wheeled base; a seat carried by the upper frame to support a child in a suspended upright seated position; a handle positionable in a first position on the upper frame and a second position on the upper frame, the handle being located to be gripped by a child in a standing position and not in the seat when the handle is in the second position, and the upper frame being supported by the wheeled base when the handle is in the first position and when the handle is in the second position. 10. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame carried by the wheeled base; a seat to support a child in a suspended upright seated position; and a handle having a forward position wherein the handle is positioned to be gripped by a child standing within the base and a rearward position wherein the handle is positioned behind the seat. 11. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame supported by the wheeled base; a seat; and a handle having a first position wherein the handle and upper frame encircle the seat and a second position wherein the handle and the upper frame form an open ended shape. 12. A child walker comprising: a seat; a wheeled base defining an enclosure and having a first removable section; and an upper frame defining an enclosure and supported by the wheeled base, the upper frame having a second removable section, wherein when the first and second removable sections are removed, the wheeled base and the upper frame are open ended. 13. A child walker as defined in claim 12 wherein the seat is removably mounted to the upper frame. 14. A child walker comprising: a seat; a wheeled base; an upper frame supported by the wheeled base; and a handle cooperating with the upper frame to define an upper enclosure when the handle is in a first position, wherein the upper frame defines an open sided enclosure when the handle is in a second position. 15. A child walker as defined in claim 14 wherein the seat is at least one of foldable and removably mounted to the upper frame. 16. A child walker as defined in claim 14 wherein the handle is removed from the upper frame when the handle is in the second position. 17. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame mounted on the wheeled base; a seat carried by the upper frame to support a child in a suspended upright seated position; and a handle secured to the upper frame and positioned at a height to be gripped by a standing child when the upper frame is mounted on the wheeled base. 18. A child walker comprising: a seat; a wheeled base; and an upper frame defining an enclosure and supported by the wheeled base, the upper frame having a removable section, wherein when the removable section is removed, the upper frame is open ended. 19. A child walker as defined in claim 18 wherein the upper frame comprises an integral handle located at an edge of the upper frame. 20. A child walker comprising: a frame; a seat carried by the frame; and a tray defining an aperture; and a basket accessible through the aperture. 21. A child walker as defined in claim 19 wherein a ground surface is visible through the aperture and basket. 22. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base; an upper frame mounted on the wheeled base and having a U-shape; and a removable seat to support a child in a suspended upright seated postion to operate the walker in a first walker mode, wherein the child stands within the U-shape when the seat is removed to operate the walker in a second walker mode. 23. A child walker comprising: a wheeled base having a first U-shape; an upper frame having a second U-shape; a support to mount the upper frame above the wheeled base; and a seat. 24. A child walker as defined in claim 23 wherein the seat is removable. 25. A child walker as defined in claim 23 wherein the support is adjustable to adjust a distance between the base and the upper frame. 26. A child walker comprising: a frame having a plurality of wheels; a convertible member attached to the frame for movement between a first position and a second position; and a seat adapted to be removably attached to the frame when the convertible member is in the first position, wherein when the convertible member is in the second position, the convertible member is positioned to be gripped by a standing child. 27. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the convertible member is moveable between the first and second positions without detaching the convertible member from the frame. 28. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the frame further comprises: a lower section coupled to the plurality of wheels; an upper section including a tray, the tray being accessible from the seat, the seat being removably attached to the upper section; and a plurality of support members connecting the lower section to the upper section, wherein the support members are adapted to provide height adjustment of the upper section relative to the lower section. 29. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the convertible member is located adjacent a rear of the seat when the convertible member is in the first position and the seat is attached to the frame. 30. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the convertible member comprises two ends adapted for attachment to the frame. 31. A walker as defined in claim 30, wherein the frame includes two hubs adapted for receiving the two ends of the convertible member and two locking members disposed at the hubs and adapted to lock the convertible member to the frame when the convertible member is located in the first position and when the convertible member is located to the second position. 32. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the convertible member is generally U-shaped. 33. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the frame is generally U-shaped. 34. A walker as defined in claim 33, wherein the convertible member is located within the U-shape of the frame when in the second position to enable a child to grip the convertible member when located within the U-shape of the frame. 35. A walker as defined in claim 26, wherein the convertible member is located in proximity to the tray when in the second position. 36. A child walker comprising: a generally U-shaped lower frame section having a plurality of wheels; a generally U-shaped upper frame section having a tray; a convertible member mountable to a rear portion of the upper frame section for movement between a first position and a second position, wherein the convertible member is lockable in the first and the second positions; a plurality of support members connecting the lower frame section to the upper frame section, wherein the support members are adapted to provide height adjustment of the upper frame section relative to the lower frame section; and a seat removably attached to the upper frame section and positioned adjacent the tray wherein removing the seat from the upper frame section, moving the convertible member to the second position, and locking the convertible member in the second position provides support for the child when standing within the U-shaped lower frame and gripping the convertible member. 37. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member is moveable between the first and second positions without detaching the convertible member from the upper frame section. 38. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member is located adjacent a rear of the seat when the convertible member is in the first position and when the seat is attached to the upper frame section. 39. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member comprises two ends adapted for attachment to the upper frame section. 40. A walker as defined in claim 39, wherein the upper frame section includes two hubs adapted for receiving the two ends of the convertible member and two locking members disposed at the hubs for locking the convertible member to the upper frame section. 41. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member is substantially U-shaped. 42. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member is located within the U-shaped upper frame section when in the second position. 43. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the convertible member is located in proximity to the tray when in the second position. 44. A walker as defined in claim 36, wherein the upper frame section further includes a basket attached beneath the tray, the basket being accessible through an opening defined in an upper surface of the tray. 45. A walker comprising: a frame having a plurality of wheels; a seat removably attached to the frame and adapted to provide support for a child sitting therein; means for supporting a child when not seated in the seat, the means for supporting being adjustable to at least two different support positions; means for locking the supporting means in at least one of the at least two support positions. 46. A walker as defined in claim 45, wherein the frame further comprises: a lower section; an upper section, wherein the seat is removably attached to the upper section; and a plurality of support members connecting the lower section to the upper section, wherein the support members are adapted to provide height adjustment of the upper section. 47. A method of converting an infant walker from a first operating mode wherein the walker is adapted for use by a child who cannot stand, to a second operating mode wherein the walker is adapted for use by a child who is learning to walk, the method comprising the steps of: removing a seat from the walker; without separating a convertible member from a frame of the walker, moving the convertible member relative to the frame of the walker from a first position to a second position wherein the convertible member is positioned to be gripped by a standing child; and locking the convertible member in the second position. 48. A method of converting an infant walker from a first operating mode wherein the walker is adapted for use by a child who can stand, to a second operating mode wherein the walker is adapted for use by a child who cannot stand, the method comprising the steps of: releasing a convertible member for movement from a first position to a second position relative to a frame; without separating the convertible member from the frame, moving the convertible member from the first position wherein the convertible member is positioned to be gripped by a standing child, to a second position; and securing the seat to the frame. 49. A child walker comprising: a seat; a wheeled base; and an upper frame supported by the wheeled base, the upper frame having a first section and a second section which is removable from the first section, wherein the first section comprises an integral handle which is exposed for gripping by a standing child when the removable section is removed, and the second section at least partially supports the seat. 50. A child walker as defined in claim 49 further comprising a braking mechanism including a floating brakepad pivotably attached to an underside of the wheeled base. | FIELD OF DISCLOSURE This specification relates generally to child walkers and, more particularly, to a convertible child walker for use by a child transitioning toward standing and walking. BACKGROUND Child walkers are generally suitable for children who have not yet developed the ability to walk. Typically, a walker has a sling-type seat for supporting a child in an upright position such that the child's feet touch the ground. Wheels supporting the walker allow easy movement of the walker on the ground. When seated in the walker, a child pushes off the ground in an effort to simulate walking, thereby moving the walker. When a child develops the ability to walk, a traditional baby walker becomes obsolete because its support function is no longer needed by the child. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an exemplary walker constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 2 is an exploded view of the walker of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a side view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1. FIG. 4 is a rear elevational view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a top view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1. FIG. 6 is an exploded view of portions of the convertible walker of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of another exemplary walker constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 8 is a side view of the convertible walker of FIG. 7. FIG. 9 is fragmentary side view of an exemplary braking mechanism constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 10 is a side, exploded view of an example seat ring and hook. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the seat ring/hook assembly of FIG. 10. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EXAMPLES An exemplary convertible walker 10 constructed in accordance with the teachings of the invention is shown generally in FIGS. 1-6. For supporting the weight of a child, the convertible walker 10 is provided with a frame 12, which includes an upper section 14, a lower section 16, and a number of support members 18 joining the upper and lower sections 14, 16. As will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, the frame 12 may be constructed in any shape and include any number of support members so as to provide stability and support for the convertible walker 10 when being used by a child. However, in the preferred example, the frame 10 is open ended and includes a front support member 20 and two rear support members 22. In the specific example shown, the upper section 14 and the lower section 16 of the frame 12 are generally U-shaped. A child using the convertible walker 10, whether sitting, standing or walking, may be positioned inside the U-shaped portion of the frame 12. Positioning of the child within the U-shaped frame provides enhanced stability and control for the child. To provide travel of the convertible walker 10 on a surface, the lower section 16 is supported by a number of wheels 30. It will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that at least three wheels are required to provide balanced movement of the convertible walker 10 on a surface. However, in the preferred example, the lower section 16 is supported on four wheels 30, with each wheel 16 positioned as far as possible from an adjacent wheel 30 so as to provide a highly stable platform for the convertible walker 10. The wheels 30 are preferably sized to provide smooth rolling thereof on any type of surface. The wheels 30 are preferably covered by portions of the lower section 16 that are correspondingly contoured to form wheel covers 32. Preferably, at least the rear wheels are covered in a thin TPR strip to make the walker less susceptible to slipping when exposed to lateral forces. To provide height adjustability of the upper section 14 relative to the lower section 16, the support members 18 are adjustably connected to the lower section 16. A lower portion of each support member 18 includes a button 40 disposed on a tab 42 (shown in FIG. 6). One end of each tab 42 is attached to a corresponding support member 18. Also, each tab 42 is biased away from the corresponding support member 18. In other words, the tab 42 resists in a spring-like manner from being pressed toward the corresponding support member 18. As will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, the bias in the tab 42 may be produced in many well known ways. For example, one end of the tab 42 may be attached to a corresponding support member 18 with a hinge having an internal coil spring. The tab 42 may also be attached to a corresponding support member 18 at one end with a hinge and include one or more springs disposed between the tab 42 and the support member 18. However, in the preferred example, the tab 42 is constructed from a flexible material and attached to the corresponding support member 18 at an angle. Thus, pressing the free end of the tab 42 toward the support member 18 will flex the tab 42, thereby creating a bias in the tab 42 to return to the pre-pressed position. The lower section 16 includes a number of apertures 44 sized for receiving the buttons 40 (see FIG. 2). The apertures 44 are disposed on the lower section 16 where each support member 18 connects to the lower section 16. The apertures 44 are vertically spaced apart by predetermined distance(s) (which may or may not be the same), which corresponds to the height increments by which the upper section 14 may be adjusted relative to the lower section 16. The number of apertures 44 determine the number of height increments by which the support members 18 can be adjusted relative to the lower section 16. One of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the number of apertures and the distance between each aperture may be selected to provide any desired number of specific height adjustments for the convertible walker 10. When a support member 18 is connected to the lower section 16 and a corresponding button 40 becomes aligned with an aperture 44, the button 40 snaps into the aperture 44 in a locking manner. The snapping of the button 40 into an aperture 44 is due to the bias in the tab 42, which also prevents the button 40 from coming out of the aperture 44. A user may adjust the height of the convertible walker 10 by pressing the button 40 toward the support member 18 so as to remove the button 40 from the aperture 44. While pressing and holding the button 40, the user can adjust the height of the support member 18 with respect to the lower section 16 by aligning the button 40 with another aperture 44. Releasing the button 40 when nearly aligned with another aperture 44 will cause the button 40 to snap into the aperture 44 to securely connect the support member 18 to the lower section 16. Each support member 18 can be accordingly adjusted for height. Preferably, each support member 18 is set to the same height. Alternatively, height adjustability can be provided by a conventional X-frame height adjustment mechanism such as those commonly used on conventional child walkers. To provide a utility and play area for a child, the upper section 18 includes a tray 50 that is accessible to a child when using the convertible walker 10. The tray 50 is attached to the support members 18, and it is generally U-shaped to provide access thereto for a child who is either sitting in the convertible walker 10, or standing and being supported by the convertible walker 10. A forward portion of the tray 50 may include a first recess 52 for maintaining objects within the tray 50, or preventing objects from falling out of the tray 50. The tray 50 may also be used as a food serving tray. When used for serving food, the tray 50 may prevent food items and liquids from falling or spilling on the floor, respectively. Additionally, the tray 50 may include a cup holder in the form of a second recess 54 within the first recess 52 to prevent cups from easily tipping over when a child is using the convertible walker 10. Referring to FIGS. 7 and 8, the tray 50 may optionally include an under mounted basket 56 that is accessible by an opening 58 defined in the tray 50. The basket 56 provides a storage space for toys and other play items. Additionally, the opening 58 on the tray 50 allows a child to view his or her feet, or the ground through the basket 56 when using the walker in either of its modes. To support a child when in a seated position, the convertible walker 10 includes a seat 60 that is removably attached to the upper section 14. As will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art, the seat 60 may be constructed in any shape or with any material so long as it provides adequate and safe support for a child when seated therein. However, in the preferred example, the seat 60 includes a seat ring 62 that is removably attached to the upper section 14, and a support sling or seat cover 64 that is attached to the seat ring 62. The support sling 64 is preferably constructed from any one of the well known natural or synthetic materials typically used for clothing, shoes, or the like, such as canvas, leather, vinyl, cotton, polyester, etc. The seat ring 62 and the seat sling 64 cooperatively support the weight of a child seated in the seat 60, while the flexibility of the seat sling 64 allows the child substantial freedom of movement of the legs to propel the convertible walker 10 in a desired direction. The seat sling 64 includes two leg openings 66, through which the legs of the child are inserted when being placed in the seat sling 64. The seat sling 64 provides support for the weight of a child, while allowing the child's feet to touch the ground so that the child is seated in a suspended upright seating position. To securely support the seat 60 when a child is seated therein, the upper section 14 includes a ledge 70 corresponding in size to the forward periphery of the seat ring 62. When the seat 60 is placed in the convertible walker 10, the seat ring 62 rests on the ledge 70 and the weight of the child sitting in the seat 60 is supported by the ledge 70. However, to secure the seat ring 62 from movement when resting on the ledge 70, the seat ring 62 includes two locking tabs 72 that engage two locking members 74 disposed on the upper section 14 and a number of parallel ribs 76 that engage a corresponding number of slots 78 disposed on the upper section 14. The locking tabs 72 are disposed on opposite lateral sides of the seat ring 62, and the corresponding locking members 74 are disposed on the opposite lateral sides of the upper section 14. Each locking tab 72 includes a wedge 80 that engages a corresponding locking member 74 and prevents the seat 60 from upward movement. The ribs 76 are disposed on the forward portion of the seat ring 62, and the corresponding slots 78 are disposed on the forward portion of the ledge 70. The engagement of the ribs 76 with slots 78 prevents the forward portion of the seat ring 62 from movement. Furthermore, engagement of the ribs 76 with the slots 78 assures correct placement of the seat ring 62 on the ledge 70 so that the locking tabs 72 align with corresponding locking members 74. Thus, engagement of the periphery of the seat ring 62 with the ledge 70, the locking tabs 72 with locking members 74, and the ribs 76 with slots 78 securely attach the seat 60 to the upper section 14 of the convertible walker 10. Additionally, as shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 5 and 7, a support hook 81 is mounted to the rear of the seat ring 62 and rests on top of the adjustable handle 90 when in its rear position to further support to the seat As shown in FIGS. 10-11, the hook 81 slides up into the seat ring 62 where it is secured in an aperture 83. To support a child when standing, the convertible walker 10 includes a handle/convertible member 90 for a child to grip for support. The convertible member 90 may be any shape or size. However, in the preferred example, the convertible member 90 is generally U-shaped to provide a plurality of alternate hand grip positions for a child. Additionally, in the preferred example, the thickness of the convertible member 90 is such that a child can securely grip the convertible member 90. The illustrated convertible member 90 is rotatably attached to the upper section 14 at the open end of that section (e.g., between the ends of the “U” defined by that upper frame 14) and rotates between a rear locking position 92 (shown in FIGS. 1 and 3-6) and a front locking position 94 (shown in FIG. 2). Preferably, the convertible member 10 is rotated between the rear locking position 92 and the front locking position 94 without being detached from the frame 12. In the rear locking position 92, the convertible member 90 is located behind the seat 60 in a stowed away position. Alternatively, in the rear locking position 92, the convertible member 90 can be positioned beneath the seat 60 to provide additional support for the seat 60. In the rear locking position 92 of the convertible member 90, the convertible walker 10 functions as a traditional walker such that a child may be seated in the seat 60 in the pseudo standing position. Additionally, in the rear locking position 92, the convertible member 90 can be gripped by a child who is walking behind the convertible walker 10. In the front locking position 94 shown in FIG. 2, the seat 60 is removed from the convertible walker 10, and the convertible member 90 can be gripped by a child to either stand in place or walk in a desired direction. In the illustrated example child gripping the convertible member 90 when in the front locking position 94 will be positioned in the U-shaped portion of the frame 12. When the child is positioned within the U-shaped portion of the frame they are surrounded for added stability. To rotate the convertible member 90 from the rear locking position 92 to the front locking position 94, the convertible walker 10 includes a lock and release mechanism 100. Referring to FIG. 6, the illustrated lock and release mechanism 100 includes two locking knobs 102 rotatably connected at hubs 104 of the rear support members 22, the upper section 14, and the convertible member 90. Each locking knob 102 includes a shaft 106 rotatably positioned in the hubs 104, and, optionally, a spring 108 that biases the locking knobs 102 outward. However, in the preferred implementation, the springs 108 are omitted and the bias force is provided by the resilience of the molded plastic convertible member 90. Each shaft 106 includes a tooth 110 disposed at its end. Each side of the convertible member 90 that is rotatably connected to a corresponding hub 104 includes a slot 112 sized for receiving the tooth 110 of a corresponding locking knob 102. Also, each hub 104 includes a rear slot 114 and a front slot 116, both sized for receiving the tooth 110 of a corresponding locking knob 102. When the convertible member 90 is in a rear locking position 92, the rear slot 114 of each hub 104 is aligned with the slot 112 of the convertible member 90, and the tooth 110 of a corresponding locking knob 102 is disposed in both the rear slot 114 of the hub 104 and the slot 112 of the convertible member 90. Thus, the hub 104 and the convertible member 90 are locked together in the rear locking position 92. Additionally, the springs 108, or, preferably, the resiliency of the convertible member 90, bias the locking knobs 102 outward to prevent each tooth 110 from being removed from the corresponding rear slot 114 and slot 112 of the convertible member 90. When the convertible member 90 is in the front locking position 94, the front slot 116 of each hub 104 is aligned with the slot 112 of the convertible member 90, and the tooth 110 of a corresponding locking knob 102 is disposed in both the front slot 116 and the slot 112 of the convertible member 90. Thus, the hub 104 and the convertible member 90 are locked together in the front locking position 94. Additionally, the springs 108, or in preferably, the resiliency of the convertible member 90, bias the locking knobs 102 outward to prevent each tooth 110 from being removed from the corresponding front slot 116 of the hub 104 and slot 112 of the convertible member 90. One of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate that the lock and release mechanism 100 is not limited to having only two locking positions. On the contrary, the hub 104 may include a plurality of slots similar to the rear slot 114 and the front slot 116 that can provide a plurality of different locking positions for the convertible member 90. One of ordinary skill in the art will also appreciate that the lock and release mechanism 100 is not limited to that described in the foregoing. On the contrary, any known lock and release mechanisms that provides for the convertible member 90 to be releasably secured in both a rear locking position 92 and a front locking position 94 may be used. For instance, the locking knobs 102 may include shafts 106 that are threaded to engage a corresponding counter threading in the hubs 104. The convertible member 90 may then be locked to and released from the hub 104 by tightening and loosening the locking knobs 102, respectively. To convert the illustrated convertible walker 10 from a seating configuration to a standing configuration, the seat 60 is removed from the upper section 14 and the handle 90 is rotated from the rear locking position 92 to the front locked position 94. The seat 60 may be removed by pressing the locking tabs 72 inward until the locking wedges 80 disengage from the corresponding locking members 74. The rear portion of the seat 60 can then be lifted and pulled out of the upper section 14, which also causes the ribs 76 to be pulled out of the slots 78 for a complete removal of the seat 60 from the upper section 14. To rotate the convertible member 90 from the rear locking position 92 to the front locking position 94, the locking knobs 102 are pressed inward against the bias force to push the teeth 110 out from the corresponding rear slots 114 of the hubs 104. The teeth 110, however, remain in the corresponding slots 112 of the convertible member 90. While holding the locking knobs 102 in the pushed-in position, the locking knobs 102 are rotated forward, thereby rotating the convertible member 90 toward the front locking position 94. When the convertible member 90 reaches the end of its rotational path (i.e., the convertible member 90 will not rotate forward anymore), which corresponds to the front locking position 94, the locking knobs 102 are released, thereby causing the bias force to push the locking knobs 102 outward to insert each tooth 110 in a corresponding front slot 116 of the hubs 104. At this point, the convertible member 90 is locked in the front locking position 94. To convert the convertible walker 10 from a standing configuration to a seating configuration, the handle 90 is rotated from the front locking position 94 to the rear locking position 92, and the seat 60 is then attached to the upper section 14. To rotate the handle/convertible member 90 from the front locking position 94 to the rear locking position 92, the locking knobs 102 are pressed inward against the bias force to release the convertible member 90 from the hub 104, as described in the foregoing. The locking knobs 102 are then rotated from the front locking position 94 to the rear locking position 92, thereby rotating the convertible member 90 accordingly. When the convertible member 90 reaches the end of its rearward rotational path (i.e., the convertible member 90 cannot be rotated anymore), which corresponds to the rear locking position 92, the locking knobs 102 are released, and the bias force causes insertion of the teeth 110 into the rear slots 114 of the hubs 104. Once the convertible member 90 is locked in the rear locking position 92, the convertible walker 10 can receive the seat 60. The seat 60 is attached to the upper section 14 by first inserting the ribs 76 in the slots 78 to correctly position the seat 60 on the ledge 70 for alignment of the locking tabs 72 with the locking members 74. The seat 60 is then moved downward toward the ledge 70. The downward movement of the seat 60 causes each locking wedge 80 to slide on a corresponding locking member 74, thereby bending the corresponding locking tab 72. When each locking wedge 80 slidably moves below the corresponding locking member 74, the flexing of the locking tab 72 causes the locking wedge 80 to snap into a position below the locking member 74, thereby locking the seat 60 to the upper section 14. Referring to FIG. 9, to provide a braking mechanism for the convertible walker 10 when one or more wheels 30 go beyond the edge of a surface, the lower section 16 includes floating brake pads 120 on its underside. Each brake pad 120 is pivotally attached to a boss 122 that is disposed on the underside of the lower section 16. Each brake pad 120 is provided with the freedom to move vertically within a predetermined vertical range and to swivel about a corresponding boss 122 again about a predetermined angular range. When a wheel 30 goes beyond the edge of a surface, the brake pad(s) 122 nearest the edge move vertically and/or swivel to frictionally engage the edge of the surface and stop the convertible walker 10 from further movement. The floating feature provides each brake pad 120 with the ability to adapt to the shape and angle of an edge of a surface when one or more wheels 30 are not horizontally level with the other wheels 30 due to a drop or sudden change in the elevation of a surface. Although the preferred example includes a U-shaped wheeled base 16 and a U-shaped upper frame 14, persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that other shapes and configurations (including, for example, closed configurations) are also possible. By way of example, the wheeled base 16, the upper frame 14, and/or both can optionally include a removable section such that the wheeled base 16, the upper frame 14 and/or both the base 16 and the upper frame 14 define an enclosure when the removable section(s) is/are attached, and become open-sided (e.g., U-shaped) when the removable section(s) is/are removed. This alternative conversion process is available because the U-shaped structure is not needed when the child is using the seat, but is preferred when the child is using the walker without the seat for enhanced stability by allowing the child to stand within the base footprint. Persons of ordinary skill in the art will further appreciate that, although in the preferred example, the seat 60 is removable, the seat could alternatively be permanently secured to the walker. For example, the seat could be foldable or collapsible to a stowed position when not in use (e.g., when the handle 90 is moved to the forward position). Additionally, persons of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that, although in the preferred example the handle 90 is secured to the walker for pivoting movement, the handle may adjust or convert in other fashions (e.g., sliding movement). Further, the handle could alternatively be removable from the walker. For example, the handle may also be attachable to the walker in two or more positions. For instance, rather than pivoting the handle 90 between the forward and rearward positions as illustrated above, the handle 90 could optionally be removed from the walker and reattached in either of the first and second positions. Alternatively, the walker may include two handles, one that is positioned behind, and used to support the seat 60, and one that is located forward of the seat. Then to convert the walker, the seat and rearmost handle are removed, or the rearmost handle is removed and the seat 60 is folded or collapsed to a stowed position. Alternatively, the tray 50 or another portion of the upper frame 14 (e.g., the center leg of the “U” formed by the upper frame 14) can include an integral handle. In such an approach, the handle 90 can optionally be eliminated. Alternatively, the handle 90 can be replaced with a removable member such that the U-shaped upper frame 14 forms an enclosure with the removable member when the removable member is attached, but permits access to the integral handle when the removable section is removed. Although certain apparatus constructed in accordance with the teachings of the invention have been described herein, the scope of coverage of this patent is not limited thereto. On the contrary, this patent covers all embodiments of the teachings of the invention fairly falling within the scope of the appended claims either literally or under the doctrine of equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Child walkers are generally suitable for children who have not yet developed the ability to walk. Typically, a walker has a sling-type seat for supporting a child in an upright position such that the child's feet touch the ground. Wheels supporting the walker allow easy movement of the walker on the ground. When seated in the walker, a child pushes off the ground in an effort to simulate walking, thereby moving the walker. When a child develops the ability to walk, a traditional baby walker becomes obsolete because its support function is no longer needed by the child. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an exemplary walker constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 2 is an exploded view of the walker of FIG. 1 . FIG. 3 is a side view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1 . FIG. 4 is a rear elevational view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1 . FIG. 5 is a top view of the convertible walker of FIG. 1 . FIG. 6 is an exploded view of portions of the convertible walker of FIG. 1 . FIG. 7 is a perspective view of another exemplary walker constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 8 is a side view of the convertible walker of FIG. 7 . FIG. 9 is fragmentary side view of an exemplary braking mechanism constructed in accordance with the teachings of the instant invention. FIG. 10 is a side, exploded view of an example seat ring and hook. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the seat ring/hook assembly of FIG. 10 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050111 | 20080325 | 20050818 | 59615.0 | 1 | SHRIVER II, JAMES A | CHILD WALKER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,866 | ACCEPTED | Electrically tuned resonance circuit using piezo and magnetostrictive materials | An impedance tuning system, especially for a cellular telephone system. The system can be used to match the impedance of an antenna element with that of an output stage of a transmitter driving the antenna element. The system includes a piezo capacitor in parallel with the magnetostrictive inductor to form an LC circuit. A voltage controller applies a voltage bias signal to the piezo capacitor and a current controller applies a current bias signal to the inductor. A primary controller monitors the frequency of the output signal from the transmitter and controls the voltage and current controllers as needed to alter the impedance of the system as needed to match the impedance of the antenna element with that of the output stage of the transmitter. In an alternative form an ultrasonic sensor is provided. | 1. A tuning apparatus for tuning an impedance of an antenna coupled to an electromagnetic wave transmitter, the apparatus comprising: a piezoelectric capacitor; a magnetostrictive inductor coupled in parallel with the piezoelectric capacitor to form a resonance circuit, said resonance circuit being in electrical communication with said antenna; a biasing circuit for biasing each of said piezoelectric capacitor and said magnetostrictive inductor to thus alter a resonant frequency of said resonance circuit; and a controller for controlling said biasing circuit in accordance with a frequency of said transmitter to match said impedance of said antenna to said impedance of said transmitter. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said biasing circuit includes a voltage controller for applying a voltage bias signal to said piezoelectric capacitor. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said biasing circuit includes a current controller for applying a current bias signal to said magnetostrictive inductor. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein said controller is responsive to an output of said transmitter. 5. An electrically tunable antenna, comprising: an antenna element; an electromagnetic wave energy transmitter for generating electromagnetic wave signals applied to said antenna element; a piezoelectric material forming a piezoelectric capacitor; an inductor including a magnetostrictive material, the inductor disposed in parallel and in electrical communication with said piezoelectric capacitor to form an electrically variable resonance circuit, the resonance circuit being electrically coupled to said antenna to control an impedance of said antenna; a voltage supply for providing a bias voltage to said piezoelectric capacitor to alter a capacitance of said piezoelectric capacitor; a current supply for providing a bias current to said magnetostrictive material to alter an inductance of said inductor; and a controller responsive to said transmitter for controlling said voltage supply and said current supply to control said resonance circuit to match an impedance of said antenna element to an impedance of said transmitter. 6. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said controller is responsive to a frequency of said signals being output from said electromagnetic wave energy transmitter. 7. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said current supply comprises a current controller. 8. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said voltage supply comprises a voltage controller. 9. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, further comprising a pair of direct current blocking capacitors disposed in series with said piezoelectric capacitor on opposite sides of said piezoelectric capacitor. 10. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said magnetostrictive material comprises an alloy including terbium, dysprosium and iron. 11. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said magnetostrictive material comprises at least one alloy including mixtures of at least two of terbium, dysprosium, gallium and iron. 12. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 5, wherein said inductor comprises a first coil and a second coil wrapped around said magnetostrictive material, with said first coil being coupled in parallel across said piezoelectric capacitor and said second coil being coupled in parallel with said current supply. 13. A cellular telephone, comprising: an antenna element; a transmitter for generating electromagnetic wave signals applied to an input of said antenna element; a non-linear piezoelectric capacitor; a magnetostrictive inductor forming an inductor, the inductor being disposed in parallel with said piezoelectric capacitor, and in electrical communication with said input of said antenna element, to form an electrically controllable resonance circuit; a voltage source for providing a bias voltage to said piezoelectric capacitor to alter a capacitance of said piezoelectric capacitor; a current source for providing a bias current to said magnetostrictive inductor to alter an inductance of said magnetostrictive inductor; and a controller responsive to a frequency of said signals from said transmitter, for independently controlling an output of said voltage source and an output of said current source to control said resonance circuit, in real time, so that an impedance of said antenna element matches an output impedance of said transmitter. 14. The electrically tunable antenna of claim 13, wherein said magnetostrictive inductor comprises a core, and wherein the core includes an alloy including mixtures of at least two of terbium, dysprosium, gallium and iron. 15. An electrically tunable resonance circuit for altering an impedance of an electrical component, said circuit comprising: a piezoelectric capacitor; a magnetostrictive inductor coupled in parallel to said capacitor to form a resonance circuit, said resonance circuit being in electrical communication with said electrical component; a biasing system for providing a biasing voltage to said piezoelectric capacitor and a biasing current to said magnetostrictive inductor; and a controller for controlling said biasing voltage and said biasing current, in accordance with a frequency of a signal being applied to said electrical component, to selectively alter said impedance of said electrical component. 16. The circuit of claim 15, wherein said controller controls said biasing voltage and said biasing current in real time to enable real time adjustment of said impedance of said electrical component. 17. The circuit of claim 15, wherein said controller controls said biasing system, in real time, to match an external electrical component generating said signal. 18. A method for tuning an antenna, comprising using a piezoelectric capacitor and a magnetostrictive inductor to form an impedance matching circuit; biasing at least one of said piezoelectric capacitor and said magnetostrictive inductor to alter an impedance of said impedance matching circuit in accordance with a frequency of a signal being applied to said antenna, to thus controllably alter an impedance of said antenna to match an impedance of a component generating said signal. 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising: monitoring said frequency of said signal in real time and adjusting said impedance of said impedance matching circuit in real time as needed to continuously match said impedance of said antenna with said component generating said signal. 20. The method of claim 19, further comprising using a controller to monitor said frequency of said signal and to control biasing of said piezoelectric capacitor and said magnetostrictive inductor. 21. A sensor for detecting a frequency of a vibration signal being applied to a structure, the sensor comprising: a magnetostrictive inductor; a piezoelectric wafer coupled to the structure to experience a vibration signal affecting the structure, the magnetostrictive inductor being coupled in parallel to the piezoelectric wafer to form an LC circuit; a biasing system for applying biasing signals to each of said magnetostrictive inductor and said piezoelectric wafer; a user control for controlling said biasing system for enabling said LC circuit to be tuned to different frequencies, said LC circuit generating an output signal when said piezoelectric wafer experiences a vibration signal and generates a signal to said LC circuit that tunes said LC circuit to a resonant frequency. 22. The sensor of claim 21, further comprising an amplifier for amplifying an output from the LC circuit. 23. The sensor of claim 21, wherein said magnetostrictive inductor comprises at least one alloy including mixtures of at least two of terbium, dysprosium, gallium and iron. 24. The sensor of claim 22, further comprising a data logging device responsive to the amplifier for providing an indication to a user when said resonant frequency is detected. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to antenna tuning devices, and more particularly to an electrically controlled antenna tuning circuit that matches an impedance of a transmitter with the impedance of an antenna element associated with the transmitter. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION For optical performance, electromagnetic wave transmitters require that the transmitter output stage impedance match the antenna that the transmitter is driving. The impedance match is a function of frequency. Accordingly, a variation in the frequency of the signal being output from the transmitter alters its output impedance, thus requiring the antenna impedance to change, too, to maintain the impedance match. Traditionally, impedance matching has been accomplished with mechanical tuned inductors and capacitors. However, modern transmitters often change frequency at millisecond time intervals, which precludes mechanical adjustments to inductors and/or capacitors. Thus, with modern transmitters, impedance matching has been accomplished by changing the capacitance of an impedance matching circuit used with the antenna through the use of diodes. The capacitance of a reverse biased diode varies with bias voltage. This phenomenon is exploited by connecting the reversed biased diode to an inductor. Varying the diode bias will change the resonance of the inductor diode circuit. However, the use of diodes limits the dynamic range of tuning. The range that the capacitance of a reversed biased diode that can be varied over is limited and the inductor inductance is fixed, so the range that the resonance can be changed is limited. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide an impedance matching system that monitors the frequency of a transmitter and automatically adjusts the impedance of an antenna element being driven by the transmitter, in real time, to maintain the impedance of the antenna element matched with the impedance of the output stage of the transmitter. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to an impedance matching system. In one preferred form the system includes a piezo capacitor and a magnetostrictive inductor coupled in parallel. A voltage controller is used to control a bias voltage applied to the piezo capacitor while a current controller is used to control a bias current applied to the magnetostrictive inductor. The piezo capacitor and magnetostrictive inductor cooperatively form an adjustable resonance circuit that is coupled to an antenna element. A primary controller monitors a frequency of the signal transmitted from an electromagnetic wave transmitter and controls the voltage and current controllers to alter the impedance of the tunable resonance circuit so that the impedance of the antenna element matches the output impedance of the transmitter. More specifically, the primary controller controls the voltage and current controllers so that the bias voltage applied to the piezo capacitor and/or the bias current applied to the magnetostrictive inductor is changed as needed, in real time, to maintain the impedance of the antenna matched to the output impedance of the transmitter. In an alternative preferred embodiment an ultrasonic sensor is provided. The sensor includes a piezoelectric wafer secured to a structure experiencing an unknown vibration signal. The piezoelectric wafer is secured in parallel with a magnetostrictive inductor that forms an LC circuit. A user control is used to control a biasing system that applies at least one of a bias voltage or a bias current to the piezoelectric wafer or the inductor, respectively. The user control enables a user to tune the LC circuit to different frequencies. An amplifier is responsive to an output of the LC circuit and provides a signal to a data logging subsystem that indicates when the LC circuit is tuned to its resonant frequency. As the user varies the user control, the piezoelectric wafer will excite the LC circuit only when the LC circuit is tuned to its resonant frequency. At this point the amplifier will detect this condition by a change in the voltage across the LC circuit. The amplifier generates an output that is applied to the data logging subsystem that indicates to the user that the LC circuit is at its resonant frequency. The features, functions, and advantages can be achieved independently in various embodiments of the present inventions or may be combined in yet other embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is an illustration of an impedance matching circuit in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 2 is a diagram of an ultrasonic sensor in accordance with an alternative preferred embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description of the preferred embodiment(s) is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses. Referring to FIG. 1, an impedance matching system 10 is shown in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. The impedance matching system 10 is included within a cellular telephone 11. The system 10 is electrically coupled to an antenna element 12 and to an output stage 16 of an electromagnetic wave transmitter 14. The system 10, however, can be employed in any application where it is desired to match the impedance of a first electrical component with the impedance of a second electrical component. The system 10 includes a non-linear piezo capacitor 18 coupled in parallel to a magnetostrictive inductor 20. A pair of blocking capacitors 22 and 24 are coupled in series with the piezo capacitor 18. Voltage blocking capacitors 22 and 24 have a capacitance preferably in the range of about 1 μF-10 μF. A voltage controller 26 is coupled across the piezo capacitor 18 and applies a voltage bias signal to the piezo capacitor 18. A current controller 28 is coupled to a first coil 30 of the magnetostrictive inductor 20 and applies a bias current to the inductor 20. A second coil 32 is coupled across the blocking capacitors 22 and 24. Collectively, the piezo capacitor 18 and the magnetostrictive inductor 20 form a variable resonance circuit. The system 10 also includes a primary controller 34 having an input 36 coupled to the output stage 16 of the transmitter 14. A first output 38 of the primary controller 34 is used to apply a control signal to the voltage controller 26 that varies the bias voltage output signal from the voltage controller 26. A second output 40 of the primary controller 34 is used to apply a control signal to the current controller 28 that varies the bias current applied to the magnetostrictive inductor 20. The piezo capacitor 22 can be formed from any non-linear piezo material. Suitable materials may include PZT and single crystal PMN-PT. Such materials exhibit a large change in capacitance as a function of bias voltage, typically on the order of 5:1 with bias field changes between 0 and 2 Megavolts/meter. The magnetostrictive inductor 20 has a core 42 made from magnetostrictive material that exhibits large changes in magnetic permeability as a function of magnetic field bias. The material might be Terfenol-D, Falfenol, or another magnetostrictive alloy made from elements including terbium, dysprosium, gallium and iron. In operation, the primary controller 34 monitors the frequency of the signal generated by the output stage 16 of transmitter 14, via input 36. the primary controller applies control signals via outputs 38 and 40 to the voltage controller 26 and current controller 28. The voltage controller 28 changes the bias voltage applied to piezo capacitor 18 while the current controller 28 changes the bias current applied to coil 30 of the magnetostrictive inductor 20. The resonant frequency of the circuit formed by the piezo capacitor 18 and the magnetostrictive inductor 20 is thus varied as needed to alter the impedance of the antenna element 12 to match the impedance of the output stage 16 of the transmitter 14. A principal advantage of the system 10 is its ability to react to changes in frequency of the output signal being applied to the antenna 12 in real time. An additional advantage is that by avoiding the use of diodes as a tuning component, the system 10 achieves a greater dynamic range than can be achieved with a diode-based impedance tuning circuit by a factor of about 2.5. The system 10 is particularly desirable in cellular phone applications although it could be used in any application where it is desirable to match the impedance of a transmitter that outputs a frequency-varying signal to an antenna that radiates the signal. FIG. 2 illustrates an ultrasonic sensor 100. The sensor 100 includes a magnetostrictive inductor 102 coupled in parallel with a blocking capacitor 104. A current controller 106 applies a variable current bias signal to the magnetostrictive inductor 102, while a voltage controller 108 applies a variable DC bias voltage to a non-linear piezoelectric wafer 110. The inductor 102 and non-linear piezoelectric wafer 110 essentially form an adjustable LC circuit. Non-linear piezoelectric wafer 110 could be comprised of PZT or a single crystal PMN-PT, or other suitable non-linear piezoelectric material such as PZN-PT The magnetostrictive inductor 102 may be formed from Terfenol-D, Galfenol, or another magnetostrictive alloy made from elements like dysprosium, terbium, gallium and iron. The piezoelectric wafer 110 is bonded to a structure 112 being tested. In practice, the structure 112 experiences a vibration at an unknown frequency. A controller 114 controls the current controller 106 and also the voltage controller 108. The controller 114 includes a user control input 116 to allow a desired frequency to be selected by a user, or a frequency bandwidth to be “swept” with the user input 116. Control 116 essentially directs the controller 114 to adjust the voltage and current bias signals from controllers 106 and 108 in an attempt to tune the LC circuit to a desired frequency or to scan (i.e., “sweep”) a desired bandwidth. The gain of the LC circuit will be at a maximum only when the piezoelectric wafer 110 is experiencing a high frequency vibration signal that tunes the LC circuit to its resonant frequency. At other vibration frequencies, the gain of the LC circuit will be substantially zero. An amplifier 118 has inputs 120 and 122 coupled to the magnetostrictive inductor 102 and the piezoelectric wafer 110, respectively, and an output 124. Output 124 is coupled to an input of data logging device 126. Blocking capacitor 104 prevents the DC bias voltage from voltage controller 108 from being applied to the amplifier input 120, as well as across the magnetostrictive inductor 102. In operation, the control input 116 is adjusted by the user while the structure 112 under test is experiencing a vibration signal. The control input 116 may be incrementally set at discrete steps or slowly manually swept over its full range. When the resonant frequency of the LC circuit is detected the LC circuit generates an output to the amplifier input 120 which is amplified by the amplifier 118. The amplifier 118 generates an output signal at output 124 that is transmitted to the data logging device 126. The data logging device 126 records the signals and processes the data to determine the health of the structure being monitored. While various preferred embodiments have been described, those skilled in the art will recognize modifications or variations which might be made without departing from the inventive concept. The examples illustrate the invention and are not intended to limit it. Therefore, the description and claims should be interpreted liberally with only such limitation as is necessary in view of the pertinent prior art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>For optical performance, electromagnetic wave transmitters require that the transmitter output stage impedance match the antenna that the transmitter is driving. The impedance match is a function of frequency. Accordingly, a variation in the frequency of the signal being output from the transmitter alters its output impedance, thus requiring the antenna impedance to change, too, to maintain the impedance match. Traditionally, impedance matching has been accomplished with mechanical tuned inductors and capacitors. However, modern transmitters often change frequency at millisecond time intervals, which precludes mechanical adjustments to inductors and/or capacitors. Thus, with modern transmitters, impedance matching has been accomplished by changing the capacitance of an impedance matching circuit used with the antenna through the use of diodes. The capacitance of a reverse biased diode varies with bias voltage. This phenomenon is exploited by connecting the reversed biased diode to an inductor. Varying the diode bias will change the resonance of the inductor diode circuit. However, the use of diodes limits the dynamic range of tuning. The range that the capacitance of a reversed biased diode that can be varied over is limited and the inductor inductance is fixed, so the range that the resonance can be changed is limited. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide an impedance matching system that monitors the frequency of a transmitter and automatically adjusts the impedance of an antenna element being driven by the transmitter, in real time, to maintain the impedance of the antenna element matched with the impedance of the output stage of the transmitter. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to an impedance matching system. In one preferred form the system includes a piezo capacitor and a magnetostrictive inductor coupled in parallel. A voltage controller is used to control a bias voltage applied to the piezo capacitor while a current controller is used to control a bias current applied to the magnetostrictive inductor. The piezo capacitor and magnetostrictive inductor cooperatively form an adjustable resonance circuit that is coupled to an antenna element. A primary controller monitors a frequency of the signal transmitted from an electromagnetic wave transmitter and controls the voltage and current controllers to alter the impedance of the tunable resonance circuit so that the impedance of the antenna element matches the output impedance of the transmitter. More specifically, the primary controller controls the voltage and current controllers so that the bias voltage applied to the piezo capacitor and/or the bias current applied to the magnetostrictive inductor is changed as needed, in real time, to maintain the impedance of the antenna matched to the output impedance of the transmitter. In an alternative preferred embodiment an ultrasonic sensor is provided. The sensor includes a piezoelectric wafer secured to a structure experiencing an unknown vibration signal. The piezoelectric wafer is secured in parallel with a magnetostrictive inductor that forms an LC circuit. A user control is used to control a biasing system that applies at least one of a bias voltage or a bias current to the piezoelectric wafer or the inductor, respectively. The user control enables a user to tune the LC circuit to different frequencies. An amplifier is responsive to an output of the LC circuit and provides a signal to a data logging subsystem that indicates when the LC circuit is tuned to its resonant frequency. As the user varies the user control, the piezoelectric wafer will excite the LC circuit only when the LC circuit is tuned to its resonant frequency. At this point the amplifier will detect this condition by a change in the voltage across the LC circuit. The amplifier generates an output that is applied to the data logging subsystem that indicates to the user that the LC circuit is at its resonant frequency. The features, functions, and advantages can be achieved independently in various embodiments of the present inventions or may be combined in yet other embodiments. | 20050111 | 20080916 | 20060713 | 94763.0 | H04B144 | 0 | NGUYEN, DUC M | ELECTRICALLY TUNED RESONANCE CIRCUIT USING PIEZO AND MAGNETOSTRICTIVE MATERIALS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04B | 2,005 |
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11,032,877 | ACCEPTED | Method, system and calibration technique for power measurement and management over multiple time frames | A method and system and calibration technique for power measurement and management over multiple time frames provides responsive power control while meeting global system power consumption and power dissipation limits. Power output of one or more system power supplies is measured and processed to produce power values over multiple differing time frames. The measurements from the differing time frames are used to determine whether or not system power consumption should be adjusted and then one or more devices is power-managed in response to the determination. The determination may compare a set of maximum and/or minimum thresholds to each of the measurements from the differing time frames. A calibration technique uses a precision reference resistor and voltage reference controlled current source to introduce a voltage drop from the input side of a power supply sense resistor calibration is made at the common mode voltage of the power supply output. | 1. A method of managing power in an electronic system, comprising: measuring a power output of a power supply supplying power to at least a portion of said system; processing a result of said measuring to produce a set of multiple time-frame measurements of said power output, wherein said multiple time-frames are all of differing lengths; determining over multiple ones of said multiple time frame measurements whether at least one of said multiple time-frame measurements indicates a need to adjust power consumption within said system; and controlling a power management state of at least one component within said system in response to a result of said determining. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said determining comprises comparing each of said multiple time-frame measurements with a corresponding one of a plurality of thresholds, one for each time-frame. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein said comparing compares said measurements with a set of predetermined maximum thresholds and wherein said controlling is performed to reduce power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined maximum threshold is exceeded, in response to said comparing. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein said comparing further compares said measurements with a set of predetermined minimum thresholds and wherein said controlling is further performed to increase power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined minimum threshold is not exceeded, in response to said comparing. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said comparing compares said measurements with a set of predetermined minimum thresholds and wherein said controlling is performed to increase power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined minimum threshold is not exceeded, in response to said comparing. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said measuring measures a current and a voltage supplied to said at least a portion of said system wherein said processing computes a power waveform from said current and said voltage and filters said power waveform to produce said multiple time-frame measurements. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said system comprises multiple devices connected to said power supply, wherein said measuring is performed at each device to determine a local power component of said power output, and wherein said controlling is performed locally on said at least one component within said device in conformity with said local power component. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said system comprises multiple devices connected to said power supply, wherein said measuring is performed at each device to determine a local power component of said power output, and wherein said method further comprises communicating said local power component from each device to a global power management controller, and wherein said controlling is performed by said global power management controller in response to a set of local power components received from said devices. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: pre-filtering an indication of said power output to remove frequencies above half of a predetermined sample rate; and sampling said pre-filtered power output to provide an input to said processing. 10. A system, comprising: a power supply for supplying power to said system; at least one power measurement circuit coupled to an output of said power supply for determining power consumption of at least a portion of said system over multiple time frames and generating a resulting indication of whether or not power consumption within said system should be adjusted; and at least one power managed device coupled to said power supply, wherein a power management state of said at least one power managed device is controlled in conformity with said indication from said power measurement means. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein said power measurement circuit comprises: an analog to digital converter coupled to an output of said power supply for generating voltage and current measurement results; and a processor for processing a digital output of said converter for computing said power consumption over said multiple time frames. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein said power measurement means further comprises an anti-aliasing filter coupled between said power supply output and said analog to digital converter. 13. The system of claim 10, wherein said power measurement circuit comprises a plurality of low-pass filters each having a group delays corresponding to one said multiple time frames and each having an input coupled to said output of said power supply so that each filter provides a waveform corresponding to one of said multiple time frames. 14. The system of claim 10, further comprising a processor executing program instructions for comparing each of said multiple time-frame measurements with a corresponding one of a plurality of thresholds, one for each time-frame. 15. The system of claim 14, wherein said processor compares said measurements with a set of predetermined maximum thresholds and performs said controlling to reduce power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined maximum threshold is exceeded, in response to said comparing. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein said processor further compares said measurements with a set of predetermined minimum thresholds and wherein said controlling is further performed to increase power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined minimum threshold is not exceeded, in response to said comparing. 17. The system of claim 14, wherein said processor compares said measurements with a set of predetermined minimum thresholds and wherein said controlling is performed to increase power consumption within any time-frames for which said corresponding predetermined minimum threshold is not exceeded, in response to said comparing. 18. The system of claim 10, wherein said power measurement circuit measures a current and a voltage supplied to said at least a portion of said system, and wherein said system further comprises a processor for computing a power waveform from said current and said voltage and filtering said power waveform to produce said multiple time-frame measurements. 19. The system of claim 10,comprising multiple devices connected to said power supply, each including a power measurement circuit for determining a local power component of said power output, and a processor for controlling a power management state of at least one component within said device in conformity with said local power component. 20. The system of claim 10, comprising multiple devices connected to said power supply, each including a power measurement circuit for determining a local power component of said power output, and wherein said local power component of each of said device is communicated from each device to said global power management controller, and wherein said global power management controller controls a power management state of said at least one power managed device in response to a set of local power components received from said devices. 21. A method for calibrating a power supply power measurement, wherein said power measurement comprises measuring a differential voltage drop across a sense resistor in series with an output of said power supply, said method comprising: connecting a first node of a precision reference resistor to an input node of said sense resistor; conducting a precise predetermined current level through said precision reference resistor to generate a voltage drop at a second node of said precision reference resistor; measuring a differential voltage between said second node of said precision reference resistor and said input node of said sense resistor to determine a reference current calibration value, whereby said reference current calibration value is obtained at approximately a common-mode voltage of said power supply output. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein said precise predetermined current level is derived from a precision voltage level and further comprising second measuring a voltage of said precision voltage source to determine a reference voltage calibration value. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein said precision voltage level is generated by conducting said precision predetermined current level through a second precision resistor. 24. The method of claim 21, further comprising: selecting between an output node of said sense resistor and said second node of said precision reference resistor; and filtering a voltage of said selected node through an anti-aliasing filter, whereby offset and non-linearity of said anti-aliasing filter that are reflected in said reference current calibration value can be removed in subsequent measurements. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein said precise predetermined current level is derived from a precision voltage level and further comprising: second measuring a voltage of said precision voltage source to determine a reference voltage calibration value; second selecting between an input node of said sense resistor and said precision voltage source; and second filtering a voltage of said second selected node through a second anti-aliasing filter, whereby offset and non-linearity of said second anti-aliasing filter are reflected in said reference voltage calibration value can be removed in subsequent measurements. 26. A calibration circuit for calibrating power measurements made on a power supply output that includes an inline sense resistor having an input node and an output node, said calibration circuit comprising: a precision current reference for producing a calibration current; a precision reference resistor coupled between an output of said precision current reference and said input node of said sense resistor, whereby said reference resistor continuously conducts said calibration current through said reference resistor; a selector having a first input coupled to said output node of said sense resistor and a second input coupled to said output of said precision current reference; a differential amplifier having a first input coupled to said input node of said sense resistor and a second input coupled to an output of said selector; and an analog-to-digital converter for generating a current calibration value corresponding to a voltage across said sense resistor, when said selector selects said output of said precision current reference, whereby said current calibration value is measured at a common-mode voltage of said power supply output. 27. The calibration circuit of claim 26, further comprising: a second precision resistor connected in functional series with said precision current reference for generating a precision reference voltage; and a second selector having a first input coupled to a common connection between said second precision resistor and said precision current reference and a second input coupled to said input node of said sense resistor, and wherein said second selector has an output selectably coupled to an input of said analog-to-digital converter, whereby a voltage calibration value is measured when said second selector is selected as input to said analog-to-digital converter and said second selector selects said a common connection between said second precision resistor and said precision current reference. 28. The calibration circuit of claim 26, further comprising an anti-aliasing filter coupled between said output of said first selector and said analog-to-digital converter for filtering a voltage of said selected node through an anti-aliasing filter, whereby offset and non-linearity of said anti-aliasing filter that are reflected in said reference current calibration value can be removed in subsequent measurements. 29. The calibration circuit of claim 28, further comprising a second anti-aliasing filter coupled between said output of said second selector and said analog-to-digital converter for filtering a voltage of said second selected node, whereby offset and non-linearity of said second anti-aliasing filter that are reflected in said voltage calibration value can be removed in subsequent measurements. 30. The calibration circuit of claim 27, further comprising an anti-aliasing filter coupled between said output of said second selector and said analog-to-digital converter for filtering a voltage of said second selected node through an anti-aliasing filter, whereby offset and non-linearity of said anti-aliasing filter that are reflected in said voltage calibration value can be removed in subsequent measurements. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is related to previously-filed copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/727,320, filed on Dec. 3, 2003 and entitled “METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR POWER MANAGEMENT INCLUDING LOCAL BOUNDING OF DEVICE GROUP POWER CONSUMPTION”, which is assigned to the same assignee. The specification of the above-referenced patent application is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention relates generally to power management in processing systems, and more particularly, to a power management scheme that uses multiple time frame power measurements to estimate power consumption changes and control system power consumption. 2. Description of the Related Art Present-day computing systems include sophisticated power-management schemes for a variety of reasons. For portable computers such as “notebook”, “laptop” and other portable units including personal digital assistants (PDAs), the primary power source is battery power. Intelligent power management extends battery life, and therefore the amount of time that a user can operate the system without connecting to a secondary source of power. Power management has also been implemented over “green systems” concerns so that power dissipated within a building is reduced for reasons of energy conservation and heat reduction. Recently, power management has become a requirement in line power connected systems, particularly high processing power cores and systems because the components and/or systems are now designed with total potential power consumption levels that either exceed power dissipation limits of individual integrated circuits or cabinets, or the total available power supply is not designed to be adequate for operation of all units simultaneously. For example, a multiprocessing system may be designed with multiple subsystems, but have a power supply system that cannot supply the maximum potential power required by each subsystem simultaneously. In another example, a processor may be designed with multiple execution units that cannot all operate simultaneously due to either an excessive power dissipation level or a problem in distributing the requisite current level throughout the processor without excessive voltage drop. The potential power available from a power supply does not have a single value, but typically is a relationship between power level and time in which greater power is available for shorter intervals up to a maximum power level beyond which the power supply will fail at any power level (either due to protection circuitry or absolute failure such as an over-current in a voltage-regulating device). Typically, information about changes in power consumption within a system is provided by either a static power measurement determined from current sensing and/or by thermal measurements that relate the accumulation of heat within the system to power consumption. Neither are sufficiently accurate for fine-grained power management schemes. Power management schemes requiring fine-grained power consumption information, such as that disclosed in the above-referenced Patent Application either measure current consumption at a fairly slow rate, or estimate power consumption based on calculations made in conformity with the power savings state of each device in the system. Current measurements lack accuracy in that they do not take into account the instantaneous voltage of the system power supply, which affects the accuracy of any power use calculation. Also, estimations based on device status are only approximations to the actual power consumed by the system. Even at the device level, the approximation is seldom accurate, as estimates of power from device or system load calculations or based on a total of activated sub-units do not accurately reflect the actual power consumption of the system. Further, the typical long term measurements made by the power subsystem are typically provided for control of thermal or current failure conditions and do not provide sufficient information for controlling short term variations in power consumption. Therefore, more power may actually be available in the short term than is actually used, or if the system is operated close to the power margin, short-term behavior may cause the system to exceed desired operating power levels. Power supply current measurements are also generally inaccurate for the purposes of fine-grained power management. In particular, current measurements made through a small voltage drop introduced at the output of a power supply are typically difficult to calibrate accurately without interrupting the power supplied to the system. It is therefore desirable to provide a method and system for providing power management within a processing system in response to a more accurate measurement of system and device power consumption that reflects both short term and long term constraints so that system power use may be optimized. It would further be desirable to provide a method and apparatus for calibrating the power measurement without interrupting power to the system. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The objective of providing power management within a processing system responsive to fine-grained power measurements is provided in a method and system for power measurement and management. The objective of calibrating the measurement without interrupting system power is provided in a method and apparatus for calibrating a power measurement. The method and system for power management measure power supplied by one or more power supplies over multiple time frames of differing lengths and then adjusting the system power consumption in response to the measurements. The measurements can then be compared to multiple thresholds in order to determine whether or not the system power is exceeding permissible consumption levels for any of the time frames. Alternatively, or in concert, measurements may also be compared to minimum thresholds so that system operation can be optimized when some in-demand devices are being power-managed. The method may be performed at the sub-unit level, by effectively measuring power consumption and bounding it at each device among multiple devices. Alternatively, the measurements may be conducted at the system or device level and communicated to a global power management algorithm that then power-manages the entire system. The power management hardware and/or software uses each one of a plurality of filters to determine the power supply current and voltage for each time frame and may be implemented by an A/D converter and filtering algorithms. The A/D converter is preceded by an anti-aliasing filter to improve accuracy of the measurements by removing frequency information greater than the Nyquist rate from the power supply voltage and current measurements. The calibration of the voltage measurement(s) is accomplished by measuring a precision voltage source. The calibration of the current measurement(s) is accomplished by generating a known voltage drop via a precision reference resistor and a precision current source controlled by the precision voltage source. The voltage drop is generated from the input node of the power supply sense resistor as is the current measurement voltage drop, so that the current calibration measurement is made differentially across the reference resistor while the actual current measurement is made differentially across the power supply sense resistor. The same anti-aliasing filters and A/D converters are used in the calibration process, so that any non-linearity and offset in the system at the common mode voltage are taken into account. The resulting measurements thus have the same common mode voltage at the sense resistor input node and can have a common mode voltage matched for precision at the second measurement node by selecting the current source and reference resistor appropriately. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following, more particular, description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The novel features believed characteristic of the invention are set forth in the appended claims. The invention itself, however, as well as a preferred mode of use, further objectives, and advantages thereof, will best be understood by reference to the following detailed description of an illustrative embodiment when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals indicate like components, and: FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a computing system in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a block diagram depicting a power supply measurement circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, including calibration circuits in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a block diagram depicting a power measurement unit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flowchart depicting a method in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENT The present invention concerns a technique for power management that relies on power supply current and voltage measurements to accurately measure power consumption of individual devices or an entire system and adjust power management settings up and/or down in conformity with the measurements. A novel measurement scheme provides power consumption information over multiple time scales by filtering (e.g., integrating) the current and voltage waveforms over multiple differing predetermined periods. The multiple time scale measurements provide for optimum use of available power and avoidance of power supply overload conditions for each time frame. Referring now to FIG. 1, a processing system is depicted in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. Processing subsystems 10A-10D illustrate identical sub-units of the overall system, and interconnection between processing subsystems 10A-10D is not detailed, nor are connections to peripheral devices. However, it should be understood that such connections and devices generally exist in processing systems and that the techniques of the present invention can be applied to peripheral devices within an processing system as well as electronic systems in general. A power supply unit (PSU) 16 provides power to processing subsystems 10A-10D and may comprise more than one power supply unit operating in tandem or may supply power to separate partitions of the system. A power measuring unit 12 is shown within PSU 16 as well as other measuring units 12A located within processing subsystem 10A. Sense devices (generally resistors) 18 and 18A provide power measuring units 12 and 12A with a measure of the current consumed either by the system (via sense device 18) or individual subsystems or device (via sense devices 18A). Sense devices 18 and 18A are shown separately to illustrate the high-side power supply connections to the subsystems (the power supply return paths are not shown). Measuring unit 12 will generally not be used if the distributed measuring units 12A are present, but is shown for completeness, as power measurements can be conducted at any level as long as they present a complete picture of either the total system power consumption that must be bounded, or of a local power consumption used to enforce a local bound such as that imposed by the above-incorporated Patent Application. Thus the techniques of the present invention can be used in conjunction with the techniques disclosed in the above-referenced patent applications, providing a mechanism by which local bounding of device power consumption can be enforced and optimized over differing time scales. Control of power consumption can be effected in a variety of manners. Within this application, reference to a “power-managed device” includes not only devices that change power consumption in response to power management commands, but devices or subsystems that include discrete power control electronics that isolate power supply lines from the devices or subsystems, or power supplies that supply subsystems that are responsive to commands or signals to disable primary output power. Local power management units (PMUs) 14A are illustrated within processing subsystems 10A to show the control path from the measurement units 12A to a destination that can adjust power consumption in response to the measurements of the present invention, and will generally be a processor and program instructions that provide power management in response to information received from measurement units 12A or measurement unit 12. However, in the alternative or in combination, information from measurement units 12A or measurement unit 12 can be sent to a global PMU 14 that controls device power management states from a top-down perspective. Generally, global PMU 14 is either operating system or BIOS program instructions that may be executing on any processor within processing subsystems 10A or another processor coupled to the depicted system. However, hardware implementations of global PMU 14 are contemplated for use within the system of the present invention, for example when a hardware controller controls banks of individual power supplies each for providing power to a subsystem or controls through signaling the power management state of multiple subsystems. In that example, the global PMU 14 signals the individual devices or power supplies to affect power management. Generally, both global PMU 14 and local PMUs 14A will be used in a system if local control is provided at all, because if all information and power use and control of power management states is contained at a local level, then only local bounding is supported and the total system power supply cannot be used in an optimal manner. For this reason, the present invention provides not only local multiple time-frame power waveforms for power consumption analysis and control, but sends either the waveform information directly or a composite function of the waveform information to global PMU 14. Global PMU 14 might not provide any direct power management control, but can adjust local bounds of each processing subsystem to optimize use of available power from PSU 16. Alternatively, or in concert, Global or local PMUs 14 and 14A may represent operating system or processor control functions such as the scheduler that affect power management control via scheduling more or less threads for a given processor, adjust CPU operating frequency, disable execution blocks within a processor or any other mechanism by which power management within a device or processor is effected. As such, the terminology “adjusting a power management state” should be understood to include the above techniques and should not be construed as limited to a particular power management command structure. Referring now to FIG. 2, a power measurement circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the invention including calibration circuits in accordance with another embodiment of the invention is shown. A 12V power supply input is received at PMU 22 through sense resistor Rs. The input side of sense resistor Rs is also connected to a differential amplifier Al. A selector 24A selects between the output terminal of sense resistor Rs and the output of a current measurement calibration circuit, so that when a Calibrate/Measure signal supplied by a service processor 29 is in the Calibrate state, the current measuring circuit is calibrated by measuring the voltage drop generated across a reference resistor Rr by a precision current reference formed by transistor Q1 resistor Rv, amplifier A2, zener diode VR1 and resistor R1. The current drawn through resistor Rr forms part of the power consumption of the device in which PMU 22 is located, and therefore should be a small current that does not reduce available power and resistor Rr is scaled so that the voltage drop across Rs and Rr are approximately equal under nominal operating conditions. The calibration of the current measurement circuit at the common-mode voltage of the power supply output (rather than at a particular voltage reference corresponding to the voltage drop across Rs as is typical) provides a calibration value free of non-linearity error at the common-mode voltage of the power supply, which can be substantial when amplifier A1 and selector 24A are operating near their own power supply rails (e.g., when no higher voltage source is available to power the measurement circuits). A voltage measurement portion of PMU 22 is provided through selector 24B which selects between a divided version of the power supply voltage provided by resistors R2 and R3 when the Calibrate/Measure signal is in the measurement state, and the reference voltage produced across resistor Rv when the Calibrate/Measure signal is in the calibration state. Both the voltage and current calibration or measurement signals are provided to the inputs of corresponding anti-aliasing filters 26B and 26A which removes harmonics from the power supply at greater frequency than the Nyquist rate (fs/2) and either the voltage or the current waveform is selected as input to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) 28. Service processor 29 then accumulates samples of both current and voltage waveforms, adjusts them by the calibration values obtained during periodic calibration intervals and provides filtering of the current and voltage waveforms according to multiple time-scales. In practice, the filtering algorithm may be an unweighted averaging algorithm or more sophisticated weighted filters and feedback-based digital filtering may be employed. Low pass filters or bandpass filters may be employed for the time-frame filters, although the longest time frame filter will generally-have a low pass characteristic. The use of bandpass filters would provide only relative change information in power consumption rather than absolute power consumption during the corresponding time frame, which complicates computation and is therefore generally not preferred. The filtered current and voltage waveforms corresponding to each time frame are then multiplied together to determine the actual power consumption of the device or system in each time frame. A set of three filters having time-scales of 1 ms, 60 ms, and 1 sec. has been tested and shown to provide adequate responsiveness to power consumption changes. However, any number of filters and waveforms may be used in accordance with the behavior of the system and the power supplies. Service processor 29 uses the power waveforms computed above to determine whether or not to adjust the power management state of one or more devices in the system. The devices are generally downstream of the power measurement, but this is not a limitation of the invention, as information about power consumption in one partition of the system is relevant to overall power consumption, and thus information about power consumption in one partition may be used to adjust power management levels in another. For example, in a system where the power management is increasing online availability of resources in response to determining that the demand-based power consumption of a particular device is lower than its budget, the system may then increase the resource availability in another device. In the exemplary embodiment, service processor 29 compares each time-frame power waveform with a maximum and minimum threshold and either performs power management control directly or communicates power management information to another unit, operating system or BIOS in order to effect power management in response to the comparisons. The multiple time-frame comparisons provide the power management scheme with the ability to use short-term higher levels of power than would be possible with a single time frame scheme. The multiple time-frame comparisons also provide a responsiveness that is typically higher than any thermal or normal power measurement so that changing conditions that may result in a failure may be detected quickly and averted. Referring now to FIG. 3, a power measurement unit in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is illustrated. The illustration provides a functional level description that may be implemented in analog, digital or switched-capacitor hardware, or may be implemented by a processor executing program instructions, such as service processor 29. The outputs of current measurement circuit 40A and voltage measurement circuit 40B are applied to sets of respective filters 42A-C and 42D-F that provide the multiple time-frame waveforms. A set of multipliers 46A-C then multiply the current and voltage waveforms to provide inputs to a comparison unit 44 that compares the time-frame power waveforms to maximum and/or minimum thresholds. Comparison unit 44 supplies information to local and/or global PMUs so that system and/or device power consumption can be adjusted in response to the comparisons. While the figure provides a concrete example of an architecture that implements the above-described power waveform computation and comparison, the depicted architecture should not be construed as limiting. For example, the filtering may be performed after a single multiplication of the outputs of current measurement circuit 40A and voltage measurement circuit 40B and the comparison unit may provide a more complex treatment of the resulting filtered power waveforms as a functional relationship between the power consumption trend and maximum and/or desired minimum power consumption. Alternatively also, the filter sets 42A-C and 42D-F may be sets of cascaded filters, with the shortest time-frame filter located first in the cascade and so forth. Referring now to FIG. 4, a power management method in accordance with an embodiment of the invention is depicted in a flowchart. First, calibration values for current and voltage measurements are taken (step 40) and maximum and/or minimum power consumption bounds for each time scale are determined (step 42). Current and voltage are then measured at each time-frame and power waveforms are calculated (step 44). Each time frame waveform is compared with the minimum and/or maximum constraints (step 46) and then if the power use is out of bound for a particular time scale (decision 48) the power management level of a device or devices is adjusted in conformity with the bounds comparison (step 50). The current and voltage measurement, power computation and comparisons are then repeated until the scheme is ended or the system is shut down (step 52). While the invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to the preferred embodiment thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes in form, and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention relates generally to power management in processing systems, and more particularly, to a power management scheme that uses multiple time frame power measurements to estimate power consumption changes and control system power consumption. 2. Description of the Related Art Present-day computing systems include sophisticated power-management schemes for a variety of reasons. For portable computers such as “notebook”, “laptop” and other portable units including personal digital assistants (PDAs), the primary power source is battery power. Intelligent power management extends battery life, and therefore the amount of time that a user can operate the system without connecting to a secondary source of power. Power management has also been implemented over “green systems” concerns so that power dissipated within a building is reduced for reasons of energy conservation and heat reduction. Recently, power management has become a requirement in line power connected systems, particularly high processing power cores and systems because the components and/or systems are now designed with total potential power consumption levels that either exceed power dissipation limits of individual integrated circuits or cabinets, or the total available power supply is not designed to be adequate for operation of all units simultaneously. For example, a multiprocessing system may be designed with multiple subsystems, but have a power supply system that cannot supply the maximum potential power required by each subsystem simultaneously. In another example, a processor may be designed with multiple execution units that cannot all operate simultaneously due to either an excessive power dissipation level or a problem in distributing the requisite current level throughout the processor without excessive voltage drop. The potential power available from a power supply does not have a single value, but typically is a relationship between power level and time in which greater power is available for shorter intervals up to a maximum power level beyond which the power supply will fail at any power level (either due to protection circuitry or absolute failure such as an over-current in a voltage-regulating device). Typically, information about changes in power consumption within a system is provided by either a static power measurement determined from current sensing and/or by thermal measurements that relate the accumulation of heat within the system to power consumption. Neither are sufficiently accurate for fine-grained power management schemes. Power management schemes requiring fine-grained power consumption information, such as that disclosed in the above-referenced Patent Application either measure current consumption at a fairly slow rate, or estimate power consumption based on calculations made in conformity with the power savings state of each device in the system. Current measurements lack accuracy in that they do not take into account the instantaneous voltage of the system power supply, which affects the accuracy of any power use calculation. Also, estimations based on device status are only approximations to the actual power consumed by the system. Even at the device level, the approximation is seldom accurate, as estimates of power from device or system load calculations or based on a total of activated sub-units do not accurately reflect the actual power consumption of the system. Further, the typical long term measurements made by the power subsystem are typically provided for control of thermal or current failure conditions and do not provide sufficient information for controlling short term variations in power consumption. Therefore, more power may actually be available in the short term than is actually used, or if the system is operated close to the power margin, short-term behavior may cause the system to exceed desired operating power levels. Power supply current measurements are also generally inaccurate for the purposes of fine-grained power management. In particular, current measurements made through a small voltage drop introduced at the output of a power supply are typically difficult to calibrate accurately without interrupting the power supplied to the system. It is therefore desirable to provide a method and system for providing power management within a processing system in response to a more accurate measurement of system and device power consumption that reflects both short term and long term constraints so that system power use may be optimized. It would further be desirable to provide a method and apparatus for calibrating the power measurement without interrupting power to the system. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The objective of providing power management within a processing system responsive to fine-grained power measurements is provided in a method and system for power measurement and management. The objective of calibrating the measurement without interrupting system power is provided in a method and apparatus for calibrating a power measurement. The method and system for power management measure power supplied by one or more power supplies over multiple time frames of differing lengths and then adjusting the system power consumption in response to the measurements. The measurements can then be compared to multiple thresholds in order to determine whether or not the system power is exceeding permissible consumption levels for any of the time frames. Alternatively, or in concert, measurements may also be compared to minimum thresholds so that system operation can be optimized when some in-demand devices are being power-managed. The method may be performed at the sub-unit level, by effectively measuring power consumption and bounding it at each device among multiple devices. Alternatively, the measurements may be conducted at the system or device level and communicated to a global power management algorithm that then power-manages the entire system. The power management hardware and/or software uses each one of a plurality of filters to determine the power supply current and voltage for each time frame and may be implemented by an A/D converter and filtering algorithms. The A/D converter is preceded by an anti-aliasing filter to improve accuracy of the measurements by removing frequency information greater than the Nyquist rate from the power supply voltage and current measurements. The calibration of the voltage measurement(s) is accomplished by measuring a precision voltage source. The calibration of the current measurement(s) is accomplished by generating a known voltage drop via a precision reference resistor and a precision current source controlled by the precision voltage source. The voltage drop is generated from the input node of the power supply sense resistor as is the current measurement voltage drop, so that the current calibration measurement is made differentially across the reference resistor while the actual current measurement is made differentially across the power supply sense resistor. The same anti-aliasing filters and A/D converters are used in the calibration process, so that any non-linearity and offset in the system at the common mode voltage are taken into account. The resulting measurements thus have the same common mode voltage at the sense resistor input node and can have a common mode voltage matched for precision at the second measurement node by selecting the current source and reference resistor appropriately. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following, more particular, description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings. | 20050111 | 20080401 | 20060713 | 61576.0 | G06F126 | 0 | WANG, ALBERT C | METHOD, SYSTEM AND CALIBRATION TECHNIQUE FOR POWER MEASUREMENT AND MANAGEMENT OVER MULTIPLE TIME FRAMES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,005 |
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11,032,917 | ACCEPTED | Multipurpose folding tool with easily accessible outer blades | A multipurpose hand tool with folding handles each including a central channel to receive pliers jaws or the like when the tool is folded, and including troughs holding outer blades alongside the central channel so that the outer blades can be opened without unfolding the tool. The troughs face opposite the direction of the central channels, and the bases of the outer troughs act as comfortable places to grip the handles when they are extended for use of the pliers. Blade locking mechanisms are incorporated in the walls of the central channels to lock each of the outer blades in an extended position. | 1. A multipurpose hand tool, comprising: (a) a pair of pivotally interconnected cooperatively functional members each having a base; (b) a pair of handles, at least one of said pair of handles having a first end attached pivotally to said base of a respective one of said cooperatively functional members, said one of said handles defining a central channel having a pair of channel walls, and said tool having a folded configuration, in which said cooperatively functional members are stowed at least partially within said central channel, and an open configuration, in which said cooperatively functional members are extended away from said handles and said central channel faces outwardly away from the other of said pair of handles; and (c) at least said one of said handles including a pair of side wing portions, each of said side wing portions extending outwardly away from said channel walls of said central channel and being curved arcuately, extending thence parallel with and alongside a respective one of said channel walls of said central channel, each said side wing portion thus having an arcuately convex outer surface available as a comfortable hand grip surface when said tool is in said open configuration. 2. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 1 wherein at least said one of said handles that includes said pair of side wing portions has an outer blade mounted thereon and pivotally movable about a handle-folding pivot axis thereof, between an extended position and a stowed position adjacent a respective one of said side wing portions. 3. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 2 wherein said outer blade has a tang defining an arcuately concave front margin. 4. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 3 wherein said arcuately concave front margin provides clearance for movement of a tang of an outer blade mounted similarly on an opposite one of said pair of handles when said tool is in said folded configuration. 5. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 2 wherein at least said one of said handles of said hand tool includes a blade pivot shaft defining said handle-folding pivot axis thereof and having a radially outwardly-extending outer axial bearing located thereon, alongside a portion of said outer blade. 6. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 5 wherein said blade pivot shaft extends laterally outward from one of said walls of said central channel and is supported with respect to said one of said handles only by said walls of said central channel. 7. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 2 wherein said outer blade has a tang and said at least one of said handles having said outer blade includes a blade locking member having a locking face and including a spring leg urging said locking face into contact against said tang of said outer blade. 8. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 7 wherein said locking face engages an angled surface on said tang of said outer blade when said outer blade is in said extended position. 9. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 7 wherein said tang overlaps said blade locking member preventing said locking face from lockingly engaging said tang except when said outer blade is substantially in said extended position. 10. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 7 wherein said outer blade includes a lateral projection, said lateral projection engaging said locking member when said blade is in said stowed position in said side trough. 11. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 10 wherein said locking member defines a notch and said lateral projection is located extending into said notch when said outer blade is in said stowed position. 12. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 10 wherein said locking member is laterally movable and is interconnected with one of said channel walls of said central channel, said locking member having a margin defining a receptacle for said lateral projection. 13. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 7 wherein said outer blade includes a lateral projection and said at least one of said handles includes an abutment surface located proximate an end of said central channel, said projection engaging said abutment surface when said outer blade is in said extended position. 14. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 7, said outer blade being mounted on a blade pivot shaft and said blade pivot shaft having an axial bearing located thereon holding said outer blade on said blade pivot shaft, said axial bearing projecting alongside said locking member. 15. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 2 wherein said outer blade has a projection extending laterally inward toward said central channel of a respective one of said pair of handles on which said outer blade is mounted, said projection being located on said outer blade so as to engage said respective one of said pair of handles when said outer blade is in said extended position and when said outer blade is in said stowed position, thereby preventing said outer blade from moving in a respective direction beyond either said extended position or said stowed position. 16. The multipurpose hand tool of claim 15 wherein said outer blade has a tang and said at least one of said pair of handles includes an abutment surface located proximate an end of said central channel, and wherein said projection is formed as an integral part of said tang and has a flat face directed toward said at least one of said pair of handles and in contact with said abutment surface when said outer blade is in said extended position. | This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/447,023, filed May 27, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. ______, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/837,139, filed Apr. 17, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,588,040, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/484,605, filed Jan. 18, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,216,301, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/961,055, filed Oct. 30, 1997, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,014,787. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to multipurpose hand tools, and in particular relates to such a tool having channel shaped handles which may be folded with respect to each other and other parts of the tool, providing a compact nested tool which permits certain blades to be opened into extended positions without unfolding the handles. Applicant's assignee is the manufacturer of folding multipurpose tools similar to the tools disclosed in Leatherman U.S. Pat. No. 4,238,862 and Leatherman U.S. Pat. No. 4,744,272, as well as those described in U.S. Patents Nos. 5,745,997 and 5,743,582. All of the above-mentioned tools manufactured by applicant's assignee include handles having the form of generally U-shaped channels. These handles fold around the bases of respective ones of a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws, thus housing the jaws within the channels, placing the tool in a compact form so it can be carried easily on one's person. Tool blades or bits, such as knife blades, screwdriver bits, and can openers, can also be stowed within the channel-shaped handles, and selected ones of these blades and bits can be extended individually for use. Extending a selected one of such blades or bits, however, requires that the handles be spread apart from one another while the selected blade is pivoted from its stowed position within the channel to its extended position. Thereafter, the handles should be replaced alongside each other to serve best as a handle for the selected blade. When the pliers or other pivoted-jaw or pivoted-blade tool is used the handles are extended with respect to the bases of the pivotally interconnected jaws or blades. In this configuration the channels face openly outward, away from each other, with the channel bottoms of the handles facing toward each other. Depending upon the thickness of the material of which the channels are formed, the edges of the channel walls, thus facing outwardly, may be uncomfortable to one's hand when the handles are squeezed together during use of the pliers or similar tool. While in some similar tools narrow strips along the edges of the channel walls have been folded inward to lie tightly alongside the walls and present a folded margin, this gives only a slight improvement in comfort and adds to the cost of manufacture. It is desirable in a multipurpose folding tool for a blade or tool bit, particularly a knife blade, not to be able to fold unintentionally with respect to its handle during use. While springs and cams have been used previously to keep a selected blade or tool bit of a multipurpose folding tool in its extended position of use, it is desired to have a more positive way to keep such a blade or tool bit extended during use. It is also desired to be able easily to open a selected one of a group of most commonly used blades. In some cases it is desirable to open such a blade without having to use more than one hand. Not only should a multipurpose tool be capable of performing several different functions, the tool should be capable of being manufactured at a reasonable cost without sacrificing quality, as evidenced, for example, by smooth movement of individual blades between stowed and extended positions, and by reliable retention of blades in their operative positions during use. What is desired, then, is an improved multipurpose folding tool offering easy access to certain blades and comfortable use of tools with a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws, such as pliers or shears, yet which is able to be manufactured with reliably high quality at a moderate cost. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention overcomes the previously mentioned shortcomings of the prior art and answers the aforesaid needs by providing a multipurpose folding tool including handles which are more comfortable than those of previous tools of the same general type. Such handles each hold at least one blade available to be moved between respective stowed and extended positions while the tool remains with its handles undisturbed in a folded configuration with a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws housed between the handles. In a preferred embodiment of the invention each handle includes a central channel and a pair of side troughs, one on each side of the central channel, and facing oppositely from the central channel, so that the side troughs face openly apart from each other when the tool is in its folded configuration in which the central channel contains the pivotally interconnected pair of jaws. In a preferred embodiment of the invention an outer surface of a base of each of the side troughs is disposed outwardly in position to be grasped by a user's hand when the handles of the tool are extended with respect to the interconnected pliers jaws or the like for the use of those jaws. In one embodiment of the invention a main member of each of the handles is made by cutting a blank from a single sheet of material and bending it to a required shape, to define both the central channel and the side troughs. In one embodiment of the invention a pair of blade locking members are defined respectively in the opposite sidewalls of the central channel, to lock in extended positions blades normally housed in the side troughs. In a preferred embodiment of the invention cutter tool blades which can be housed in the side troughs of the handle are attached to the handle on pivot shafts on which axial bearing members retain each outer tool blade independently of the portions of the handle defining the side troughs. It is a significant feature of a tool which is one embodiment of the invention that each outer blade that can be housed in a side trough of the handle mentioned above includes a laterally extending portion which cooperates with the handle to support such a blade in its extended position and cooperates also with a locking member defined in a sidewall of a central channel of the handle to limit movement of such a blade in its stowed position. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of a multipurpose tool according to the present invention showing its several blades and bits each in a partially extended position and the handles in a partially unfolded position so that a pair of pliers jaws included in the tool are in view. FIG. 2 is a right side view of the multipurpose tool shown in FIG. 1 with the several blades and bits in their respective stowed positions and the handles extended for use of the pliers included as part of the tool. FIG. 3 is a right side view of the multipurpose tool shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 in a completely folded configuration. FIG. 4 is a top view of the folded tool shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a bottom view of the folded tool shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 6 is a pliers jaw pivot end view of the folded tool shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 7 is a tool bit pivot, or outer, end view of the folded multipurpose tool shown in-FIG. 3. FIG. 8 is a left side view of the folded tool shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 9 is a right side view of the tool shown in FIGS. 1-8, at an enlarged scale, partially cut away to show the locations of pliers jaws and screwdriver bits within the central channels of the handle of the tool. FIG. 10 is a side view of the main element of one of the handles of the tool shown in FIGS. 1-9. FIG. 11 is a section view taken along line 11-11 of FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a view of the handle element shown in FIG. 10, taken in the direction indicated by the line 12-12 in FIG. 10. FIG. 13 is a view of the handle portion of the tool shown in FIG. 2, taken along the line 13-13 of FIG. 2. FIG. 14 is a right side view of the tool, similar to FIG. 3 except that the file is shown in its extended position. FIG. 15 is a partially cutaway view of a portion of the tool shown in FIG. 14, at an enlarged scale. FIG. 16 is a view of the portion of a tool shown in FIG. 15, taken in the direction of the line 16-16. FIG. 17 is a view, at an enlarged scale, of the portion of a tool shown in FIGS. 15 and 16, with the file shown in a position between the closed position shown in FIG. 3 and the extended position shown in FIG. 14. FIG. 18 is a section view of one of the outer blades of the tool, taken along line 18-18 of FIG. 1, at an enlarged scale. FIG. 19 is a section view, at an enlarged scale, of one of the handles of the tool, together with several tool bits and a folding scissors, all in their stowed positions, taken along line 19-19 of FIG. 2. FIG. 20 is a partially cutaway view, at an enlarged scale, of a portion of one handle of the folding tool shown in FIG. 1, together with a lanyard attachment ear. FIG. 21 is a partially cutaway view of portions of a tool which is an alternative embodiment of the present invention, in a folded configuration and showing the manner of attachment of one or more removable outer blades. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the several views of the drawings which form a part of the disclosure herein, in FIG. 1, a multipurpose tool which is one embodiment of the present invention includes a pair of pliers jaws 32 interconnected pivotally with each other at a pivot joint 34 defined by a suitable fastener such as a rivet defining an axis of rotation 35 of the pivot joint 34, about which the pliers jaws 32 pivot with respect to each other. Each pliers jaw 32 includes a tapered tip 36 and a respective base portion or tang 38 separated from each other by the pivot joint 34. A pair of handles 40 attached to the pliers jaws 32 are substantially similar to each other. The handles 40 are arranged to be movable about respective handle-folding pivot axes 42 parallel with the axis of rotation 35 defined by the pivot joint 34, between extended positions with respect to the pliers jaws 32, as shown in FIG. 2, and a folded configuration of the tool 30, as shown in FIGS. 3-9. Preferably, each tang 38 has a cam surface 39 in the form of a part of a circular cylinder contacted by the respective handle 40 with sufficient pressure to keep the handles 40 from moving too freely about the pivot axes 42. Several tool bits or blades are mounted on a respective pivot shaft 46 located at an outer end 44 of each handle 40. For example, in one of the handles 40 are a bottle or can opener 48, a modified Phillips-type screwdriver 50, and a largest straight screwdriver blade 52, as well as a lanyard attachment ear 54. At the outer end 44 of the other one of the handles 40 are a pair of folding scissors 56, a small-medium screwdriver 58, a medium screwdriver 60, and a small screwdriver 62. All of the various tool blades and bits mounted at an outer end 44 are shorter than the length 64 of the handles 40, and can be stowed by being folded into stowage positions within a central channel 66 (FIG. 9), still leaving room for the jaws 32 also to be stowed within the central channels 66 when the tool 30 is folded into the configuration shown in FIGS. 3-9. The multipurpose tool 30 also includes four more tools that for convenience will be referred to as outer blades, each mounted for rotation about a respective one of the pivot axes 42. These tools include, as shown in FIG. 1, a saw blade 68, a sheep's foot knife blade 70 with a scalloped edge, a clip point knife blade 72, and a file 74, although other tools might be provided instead. As the multipurpose tool 30 is shown in FIGS. 2-8, all of the just-mentioned outer blades are stowed, each in a respective side trough 76 or 78. Each handle 40 includes a side trough 76 housing the respective one of the knife blades 70 and 72, as well as an opposite side trough 78 in which either the saw blade 68 or the file 74 can be received. Since the central channel 66 holds the pliers jaws 32 and several blades or bits side-by-side it may be about three times as wide as either of the side troughs 76 or 78. Referring next in particular to FIGS. 10-13, showing the construction of the handles 40, it will be seen that a principal element 80 of each handle 40 is made from a single sheet of material such as metal which is preferably cut to the required shape when flat and bent thereafter to define the shape of the central channel 66 and each of the side troughs 76 and 78. Preferably, the handles 40 may be made of steel, for example, type 420 stainless steel sheet with a nominal thickness of 0.040 inch (1.02 mm), cut to shape using conventional fine-blanking technology. The blank is bent when soft and is heat treated thereafter to be relatively hard and to provide resiliency for the required spring action. In particular, as shown in FIGS. 10 and 11, the blank 80 is bent parallel with a longitudinal axis of the handles 40 to form the two side troughs 76 and 78 and the central channel 66. The central channel 66 is defined by a pair of parallel channel walls 82 and 84 which are symmetrically opposite and which are interconnected by a channel base 86 which is generally planar, defining a base plane 87. The channel base 86 presses against the cam surface 39 of the associated pliers jaw 32 throughout substantially all of the range of movement of the jaws 32 relative to the handle 42, so that the channel walls 82 and 84 need not be squeezed into contact with the sides of the tang 38 to provide a desired amount of friction between the handle 40 and pliers jaw tang 38. The side troughs 76 and 78 are defined, respectively, by side wing portions 88 and 90, which extend outward away from the channel walls 82 and 84 and are curved arcuately, extending thence parallel with the channel walls 82 and 84. Preferably, the bases 92 and 94 of the side troughs 76 and 78 have base outer surfaces that each include about one-fourth of a circular cylinder having a radius 102 of at least about 3 mm and preferably about 4 mm, extending along the length of the handle 40. A respective side trough base portion 92 or 94 is thus much wider than the mere thickness of the associated central channel wall 82 or 84, providing a greatly increased surface area on which to press when gripping the extended handles 40 to operate the pliers or other pivotally paired jaws or blades included in such a multipurpose tool. The wing portions 88 and 90 each extend thence parallel with the channel walls 82 and 84, toward the base plane 87, far enough to protect the respective one of the outer blades 68, 70, 72 and 74, at least about half of the way and, preferably, the entire distance to the base plane 87 in order to provide a more pleasing appearance. Near a first end of each handle 40, a pair of parallel support flanges 96 are extensions of the central channel walls 82 and 84. The support flanges 96 define oppositely-located pivot pin holes 98 aligned to define a pivot axis 100. Each flange 96 includes an abutment face 104 substantially perpendicular to a main plane of the flange 96. A concave cutout 106 is provided on one margin of each flange 96 and provides clearance for a corner 107 of the flange 96 of the opposite handle 40, as one of the handles 40 is opened apart from the other or closed toward the other, as in moving between the folded configuration of the tool 30, shown in FIG. 3, and the pliers-use configuration shown in FIG. 2. The cutout 106 also helps define a finger rest for delicate use of the pliers. Each of the central channel side walls 82 and 84 is cut to define a blade locking member 108 as an integral part of the handle element 80. The blade locking members 108 are mirror images of each other, each including a narrow base portion 110 and a wider outer end portion 112 extending toward the base 86 of the central channel. The base portions 110 are bent so that each blade locking member 108 projects at a slight angle outwardly from parallelism with a respective one of the channel side walls 82 and 84 into the adjacent one of the side troughs 76 and 78, as may be seen best in FIG. 12. A small detent bump 114, formed on each blade locking member 108 by a coining or extruding step, projects laterally outward away from the central channel 66. Each blade locking member defines a notch 116 in its margin facing in the direction of the central channel base portion 86. The base portion 86 of the central channel is stiffened between the blade locking members 108 by a rib 118 formed in the material. At the opposite end of each handle 40, a pair of flanges 120 extend longitudinally beyond the wing portions 88 and 90, as extensions of the central channel side walls 82 and 84. A spring 122, optionally stiffened by a formed rib 124, extends from the channel base portion 86 between the flanges 120. Respective bolsters 126 shown best in FIGS. 1 and 13 fit on the flanges 120 as part of each handle 40. The bolsters 126 are of suitable hard material such as aluminum or brass, configured to provide a comfortable rounded shape for the outer ends 44 of the handles 40, and are aligned with the ends of the side wings 88 and 90. When the handles 40 are extended with respect to the pliers jaws into the configuration illustrated in FIG. 2, the outer surfaces of the bases 92 and 94 of the troughs 76 and 78 and the surfaces of the bolsters 126 provide a comfortable grip during use of the pliers. Additionally, surfaces of at least portions of the backs of the several screwdrivers 50, 52, 58, 60 and 62, the scissors 56, and the container opener 48 are also located in a plane tangent to the base outer surfaces of the bases 92 and 94 of the respective handle 40, providing additional area on which to exert pressure in squeezing the handles 40 together while using the pliers. As may be seen in FIG. 9, the positions of the Phillips screwdriver 50 and the small-medium screwdriver 58, when they are stowed within the respective central channel 66, provide room for the pliers jaw tips 36 to extend along and between portions of those screwdriver blades, which are located centrally of the width of the central channel 66. The screwdriver blades 58 and 50 rotate about the pivot shaft 46 through an angle greater 180° to reach their fully extended positions. Referring next to FIGS. 14,15,16 and 17, the four outer blades located in the side troughs 76 and 78, that is, the saw 68, file 74, or either of the knife blades 70 and 72 can be moved about the respective pivot axis 42 from their stowed positions shown in FIGS. 3 and 8 to a fully opened or extended position such as that of the file 74 as shown in FIG. 14, and without having to disturb any of the other tool bits or blades without the necessity of moving either of the handles 40 with respect to the other from the completely folded configuration of the multipurpose folding tool 30 shown in FIG. 3. Each of these outer blades is held in its extended position by a respective locking mechanism including the blade locking member 108. An access opening 130 is provided in the side wing 90 of each handle 40 to give access to a notch 132 defined in the outer end of the file 74 and similarly in the outer end of the saw blade 68, to initiate movement of the file 74 or saw blade 68 from its stowed position within the respective one of the side troughs 78. Each of the four outer blades includes a base or tang portion 134 defining a through hole 136. A blade pivot shaft 138 defining the pivot axis 42 extends transversely of each handle, through the pivot pin holes 98 in the support flanges 96 and through an opening 139 defined through tang 38 of the respective one of the pliers jaws 32 (FIG. 9). Each of a pair of radially extending flange-like outer axial bearings 140 is attached to a respective end of the pivot shaft 138. Each of the saw blades 68, sheeps foot blade 70, clip point blade 72 and file 74 is thus attached to the respective one of the handles 40 and held snugly alongside an adjacent one of the support flanges 96 by the respective axial bearing 140, and can be rotated about the handle pivot shaft 138. As may best be seen in FIG. 16, handle pivot shaft 138 has a cylindrical outer surface and may have female threads in each of its opposite ends, to receive corresponding screws 141 to attach each of the axle bearings 140 to a respective end of the shaft 138. Preferably the shaft 138 is no longer than the minimum distance through a pair of opposite outer blades together with the support flanges 96 and associated pliers jaw tang 38. Each of the screws 141 is mated with a respective end of the shaft 138 and adjusted to provide the desired small amount of axial clearance between the bearings 140 and the respective adjacent ones of the outer blades. The screws 141 are retained in such adjusted positions by use of an adhesive interconnecting the threads of the screw 141 and the pivot shaft 138. Alternatively, one end of the pivot shaft 138 may include a bearing 140 as an integral part of the shaft 138, while a bearing 140 may be formed as the head of a screw 141 mated with female threads defined by the other end of the shaft,138. To keep each of the outer blades in the desired stowed position within its respective one of the side troughs 76 and 78, a dimple 142 is defined in the inwardly facing side of the tang 134 in a position aligned to fit over and engage the corresponding detent bump 114 of the blade locking member 108. The elastic bias of each blade locking member 108 urges the blade locking member 108 toward a respective tang 134 and tends to keep the detent bump 114 engaged within the dimple 142 to retain the respective blade in its stowed position within the respective side trough 76 or 78 until it is intentionally moved. Each tang 134 also has a lateral projection 144 that extends inwardly toward the central channel 66 of the handle 40. The lateral projection 144 may be formed by a step of coining or extrusion, leaving a cavity 145 on the opposite side of the tang 134, but the lateral projection 144 could also be a pin mounted in a hole in the tang. The lateral projection 144 rests within and snugly against the bottom of the notch 116 when the detent bump 114 is engaged within the dimple 142, thus preventing the particular outer blade from moving too deeply into the side trough 76 or 78. When an outer blade such as the file 74 is in the extended position, as shown in FIGS. 15 and 16, the outer end 112 of the blade locking member 108 is urged laterally outward by its elastic bias and engages a locking surface 146 of the tang 134, and a limiting surface 148 of the lateral projection 144, oriented transversely with respect to the length of the outer blade, rests against the abutment portion 104 of the respective support flange 96. The locking surface 146 is oriented at a small angle 147 with respect to a plane perpendicular to the wall 82 or 84 of the central channel, as shown in FIG. 16. The blade locking member 108 thus prevents the file 74 from rotating clockwise as seen in FIG. 15, while the engagement of the limiting surface 148 of the lateral projection 144 against the abutment portion 104 prevents the file from rotating counterclockwise as seen in FIG. 15. Similar engagement of the locking surface 148 of the lateral projection 144 of the tang or base 134 of the saw blade 68 or one of the knife blades 70 or 72 prevents each saw or knife blade from collapsing during use of the cutting edge of the blade. The location of the projection 144 near the back of each outer blade provides a suitably long moment arm about the pivot axis 42 to withstand the expected stresses. Preferably, the axial bearing 140 is large enough radially to overlap the outer end 112 of the adjacent blade locking member 108 to keep it aligned with the locking surface 146 when the adjacent outer blade is in the extended position, despite wear of the outer end 112 or locking surface 146. As may be seen in FIG. 17, each outer blade base or tang 134 overlaps the outer end 112 of the locking member 108. This overlap is present for any position of rotation of the tang 134 about axis 42 except when the respective outer blade 68, 70, 72 or 74 is in or very nearly in its extended position, so that unless engaged by either the locking member 108 or the detent bump 114, each outer blade is free to pivot about the respective axis 42. Each tang 134 has an arcuately concave front margin 150 that provides clearance, as shown in FIG. 17, for the outer corner 151 of the tang 134 to pass along the concave front margin 150 of the opposite tang 134 as one of the outer tool blades is opened. Since the locking surface 146 extends to the corner 151 it provides a sufficiently long moment arm about the pivot axis 42 to be acted on by the outer end 112 of the blade locking member 108. Additionally, the concave surface 150 corresponds in shape with the concave surface 106 on each of the support flanges 96 so that the concave surfaces 106 and 150 together provide a comfortable position for placement of a user's fingers, particularly when doing delicate work, with the handles 40 extended for use of the pliers jaws 32. A selected outer blade such as the file 74 is released from its extended position as shown in FIG. 14 to be returned to its stowed position by exerting sufficient inward pressure against the blade locking member 108 to move the outer end 112 toward the central channel 66 far enough to provide room for the tang 134 to move alongside the outer end 112. As may be seen clearly in FIGS. 14 and 15, a margin 152 of each side wing 88 is shaped to expose a blade-opening hole 154 defined in each knife blade 70 and 72, so that the hole 154 can be engaged by a user's thumb to move either of the knife blades 70 and 72 from its stowed position within the respective one of the side troughs 76 to an open position. Preferably, as shown in FIG. 18, a back portion 156 of each blade 70 or 72 has a pair of opposite parallel flat faces 158 which extend to a margin of the blade-opening hole 154, while the thickness of the blade is tapered on faces 159 beginning at a margin of the back portion 156, so that the opposite, or inner side 160, of the blade-opening hole 154 is defined by a thinner portion of the blade. As a result, an overhang portion 162 of an interior surface of the blade-opening hole 154 is exposed to make it easy for a user to engage the blade-opening hole 154. At the outer end 44 of each handle, the pivot shaft 46 is of construction similar to that of the handle pivot shaft 138 and retains the bolsters 126 and the several tool bits or blades located at the outer end 44 of the particular one of the handles 40. As shown in FIG. 19, the screwdriver blades 58, 60 and 62 are located between the central channel walls 82 and 84, together with the folding scissors 56 which are essentially similar to the folding scissors disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,745,997, of which the disclosure is hereby incorporated herein by reference. In order to provide the required interaction between the spring 122 located at the outer end 44 of the handle 40 and the base of the screwdriver blades 58, 60 and 62, while also providing interaction of the spring 122 with the base of the scissors 56, a portion 161 of the spring 122 may be offset slightly inward toward the bases of the screwdriver blades 58,60, and 62 as shown in FIG. 19. The lanyard attachment ear 54, as shown in FIG. 20, includes latch surfaces 162 and 164 which interact with the spring 122 of the handle 40 in which it is included in such a way that the lanyard attachment ear 54 remains either extended as shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 20, or stowed within the handle 40 as shown in FIG. 3, despite opening and closing of the tool bits 48,50, and 52 located on the same pivot shaft 46. The latch surface 162 or 164 remains engaged with spring 122 as the tip 166 of the spring 122 is moved by the cams of the bases of the tool bits 48, 50, and 52 during most of the range of movement of any of them in opening and closing. The lanyard ear thus remains in or conveniently close to the desired location despite movement of the tool bits. As an optional embodiment of the present invention, shown in FIG. 21, a file blade 74 or saw blade 68 may be made to be removed easily from the multipurpose folding tool 30 for replacement after extended use. Such removal is made possible by incorporation of a blade pivot shaft 168 having a pair parallel flat surfaces 170. Preferably, a hole of corresponding shape in the support flange 169 of the tool handle 40′, otherwise similar to the previously described handles 40, prevents the shaft 168 from rotating. A tang 172 of such a removable saw blade, file, or other blade includes a pivot opening 174 of generally circular configuration having a diameter 176 equal to the diameter 178 of the shaft 168, and has a mouth 180 extending radially from the pivot opening 174. The mouth 180 has a width 182 slightly greater than the separation 184 between the flat surfaces 170 of the handle pivot shaft 168, and oriented at an angle 186 with respect to a longitudinal axis 188 of the saw blade or file. The angle 186 is preferably about 55°, so that the mouth 180 is not aligned with the flat surfaces 170 when the file or saw blade is in either its extended or its stowed position. This alignment allows the mouth 180 to slide along the flat surfaces 170 to permit the tang 172 to be removed from the handle pivot shaft 168, however, when the longitudinal axis 188 of the file or saw blade is oriented at a corresponding oblique angle with respect to the handle 40. As a result, saw and file blades 68 and 74 can be replaced easily when worn out. Preferably, the axial bearing 140 associated with the blade pivot shaft 168 is large enough to overlap the outer end 112 of the adjacent blade locking member 108 to prevent it from moving too far laterally when the saw 68 or file 74 has been removed. The terms and expressions which have been employed in the foregoing specification are used therein as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention, in the use of such terms and expressions, of excluding equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, it being recognized that the scope of the invention is defined and limited only by the claims which follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to multipurpose hand tools, and in particular relates to such a tool having channel shaped handles which may be folded with respect to each other and other parts of the tool, providing a compact nested tool which permits certain blades to be opened into extended positions without unfolding the handles. Applicant's assignee is the manufacturer of folding multipurpose tools similar to the tools disclosed in Leatherman U.S. Pat. No. 4 , 238 , 862 and Leatherman U.S. Pat. No. 4,744,272, as well as those described in U.S. Patents Nos. 5,745,997 and 5,743,582. All of the above-mentioned tools manufactured by applicant's assignee include handles having the form of generally U-shaped channels. These handles fold around the bases of respective ones of a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws, thus housing the jaws within the channels, placing the tool in a compact form so it can be carried easily on one's person. Tool blades or bits, such as knife blades, screwdriver bits, and can openers, can also be stowed within the channel-shaped handles, and selected ones of these blades and bits can be extended individually for use. Extending a selected one of such blades or bits, however, requires that the handles be spread apart from one another while the selected blade is pivoted from its stowed position within the channel to its extended position. Thereafter, the handles should be replaced alongside each other to serve best as a handle for the selected blade. When the pliers or other pivoted-jaw or pivoted-blade tool is used the handles are extended with respect to the bases of the pivotally interconnected jaws or blades. In this configuration the channels face openly outward, away from each other, with the channel bottoms of the handles facing toward each other. Depending upon the thickness of the material of which the channels are formed, the edges of the channel walls, thus facing outwardly, may be uncomfortable to one's hand when the handles are squeezed together during use of the pliers or similar tool. While in some similar tools narrow strips along the edges of the channel walls have been folded inward to lie tightly alongside the walls and present a folded margin, this gives only a slight improvement in comfort and adds to the cost of manufacture. It is desirable in a multipurpose folding tool for a blade or tool bit, particularly a knife blade, not to be able to fold unintentionally with respect to its handle during use. While springs and cams have been used previously to keep a selected blade or tool bit of a multipurpose folding tool in its extended position of use, it is desired to have a more positive way to keep such a blade or tool bit extended during use. It is also desired to be able easily to open a selected one of a group of most commonly used blades. In some cases it is desirable to open such a blade without having to use more than one hand. Not only should a multipurpose tool be capable of performing several different functions, the tool should be capable of being manufactured at a reasonable cost without sacrificing quality, as evidenced, for example, by smooth movement of individual blades between stowed and extended positions, and by reliable retention of blades in their operative positions during use. What is desired, then, is an improved multipurpose folding tool offering easy access to certain blades and comfortable use of tools with a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws, such as pliers or shears, yet which is able to be manufactured with reliably high quality at a moderate cost. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention overcomes the previously mentioned shortcomings of the prior art and answers the aforesaid needs by providing a multipurpose folding tool including handles which are more comfortable than those of previous tools of the same general type. Such handles each hold at least one blade available to be moved between respective stowed and extended positions while the tool remains with its handles undisturbed in a folded configuration with a pair of pivotally interconnected jaws housed between the handles. In a preferred embodiment of the invention each handle includes a central channel and a pair of side troughs, one on each side of the central channel, and facing oppositely from the central channel, so that the side troughs face openly apart from each other when the tool is in its folded configuration in which the central channel contains the pivotally interconnected pair of jaws. In a preferred embodiment of the invention an outer surface of a base of each of the side troughs is disposed outwardly in position to be grasped by a user's hand when the handles of the tool are extended with respect to the interconnected pliers jaws or the like for the use of those jaws. In one embodiment of the invention a main member of each of the handles is made by cutting a blank from a single sheet of material and bending it to a required shape, to define both the central channel and the side troughs. In one embodiment of the invention a pair of blade locking members are defined respectively in the opposite sidewalls of the central channel, to lock in extended positions blades normally housed in the side troughs. In a preferred embodiment of the invention cutter tool blades which can be housed in the side troughs of the handle are attached to the handle on pivot shafts on which axial bearing members retain each outer tool blade independently of the portions of the handle defining the side troughs. It is a significant feature of a tool which is one embodiment of the invention that each outer blade that can be housed in a side trough of the handle mentioned above includes a laterally extending portion which cooperates with the handle to support such a blade in its extended position and cooperates also with a locking member defined in a sidewall of a central channel of the handle to limit movement of such a blade in its stowed position. The foregoing and other objectives, features, and advantages of the invention will be more readily understood upon consideration of the following detailed description of the invention, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050111 | 20060404 | 20050609 | 71729.0 | 1 | ACKUN, JACOB K | MULTIPURPOSE FOLDING TOOL WITH EASILY ACCESSIBLE OUTER BLADES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,931 | ACCEPTED | Stabilized ascorbic acid compositions and methods therefor | The present invention relates to ascorbic acid single-phase solution compositions that provide enhanced stability, enhanced solubility and an enhanced photoprotective effect as compared to prior compositions. The compositions comprise L-ascorbic acid; a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof; a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. The compositions may also comprise a form of Vitamin E and are useful for treatment of radical-induced damage to a subject, particularly the skin of a subject. | 1. A single-phase solution composition comprising by weight: 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid, 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5, and wherein when the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. 2. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises a combination of trans-ferulic acid and caffeic acid. 3. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises p-coumaric acid. 4. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises trans-ferulic acid. 5. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the ascorbic acid is present at an amount of 10% to 20%. 6. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount of 0.5% to 3.0%. 7. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the glycol ether comprises di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether. 8. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the alkanediol comprises 1,2-propanediol. 9. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein the pH is 2.5 to 3.0. 10. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 wherein stability of the composition is at least 88% after one year of storage. 11. The single-phase solution composition of claim 1 further comprising a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant. 12. The single-phase solution composition of claim 11 wherein the form of Vitamin E is selected from alpha, beta, delta, and gamma tocopherols, and alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocotrienols, and combinations or derivatives thereof. 13. The single-phase solution composition of claim 11 wherein the form of Vitamin E is present in an amount of 0.5% to 2.0%. 14. A single-phase solution composition comprising by weight: 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid, 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 1.5% to 5.0% surfactant; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. 15. The single-phase solution composition of claim 14 further comprising a form of Vitamin E in an amount of 0.3% to 2.0%. 16. A process for stabilizing L-ascorbic acid for storage, comprising: combining 0.2% to 0.5% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; and adding 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid to form a single-phase clear solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. 17. A product produced by the process of claim 16. 18. A process for stabilizing L-ascorbic acid for storage, comprising: combining water and greater than 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, to form a first solution; combining 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol, and 1.5% to 5.0% surfactant to form a second solution; combining the first solution and the second solution to form a mixed solution; and adding 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid to the mixed solution to form a single-phase clear solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. 19. A product produced by the process of claim 18. 20. A method of treating a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising: administering to the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight: 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid, 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5, and wherein when the cinnamic acid derivative is present at greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. 21. The method of claim 20 wherein the stabilized single-phase solution composition comprises a cinnamic acid derivative at greater than 0.5% and the composition further comprises a form of Vitamin E. 22. The method of claim 21 wherein the form of Vitamin E is selected from alpha, beta, delta, and gamma tocopherols, and alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocotrienols, and combinations or derivatives thereof. 23. The method of claim 20 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises a combination of trans-ferulic acid and caffeic acid. 24. The method of claim 20 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises p-coumaric acid. 25. The method of claim 20 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative comprises trans-ferulic acid. 26. The method of claim 20 wherein the ascorbic acid is present at an amount of 10% to 20%. 27. The method of claim 20 wherein the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount of 0.5% to 3.0%. 28. The method of claim 20 wherein the glycol ether comprises di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether. 29. The method of claim 20 wherein the alkanediol comprises 1,2-propanediol. 30. The method of claim 20 wherein the pH of the composition is 2.5 to 3.0. 31. The method of claim 22 wherein the form of Vitamin E is present in an amount of 0.5% to 2.0%. 32. A method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising: administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid, 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E, 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant, and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. 33. The method of claim 32 wherein the single-phase solution composition further comprises a Vitamin A derivative. 34. A method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising: administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E; 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant; 0.3% to 2.0% retinol; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/536,143, filed Jan. 13, 2004, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of stabilized ascorbic acid cosmetic and dermatological compositions for treatment of skin to address radical-induced damage. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Aging skin is the result of more than just chronological age. Skin is exposed to environmental elements that cause radicals to form in the skin. These radicals attack the collagen layer of the skin and break it down, causing lines and wrinkles to appear. This process is commonly called photo-aging. Diseases and disorders of skin that also may result from radical damage include skin cancer, skin irritation or inflammation, dermatitis, allergy, psoriasis, acne, eczema, rosacea, and radiation exposure. Application of antioxidants can help prevent radical-induced damage in skin. Applying Vitamin C, for example, to the skin can provide antioxidant protection, prevent photo-aging, and stimulate collagen production. However, not all Vitamin C formulations produce these benefits due to lack of stability. Numerous approaches to achieving a stable formulation of ascorbic acid include micronization (PCT publication no. WO 02/019972 to Vivier, G.), low pH (U.S. Pat. No. 5,140,043 to Darr, D. and Pinnell, S.), formation of suspensions or dispersions, lowered water activity, addition of various carriers, and derivatization, in particular, esterification. Regardless of the approach, these methods generally are inadequate to prevent degradation of ascorbic acid for long term storage, for example, for a period of one year at room temperature. Derivatization, while assisting in preventing degradation, for example, also may cause a decreased activity. The challenge of achieving stability while maintaining activity of ascorbic acid compositions is addressed by the present inventors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to single-phase solution compositions of L-ascorbic acid that provide enhanced stability, enhanced solubility and an enhanced photoprotective effect as compared to prior compositions. The single-phase solution compositions comprise by weight 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. The single-phase solution compositions may also comprise a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant, or a form of Vitamin A and a surfactant. In one embodiment of the invention, an ascorbic acid single-phase solution composition comprises by weight, 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% of a preservative such as phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% of a moisturizer such as panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% of a base such as triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% of a viscosity enhancer such as sodium hyaluronate; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount of greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. A further embodiment of the invention is a process for stabilizing ascorbic acid for storage, the process comprising combining 0.2% to 0.5% of a cinnamic acid derivative, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; and adding 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid to form a clear single-phase solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. A further process for stabilizing L-ascorbic acid for storage comprises combining water and 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof to form a first solution. Separately, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol, and 1.5% to 5.0% surfactant are combined to form a second solution. The first solution and the second solution are mixed to form a mixed solution. L-ascorbic acid at 5% to 40% is added to the mixed solution and the solution stirred to form a single-phase clear solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. Another embodiment of the invention is a method of treating a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. The method of treating includes prophylactic and therapeutic treatment, i.e., preventing damage, retarding damage, or treating damage, or preventing, retarding or treating symptoms of damage. The composition used in the method may further comprise a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant, or a form of Vitamin A and a surfactant. A further embodiment of the invention is a method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E; 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. The composition may further comprise a Vitamin A derivative. A further embodiment of the present invention is a method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E; 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant; 0.3% to 2.0% retinol; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. As in the embodiment above, the method of treating the skin includes preventing damage, retarding damage, or treating damage to the skin, or preventing, retarding or treating symptoms of damage to the skin. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1. Stabilized single-phase solution compositions or control compositions were applied to pig skin daily for four days. Skin was irradiated with solar-simulated UV irradiation as described in Example 4. Colorimeter readings for 1× to 5× Minimal Erythemal Dose (MED) were made the next day. Symbols are as follows: control, untreated skin; composition A of Table 4; composition B of Table 4; composition C of Table 4; composition E of Table 4. FIG. 2. Stabilized single-phase solution compositions were applied to pig skin as for FIG. 1. Colorimeter readings for 2× to 10× MED were made the next day. Symbols are as follows: composition D of Table 4; composition F of Table 4. FIG. 3. Data from FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 are plotted together for 2× and 4×MED results for comparison. Symbols are as in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. FIG. 4. Stabilized single-phase solution compositions or control compositions were applied to pig skin daily for four days. Skin was irradiated with solar-simulated UV irradiation and biopsy specimens were stained and analyzed for sunburn cells/mm as described in Example 4. The data are for 1× to 5× MED. Symbols are as follows: control, untreated skin; composition A of Table 4; composition B of Table 4; composition C of Table 4; composition E of Table 4. FIG. 5. Stabilized single-phase solution compositions were applied to pig skin daily as for FIG. 4. The data are for 2× to 10× MED. Symbols are as follows: composition D of Table 4; composition F of Table 4. FIG. 6. Data from FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 are plotted together for 2× and 4× MED results for comparison. Symbols are as in FIG. 4 and FIG. 5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Ascorbic acid in aqueous solutions is readily degraded into oxidized forms that subsequently become a source of free radicals. The oxidation reactions consume ascorbic acid and reflect on the stability of ascorbic acid. In the present studies, cinnamic acid derivatives were tested for their effect on the stability of ascorbic acid. In addition, the effect of the presence of solvents and that of solvent concentration were studied. The photoprotective effect of stabilized formulations is also provided. The single-phase solution compositions of ascorbic acid of the present invention include L-ascorbic acid, a cinnamic acid derivative, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof, a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol, water, and optionally, phenoxyethanol, panthenol, triethanolamine, and sodium hyaluronate. Single-phase solution compositions having 0.5% or greater of the cinnamic acid derivative also comprise a surfactant. The composition may also include a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant, and/or a form of Vitamin A and a surfactant. The composition has a pH of no more than about 3.5 or about 2.5 to 3.0. Compositions of the present invention are single-phase solution compositions. “Single-phase solution compositions” means herein that the composition has one phase, that of a liquid phase, is homogenous, and has essentially no particulate material, microparticles, or emulsified particles present in the composition. L-ascorbic acid: L-ascorbic acid is commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.), for example. In one embodiment, the L-ascorbic acid is purchased at 99% purity. Compositions provided herein contain L-ascorbic acid in an amount of 5% to 40% by weight. By “5% to 40% by weight” is meant herein to include the 5% and 40% amounts. In one embodiment of the composition, the amount of L-ascorbic acid is 10% to 35% and, in another embodiment, the amount of ascorbic acid is 10% to 30%. In further embodiments, the amount of ascorbic acid is 10% to 25%, 10% to 20%, or 15% to 20%. The required pH of the composition ensures that greater than 82% of the ascorbic acid remains in a protonated, uncharged form as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,140,043, Aug. 18, 1992, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. The ascorbic acid may be provided by the addition of any reducing analog of ascorbic acid, such as D-isoascorbic acid or by the addition of other small reducing compounds such as, but not limited to, glutathione, L-cysteamine, and the like. Such forms would be expected to provide an equivalent composition to that claimed and are within the scope of the invention. Cinnamic Acid Derivatives: Cinnamic acid derivatives that improve the stability of ascorbic acid are contemplated to be included in the compositions of the present invention. Cinnamic acid derivatives contemplated herein include ferulic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapinic acid, combinations thereof, cis and trans isomers thereof, salts thereof, and equivalent derivatives thereof. Equivalent derivatives thereof include those cinnamic acid derivatives having substitutions on the hydroxyl groups of the aromatic ring such as short chain aliphatic groups (one to six carbon atoms) or long chain aliphatic groups (seven to twenty-four carbon atoms) to form an ether, or such aliphatic groups substituted with alkyl, alkoxy, hydroxyl, amino, or amido, for example, to form a substituted ether. Equivalent derivatives thereof further include those cinnamic acid derivatives having modifications of the methoxy group(s) of the aromatic ring to short chain aliphatic groups (two to six carbon atoms) or to long chain aliphatic groups (seven to twenty-four carbon atoms) to form a longer chain ether, or such aliphatic groups substituted with alkyl, alkoxy, hydroxyl, amino, or amido, for example, to form a substituted long chain ether. The 3-carboxy group of a cinnamic acid derivative may also be converted to esters or amides having aliphatic groups of up to 24 carbons or an aromatic group, for example. Cis and trans isomers of the cinnamic acid derivatives are included herein since the cis isomer is readily converted to the trans isomer. Salts of the cinnamic acid derivatives are included herein. In one embodiment, the cinnamic acid derivative is a triethanolamine salt. Cinnamic acid derivatives are present in the compositions of the present invention in an amount of 0.2%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%. 2.5%, 3.0%, 4.0% or up to 5.0% by weight of the composition, or amounts within the range of 0.2% to 5.0%. Caffeic acid, also known as 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid, is found in many fruits, vegetables, seasonings and beverages consumed by humans. Caffeic acid is present in such goods in conjugated forms such as chlorogenic acid. Para-coumaric acid, also known as 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid or p-hydroxycinnamic acid, is found in various plants, including lignin forming plants. Trans-ferulic acid, also known as 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid or 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid, is also widely distributed in small amounts in plants. Sinapinic acid, also known as 3,5-dimethoxy4-hydroxycinnamic acid, is from black mustard seeds. Caffeic acid, para-coumaric acid, trans-ferulic acid and sinapinic acid are commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. Solvent comprising a Glycol Ether and an Alkanediol: In one embodiment, the glycol ether is di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether, also known as ethoxy diglycol, 2-(2-ethoxyethoxy)ethanol, diglycolmonoethyl ether, ethyl diethylene glycol, ethylene diglycol monoethyl ether, CARBITOL®, or TRANSCUTOL®, for example. Di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether is commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. Further glycol ethers include methoxyisopropanol, PPG-2 methyl ether, PPG-3 methyl ether, propylene glycol butyl ether, PPG-2 butyl ether, phenoxyisopropanol, butoxyethanol, butoxydiglycol, methoxydiglycol, phenoxyethanol, PPG-3 butyl ether, PPG-2 propyl ether, propylene glycol propyl ether, or dipropylene glycol dimethyl ether, for example, from the Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Mich. The alkanediol is propanediol, also known as propylene glycol, in particular, 1,2-propanediol. The alkanediol is commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. The alkanediol may be 1,3-butanediol, 1,2-butanediol, or 1,2-ethanediol, for example. The solvent comprises 10% to 60% by weight of the composition. In one embodiment, the solvent comprises 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, or 55% of the composition. The ratio of glycol ether to alkanediol is about 1.5:1, 2:1, 3:1 and up to about 4:1. In particular, the ratio of glycol ether to alkanediol is about 2:1. Preservatives: Preservatives having antibacterial activity are optionally present in the compositions of the present invention. Any preservative commonly used in cosmetic formulations is an acceptable preservative for the compositions herein, such as phenoxyethanol, members from the paraben family such as the methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl or isobutyl parabens, 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, benzoic acid, sorbic acid, dehydroacetic acid, triclosan, benzyl alcohol, chlorophenesin, or salicylic acid, for example. Phenoxyethanol is commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. At more concentrated amounts of solvent, members from the paraben family may be used as a preservative. Moisturizers: Moisturizers are optionally present in the compositions of the present invention. Any moisturizer commonly used in cosmetic formulations is an acceptable moisturizer for the compositions herein, such as Panthenol (pro-Vitamin B5), commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. Panthenol has additional desirable biological properties, such as wound healing properties. Base: A base for forming a salt of a cinnamic acid is desired herein where the acid is not already in a salt form. A base may be an organic base such as triethanolamine, aminomethylpropanol, diisopropanolamine, triisopropanolamine, or an inorganic base such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or ammonium hydroxide, for example. An inorganic salt of the cinnamic acid is acceptable if the concentration of the cinnamic acid is low such that the solution remains clear. Bases, such as triethanolamine, for example, are commercially available from Sigma-Aldrich. Viscosity Enhancer: A viscosity enhancer is optionally present in the compositions of the present invention. Any viscosity enhancer commonly used in cosmetics is acceptable for compositions herein. Sodium hyaluronate is an example of a viscosity enhancer that also provides a slip effect that improves the feeling of the composition on the skin. Sodium hyaluronate also assists in keeping moisture on the skin and improves absorption of the composition. Carboxymethylcellulose, for example, is another viscosity enhancer commonly used in cosmetics. Water: Water to complete 100% by weight of the composition is distilled or deionized, but any water may be used that does not contain contaminants that would affect the stability of the ascorbic acid composition. Surfactant: Presence of a surfactant is needed in compositions of the present invention when the composition contains a form of Vitamin E, or other hydrophobic agent, or concentrations of a cinnamic acid derivative at greater than 0.5% by weight, for example, to facilitate solubilization. A surfactant may be a nonionic surfactant such as polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaureate (TWEEN®), (i.e., TWEEN®20), polyoxyethylene 23 lauryl ether (BRIJ®-35) or polyoxyethylated octyl phenol (TRITON®); a zwitterionic surfactant such as 3-((3-cholamidopropyl) dimethylammonio)-1-propane sulfonate (CHAPS®); a cationic surfactant; or an anionic surfactant such as cholate, deoxycholate, sodium dodecylsulfate, or TWEEN®-80. The surfactant may be present in an amount of 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, 3.0%, 3.5%, 4.0%, 4.5%, or 5.0% by weight of the composition. Form of Vitamin E: By “a form of Vitamin E” is meant herein a form of tocopherol selected from alpha, beta, delta, and gamma tocopherols, and alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocotrienols, and combinations or derivatives thereof. In one embodiment, the form of Vitamin E is an alpha, beta, delta, or gamma tocopherol and, in another embodiment, the form of Vitamin E is an alpha tocopherol. Salts or derivatives of tocopherols include pharmaceutically acceptable compounds such as acetate, sulfate, succinate, nicotinate, palmitate, allophanate, phosphate, quinone, or halogenated derivatives, esters, or stereoisomers, for example. The invention encompasses the use of Vitamin E derivatives in which substitutions, additions, and other alterations have been made in the 6-chromanol ring and/or side chain, with the proviso that the derivatives maintain the antioxidant activity of Vitamin E. Additional tocopherols can be constructed by conjugation to the ring structure or side chain of various other moieties, such as those containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and/or phosphorus. Tocopherol derivatives can also be made by modifying the length of the side chain from that found in tocopherols such as alpha-, beta-, delta- and gamma-tocopherol. Tocopherols can also vary in stereochemistry and saturation of bonds in the ring structure and side chain. Additional tocopherol derivatives, including prodrugs, can be made by conjugation of sugars or other moieties to the side chain or ring structure. Tocopherols include without limitation stereoisomers (e.g., + and − stereoisomers of alpha-tocopherol; (+/−) indicates a racemic mixture) or mixtures of structurally distinct tocopherols (e.g., alpha-plus gamma-tocopherol). Tocopherols may be obtained from Roche, Nutley, N.J., for example. Further optional ingredients: Further optional ingredients include, for example, cosmetic or dermatological ingredients known to one of skill in the art, including further antioxidants such as Vitamin A derivatives such as a retinoid, retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, a retinoic acid salt, a derivative or analog thereof, or a mixture thereof, lipoic acid, seleno-L-methionine, or flavonoids that lack undesirable color. The compositions may also contain mild surfactants, oil components, emulsifiers, pearlizing waxes, consistency factors, thickeners, superfatting agents, stabilizers, polymers, silicone compounds, fats, waxes, lecithins, phospholipids, biogenic agents, further UV protection factors, deodorants, antiperspirants, antidandruff agents, film formers, swelling agents, insect repellents, self-tanning agents, hydrotropes, solubilizers, preservatives, perfume oils, or dyes, for example as further additives. Preparations: The compositions of the present invention may be used for the production of cosmetic preparations, or dermatological preparations, more particularly topical treatment preparations, that may be formulated as single-phase solution compositions, cosmetic serums, or aerosols, for example. Topical application to a surface may be a surface such as the mucus membrane or the skin, for example. Process of Making Stabilized Ascorbic Acid Compositions having less than 0.5% by Weight Cinnamic Acid Derivative: Compositions of ascorbic acid are made using the following procedures: water, solvents, phenoxyethanol, panthenol, triethanolamine, and the cinnamic acid derivative are stirred together until dissolved to a clear solution. Sodium hyaluronate is sprinkled on the surface of the solution without stirring and the mixture allowed to form a gel without stirring for about 3 hours. After the three hour period, the gel is stirred to obtain a uniform viscous solution. The solution is degassed under vacuum and saturated with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen. This degassing and saturating procedure was carried out three times. Ascorbic acid is added with stirring, the solution is again degassed under vacuum and saturated with an inert gas, and then stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to yield a clear solution which is then degassed and saturated with an inert gas. Process of Making Stabilized Ascorbic Acid Compositions having a Cinnamic Acid Derivative at 0.5% or Greater by Weight or having a Hydrophobic Component: Compositions having increased concentrations of cinnamic acid derivative or a hydrophobic component such as tocopherol or retinol are made by mixing water, triethanolamine, cinnamic acid derivative, and panthenol until a clear solution is formed. Sodium hyaluronate is sprinkled on the surface of the solution and allowed to dissolve for about three hours to form a first solution. Separately, a mixture of solvents, surfactant, phenoxyethanol, and hydrophobic component is gently heated with stirring to 60° C. to form a second solution. This second solution is then added to the first solution with stirring until the combined solution is clear. Cooling of the second solution is not required. The combined solution is degassed under vacuum with an inert gas such as saturated argon or nitrogen. The degassing and saturating is carried out three times. Ascorbic acid is added with stirring. The final solution is degassed and saturated with the inert gas and stirred to form a clear solution. A further embodiment of the present invention is a product made by a process described herein. Methods of Use of Stabilized Ascorbic Acid Compositions: The present invention also provides a method of treating a condition of a subject that results from radical damage comprising administering a composition of the present invention to the subject. Treating, as used herein, means prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatment of a subject. “Prophylactic” treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who does not have symptoms of radical-induced damage or has early signs of such damage, or anticipates being exposed to situations having risk of radical-induced damage. “Therapeutic” treatment is a treatment administered to a subject who has signs of radical-induced damage. Such a condition may be photo-aging, or diseases or disorders of the skin such as skin cancer, skin irritation or inflammation, dermatitis, allergy, psoriasis, acne, eczema, rosacea, or radiation exposure, for example. The following examples are presented to further illustrate various aspects of the present invention, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. EXAMPLE 1 Stability of Ascorbic Acid Compositions Containing Cinnamic Acid Derivatives The compositions of ascorbic acid of Table 1 were made using the following procedures: water, solvents (for Table 1: di(ethylene glycol)ethyl ether and 1,2 propanediol), phenoxyethanol, panthenol, triethanolamine and the cinnamic acid derivative were stirred together until dissolved to a clear solution. Sodium hyaluronate was sprinkled on the surface without stirring and the combination allowed to form a gel without stirring for about 3 hours. After the three hour period, the gel is stirred to obtain a uniform viscous solution. The solution is degassed under vacuum with saturated argon three times. Ascorbic acid is added with stirring, the solution degassed and saturated with argon and stirred for 30 to 45 minutes to yield a clear solution which is then degassed with saturated argon. The stability of compositions of ascorbic acid having 0.5% by weight cinnamic acid derivatives was evaluated by using a quantitative HPLC method to measure the concentration of ascorbic acid after storage of the compositions for 4 weeks at 45° C. The HPLC method was calibrated using a known concentration of ascorbic acid. Storage for 4 weeks at 45° C. is considered equivalent to storage at room temperature for one year (The Chemistry and Manufacture of Cosmetics, Vol. 1, pg. 9, 3rd edition, Michael L. Schlossman, ed., Allured Pub. Corp.). The stability of ascorbic acid is expressed as the percentage of ascorbic acid present at the end of the 4 week period based on the HPLC results. The HPLC chromatography was carried out on an Inertsil C8 column (Chrompack, Varian, Lake Forest, Calif.) using a Waters 600E Gradient Control System (Milford, Mass.) with a mobile phase of 0.2M KH2PO4 at pH 2.4, and at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. Ascorbic acid was detected at 254 nm with a Waters 486 UV detector (Milford, Mass.). The software used for calibration and integration was Peak Simple (SR1 Instruments, Torrance, Calif.). A visual assessment of the color of the samples at the end of 4 weeks at 45° C. was used to evaluate the degree of undesired degradation due to formation of colored products. TABLE 1 Compositions Containing 0.5% by Weight Cinnamic Acid Derivative Amount of Ingredients in Weight % for each Composition Ingredients 1 2 3 4 Water 67.3 67.3 67.3 62.3 Ascorbic Acid 15.0 15.0 15.0 20.0 Di(ethylene glycol) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 ethyl ether 1,2-Propanediol 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Phenoxyethanol 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Panthenol 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Triethanolamine 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 trans-Ferulic Acid 0.5 — — 0.5 Caffeic Acid — 0.5 — — p-Coumaric Acid — — 0.5 — Sodium Hyaluronate 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 pH 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 Ascorbic Acid 84-86% 84-86% 88-90% 81-83% Stability %1 Color pale More Better More yellow undesirable color undesirable color than #1 than #1 color than #1 1the amount of ascorbic acid present at the end of a 4 week period at 45° C. as determined by calibrated HPLC Analysis of the Table 1 compositions 1, 2 and 3 indicate that p-coumaric acid has a greater stabilizing effect on ascorbic acid than does caffeic acid or trans-ferulic acid. Increased concentration of ascorbic acid (20%) in composition 4 decreases slightly the stability of ascorbic acid when compared to the data of composition 1. Formation of color products after four weeks storage at 45° C. was also used as a criterion of ascorbic acid stability. Composition 3 containing p-coumaric acid produced a less intense pale yellow color than composition 1 that contains trans-ferulic acid. Composition 2 containing caffeic acid generated more undesirable color products than that present in composition 1. EXAMPLE 2 Effect of Solvent on Stability of Ascorbic Acid in Compositions Containing Cinnamic Acid Derivatives The effects of solvent and solvent concentration on the stability of ascorbic acid compositions were studied using the same procedures as set forth in Example 1. Table 2 provides data comparing a control composition without di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether with compositions 5 and 6 in which glycol ether is present at a 20% level, and where the amount of propanediol is doubled. For compositions 5 and 6 of Table 2, the sodium hyaluronate concentration was decreased to eliminate formation of a cloudy solution that occurred in the presence of increased amounts of solvent. TABLE 2 Effect of Solvent on Stability of Ascorbic Acid Amount of Ingredients in Weight % for each Composition Ingredients Control 5 6 Water 77.3 52.4 52.4 Di(ethylene glycol) — 20.0 20.0 ethyl ether Ascorbic Acid 15.0 15.0 15.0 1,2-Propanediol 5.0 10.0 10.0 Phenoxyethanol 1.0 1.0 1.0 Panthenol 0.5 0.5 0.5 Triethanolamine 0.5 0.5 0.5 trans-Ferulic Acid 0.5 0.5 — p-Coumaric Acid — — 0.5 Sodium Hyaluronate 0.2 0.1 0.1 pH 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 Ascorbic Acid 78-80% 92-94% 93-95% Stability %1 Color yellow very pale very pale yellow yellow 1the amount of ascorbic acid present at the end of a 4 week period at 45° C. as determined by calibrated HPLC The results of Table 2 indicate that the stability of ascorbic acid is improved in the presence of di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether (compare compositions 5 and 6 with the control in Table 2). A comparison of the data of Table 2 with the data of Table 1 shows that the stability of ascorbic acid is increased in the presence of an increased concentration of solvents propanediol and di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether. That is, the stability of composition 5 containing trans-ferulic acid is greater than that of composition 1 of Table 1 containing trans-ferulic acid, and the stability of composition 6 containing p-coumaric acid is greater than that of composition 3 of Table 1 containing p-coumaric acid. Increasing the concentration of the solvent, both di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether and 1,2-propanediol, from an amount of 15% (Table 1, compositions 1-4) to an amount of 30% of the weight of the composition (Table 2, composition 6) increased the stability of the ascorbic acid. EXAMPLE 3 Stability of Ascorbic Acid in Compositions Containing Cinnamic Acid Derivatives, Combinations Thereof, Vitamin E, and/or Detergent The present example provides data regarding compositions of ascorbic acid in the presence of increased amounts of cinnamic acid derivatives, detergent, combinations of cinnamic acid derivatives, and/or a form of Vitamin E. Table 3 provides stability results as a function of these variables. Compositions 7-11 of Table 3 were made by mixing water, triethanolamine, cinnamic acid derivative, and panthenol until a clear solution was formed. Sodium hyaluronate was sprinkled on the surface of the solution and allowed to dissolve for about three hours to form a first solution. Separately, a mixture of di(ethylene glycol)ethyl ether, 1,2-propanediol, BRIJ® 35, phenoxyethanol, and tocopherol (for composition 11) was gently heated with stirring to 60° C. to form a second solution. The second solution was then added to the first solution with stirring until the combined solution was clear. The combined solution was degassed under vacuum and saturated with argon three times. Ascorbic acid was added with stirring. The final solution was degassed under vacuum and saturated with argon and stirred to form a clear solution. TABLE 3 Compositions Containing Increased Concentrations of Cinnamic Acid Derivatives, Presence of Detergent, or a Tocopherol Amount of Ingredients in Weight % for each Composition Ingredients 7 8 9 10 11 Water 46.9 46.9 47.4 47.4 63.4 Di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 10.0 Ascorbic Acid 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 1,2-Propanediol 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 5.0 Polyoxyethylene 23 lauryl ether 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 (BRIJ ® 35) Triethanolamine 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.5 trans-Ferulic Acid 2.0 — 3.0 2.0 0.5 p-Coumaric Acid — 2.0 — — — Caffeic Acid — — — 1.0 — Tocopherol — — — — 1.0 Phenoxyethanol 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Panthenol 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sodium Hyaluronate 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 pH 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 2.5-3.0 Ascorbic Acid Stability %1 82-84% 89-91% 83-85% 92-94% 88-90% Color pale pale pale pale slightly yellow yellow yellow yellow more yellow than #10 1the amount of ascorbic acid present at the end of a 4 week period at 45° C. as determined by calibrated HPLC Compositions 7, 8 and 9 containing 20% di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether and 10% 1,2-propanediol were prepared with an increased concentration of trans-ferulic acid or p-coumaric acid as their triethanolamine salts as compared to the amounts of those acids in Tables 1 and 2. The results shown in Table 3 indicate that ascorbic acid stability decreased with increased concentration of trans-ferulic acid (2.0% and 3.0%) and p-coumaric acid (2.0%) when compared to compositions 5 and 6 of Example 2 containing 0.5% of trans-ferulic acid and 0.5% ofp-coumaric acid, respectively. The combination of 2% trans-ferulic acid and 1% caffeic acid in composition 10 provides a high stability of ascorbic acid and a low level of colored side products. The good stability further indicates that the BRIJ® 35 detergent appears not to be contributing to the lowered activity of compositions 7, 8, and 9. The stability data of composition 11, containing the additional antioxidant tocopherol, when compared to the stability results of composition 1, indicate that tocopherol increases the stability of ascorbic acid. EXAMPLE 4 Photoprotective Effects of Stabilized Ascorbic Acid Compositions The present example provides data showing that a combination of a cinnamic acid derivative, trans-ferulic acid, and ascorbic acid provides an unexpectedly greater photoprotective effect from UV radiation than compositions lacking such a combination. UV irradiation: A 1000-W UV radiation (UVR) source (LIGHTNINGCURE® 200, Hamamatsu, Japan) was used for delivering solar-simulated radiation to pig skin. The lamp was combined with a dichroic mirror assembly reflecting most of the visible and infrared emission to reduce the heat load on the skin, and with a 1-mm WG295 Schott selective UVB band-pass filter (295 nm) to eliminate wavelengths less than 295 nm. A 1-cm diameter liquid light guide was connected to the exit port of the lamp housing to deliver energy to the surface of the skin. The light guide was positioned just above the surface of the skin. The intensity used in the experiment was 5 mW/cm2 of UVB as measured by a research radiometer (IL1700, International Light, Newburyport, Mass.). At this irradiance, there was about 40 mW/cm2 of UVA. Due to much greater erythemal effectiveness of UVB, UVB is expected to be the dominant wave band causing the observed biologic effects. Treatment and irradiation procedure: Yorkshire pigs were clipped 24 hours before exposure. The antioxidant or vehicle formulations (500 μL) were applied to each patch of back skin (7.5 cm wide×10 cm long) daily for 4 days. One patch serves as the control and did not receive antioxidant formulation. To determine the minimal erythema dose (MED), on day three, 30 to 100 mJ/cm2 at 10 mJ/cm2 intervals of solar-simulated UVR was given to untreated skin. The MED was determined on day four as the lowest dose that induced perceptible erythema with distinct borders (ordinarily 40-60 mJ/cm2). Also, on day four, from 1× MED to 5× MED at 1×-MED intervals of solar-simulated UVR was given in triplicate to each 7.5×10-cm area of back skin for compositions A, B, C, and E of Table 4 below. In addition, from 2× MED to 10× MED at 2× MED intervals of solar-simulated UVR was given in triplicate to each 7.5×10-cm area of back skin for compositions D and F of Table 4 below. Each treatment area was photographed using polarizing filters to minimize surface reflection. Each irradiated spot was biopsied with an 8-mm skin punch. Four biopsies of unirradiated skin were taken in each patch. Each biopsy was placed in formalin. Measurement of erythema: By using 8-×12-inch color photographic enlargements, erythema was measured with a chromameter (COLORMOUSE® Too, Color Savvy Systems Ltd, Springboro, Ohio). Skin erythema varies appreciably depending on blood flow to the area. By photographing the area, the depth of erythema was documented at a moment in time and could be reliably measured in high-quality photographic enlargements. Three separate sites from each irradiated spot on photographs were chosen to measure the average erythemal response. Nonirradiated adjacent skin was measured for comparison. Erythema was measured in the “a*” mode as instructed by the supplier. The difference of the a* value between irradiated skin and nonirradiated skin determined the erythema. Measurement of sunburn cells: Skin biopsy specimens were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and processed for routine histology. Hematoxylin-eosin-stained center-cut sections of each biopsy specimen were analyzed for sunburn cells (keratinocytes with pyknotic nuclei having an eosinophilic cytoplasm). The entire 8-mm center section of the histologic ribbon was analyzed and the results expressed as sunburn cells/mm. When photodamage was extensive, it was difficult to precisely define a sunburn cell in the presence of epidermal necrosis. Therefore, whenever sunburn cells could not be accurately identified, an upper limit of 35 sunburn cells/mm was used. Table 4 provides stabilized ascorbic acid compositions made as described in Example 3, applied to the skin of pigs and irradiated as described in the present example. TABLE 4 Compositions Containing Stabilized Ascorbic Acid and Photoprotective Effects Thereof Amount of Ingredients in Weight % for each Composition Ingredients A B C D2 E F Water 79.9 79.4 64.4 63.4 78.4 62.3 Di(ethylene glycol) ethyl ether 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 Ascorbic Acid — — 15.0 15.0 — 15.0 1,2-Propanediol 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 Polyoxyethylene 23 lauryl ether 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 (BRIJ ® 35) Triethanolamine 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 trans-Ferulic Acid — 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Tocopherol — — — 1.0 1.0 1.0 Retinol — — — — — 1.0 Phenoxyethanol 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Panthenol 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Sodium Hyaluronate 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 pH 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 Designation in Figures Herein FIG. 1, FIG. 1, FIG. 1, FIG. 2, FIG. 1, FIG. 2, FIG. 3, FIG. 3, FIG. 3, FIG. 3, FIG. 3, FIG. 3, FIG. 4, FIG. 4, FIG. 4, FIG. 5, FIG. 4, FIG. 5, FIG. 6, FIG. 6, FIG. 6, FIG. 6, FIG. 6, FIG. 6, Ascorbic Acid Stability %1 control, control, 84%-86% 88%-90% control, ND3 AA not AA not AA not present present present 1the amount of ascorbic acid present at the end of a 4 week period at 45° C. as determined by calibrated HPLC 2Composition D is the same as composition 11 of Table 3. 3Not Determined FIG. 1, FIG. 2, and FIG. 3 provide data showing the photoprotective effect of Compositions A-F. The control (bold diagonal lines, ) is a measure of erythema of irradiated skin without a composition applied to the skin. The greatest photoprotective effect demonstrated in FIG. 1, i.e., the lowest colorimeter reading, was seen for the composition containing ascorbic acid and trans-ferulic acid (composition C of Table 4). Additional presence of tocopherol or tocopherol and retinol (compositions D and F of FIG. 2) enhances that protection since the colorimeter readings of FIG. 2 are at twice the minimal erythemal dose as compared to the data of FIG. 1. Data for the 2× and 4× MED exposures from FIG. 1 and FIG. 2 are combined in FIG. 3 for facilitated comparison. Enumeration of sunburn cells in skin biopsy specimens for Compositions A-F is shown in FIG. 4, FIG. 5 and FIG. 6. The control (bold diagonal lines, ) is a measure of sunburned cells from irradiated skin without a composition applied to the skin. The greatest protection from photodamage demonstrated in FIG. 4, i.e., the fewest sunburn cells per millimeter, was seen for the composition containing ascorbic acid and trans-ferulic acid (composition C of Table 4). Additional presence of tocopherol or tocopherol and retinol (compositions D and F of FIG. 5) enhances that protection since the colorimeter readings of FIG. 5 are at twice the minimal erythemal dose as compared to the data of FIG. 4. Data for the 2× and 4× MED exposures from FIG. 4 and FIG. 5 are combined in FIG. 6 for facilitated comparison. Those of skill in the art, in light of the present disclosure, will appreciate that obvious modifications of the embodiments disclosed herein can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. All of the embodiments disclosed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. The full scope of the invention is set out in the disclosure and equivalent embodiments thereof. The specification should not be construed to unduly narrow the full scope of protection to which the present invention is entitled. As used herein and unless otherwise indicated, the terms “a” and “an” are taken to mean “one”, “at least one” or “one or more”. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Aging skin is the result of more than just chronological age. Skin is exposed to environmental elements that cause radicals to form in the skin. These radicals attack the collagen layer of the skin and break it down, causing lines and wrinkles to appear. This process is commonly called photo-aging. Diseases and disorders of skin that also may result from radical damage include skin cancer, skin irritation or inflammation, dermatitis, allergy, psoriasis, acne, eczema, rosacea, and radiation exposure. Application of antioxidants can help prevent radical-induced damage in skin. Applying Vitamin C, for example, to the skin can provide antioxidant protection, prevent photo-aging, and stimulate collagen production. However, not all Vitamin C formulations produce these benefits due to lack of stability. Numerous approaches to achieving a stable formulation of ascorbic acid include micronization (PCT publication no. WO 02/019972 to Vivier, G.), low pH (U.S. Pat. No. 5,140,043 to Darr, D. and Pinnell, S.), formation of suspensions or dispersions, lowered water activity, addition of various carriers, and derivatization, in particular, esterification. Regardless of the approach, these methods generally are inadequate to prevent degradation of ascorbic acid for long term storage, for example, for a period of one year at room temperature. Derivatization, while assisting in preventing degradation, for example, also may cause a decreased activity. The challenge of achieving stability while maintaining activity of ascorbic acid compositions is addressed by the present inventors. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to single-phase solution compositions of L-ascorbic acid that provide enhanced stability, enhanced solubility and an enhanced photoprotective effect as compared to prior compositions. The single-phase solution compositions comprise by weight 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. The single-phase solution compositions may also comprise a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant, or a form of Vitamin A and a surfactant. In one embodiment of the invention, an ascorbic acid single-phase solution composition comprises by weight, 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% of a preservative such as phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% of a moisturizer such as panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% of a base such as triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% of a viscosity enhancer such as sodium hyaluronate; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount of greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. A further embodiment of the invention is a process for stabilizing ascorbic acid for storage, the process comprising combining 0.2% to 0.5% of a cinnamic acid derivative, such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; and adding 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid to form a clear single-phase solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. A further process for stabilizing L-ascorbic acid for storage comprises combining water and 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof to form a first solution. Separately, 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol, and 1.5% to 5.0% surfactant are combined to form a second solution. The first solution and the second solution are mixed to form a mixed solution. L-ascorbic acid at 5% to 40% is added to the mixed solution and the solution stirred to form a single-phase clear solution composition of stabilized ascorbic acid, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. Another embodiment of the invention is a method of treating a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.2% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; and water; the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. When the cinnamic acid derivative is present at an amount greater than 0.5%, the composition further comprises a surfactant in an amount of 1.5% to 5.0%. The method of treating includes prophylactic and therapeutic treatment, i.e., preventing damage, retarding damage, or treating damage, or preventing, retarding or treating symptoms of damage. The composition used in the method may further comprise a form of Vitamin E and a surfactant, or a form of Vitamin A and a surfactant. A further embodiment of the invention is a method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 20% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid derivative such as p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, or a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E; 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. The composition may further comprise a Vitamin A derivative. A further embodiment of the present invention is a method of treating the skin of a subject for effects of radical-induced damage, comprising administering to the skin of the subject a stabilized single-phase solution composition comprising by weight, 5% to 40% L-ascorbic acid; 0.5% to 5.0% of a cinnamic acid selected from the group consisting of p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, sinapinic acid, a derivative thereof, and a combination thereof; 10% to 60% of a solvent comprising a glycol ether and an alkanediol; 0.5% to 1.5% phenoxyethanol; 0.3% to 1.5% panthenol; 0.5% to 5.0% triethanolamine; 0.05% to 0.3% sodium hyaluronate; 0.3% to 2.0% of a form of Vitamin E; 1.5% to 5.0% of a surfactant; 0.3% to 2.0% retinol; and water to 100%, the composition having a pH of no more than about 3.5. As in the embodiment above, the method of treating the skin includes preventing damage, retarding damage, or treating damage to the skin, or preventing, retarding or treating symptoms of damage to the skin. | 20050111 | 20070220 | 20050714 | 91655.0 | 1 | HENLEY III, RAYMOND J | STABILIZED ASCORBIC ACID COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS THEREFOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,942 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for locating hole positions on an adjustable stair stringer | A stairway can be constructed by using movable tread/riser supports placed along a stairway stringer and the supports can be moved as a group or individually to accommodate a stairway slope of any desired degree. It is desirable to mark a stringer for the uniform equal spacing of the location for the tread/risers and to establish the pivot positions for mounting the supports on the stringer. The present invention is an apparatus that will permit a user to locate the desired pivot holes equally spaced and aligned along a stringer. | 1. An apparatus for locating pivot holes along a stairway stringer for placement of pivotal tread/riser supports comprising, a) an elongated rigid element having a planar body with a longitudinal edge and a lateral portion, b) means in said rigid element for locating the placement of pivot holes in a stairway stringer, said means being located in said rigid element laterally across said lateral portion and axially along said planar body. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said longitudinal edge is a flange. 3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said longitudinal edge is a T shaped flange with portions of said extending from each side of said edge. 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said means in said rigid element includes at least one spacing cutout hole located laterally across said planar body and spaced for said longitudinal edge. 5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said means in said rigid element includes a plurality of sets of spacing cutout holes, each set being spaced a different longitudinal distance along said planar body, and each cutout hole in a set being equally spaced from other cutout holes in that set. 6. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said elongated planar portion includes a first means for locating said apparatus body portion along a stairway stringer, and a second means axially along said elongated planar portion for locating pivot points for tread/riser supports along a stairway stringer. 7. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said elongated planar portion is a plurality of aligned elements having registering means for establishing said spacing along a stairway stringer. 8. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein said registering means includes spacing members adapted for spacing said plurality of elongated elements along a stairway stringer. 9. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said means includes marking means for a spacing cutout hole and at least one pivot cutout hole. 10. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said means is at least one notch in said rigid element, said notch being spaced from said longitudinal edge and laterally spaced across said lateral portion. 11. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said planar portion has end edges, alignment means formed in said end edges for aligning duplicate apparatus along said stairway stringer. 12. The apparatus of claim 11 wherein said alignment means is adapted to cooperate with spacing means for spacing individual apparatus along a stairway stringer. 13. A pivot point locating apparatus for locating pivot points for pivotally adjustable tread/riser supports along an adjustable stairway stringer, said stinger being adapted to function as a support for a stairway at any desired slope and to have tread/riser supports equally spaced axially along its length, said apparatus comprising: a) an elongated rigid jig having a planar body portion and a lateral perpendicular flange, b) said body portion having an elongated planar portion and a lateral planar portion, c) said elongated planar portion including a first cutout hole and spaced cutout holes axially along its length, said spaced cutout holes being a plurality of sets of spaced cutout holes in fixed spacings from said first cutout hole, each cutout hole in each of said sets being equally spaced along said planar portion with respect to said first cutout hole and other cutout holes in that set, d) said first cutout hole and said sets of spaced cutout holes being equally spaced laterally from said lateral perpendicular flange of said elongated planar member, e) said perpendicular flange adapted to function as a guide for positioning said apparatus along a stairway stringer where said pivot points are to be located, f) said cutout holes adapted to guide suitable marking means for marking a stairway stringer in sets of equally spaced pivot points. 14. An apparatus for locating pivot holes along a stairway stringer for placement of pivotal tread/riser supports comprising, a) a rigid spacing bar, b) at least a pair of marker members, one of said marker members being fixed to said spacing bar and the remainder of said marker members being adjustably positionable along said spacing bar, c) said marker members including a flange edge at one end and a marking means at an opposite end, said marking means being equally spaced along said marker member from said flange edge on all of said marker members, said flange edge being parallel to the axis of said spacing bar and being a preset distance from said axis of said spacing bar, d) said adjustable positioning of said remainder of said marker means permitting said marker means to be equally spaced along said spacing bar from said fixed marker member to a first adjustably positioned marker member and between subsequent adjustably positioned marker members along said spacing bar, e) and means on said marker members adapted for accommodating marker means for said locating of said pivot holes. 15. A method for locating pivot hole locations along stairway stringer for the placement of pivotal tread/riser supports along the stringer comprising the steps of: a) placing a jig on a stairway stringer, said jig having a lateral means for marking the location of spaced pivot holes from the edge of a stairway stringer and axial means for locating spacing between pivot holes axially along said stairway stringer, b) marking the stairway stringer for said pivot holes laterally and axially along said stringer, c) repeating said placing and marking along said stringer, d) and placing pivotal tread/riser supports along said stringer in accord with said markings. 16. An apparatus for locating pivot holes along a stairway stringer for placement of pivotal tread/riser supports consisting of, a) an elongated rigid element forming a two surface planar body portion with a longitudinal edge as one surface and a lateral portion as a second surface, said longitudinal edge being a flange from said rigid element, b) said one surface of said elongated rigid element planar body portion includes a first means for locating said planar body portion along a stairway stringer, and said second surface comprising means axially along said planar body portion for locating said pivot holes for tread/riser supports along said stairway stringer, c) said longitudinal edge of said rigid element forms a T shaped flange with portions of said T extending from said longitudinal edge and to each side of said longitudinal edge, d) means in said elongated rigid element for locating the placement of pivotal holes in a stairway stringer, said means being located in said rigid element laterally across said lateral portion and axially along said planar body e) said means in said elongated rigid element for locating the placement of said pivot holes includes i) at least one starting cutout hole located laterally across said planar body and spaced a lateral distance from said longitudinal edge, and ii) a plurality of sets of spacing cutout holes, said sets being aligned with said starting cutout hole axially along said planar body and spaced the same lateral distance from said longitudinal edge as said starting cutout hole, each of said plurality of sets including individual equally spaced cutout holes, each set of individual equally spaced cutout holes consisting of spaced cutout holes spaced a different equal longitudinal distance along said planar body from said at least one starting cutout hole, whereby a set of spacing cutout holes comprises a plurality of equally spaced cutout holes axially along said planar body, each set of equally spaced cutout holes having a different axial distance between cutout holes from other sets of spacing cutout holes, and iii) each cutout hole in a set being equally spaced from its adjacent cutout holes in that set. | This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 10/202,340 filed Jul. 24, 2002 and claims priority from Provisional Application No. 60/308,192, filed Jul. 27, 2001. This invention relates to a mechanical means (jig) and a method for locating “adjustable brackets” on a stair stringer by either locating the position of pivot holes or physically locating the position of the brackets thus forming an adjustable stair stringer. This method of positioning and attaching brackets makes possible the sale of adjustable brackets independent of the stringers. The stringers may be any suitable material for the application of stair building. This invention eliminates the necessity of supplying complete adjustable stringers (which are very difficult to stock in stores situation). The stringers can simply be assembled on site according to the number of steps required or stringer type (one or two piece). In the copending application in which I am an inventor application Ser. No. 09/315,809, filed May 21, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,354,403, issued Mar. 12, 2002, there is disclosure and description of the advantages of building a stairway using adjustable parallel stringers at each side of the stairway and adjustable stair tread/riser brackets pivotally supported on and spaced along the stringers in building a stairway. The concept is to provide, for the experienced or inexperienced builder, a set of duplicate brackets that can be spaced along and pivotally attached to a stringer consisting of a pair of stringer elements that can be moved parallel to each other. As the parallel stringers are moved parallel to each other, the brackets are each rotated about their pivotal attachments so as to have their tread/riser surfaces always parallel to each other and to define the positions of stair steps along the stringers. Because the stringer and bracket system is completely adjustable, the user can form a stairway of any angle or slope and the brackets for the treads or risers will be equally spaced and parallel along the stairway. It should be understood that the stringer and bracket assembly will be at each side of a stairway. The system is also effective in positioning formworks for concrete stairways in positioning the forms for the stair steps equally along the stairway. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The system is intended to make the formation of a stairway or set of forms an easy process at the site where the stairway is to be constructed. The user need only establish the slope for the stairway that is to be constructed, align the pair of parallel stringers, and space the brackets equally along the stringers. The user decides what vertical distance and distance between steps is to be used for the desired stairway to establish its slope. Uniform spacing of the brackets along the stringers is essential to accomplish the desired stair construction. Having started with stringer elements that are otherwise unmarked, the user starts by locating the spaced pivot points for the brackets along the stringer. The present invention simplifies the location of the spaced pivot points for the brackets and provides a means for assuring that the brackets will be equally spaced and, with proper pivotal mounting, movable so as to keep the tread/riser portions always parallel as the stinger is moved to the desired slope. An object of the present invention is a simplified jig for use in locating the pivot points along a stairway stringer for placement of tread/riser supports along the stringer. A further object in accord with the preceding objects is a jig that can cooperate with similar jigs and spacing means for locating pivot points for brackets along a stairway stringer. A further object in accord with the preceding objects is an adjustable jig for locating pivot points for brackets along a stairway stringer. Further objects and features of the present invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the appended drawings and specification illustrating a preferred embodiment wherein: BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is top plan view of one form of the apparatus of the present invention showing a plurality of sets of spacing holes. FIGS. 2A and 2D are end views of alternative forms of the apparatus. FIG. 2C is a plan view of the apparatus with a single set of spacing cutout holes. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of parallel stringers with the apparatus of the present invention placed for location of a plurality of equally spaced pivot points along each stringer. FIG. 4 illustrates the location of spaced pivot points along a set of parallel stringers. FIG. 5 illustrates the attachment of triangular brackets at the located spaced points of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 illustrates the movement of the parallel stringers of FIG. 4 and the resultant rotational movement of the brackets. FIGS. 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the location, attachment and rotation of angular brackets similar to the movements shown in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6. FIGS. 10A, 10B, 11 and 12 illustrate a jig with registering means and its rotational movement with movement of the stringers to which it is attached as a bracket. FIG. 13 illustrates the placement of the jig of FIG. 10 along a stairway stringer. FIG. 14 illustrates the rotational movement of the brackets of FIG. 13 with movement of the parallel stringers and illustrates two different slopes for a stairway. FIG. 15 illustrates a jig adapted for use with spacing means for positioning the jig for location of pivot holes along a stringer. FIG. 16 is a sectional view along the lines 16-16 of FIG. 15. FIG. 17 illustrates the rotational movement of the brackets of FIG. 15 with movement of the parallel stringers and illustrates two different slopes for a stairway. FIG. 18 illustrates an alternative form for the apparatus of the present invention. FIGS. 19, 20 and 21 illustrate the use of the apparatus of FIG. 18 in the placement of triangular brackets along a stringer and the rotation of the brackets on the stringer. FIG. 22 illustrates an alternative adjustable form of the apparatus of the present invention for locating pivot holes for brackets along a stairway stringer. FIG. 23 illustrates the use of the adjustable apparatus of FIG. 22 on a stairway stringer. FIGS. 24 and 25 illustrate the placement of triangular brackets along a stringer and the rotation of the brackets on the stringer. DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The present invention comprises an apparatus with indicia or openings spaced along apparatus that can be positioned along the surface of a stringer and, when placed with respect to a desired starting position, the indicia or openings can be used to locate the positions for one or more pivot points for tread/riser brackets. The apparatus includes an alignment means for properly positioning the apparatus along a stinger and for establishing the desired lateral spacing of pivot points with respect to an edge of the stringer. Using the present invention, the builder of a stairway can start with readily available construction materials at the job site for forming the stairway stringer, can mark the stringer for the lateral and axial positioning of pivot points for tread/riser brackets, can mount the desired brackets on the stringer, can place the stringer in the desired location, can pivot the brackets with the placement of the stringer, can fix the brackets in the desired position, and can proceed with the construction of the stairway adding treads and risers. No cutting of stringer slots or calculation of distances between brackets is required; the use of the jig of the present invention provides for equal spacing of brackets about equally spaced pivot hole locations along the stringers. FIG. 1 shows the pivot hole locating apparatus 10 of the present invention in the form of a jig. FIG. 1 is a plan view of a multiple hole jig 10 with a starting hole 12 and three sets of holes 14 marked A, B and C. In the form of jig illustrated, the spacing of the holes marked A in each set are equally spaced from the preceding hole A; the holes marked B in each set are equally spaced from the preceding hole B and a different spacing from that of holes A; and the same applies to holes C. This makes it possible to choose various pivot hole centers by choosing to mark all A, or all B, or all C holes. This will vary the spacing between stair treads but will maintain a uniform spacing between each tread in a stair as illustrated by the distance designations above the apparatus in the drawing. The jig 10 as illustrated is an elongated rigid element having a planar body 16 with a longitudinal edge 18. FIG. 2A illustrates an end view of one form of the jig 10 where the planar body 16 and the longitudinal edge 18 are in the form of a flange forming a T shaped apparatus. The planar body portion 16 includes a lateral portion 20 where the starting hole 12 and the sets of holes 14 are located. These holes are spaced from the edge 18 a fixed distance for the pivotal mounting of brackets on a stairway stringer. FIG. 2B illustrates another form for the jig apparatus where only a single lateral portion 18 is provided to form an L shaped jig. FIG. 2C is a plan view of a jig with only a single starting hole 12 and a single spaced locating hole 14. This form of jig can be used for either side of a stringer to space markings for pivot holes for brackets. FIG. 3 illustrates in perspective the use of the jig 10 of FIG. 1 in locating pivot hole markings along a pair of stairway stringers. The stringers are designated X and Y and the jig 10 is placed on the surface of the stringers to permit marking for pivot hole locations. As illustrated, the jig 10 is placed on stringer X with the starting hole 12 in a first marked position and with the flange 18 pressed against the edge of the stringer X. The sets of holes 14 are spaced along the jig and, as illustrated, a marker (pin, drill, punch, nail, pencil or the like) 15 shown in position for being passed through the holes to mark the stringer. In the illustration of FIG. 3, the sets of holes C are the distance to be marked and each mark along the stringer will be equally spaced from its neighbor so that the distance from the starting hole to the first mark at C and the distance between marks C along the stringer will be equal. Shown in dotted lines is the next positioning of the jig for subsequent sets of marks. In repositioning the jig along the stringer, the start hole 12 will be aligned with the last marked spacing hole and the same set of holes will be used to continue the marking. FIG. 3 also shows the positioning of the jig on the opposite stringer Y for the set of parallel stringers. In the use of the jig for the second stringer, the jig is rotated about its longitudinal axis so that the T shaped jig is aligned to place a starting hole marking through a hole 12 at the same distance from the end of the stinger as that of stringer X and the same set of marking holes is used. FIGS. 4, 5 and 6 illustrate the marking of parallel stringers X and Y, the mounting of pivotal triangular brackets 22, and the movement; of the stringers and brackets to place the stinger and brackets in position for the construction of a stairway. The brackets 22 are attached to the stringers X and Y by suitable fasteners 23 (pins nails, screws or the like) at the holes that were marked on the stringers X and Y using the locating jig 10. It should be understood that once the stringers of FIG. 6 have been moved axially with respect to each other and a duplicate stringer has been placed at the opposite side of the stairway to be built, the brackets 22 are permanently secured to the stringers by the fasteners 23 and additional fasteners if needed and are positioned for the attachment of treads (not shown) at the top of the bracket and risers (not shown) at the face of the bracket. FIGS. 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the marking of parallel stringers and the mounting of pivotal angular brackets 26 with fasteners 28 at the marked positions on the stringers using the jig 10. As in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6, the stringers X and Y are then movable axially with respect to each other to rotate the brackets 26 about the fasteners 28 to position the brackets for further attachment to the stringers and for the installation of treads (not shown) on the upper face of the brackets. FIGS. 10A, 10B, 11, 12, 13 and 14 illustrate an alternative form for the jig 10 that functions also as an angular bracket for tread mounting. In this form the jig/bracket is provided with registering means for spacing and aligning the jig along a stringer. FIG. 10A is a plan view and FIG. 10B is an elevational view of this alternative form of jig 10; FIG. 11 is an end view of the jig/bracket. As shown in FIG. 10B there are matching complementary registering means in the form of a tab 30 at one end and a slot 32 at the opposite end of the jig 10. The jig also includes a spacing tab 34 with a spacing hole 36 for marking the location for pivot holes along a stringer. The location of pivot holes for brackets are marked along a stringer by passing a marking means through hole 36 in each of the series of jigs 10 placed on the stringer and registered by the mating of tabs 30 and slots 32. The flange portion of the jig is placed on the edge of the stringer so that the tab 34 and hole 36 are the desired spacing from the edge. Holes 38 are provided for pivotally mounting a bracket on the stringer and additional mounting holes 40 are provided for the eventual fixing of the bracket to the stringers. Holes 39 are provided for the attachment of a tread as will be described. FIG. 13 illustrates the jig/bracket 10 of FIG. 10A and 10B placed along the surface of a stringer 101 with mating tabs 30 and slots 32 of adjacent jigs engaging each other. Pivot holes are located by marking with suitable means through holes 36. The bracket 10 then can be mounted for pivotal movement on the stringer 101 at those locations with a fastener through hole 38. As shown in FIGS. 12 and 14, the jig 10 can be used as a bracket 10. The jig/bracket 10 is removed from its marking alignment and rotated to place a hole 38 in alignment with the marked location established using hole 36 in the FIG. 13 position. When the bracket is positioned on the stringer and is pivotal about the fastener through hole 38, the bracket is rotatable to a desired position. In the use of parallel stringers as shown in FIGS. 12 and 14, a second fastener is placed through hole 38 in the bracket into the second stringer at the marked location using the jig 10. When the bracket is so located and fastened, the movement of the stringers causes the brackets along the stringers to rotate and remain parallel. As shown in FIG. 14, each bracket is rotatable about its pivot hole attachment with suitable fastening means passing through holes 38 on the bracket so as to mount the bracket on both stringers 101X and 101Y when the stringers are move axially with respect to each other. FIG. 14 illustrates the ability of the brackets to remain with parallel tread surfaces when the stringers are positioned at different slope angles. The lower part of FIG. 4 is at a slope angle “a” as illustrated by the graphic angle and the upper part of FIG. 14 is at a slope angle “b” as illustrated by its adjacent graphic angle. In the representative showing of FIG. 14, these two slope angles could be the equivalent differences between a step spacing of 8 inches in the lower portion and of 6 inches in the upper portion. In FIG. 14 a tread 141 is shown mounted to the upper surface of the bracket 10. FIGS. 15, 16 and 17 illustrate another alternative form of a jig/bracket 10 construction. In this form, the jig/bracket 10 is adapted for cooperation with an angular spacer 150. When a jig/bracket 10 is placed along the surface of a stringer 151 and spaced from adjacent jig/brackets at both sides with an angular spacer 150, the marking holes at 36 are used for locating pivot holes for the bracket along the stringer 151. The spacers 150 are removed when the bracket is pivotally attached to the stringer by fasteners through holes 38 with the fasteners at the marked pivot hole locations. As illustrated in FIG. 17, the brackets 10 are attached to each of parallel stringers and rotated about the fasteners through holes 38 engaging the stringers at the pivot locations. When the stringers 151X and 151Y are moved axially with respect to each other the brackets are rotated to produce the desired parallel tread support surfaces. The angles “a” and “b” are as described with respect to FIG. 14 and the riser difference of 8 inches and 6 inches is shown by the different angles of the stringers. As illustrated, a tread may be attached to the bracket by fasteners through tread and bracket. FIGS. 18, 19, 20 and 21 illustrate another alternative form for a jig 10 and its use in positioning brackets along a stringer. This form of jig can be used to position either triangular brackets like those shown in FIG. 6 or angular brackets like those shown in FIG. 9. The jig 10 as illustrated includes a planar body 16, a longitudinal edge 18, and a lateral portion 20. At the edge of the lateral portion 20 of the jig away from the longitudinal edge 18, a series of equally spaced slots 181 are cut into the lateral portion. The FIG. 18 jig 10 is adapted to be placed along the surface of a stringer 191, as shown in FIG. 19, for the location of a series of brackets 193 along the stringer. The brackets can then be attached by suitable fasteners 23 through pivot holes in the bracket. The brackets 193 are then equally spaced along the stringer 191 and are equally spaced from the edge of the stringer by the spacing of the slots 181 along the lateral portion 20 of the jig 10. It should be apparent that the triangular or angular brackets used in forming a stairway can be positioned by the use of this jig. As illustrated in FIGS. 19, 20 and 21 the jig is shown as used in a one piece stringer and the brackets 193 are illustrated with a single pivotal attachment; it should be understood that the jig of FIG. 18 can be used with the parallel stringers as shown in previous FIGS. and that attaching the brackets to the parallel stringers with two pivot points will permit the brackets to be rotated to a desired angles as the stringers are positioned for construction of a stairway. FIG. 22 illustrates a further modification of apparatus of the present invention for locating pivot holes along a stairway stringer for the placement of pivotal tread/riser supports. In this form, a jig 10 includes a spacing bar 221 with a fixed marker member 223 attached to the bar 221 and an adjustable marker member 225 movable along the bar 221. Both the fixed and the adjustable marker members include an edge 227 and a marking means in the form of a hole or pin 229. The attachment of the fixed marker member 223 to the spacing bar 221 and the adjustable marker member 225 to the spacing bar is a set distance from the edge 221. The adjustable marker member 225 is attached to the spacing bar 221 by a slideable connection with a suitable locking means shown as a set screw 231. When the jig of FIG. 22 is used for locating pivot holes along a stairway stringer, the jig is first adjusted in spacing along the spacing bar for the desired spacing between tread/risers in the stairway and the adjustable marker member 225 is locked in place by setting the set screw 231. The jig is then placed on the stringer with the edges 227 against an edge of a stringer and the fixed or adjustable marker member is set at the desired starting point. The marking means 229 are then used to mark the stringers for the location of the desired spaced pivot holes. That procedure is repeated along the stringer for the additional tread/riser brackets that are to be used. If parallel stringers are to be used, the marking of pivot holes continues for the second of the stringers. If a single stringer is used, only one set of marking holes is needed. The attachment of a bracket, either triangular or angular, can then proceed in the form illustrated in the preceeding drawings. FIG. 23 illustrates the positioning of the jig of FIG. 22 on an edge of a stringer in position for marking the location of pivot holes for the mounting of brackets along the stringer. The foregoing description is illustrative of the form that the jig may take in locating pivot holes for placement of tread/riser supports along a stairway stringer. In some of the illustrations the jig is also shown in its possible use as a bracket for the support of treads or risers. The invention as claimed is the apparatus for assisting the stairway builder in spacing tread/riser support brackets and the pivot points for those brackets along a one piece stringer or a stringer made of parallel stringers. The apparatus can take several forms as represented by those shown herein. While certain preferred embodiments of the invention have been specifically disclosed, it should be understood that the invention is not limited thereo as many variations will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art and the invention is to be give its broadest possible interpertation within the terms of the following claims. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The system is intended to make the formation of a stairway or set of forms an easy process at the site where the stairway is to be constructed. The user need only establish the slope for the stairway that is to be constructed, align the pair of parallel stringers, and space the brackets equally along the stringers. The user decides what vertical distance and distance between steps is to be used for the desired stairway to establish its slope. Uniform spacing of the brackets along the stringers is essential to accomplish the desired stair construction. Having started with stringer elements that are otherwise unmarked, the user starts by locating the spaced pivot points for the brackets along the stringer. The present invention simplifies the location of the spaced pivot points for the brackets and provides a means for assuring that the brackets will be equally spaced and, with proper pivotal mounting, movable so as to keep the tread/riser portions always parallel as the stinger is moved to the desired slope. An object of the present invention is a simplified jig for use in locating the pivot points along a stairway stringer for placement of tread/riser supports along the stringer. A further object in accord with the preceding objects is a jig that can cooperate with similar jigs and spacing means for locating pivot points for brackets along a stairway stringer. A further object in accord with the preceding objects is an adjustable jig for locating pivot points for brackets along a stairway stringer. Further objects and features of the present invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the appended drawings and specification illustrating a preferred embodiment wherein: | 20050110 | 20060829 | 20050630 | 89010.0 | 0 | GUADALUPE, YARITZA | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR LOCATING HOLE POSITIONS ON AN ADJUSTABLE STAIR STRINGER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,032,977 | ACCEPTED | Self-ligating orthodontic bracket | An orthodontic bracket having a bracket body configured to be mounted to a tooth includes an archwire slot having a base surface defining a base plane and a slide engagement track defining a translation plane. The translation plane is angled with respect to the base plane. A ligating slide is engaged with the slide engagement track of the bracket body and movable along the slide engagement track and parallel to the translation plane between an opened position, in which an archwire is insertable into the archwire slot, and a closed position, in which the archwire is retained within the archwire slot. The translation plane is angled with respect to the base plane so as to prevent the ligating slide from contacting the gingiva surrounding the tooth when the ligating slide is moved to the opened position. | 1. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a tooth, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot having a base surface generally defining a base plane and a slide engagement track generally defining a translation plane, said translation plane being acutely angled with respect to said base plane; and a ligating slide engaged with said slide engagement track and moveable relative to said slide engagement track and parallel to said translation plane between an opened position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said ligating slide retains the archwire in said archwire slot. 2. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 1, wherein said translation plane is angled between approximately 10 degrees and 25 degrees with respect to said base plane. 3. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 2, wherein said translation plane is angled approximately 20 degrees with respect to said base plane. 4. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 1, wherein said ligating slide comprises a surface confronting said slide engagement track and having a first and second portion, said first portion engaging said slide engagement track and said second portion angled with respect to said first portion such that said second portion is generally parallel to said base plane, wherein said second portion covers said archwire slot when said ligating slide is in the closed position. 5. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 1, wherein said ligating slide includes an aperture, said orthodontic bracket further comprising: a resilient engagement member coupled to said bracket body and having a free end adapted to engage said aperture when said ligating slide is in the closed position, wherein said engagement member constrains movement of said ligating slide relative to said bracket body when engaged with said aperture. 6. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a tooth in a first jaw, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot having a base surface generally defining a base plane and a slide engagement track, said bracket body further including a confronting side projecting from said base surface and adapted to confront teeth on an opposite jaw, said confronting side having a contoured shape so as to prevent occlusal interference with teeth in the opposite jaw; and a ligating slide engaged with said slide engagement track and moveable relative to said slide engagement track between an opened position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said ligating slide retains the archwire in said archwire slot. 7. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 6, wherein said confronting side includes a recess defining a generally planar portion which is substantially orthogonal to said base plane, said generally planar portion adapted to provide a gripping point for a tool used to apply said bracket to the tooth. 8. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 6, wherein said confronting side includes an outer portion that overlies a leading edge of said ligating slide, said outer portion adapted to deflect objects in a patient's oral cavity away from said leading edge when said ligating slide is in the closed position, said outer portion further adapted to prevent said ligating slide from overshooting the closed position. 9. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a tooth, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot and a slide engagement track, said slide engagement track including a projecting portion; and a ligating slide engaged with said slide engagement track and moveable relative to said slide engagement track between an opened position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said ligating slide retains the archwire in said archwire slot, said ligating slide including a retaining slot extending through said ligating slide, wherein said projecting portion is received within said retaining slot and said retaining slot moves relative to said projecting portion when said ligating slide is moved along said slide engagement track between the opened and closed positions. 10. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 9, wherein said ligating slide includes an aperture therein, said self-ligating orthodontic bracket further comprising: a resilient engagement member coupled to said bracket body and having a free end adapted to engage said aperture in said ligating slide when said ligating slide is in the closed position, said engagement member constraining movement of said ligating slide relative to said bracket body when engaged with said aperture. 11. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 9, wherein said retaining slot terminates at a first end, said projecting portion engaging said first end when said ligating slide is in the opened position thereby preventing said ligating slide from disengaging from said bracket body. 12. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 9, wherein said projecting portion is selected from the group consisting of a retaining pin and a retaining ball. 13. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 9, wherein said retaining slot generally extends in a direction along which said ligating slide moves between said opened and closed positions. 14. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 9, wherein said slide engagement track comprises a support surface and opposed sides connected by said support surface, said ligating slide positioned between and engaged with said opposed sides, said projecting portion coupled to said support surface. 15. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a tooth, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot and a slide engagement track bounded in part by a side wall, said side wall including one of a projecting portion and a receiving portion; and a ligating slide engaged with said slide engagement track and moveable relative to said slide engagement track between an opened position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said ligating slide retains the archwire in said archwire slot, said ligating slide having a peripheral edge confronting said side wall, said peripheral edge including the other of said projecting portion and said receiving portion, said projecting portion received within said receiving portion, wherein said projecting portion and said receiving portion move relative to each other when said ligating slide is moved along said slide engagement track between the opened and closed positions. 16. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 15, wherein said ligating slide includes an aperture therein, said self-ligating orthodontic bracket further comprising: a resilient engagement member coupled to said bracket body and having a free end adapted to engage said aperture in said ligating slide when said ligating slide is in the closed position, said engagement member constraining movement of said ligating slide relative to said bracket body when engaged with said aperture. 17. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 15, wherein said receiving portion terminates at a first end, said projecting portion engaging said first end when said ligating slide is in the opened position thereby preventing said ligating slide from disengaging from said bracket body. 18. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 15, wherein said projecting portion is selected from the group consisting of a retaining pin and a retaining ball. 19. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 15, wherein said receiving portion is configured as a retaining groove. 20. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a tooth, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot and a slide engagement track, said slide engagement track including a receiving portion; and a ligating slide engaged with said slide engagement track and moveable relative to said slide engagement track between an opened position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said ligating slide retains the archwire in said archwire slot, said ligating slide including a projecting portion received within said receiving portion, wherein said projecting portion moves relative to said receiving portion when said ligating slide is moved along said slide engagement track between the opened and closed positions. 21. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 20, wherein said ligating slide includes an aperture therein, said self-ligating orthodontic bracket further comprising: a resilient engagement member coupled to said bracket body and having a free end adapted to engage said aperture in said ligating slide when said ligating slide is in the closed position, said engagement member constraining movement of said ligating slide relative to said bracket body when engaged with said aperture. 22. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 20, wherein said receiving portion terminates at a first end, said projecting portion engaging said first end when said ligating slide is in the opened position thereby preventing said ligating slide from disengaging from said bracket body. 23. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 20, wherein said projecting portion is selected from the group consisting of a retaining pin and a retaining ball. 24. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 20, wherein said receiving portion is configured as a retaining groove. 25. A method of coupling an archwire with a molar tooth surrounded by gingiva, comprising: coupling an orthodontic bracket having an archwire slot therein to the molar tooth, the archwire slot having a base surface generally defining a base plane, said bracket further having a moveable portion for gaining access to the archwire slot; moving the moveable portion of the bracket without contacting the gingiva so as to make the archwire slot accessible; inserting the archwire into the archwire slot; and moving the moveable portion of the bracket to make the archwire slot inaccessible and thereby retain the archwire within the archwire slot. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein moving the moveable portion without contacting the gingiva comprises: moving the moveable portion at an acute angle with respect to the base plane. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein moving the moveable portion at an acute angle comprises: moving the moveable portion at an angle between approximately 10 degrees and 25 degrees with respect to the base plane. 28. A self-ligating orthodontic bracket for coupling an archwire with a molar tooth surrounded by gingiva, comprising: a bracket body configured to be mounted to the molar tooth, said bracket body including an archwire slot; and a moveable portion engaged with said bracket body, said moveable portion moveable relative to said bracket body between an open position in which the archwire is insertable into said archwire slot and a closed position in which said moveable portion retains the archwire in said archwire slot, wherein said moveable portion is adapted to avoid contact with the gingiva when in the open position. 29. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 28, wherein said moveable portion includes an aperture therein, said self-ligating orthodontic bracket further comprising: a resilient engagement member coupled to said bracket body and having a free end adapted to engage said aperture in said moveable portion when said moveable portion is in the closed position, said engagement member constraining movement of said moveable portion relative to said bracket body when engaged with said aperture. 30. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 28, wherein said archwire slot includes a base surface generally defining a base plane and said bracket body includes a slide engagement track generally defining a translation plane, said translation plane being acutely angled with respect to said base plane. 31. The self-ligating orthodontic bracket of claim 30, wherein said translation plane is angled between approximately 10 degrees and 25 degrees with respect to said base plane. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to orthodontic brackets and, more particularly, to self-ligating orthodontic brackets. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Orthodontic brackets represent a principal component of all corrective orthodontic treatments devoted to improving a patient's occlusion. In conventional orthodontic treatments, an orthodontist or an assistant affixes brackets to the patient's teeth and engages an archwire into a slot of each bracket. The archwire applies corrective forces that coerce the teeth to move into correct positions. Traditional ligatures, such as small elastomeric O-rings or fine metal wires, are employed to retain the archwire within each bracket slot. Due to difficulties encountered in applying an individual ligature to each bracket, self-ligating orthodontic brackets have been developed that eliminate the need for ligatures by relying on a movable portion or member, such as a latch or slide, for captivating the archwire within the bracket slot. Conventional orthodontic brackets for the first and second molar teeth typically include a bracket in the form of a buccal tube that provides an anchor for the archwire. The buccal tube is typically secured to a tooth or to a molar band, which is in turn cemented to the first or second molar teeth. A terminal end of a conventional archwire is then fitted into the tube to facilitate orthodontic treatment. In some orthodontic treatments, a severely rotated molar makes it difficult to insert the end of the archwire into both the first and second molar tubes. In these severely rotated cases, a convertible buccal tube is often used on the first molar tooth to overcome the difficulty encountered with conventional buccal tubes. In some orthodontic treatments, however, it is undesirable to fix the archwire and prevent movement of the archwire, as is done when traditional ligatures secure the archwire to a convertible buccal tube. To overcome this limitation of current molar brackets it would be desirable to use self-ligating brackets on the first and/or second molars. Nevertheless, their use has heretofore presented some undesirable drawbacks. For instance, one problem in using self-ligating brackets on the molar teeth is that their size often creates occlusion problems between the bracket and teeth on the opposing jaw. As the upper and lower teeth are brought together, such as for example, during chewing, the upper teeth may contact the brackets on the lower molars and may break or dislodge the brackets therefrom. Furthermore, under normal conditions the gingival-occlusal height of molar teeth provides a limited surface on which to mount an orthodontic bracket. Prior self-ligating brackets have slides that engage the bracket body from below and travel along guides in the bracket body that are substantially parallel to the gingival-occlusal plane. Moreover, when in an opened position, the bottom edge of the slide extends below the bracket body. Thus, if traditional self-ligating brackets were attached to the bottom molar teeth, the bottom edge of the slide would contact gum tissue (gingiva) causing patient discomfort. Moreover, because gingival interference with the slide would be significant, the slide could not be fully opened to accept an archwire thus defeating an advantage of self-ligating brackets. Yet another problem often encountered with traditional direct bonded self-ligating brackets is with applying the brackets to teeth. To apply a self-ligating bracket to a tooth, a medical practitioner will use a tool, such as tweezers, to grasp the bracket and manipulate the bracket within the oral cavity. Traditional self-ligating brackets, however, typically do not provide convenient gripping points so that the medical practitioner may securely grasp the bracket. Consequently, it is difficult to manipulate the bracket within the oral cavity without the bracket disengaging from the tweezers and falling on the floor or in a patient's mouth. This problem would be exacerbated when attempting to apply self-ligating brackets to molar teeth at the rear of the oral cavity. There is a need for a self-ligating orthodontic bracket attachable to molar teeth that overcomes these and other deficiencies of conventional self-ligating orthodontic brackets. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect of the invention, an orthodontic bracket includes a bracket body configured to be mounted to a tooth and includes an archwire slot having a base surface generally defining a base plane. The bracket body further includes a slide engagement track generally defining a translation plane. The translation plane is acutely angled with respect to the base plane. A ligating slide is engaged with the slide engagement track of the bracket body and movable along the slide engagement track and parallel to the translation plane between an opened position, in which an archwire is insertable into the archwire slot, and a closed position, in which the archwire is retained within the archwire slot. The translation plane may be angled between approximately 10 degrees and approximately 25 degrees, and preferably approximately 20 degrees, with respect to the base plane. The angled relation between the translation plane and the base plane is configured to prevent the ligating slide from contacting the gingiva surrounding the tooth when the ligating slide is moved to the opened position. To provide a close fit between the archwire and the archwire slot, the ligating slide includes a surface confronting the slide engagement track having a first and second portion. The first portion engages the slide engagement track. The second portion covers the archwire slot when the ligating slide is in the closed position and is angled with respect to the first portion so that the second portion is generally parallel to the base plane. In another aspect of the invention, the bracket body includes a confronting side adapted to face teeth on an opposite jaw. The confronting side has a contoured shape such that as the jaws are closed and the upper and lower teeth are brought together, there is no occlusal interference between the orthodontic bracket and the teeth in the opposite jaw. The confronting side may include a recess adjacent an outer end that defines a generally planar surface which is substantially orthogonal to the base plane. The planar surface is adapted to provide a gripping point for an orthodontic tool, such as tweezers, used to apply the bracket to the tooth. In yet another aspect of the invention, the movement of the ligating slide relative to the bracket body may be restricted so as to prevent the ligating slide from disengaging the bracket body. The bracket body may include one of a projecting portion or a receiving portion and the ligating slide may include the other of the projecting portion and the receiving portion, wherein the projecting portion or receiving portion moves relative to the other as the ligating slide moves along the slide engagement track between the opened and closed positions. The receiving portion includes a first end configured such that the projecting portion engages the first end when the ligating slide is in the opened position. In this way, the ligating slide is prevented from accidently or inadvertently disengaging from the bracket body. In one embodiment, a retaining pin projects from the slide engagement track and the ligating slide includes a retaining slot extending through the ligating slide and oriented in a direction along which the ligating slide moves between the opened and closed positions. The retaining pin is received within the retaining slot and the retaining slot moves relative to the retaining pin as the ligating slide moves between the opened and closed positions. Another embodiment further shows the retaining pin associated with the ligating slide and a retaining groove associated with the bracket body that operates in a similar manner as described above. Other configurations are also possible for restricting the movement of the ligating slide relative to the bracket body. For instance, in other embodiments of the invention, the slide engagement track is bounded by at least one side wall having one of a projecting portion or a receiving portion and the ligating slide includes a peripheral edge that confronts the side wall. The peripheral edge includes the other of the projecting portion or the receiving portion. The projecting portion may be, for example, a retaining pin or a retaining ball and the receiving portion may be a retaining groove. The above and other objects and advantages of the invention shall be made apparent from the accompanying drawings and the description thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention and, together with a general description of the invention given above, and the detailed description of the embodiments given below, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a self-ligating orthodontic bracket according to the invention in which the ligating slide is removed from the assembly for clarity; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket of FIG. 1 with the ligating slide in the closed position; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket of FIG. 2 generally taken along line 3-3; FIG. 4A is a cross-sectional view of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket of FIG. 2 generally taken along line 4A-4A showing a retaining pin in the bracket body and a retaining slot through the ligating slide; FIG. 4B is a cross-sectional view of an alternate embodiment of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket similar to FIG. 4A showing a retaining groove in the bracket body and a retaining pin in the ligating slide; FIG. 5A is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket showing a retaining ball in the bracket body and a retaining groove in the ligating slide; and FIG. 5B is a broken away perspective view of an alternate embodiment of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket similar to FIG. 5A showing a retaining groove in the bracket body and a retaining pin in the ligating slide. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Although the invention will be described next in connection with certain embodiments, the invention is not limited to practice in any one specific type of self-ligating orthodontic bracket. The description of the embodiments of the invention is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalent arrangements as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In particular, those skilled in the art will recognize that the components of the embodiments of the invention described herein could be arranged in multiple different ways. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, an orthodontic bracket, generally indicated by reference numeral 10, includes a bracket body 12 and a movable ligating slide 14 slidably coupled with the bracket body 12. The bracket body 12 includes an archwire slot 16 formed therein adapted to receive an archwire 18 (shown in phantom). The ligating slide 14 is moveable between an opened position in which the archwire 18 is insertable into the archwire slot 16 and a closed position in which the archwire 18 is retained within the archwire slot 16. The bracket body 12 and ligating slide 14 collectively form an orthodontic bracket 10 structure for use in corrective orthodontic treatments. The invention is advantageous for self-ligating brackets placed on the first and/or second molar teeth, although not so limited. More particularly, the invention is advantageous for self-ligating brackets placed on the first and/or second molar teeth of the lower jaw. For this reason, the orthodontic bracket 10 of the invention is described herein using a reference frame attached to a molar tooth of the lower jaw. Consequently, and as used herein, terms such as labial, lingual, mesial, distal, occlusal, and gingival used to describe bracket 10 are relative to the chosen reference frame. The invention, however, is not limited to the chosen reference frame and descriptive terms, as the orthodontic bracket 10 of the invention may be used on other teeth and in other orientations within the oral cavity. By way of example, the orthodontic bracket 10 may be used on the molar teeth in the upper jaw and oriented so that the ligating slide 14 opens in either the occlusal or gingival direction. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the descriptive terms used herein may not directly apply when there is a change in reference frame. Nevertheless, the invention is intended to be independent of location and orientation within the oral cavity and the relative terms used to describe orthodontic bracket 10 are to merely provide an adequate description of the invention. As such, the relative terms labial, lingual, mesial, distal, occlusal, and gingival are in no way limiting the invention to a particular location or orientation. The bracket body 12 has a lingual side 20, an occlusal side 22 when mounted to a tooth 23 carried by the patient's lower jaw, a gingival side 24, a mesial side 26, a distal side 28, and a labial side 30. The lingual side 20 of the bracket body 12 is configured to be secured to tooth 23 in any conventional manner, for example, by an appropriate orthodontic cement or adhesive or by a band around an adjacent tooth. The lingual side 20 may further be provided with a pad 32 that is secured to the outer surface of tooth 23. In one advantageous aspect of the invention, the occlusal side 22 is profiled or contoured by including a labial portion 34 that projects generally in the gingival-labial direction. For instance, the occlusal side 22 may include a convex portion adjacent the lingual side 20 with a concave portion extending therefrom in the labial direction. In this way, the thickness of the bracket body 12 between the archwire slot 16 and occlusal side 22 is relatively thicker along the convex portion and thins or is reduced along the concave portion. Many traditional self-ligating brackets have an occlusal side that projects primarily in the labial direction. Consequently, when traditional self-ligating brackets are positioned on molar teeth, teeth on the opposing jaw often contact the occlusal side of the brackets when the teeth are brought together, such as for example during chewing. To avoid the undesirable contact of teeth with the orthodontic bracket, the self-ligating bracket 10 of the invention includes an occlusal side 22 with a labial portion 34 that projects in the gingival direction as well. This profiling moves the occlusal side 22 away from the teeth on the opposing jaw, shown schematically at 35, so that as the teeth 23, 35 are brought together, the teeth 35 on the opposing jaw do not contact the occlusal side 22 of the orthodontic bracket 10, thereby preventing occlusal interference (FIG. 3). Occlusal side 22 may further include recess 36 in labial portion 34. Recess 36 may be advantageously configured to include a generally planar surface 38 adapted to be a gripping point for a tool (not shown), such as tweezers, for manipulating the orthodontic bracket 10 within the oral cavity. As discussed below, planar surface 38 is generally orthogonal to the base plane defined by the base of the archwire slot 16. This is particularly advantageous when attaching orthodontic brackets to molar teeth at the back of the oral cavity, where it can be difficult to manipulate the bracket 10 so as to properly attach the bracket 10 to the molar tooth 23. Many traditional self-ligating brackets include occlusal sides that are irregular and thus are not conducive to gripping by an instrument such as tweezers. To aid the medical practitioner in applying the self-ligating bracket 10 of the invention, planar surface 38 is provided within recessed area 36. Planar surface 38 provides an enhanced surface for securely gripping the orthodontic bracket 10 so that the medical practitioner may easily position the bracket 10 on the molar tooth 23. With continued reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, the bracket body 12 includes a base surface 40 and a pair of opposed slot surfaces 42, 44 respectively, projecting labially from the base surface 40 that collectively define the archwire slot 16 extending in a mesial/distal direction from mesial side 26 to distal side 28. The slot surfaces 42, 44 and base surface 40 are substantially encapsulated or embedded within the material of the bracket body 12. The archwire slot 16 of the bracket body 12 is designed to receive the orthodontic archwire 18 in the same manner as typical prior art self-ligating orthodontic brackets. The bracket body 12 further includes a generally planar support surface 46 projecting in a generally labial-gingival direction from slot surface 44. Support surface 46 may include a pair of slide grooves 48, 50 extending in the occlusal-gingival direction at opposed mesial-distal ends of support surface 46. A pair of opposed guides 52, 54 are carried by support surface 46 and are positioned on respective mesial and distal sides 26, 28 thereof. The guides 52, 54 are generally L-shaped each having a first leg projecting from support surface 46 in the labial direction. Guide 52 has a second leg projecting in the distal direction while guide 54 has a second leg projecting in the mesial direction so that collectively, guides 52, 54 partially overlie support surface 46. Planar support surface 46 including grooves 48, 50 and guides 52, 54 collectively define a slide engagement track 56 for supporting and guiding ligating slide 14 within bracket body 12. In another advantageous aspect of the invention, the slide engagement track 56 and the archwire slot 16 generally have a non-orthogonal relationship. In particular, the base surface 40 of the archwire slot 16 generally defines a base plane 58 and the slide engagement track 56 generally defines a translation plane 60 along which the ligating slide 14 moves between the opened and closed positions. It should be recognized that base surface 40 and slide engagement track 56 need not be precisely planar but be configured such that base plane 58 and translation plane 60 may be generally defined. The base plane 58 and translation plane 60 are acutely angled with respect to each other by an angle A, as shown in FIG. 3. In this way, as the ligating slide 14 is moved from the closed position to the opened position along slide engagement track 56 and parallel to translation plane 60, the ligating slide 14 moves generally in the labial-gingival direction so that the edge of the ligating slide 14 does not make contact with the gingiva 61 adjacent orthodontic bracket 10 when mounted to molar tooth 23. To prevent the ligating slide 14 from contacting the gingiva 61, the base plane 58 and translation plane 60 have an angle A between approximately 10 degrees and approximately 25 degrees, and preferably approximately 20 degrees. The invention, however, is not so limited and, as recognized by those of ordinary skill in the art, other angles suitable for a particular application are possible. The ligating slide 14 is a generally planar structure comprising a mesial portion 64, a distal portion 66, and a central portion 68 intermediate the mesial portion 64 and distal portion 66. Mesial and distal portions 64 and 66 include integral slide rails 70, 72 extending in the occlusal-gingival direction and adapted to engage slide grooves 48, 50 of bracket body 12 when ligating slide 14 is engaged with bracket body 12. Additionally, guides 52, 54 overlie mesial and distal portions 64, 66 respectively, and central portion 68 projects in the labial direction such that the labial surface of central portion 68 is substantially flush with the labial side 30 of bracket body 12. The labial surface of central portion 68 may include a channel 74 that tapers or narrows in the occlusal-gingival direction and includes an aperture 76 located near the apex of channel 74. As will be explained below, aperture 76 helps secure ligating slide 14 in the closed position. A resilient engagement member 78 operates to secure the ligating slide 14 in the closed position. The resilient engagement member 78 is generally L-shaped and included a lingually-extending prong 80 that is received in a recess 82 formed in support surface 46. The free end of the resilient engagement member 78 is provided with an labially-extending detent or projection 84, which corresponds generally in cross section with the cross section of aperture 76 in ligating slide 14. The projection 84 extends into aperture 76 in ligating slide 14 when ligating slide 14 is in the closed position. The engagement between the projection 84 and the aperture 76 holds the ligating slide 14 in the closed position against movement that would otherwise open the slide 14. As a result, ligating slide 14 is unlikely to be unintentionally moved from the closed position to the opened position. The free end of resilient engagement member 78 carrying projection 84 is elastically compressed when ligating slide 14 is in an opened position and projection 84 engages the lingual surface of ligating slide 14. Consequently, the free end of resilient engagement member 78 is capable of resiliently flexing or deforming in the labial direction and toward ligating slide 14 when the projection 84 is aligned with aperture 76, for selectively engaging the projection 84 with the aperture 76 so as to lock the ligating slide 14 in the closed position. To that end, resilient engagement member 78 is biased in the labial direction to force projection 84 away from the tooth 23 and toward ligating slide 14. In another advantageous aspect of the invention, it is desirable to provide an archwire slot 16 that provides a close fit with the archwire 18 being inserted therein. Thus as shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the archwire slot 16 typically has a generally rectangular configuration. The mutual arrangement of the base surface 40 and the side slot surfaces 42, 44 is generally rectangular and provides a close fit to a generally rectangular archwire 18. Nevertheless, because the base plane 58 of the archwire slot 16 and the translation plane 60 along which ligating slide 14 travels are angled with respect to each other, the ligating slide 14 has to be modified in order to provide a close fit to the labial surface of archwire 18. To this end, the lingual surface of slide rails 70, 72 includes a first and second portion 86, 88 respectively. First portion 86 engages the slide grooves 48, 50 of slide engagement track 56. The second portion 88 is angled with respect to first portion 86 such that second portion 88 is generally parallel to base plane 58. Second portion 88 covers the archwire slot 16 when ligating slide 14 is in the closed position. The second portion 88 is angled by an amount substantially equal to the angle A between the base plane 58 and translation plane 60. In this way, ligating slide 14 provides a close fit to the labial surface of archwire 18. In yet another advantageous aspect of the invention, the labial portion 34 of occlusal side 22 extends in the labial direction beyond the archwire slot 16 to define a ledge, generally shown at 90, extending in the mesial-distal direction. Ledge 90 includes a labial surface 92 that is generally parallel to base plane 58. When the ligating slide 14 is moved to the closed position, the occlusal end of the second portion 88 on slide rails 70, 72 abuts the labial surface 92 of ledge 90 and is covered by labial portion 34 of occlusal side 22. In this way, food or other material in the oral cavity is prevented from contacting the occlusal edge of ligating slide 14 and inadvertently dislodging slide 14 to the opened position. Furthermore, labial portion 34 provides a stop so as to prevent ligating slide 14 from overshooting the closed position as the ligating slide is being moved from the open position to the closed position. To regulate the movement of the ligating slide 14 relative to bracket body 12, the bracket body 12 may include one of a projecting portion or a receiving portion, and ligating slide 14 may include the other of the projecting portion of the receiving portion. The projecting portion and receiving portion cooperate to regulate the movement of ligating slide 14. For example, as shown in FIG. 4A, ligating slide 14 includes a retaining slot 94 (FIG. 1) through ligating slide 14 and extending generally in the occlusal-gingival direction. Retaining slot 94 may be formed in the distal portion 66 of ligating slide 14, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, but may also be formed in the mesial portion 64. A retaining pin 96 includes a lingual portion received within a recess 98 formed in support surface 46 that aligns with the slot 94 in ligating slide 14. The retaining pin 96 projects in the labial direction and is received in slot 94 so that as the ligating slide 14 moves between opened and closed positions, retaining slot 94 moves relative to retaining pin 96, as shown in FIG. 2. The retaining pin/slot configuration prevents accidental or unintentional detachment of the ligating slide 14 from the bracket body 12 during use when the ligating slide 14 is positioned in the opened position. It should be realized that the retaining pin/slot configuration does not lock the ligating slide 14 in any position, as does engagement member 78, but regulates the movement of the ligating slide 14 in the occlusal-gingival direction. Additionally, the length of retaining slot 94 limits the occlusal-gingival range of movement of ligating slide 14. The retaining slot 94 may be configured lengthwise so that in the fully opened position, the archwire 18 may be inserted into archwire slot 16. For instance, the retaining pin 96 may abut a first slot end 100 when the occlusal edge of ligating slide 14 is approximately flush with archwire slot surface 44. In this way, the archwire 18 may be easily inserted into the archwire slot 16. A second slot end 102 may be configured so that the projection 84 of resilient engagement member 78 is permitted to align with aperture 76 in ligating slide 14 so as to lock the ligating slide 14 in the closed position. Retaining pin 96 may abut second slot end 102 when ligating slide 14 is in the closed position. An alternate embodiment of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket 10 is shown in FIG. 4B, in which like reference numerals refer to like features in FIG. 4A. In this embodiment, the receiving portion is included on the bracket body 12 and the projecting portion is included on the ligating slide 14. In particular, bracket body 12 includes a retaining groove 104 in the support surface 46 extending generally in the occlusal-gingival direction. The retaining groove 104 may be formed in support surface 46 adjacent the distal side 28 of bracket body 12, but may also be formed adjacent the mesial side 26. A retaining pin 106 includes a labial portion received within a recess 108 in ligating slide 14 that aligns with retaining groove 104 in bracket body 12. The retaining pin 106 projects in the lingual direction and is received in retaining groove 104 so that as the ligating slide 14 moves between opened and closed positions, retaining pin 106 moves relative to retaining groove 104. In operation, the retaining pin/slot configuration shown in FIG. 4B functions in substantially the same manner as the retaining pin/slot configuration shown and described above for FIG. 4A. In FIGS. 5A and 5B, in which like reference numerals refer to like features in FIGS. 1-4A, the projecting portion and receiving portion have an alternate configuration and/or location for regulating the movement of ligating slide 14 relative to bracket body 12. For example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 5A, one of the guides, such as guide 52, of bracket body 12 includes an aperture 110 in the mesial side 26 which extends therethrough. A retaining ball 112 is pressed into aperture 110 with an interference fit so that a portion of retaining ball 112 extends into the space between guide 52 and support surface 46. The mesial surface of rail 70 includes a retaining groove 114 (shown in phantom) extending generally in the occlusal-gingival direction and defining a first end and second end 116, 118, respectively. The retaining ball 112 projects in the distal direction and is received in retaining groove 114 so that as ligating slide 14 moves between the opened and closed positions, retaining groove 114 moves relative to retaining ball 112. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the retaining ball 112 and corresponding retaining groove 114 may also be located in the distal side 28 of bracket body 12 and ligating slide 14. The retaining ball/groove configuration prevents accidental or unintentional detachment of the ligation slide 14 from bracket body 12 during use when the ligating slide 14 is positioned in the open position and functions in substantially the same manner as the retaining pin/slot configuration shown and described above for FIG. 4A. For instance, the length of retaining groove 114 limits the occlusal-gingival range of movement of ligating slide 14. The retaining groove 114 is configured so that in the fully open position, the archwire 18 may be inserted into archwire slot 16. The retaining ball 112 may abut first groove end 116 when the occlusal end of the ligating slide 14 is approximately flush with archwire slot surface 44. In this way, the archwire 18 may be easily inserted into the archwire slot 16. Furthermore, the second groove end 118 is configured so that the projection 84 of resilient engagement member 78 may be permitted to align with aperture 76 in ligating slide 14 so as to lock the ligating slide 14 in the closed position. Retaining ball 112 may abut second groove end 118 when ligation slide 14 is in the closed position. Although the embodiment shown in FIG. 5A shows the projecting portion associated with the bracket body 12 and the receiving portion associated with the ligating slide 14, the invention is not so limited as the receiving portion may be associated with the bracket body 12 and the projecting portion may be associated with the ligating slide 14. In the alternate embodiment of the self-ligating orthodontic bracket 10 shown in FIG. 5B, bracket body 12 includes a retaining groove 120 in the distal surface of guide 52 extending generally in the occlusal-gingival direction and defining first and second groove ends 122, 124, respectively. A retaining pin 126 includes a distal portion received within a recess 128 in ligating slide 14 that aligns with retaining groove 120 in guide 52. The retaining pin 126 projects in the mesial direction and is received in retaining groove 120 so that as the ligating slide 14 moves between opened and closed positions, retaining pin 126 moves relative to retaining groove 120. In operation, the retaining pin/slot configuration shown in FIG. 5B functions in substantially the same manner as the retaining ball/groove configuration shown and described above for FIG. 5A. In these embodiments, the bracket body 12 may be made by any suitable forming technique, such as metal injection molding (MIM), from a biocompatible metal, such as a stainless steel and, more specifically, a 17-4 stainless steel. The resilient engagement member 78 may be made from any suitable material, including stainless steels, titanium alloys and Ni/Ti type superelastic materials. The ligating slide 14 may be formed by any suitable process, such as MIM, from any biocompatible material, including metals such as stainless steel. With reference to FIG. 2, the ligating slide 14 in the closed position blocks the entrance to the archwire slot 16 to capture the archwire 18 therein and the engagement between projection 84 and aperture 76 provides a latched condition. The ligating slide 14 may be unlocked using an end of a tool (not shown) designed to press the projection 84 inwardly (i.e., lingually) toward the tooth 23 with a force sufficient to overcome the bias applied by resilient member 78 and disengage the projection 84 from the aperture 76 in the ligating slide 14 to provide an unlatched condition. When the projection 84 is moved by the tool inwardly (i.e., lingually) by a distance adequate to substantially clear the plane of the lingual surface of the ligating slide 14, the ligating slide 14 is freely movable using a force applied by the tool occlusal-gingivally toward the opened position in a slidable manner and guided by guides 52, 54. The motion of the ligating slide 14 may be positively stopped in the opened position by contact between the retaining pin 96 and the first slot end 100 of retaining slot 94. To place the ligating slide 14 in the closed position, slide 14 is moved occlusal-gingivally until the projection 84 springs outwardly under the bias applied by resilient member 78 and is received in the aperture 76. The ligating slide 14 is then securely locked in the closed position. The engagement of the projection 84 into the aperture 76 may create a tactile effect which is perceptible to a clinician and/or emits an audible sound, such as a click, that is likewise perceptible by a clinician. The alternate embodiments shown in FIGS. 4B, 5A and 5B may be operated in a similar manner. The self-ligating bracket of the invention provides a number of advantages over traditional molar brackets, such as buccal tubes or convertible buccal tubes. In particular, the self-ligating bracket may be used in severely rotated cases without constraining the movement of the archwire. Traditional self-ligating brackets, however, have some problems when applied to molar teeth. The self-ligating bracket of the invention overcomes these limitations. In particular, self-ligating bracket of the invention provides a slide engagement track for the ligating slide that is angled so that the edge of the ligating slide does not contact the gingiva surrounding a molar tooth when the slide is opened. The bracket also provides a contoured-shaped surface that prevents occlusal interference with teeth on the opposite jaw. The bracket further provides a mechanism for regulating the movement of the ligating slide so as to prevent the ligating slide from disengaging from the bracket body. While the invention has been illustrated by a description of various embodiments and while these embodiments have been described in considerable detail, it is not the intention of the applicants to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. For example, as shown in the figures, the self-ligating orthodontic bracket 10 may include mesial and/or distal hooks that aid in the orthodontic treatment of teeth. The invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus and methods, and illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of applicant's general inventive concept. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Orthodontic brackets represent a principal component of all corrective orthodontic treatments devoted to improving a patient's occlusion. In conventional orthodontic treatments, an orthodontist or an assistant affixes brackets to the patient's teeth and engages an archwire into a slot of each bracket. The archwire applies corrective forces that coerce the teeth to move into correct positions. Traditional ligatures, such as small elastomeric O-rings or fine metal wires, are employed to retain the archwire within each bracket slot. Due to difficulties encountered in applying an individual ligature to each bracket, self-ligating orthodontic brackets have been developed that eliminate the need for ligatures by relying on a movable portion or member, such as a latch or slide, for captivating the archwire within the bracket slot. Conventional orthodontic brackets for the first and second molar teeth typically include a bracket in the form of a buccal tube that provides an anchor for the archwire. The buccal tube is typically secured to a tooth or to a molar band, which is in turn cemented to the first or second molar teeth. A terminal end of a conventional archwire is then fitted into the tube to facilitate orthodontic treatment. In some orthodontic treatments, a severely rotated molar makes it difficult to insert the end of the archwire into both the first and second molar tubes. In these severely rotated cases, a convertible buccal tube is often used on the first molar tooth to overcome the difficulty encountered with conventional buccal tubes. In some orthodontic treatments, however, it is undesirable to fix the archwire and prevent movement of the archwire, as is done when traditional ligatures secure the archwire to a convertible buccal tube. To overcome this limitation of current molar brackets it would be desirable to use self-ligating brackets on the first and/or second molars. Nevertheless, their use has heretofore presented some undesirable drawbacks. For instance, one problem in using self-ligating brackets on the molar teeth is that their size often creates occlusion problems between the bracket and teeth on the opposing jaw. As the upper and lower teeth are brought together, such as for example, during chewing, the upper teeth may contact the brackets on the lower molars and may break or dislodge the brackets therefrom. Furthermore, under normal conditions the gingival-occlusal height of molar teeth provides a limited surface on which to mount an orthodontic bracket. Prior self-ligating brackets have slides that engage the bracket body from below and travel along guides in the bracket body that are substantially parallel to the gingival-occlusal plane. Moreover, when in an opened position, the bottom edge of the slide extends below the bracket body. Thus, if traditional self-ligating brackets were attached to the bottom molar teeth, the bottom edge of the slide would contact gum tissue (gingiva) causing patient discomfort. Moreover, because gingival interference with the slide would be significant, the slide could not be fully opened to accept an archwire thus defeating an advantage of self-ligating brackets. Yet another problem often encountered with traditional direct bonded self-ligating brackets is with applying the brackets to teeth. To apply a self-ligating bracket to a tooth, a medical practitioner will use a tool, such as tweezers, to grasp the bracket and manipulate the bracket within the oral cavity. Traditional self-ligating brackets, however, typically do not provide convenient gripping points so that the medical practitioner may securely grasp the bracket. Consequently, it is difficult to manipulate the bracket within the oral cavity without the bracket disengaging from the tweezers and falling on the floor or in a patient's mouth. This problem would be exacerbated when attempting to apply self-ligating brackets to molar teeth at the rear of the oral cavity. There is a need for a self-ligating orthodontic bracket attachable to molar teeth that overcomes these and other deficiencies of conventional self-ligating orthodontic brackets. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect of the invention, an orthodontic bracket includes a bracket body configured to be mounted to a tooth and includes an archwire slot having a base surface generally defining a base plane. The bracket body further includes a slide engagement track generally defining a translation plane. The translation plane is acutely angled with respect to the base plane. A ligating slide is engaged with the slide engagement track of the bracket body and movable along the slide engagement track and parallel to the translation plane between an opened position, in which an archwire is insertable into the archwire slot, and a closed position, in which the archwire is retained within the archwire slot. The translation plane may be angled between approximately 10 degrees and approximately 25 degrees, and preferably approximately 20 degrees, with respect to the base plane. The angled relation between the translation plane and the base plane is configured to prevent the ligating slide from contacting the gingiva surrounding the tooth when the ligating slide is moved to the opened position. To provide a close fit between the archwire and the archwire slot, the ligating slide includes a surface confronting the slide engagement track having a first and second portion. The first portion engages the slide engagement track. The second portion covers the archwire slot when the ligating slide is in the closed position and is angled with respect to the first portion so that the second portion is generally parallel to the base plane. In another aspect of the invention, the bracket body includes a confronting side adapted to face teeth on an opposite jaw. The confronting side has a contoured shape such that as the jaws are closed and the upper and lower teeth are brought together, there is no occlusal interference between the orthodontic bracket and the teeth in the opposite jaw. The confronting side may include a recess adjacent an outer end that defines a generally planar surface which is substantially orthogonal to the base plane. The planar surface is adapted to provide a gripping point for an orthodontic tool, such as tweezers, used to apply the bracket to the tooth. In yet another aspect of the invention, the movement of the ligating slide relative to the bracket body may be restricted so as to prevent the ligating slide from disengaging the bracket body. The bracket body may include one of a projecting portion or a receiving portion and the ligating slide may include the other of the projecting portion and the receiving portion, wherein the projecting portion or receiving portion moves relative to the other as the ligating slide moves along the slide engagement track between the opened and closed positions. The receiving portion includes a first end configured such that the projecting portion engages the first end when the ligating slide is in the opened position. In this way, the ligating slide is prevented from accidently or inadvertently disengaging from the bracket body. In one embodiment, a retaining pin projects from the slide engagement track and the ligating slide includes a retaining slot extending through the ligating slide and oriented in a direction along which the ligating slide moves between the opened and closed positions. The retaining pin is received within the retaining slot and the retaining slot moves relative to the retaining pin as the ligating slide moves between the opened and closed positions. Another embodiment further shows the retaining pin associated with the ligating slide and a retaining groove associated with the bracket body that operates in a similar manner as described above. Other configurations are also possible for restricting the movement of the ligating slide relative to the bracket body. For instance, in other embodiments of the invention, the slide engagement track is bounded by at least one side wall having one of a projecting portion or a receiving portion and the ligating slide includes a peripheral edge that confronts the side wall. The peripheral edge includes the other of the projecting portion or the receiving portion. The projecting portion may be, for example, a retaining pin or a retaining ball and the receiving portion may be a retaining groove. The above and other objects and advantages of the invention shall be made apparent from the accompanying drawings and the description thereof. | 20050111 | 20070911 | 20060713 | 91128.0 | A61C300 | 2 | WEHNER, CARY ELLEN | SELF-LIGATING ORTHODONTIC BRACKET | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61C | 2,005 |
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11,033,009 | ACCEPTED | Integrated circuit having structural support for a flip-chip interconnect pad and method therefor | A technique for alleviating the problems of defects caused by stress applied to bond pads (32) includes, prior to actually making an integrated circuit (10), adding dummy metal lines (74, 76) to interconnect layers (18, 22, 26) to increase the metal density of the interconnect layers. These problems are more likely when the interlayer dielectrics (16, 20, 24) between the interconnect layers are of a low-k material. A critical area or force area (64) around and under each bond pad defines an area in which a defect may occur due to a contact made to that bond pad. Any interconnect layer in such a critical area that has a metal density below a certain percentage can be the cause of a defect in the interconnect layers. Any interconnect layer that has a metal density below that percentage in the critical area has dummy metal lines added to it. | 1. An integrated circuit, comprising: a substrate having active circuitry; a bond pad over the substrate; a force region around and under the bond pad characterized by being susceptible to defects due to contacts to the bond pad; a stack of interconnect layers, wherein each interconnect layer has a portion in the force region; and a plurality of interlayer dielectrics separating the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers and having vias for interconnecting the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers; wherein at least one interconnect layer of the stack of interconnect layers comprises functional metal lines and dummy metal lines in the portion that is in the force region to obtain a predetermined metal density in the portion that is in the force region. 2. The integrated circuit of claim 1, further comprising a conductive ball on the bond pad. 3. The integrated circuit of claim 1, wherein the dummy metal lines run in two directions orthogonal to each other. 4. The integrated circuit of claim 1, wherein each of the functional metal lines is one of a signal line or a power line. 5. The integrated circuit of claim 1, wherein the predetermined metal density is less than forty percent. 6. A method of making an integrated circuit, comprising: providing a circuit design having a layout comprising: a substrate having active circuitry; a stack of interconnect layers for interconnecting the active circuitry; a plurality of interlayer dielectrics for insulating the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers and for connecting the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers with vias; a bond pad; defining a force region under and around the bond pad; determining which interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers have a metal density that is a less than a predetermined percentage; obtaining a modified design by adding dummy metal lines to the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers that were determined to have less than the predetermined percentage sufficient to raise the metal density to at least the predetermined percentage; and making the integrated circuit according to the modified design. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the predetermined percentage is not greater than forty percent. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the predetermined percentage is not greater than fifty-five percent. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein the force region is a region in which the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers are susceptible to stress from the bond pad due to assembly or other processes. 10. The method of claim 6, wherein the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers comprise copper and the plurality of interlayer dielectrics are characterized as comprising dielectric layers having a relative permittivity less than four. 11. A method of making an integrated circuit having a plurality of bond pads, comprising: developing a circuit design of the integrated circuit; developing a layout of the integrated circuit according to the circuit design, wherein the layout comprises a plurality of interconnect layers; defining a force region around and under a first bond pad of the plurality of bond pads, wherein the force region comprises a first portion of each of the plurality of interconnect layers; identifying a first interconnect layer of the plurality of interconnect layers in which the first portion of the first interconnect layer has a metal density below a predetermined percentage; modifying the layout by adding dummy metal lines to the first portion of the first interconnect layer to increase the metal density of the first portion of the first interconnect layer; and making the integrated circuit comprising the dummy metal lines. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein each of the plurality of interconnect layers comprises copper. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the layout comprises low-k dielectric layers separating the plurality of interconnect layers, wherein the low-k dielectric layers have vias for interconnecting the plurality of interconnect layers. 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the making the integrated circuit further comprises forming conductive balls on the plurality of bond pads. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the plurality of interconnect layers comprise copper. 16. The method of claim 11, wherein the predetermined percentage is not greater than fifty-five percent. 17. The method of claim 11, wherein the predetermined percentage is not greater than forty percent. 18. The method of claim 11, wherein the dummy metal lines run in one of two directions in which the two directions are orthogonal to each other. 19. The method of claim 11, wherein the first portion of the first interconnect layer comprises functional metal lines. 20. A method of making an integrated circuit having a plurality of bond pads, comprising: developing a circuit design of the integrated circuit; developing a layout of the integrated circuit according to the circuit design, wherein the layout comprises a plurality of metal-containing interconnect layers that extend under the plurality of bond pads; modifying the layout by adding dummy metal lines to the plurality of metal-containing interconnect layers to achieve a metal density of at least forty percent for each of the plurality of metal-containing interconnect layers; and forming the integrated circuit comprising the dummy metal lines. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is related to copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ (Attorney docket number SC12926TK) entitled “Method and Apparatus for Providing Structural Support For Interconnect Pad While Allowing Signal Conductance” filed simultaneously herewith by Kevin Hess et al. and assigned to the assignee hereof. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This disclosure relates to packaged semiconductors and more particularly to interconnect pads of integrated circuits for making electrical connection to underlying conductive layers. RELATED ART The use of conductive balls, such as solder balls, to make electrical connection to a bond pad is a known method to make electrical connection to electrical circuitry of a semiconductor die. Conductive ball packaging is commonly known in the industry as flip chip interconnect. As geometries in semiconductors continue to shrink in size due to improvements in the technology for making semiconductors, the sizes of bond pad regions have become smaller. A smaller bond pad region results in increased stress to the bond pad structure when physical connection is made to the semiconductor die. The bond pad structure includes a metal bond pad and an underlying stack of metal interconnect and dielectric layers. This stack of layers mechanically supports the pad during electrical connection. Bond pad structures fabricated with copper interconnect metallization and low dielectric constant (low-k) dielectrics are susceptible to mechanical damage during the bonding process. Because the advanced low-k interlayer dielectrics used today have a lower dielectric constant and lower Young's modulus than dielectrics used in earlier generation products, flip chip die attach may more easily mechanically fracture the underlying stack of metal and dielectric layers. Additionally, heat must be applied to the bond pad in order to attach the ball to the package. The heat causes expansion of the die and package substrate. As a result, dielectric cracking and delamination of layers under the flip chip bond pads result from package-to-die Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) mismatch stresses. A known method to address the stresses present underlying a bond pad is to use a dedicated support structure. A common structure is the use of at least two metal layers under the bonding pad that are connected together and to the bonding pad by large arrays of vias distributed across a majority of the bond pad area. This via arrangement requires that majority portions of the underlying metal layers and the bonding pad are all electrically connected together and thus are not functionally independent of each other. Therefore, under the bond pad, these majority portions of the underlying two metal layers may not be used for wiring or interconnects unrelated to the pad. Another known method of mitigating stresses in a bond pad region is to replace low-k dielectric layers with higher k dielectric and higher elastic modulus dielectric layers until the die exhibits resistance to cracking. This method results in increasing the metal line pitch or spacing to obtain acceptable circuit performance. The area required for chip interconnect is therefore notably larger. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not by limitation in the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates in cross-sectional form a portion of an integrated circuit having a bond pad structure underlying a conductive bump; FIG. 2 illustrates a top plan view of a portion of one conductive layer of the bond pad structure of FIG. 1 taken substantially along line 2-2. FIG. 3 illustrates a top plan view of the conductive layer of FIG. 2 after increasing metal density of the conductive layer; and FIG. 4 illustrates in flow chart form a method for providing structural support of a flip chip interconnect pad. Skilled artisans appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Generally there is herein provided a method and apparatus for providing structural support for interconnect pad locations in an integrated circuit (IC) by using novel layout techniques in the metallization and dielectric stack underlying the pad. As used herein, an interconnect pad, formed of metal, is placed at the surface of an integrated circuit where an electrical connection is made from the pad to one or more underlying interconnect layers. In a typical IC design, multiple interconnect layers separated by interlevel dielectrics are formed in a stack to provide the required interconnections between devices in the semiconductor substrate. Examples of an interconnect pad include, but are not limited to, a wire bond pad, a probe pad, a flip-chip bump pad, a test point or other packaging or test pad structures that may require underlying structural support. The interconnect pad region, located physically underneath the interconnect pad, defines the region in which the layout techniques provided herein may be applied. With these layout techniques, bond pad structures fabricated in IC technologies with copper interconnect metallization and low modulus dielectrics are much less susceptible to mechanical damage during the flip chip process. The use herein of a low modulus material is a material having a value typically less than sixty GPa (GigaPascals). Additionally, the use herein of a low-k material is a material having a relative permittivity or dielectric constant typically less than four. It should be noted that many of the low-k dielectrics in use have low moduli. The use herein of a high modulus material is a material having a value typically equal to or greater than sixty GPa (GigaPascals). Dielectrics having any modulus value may be used in connection with the methods and structures described herein. Illustrated in FIG. 1 is an interconnect structure of an integrated circuit 10 that overlies a substrate 12. The substrate 12 may be formed of any material and is typically a semiconductor such as silicon. Within substrate 12 may be formed one or more semiconductor devices (not shown). Overlying substrate 12 is a plurality of interconnect layer and interlevel dielectrics (ILDs). For example, a last interconnect or last metal (LM) layer 14 overlies an Nth ILD 16, where N is an integer. The Nth ILD 16 overlies a next-to-last (LM-1) interconnect layer 18. The next-to-last interconnect layer 18 overlies a next to last ILD 20. The next-to-last ILD 20 overlies a second-from-last (LM-2) interconnect layer 22. The second-from-last interconnect layer 22 overlies a second-from-last ILD 24. The second-from-last ILD 24 overlies a third-from-last interconnect layer 26. A conductive bump 28 is positioned overlying and in contact with a metal cap 31. Adjacent the conductive bump 28 and the metal cap is an insulating layer 30 that is used for passivation of the underlying last metal layer 14. In one form the conductive bump 28 is solder but may be other electrically conductive materials, including various metal alloys. In one form the metal cap 31 is aluminum or an alloy thereof and the underlying interconnect layers are copper or an alloy thereof. However, it should be well understood that various metals may be used with the structure described herein. The last metal layer 14 is formed of a conductive bond pad 32 and dielectric 34. It should be well understood that in integrated circuits, there is a plurality of conductive bond pads that are present and which are laterally disposed to conductive bond pad 32 and in other planes not illustrated. In the cross-sectional view of FIG. 1 the metal density or amount of metal present in the last metal layer 14 is significantly less than one hundred percent. Within the next-to-last interconnect layer 18 is a plurality of metal lines, such as metal lines 36, 38 and 40. The metal lines are electrically isolated and separated by a dielectric 42. Within the second-from-last interconnect layer 22 is also a plurality of metal lines, such as metal lines 44, 46, 48, 50 and 52. The metal lines 44, 46, 48, 50 and 52 are electrically isolated and separated by a dielectric 54. Within the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 is a plurality of metal lines, such as metal lines 56, 58 and 60. Metal lines 56, 58 and 60 are electrically isolated and separated by a dielectric 62. The metal line 50 of the second-from-last interconnect layer 22 is electrically connected to the metal line 58 of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 by a via 59 that intersects dielectric 24. Thus electrical connection exists between a portion of the second-from-last interconnect layer 22 and the third-from-last interconnect layer 26. A force region 64 is illustrated spanning the interconnect pad region directly underlying the conductive bump 28 and extending laterally a limited distance. In one form the distance is substantially one hundred fifty thousand nanometers (150 microns) from the center of the bond pad 32. The force region 64 is a region within the integrated circuit 10 in which forces are exerted on the interconnect structure when a die attach is performed to the conductive bump 28. The area of the force region 64 may vary depending upon device technology and geometries. Illustrated in FIG. 2 is a top plan view of the interconnect of integrated circuit 10 within the force region 64 and taken along line 2-2 of FIG. 1 which is the uppermost surface of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26. As illustrated in FIG. 2, a significant portion of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 includes dielectric 62. Within dielectric 62 is metal line 58 that was visible in the FIG. 1 view as well as additional metal lines such as metal line 66, metal line 68, metal line 70, metal line 72, metal line 74 and metal line 76. We have discovered that in order to adequately support the overlying conductive bump 28, a predetermined minimum amount of metal or a minimum metal density must exist within each conductive layer of metal. When this predetermined minimum metal density is satisfied, each interconnect layer may be mechanically functionally independent and no vias are required to be connected for structural support. This feature is significant as it permits each of the interconnect layers underlying conductive bump 28 to be functionally independent in the circuit if desired and mechanically supportive in the interconnect stack. As a result, a significant amount of space on an integrated circuit is saved as compared with prior interconnects which required connected underlying nonfunctioning interconnect layers for support. To ensure adequate support, the layout of each interconnect layer is required to have a minimum amount of metal which is referred to herein as metal density. The minimum or predetermined amount is a percentage that will vary depending upon the dielectric materials used and the particular metal used to implement the metal lines. For example, in one embodiment the predetermined minimum metal density is forty percent. In another embodiment the predetermined metal density is fifty-five percent. Generally, a range for the minimum metal density is from thirty-five percent to eighty percent, but it should be appreciated that values other than those within this range may adequately provide structural support depending upon the materials used and the layout of the metal lines. Within the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 of FIG. 2 are metal lines additional to those that are visible in the single plane of the cross-sectional view of FIG. 1. For example, metal lines 66, 68, 70, 72, 74 and 76 exist within the third-from-last interconnect layer 26. Assume for purposes of explanation only that the metal area of the metal lines 58, 66, 68, 72, 74 and 76 within the force region 64 as compared with the total area of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 within the force region 64 is less than a desired predetermined minimum. Illustrated in FIG. 3 is a resulting modification of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 to increase the metal density. A plurality of dummy lines, such as dummy line 75 and dummy line 77 and others that are not numbered, is added to the surface area of the third-from-last interconnect layer 26 such that optimally at least the minimum metal density is reached. However, in some cases the design and design rules will only permit the metal density to be increased from an initial amount to an amount that does not reach the predetermined minimum metal density. In these limited cases the increased metal density, by adding dummy lines such as dummy line 75 and dummy line 77, will typically be sufficient to provide adequate interconnect support when the method is applied across an entire integrated circuit design. Additionally, within a single interconnect, only one or a few interconnect layers may not have the predetermined minimum metal density. Because a large percentage of the other layers and interconnects do meet the metal density minimum, adequate support is provided and the integrated circuit die is robust. In the illustrated form of FIG. 3, the open surface area of dielectric 62 is filled with dummy lines consistent with the layout rules and determined by the existing design features. It should be noted that the dummy lines are added, in the illustrated form, in one of two orientations, such as in an X direction and an orthogonal Y direction. This is because most commercially available place and route tools function to place features in only one of two orientations and the orientations are typically orthogonal. However, for purposes of providing the required support, it should be well understood that any orientation and direction of dummy line placement, consistent with required design layout rules, will accomplish the desired objective. Illustrated in FIG. 4 is a method 80 of providing structural support for a flip chip interconnect pad. After a start step 82, in a step 84 a force region is defined around a flip chip pad of a multiple interconnect layer integrated circuit design. The force region can be determined by conventional stress analysis and fracture mechanics simulation using commercially available computer-aided-design tools. A force region is therefore defined for each flip chip pad. The method described herein may therefore be repeated for each flip chip pad in a design or each of these steps may be performed in parallel for all identified flip chip pads. In a step 86 a determination is made which interconnect layers have less than a predetermined percentage of metal in the force region. In a step 88, dummy metal lines are added to deficient interconnect layers in which the predetermined percentage of metal does not exist in the force region. The additional metal lines raise the metal content in the interconnect layers where the dummy metal lines are added. In the majority of interconnect layers the metal content is raised above the predetermined percentage. In a step 90 an integrated circuit is made or fabricated as the design has been created using a method that ensures adequate structural support for flip chip bond pads. By now it should be appreciated that there has been provided an interconnect pad structure and method for providing structural support for a flip chip bond pad. By providing underlying interconnect layers that have a minimum metal density, the intervening dielectric is toughened to provide significantly increased support. As a result, desirable low-k dielectrics, and dielectrics with lower hardness and lower modulus may be used. Much of the flip chip bond pad stress results from a shear force. The stress is minimized in crack-prone areas (i.e. dielectric spaces and isolated metal lines) and the shear force is more uniformly distributed over the entire force region 64 using the minimum metal density method described herein. The underlying additional metal added to each interconnect layer when the metal density is not above a minimum percentage of the area of the interconnect layer functions to more uniformly redistribute the stress from the flip chip bump during die attach with minimal interference of circuit layout. The design methodology disclosed herein allows wiring under an integrated circuit pad, allows vias to be placed by circuit design, and allows stacked orthogonal and parallel metal traces that can be replaced by circuit metal as needed. The metal dummy lines described herein are uniform with a minimum number of corners under a bond pad. Uniform distribution of metal is also accomplished by forming the metal at a smallest metal sizing and spacing permitted by design and processing constraints. In one form there has been provided an integrated circuit having a substrate with active circuitry. A bond pad is provided over the substrate. A force region is identified around and under the bond pad characterized by being susceptible to defects due to contacts to the bond pad. A stack of interconnect layers is provided, wherein each interconnect layer has a portion in the force region. A plurality of interlayer dielectrics separate the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers and have vias for interconnecting the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers. At least one interconnect layer of the stack of interconnect layers comprises functional metal lines and dummy metal lines in the portion that is in the force region to obtain a predetermined metal density in the portion that is in the force region. In one form the integrated circuit further comprise a conductive ball on the bond pad. In another form the dummy lines run in two directions that are orthogonal to each other. In yet another form each of the functional lines is one of a signal line or a power line. In one form the predetermined metal density is less than forty percent. In another form there is provided a method of making an integrated circuit. A circuit design having a layout is provided and comprises a substrate having active circuitry. A stack of interconnect layers is provided for interconnecting the active circuitry. A plurality of interlayer dielectrics insulates the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers. The interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers are connected with vias. A bond pad is provided. A force region under and around the bond pad is defined. A determination is made which interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers have a metal density that is a less than a predetermined percentage. A modified design is obtained by adding dummy metal lines to the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers that were determined to have less than the predetermined percentage sufficient to raise the metal density to at least the predetermined percentage. The integrated circuit is then made according to the modified design. In one form the predetermined percentage is not greater than forty per cent. In another form the predetermined percentage is not greater than fifty-five percent. In another form the force region is a region in which the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers are susceptible to stress from the bond pad due to assembly or other processes. In another form the interconnect layers of the stack of interconnect layers comprise copper and the plurality of interlayer dielectrics are characterized as comprising dielectric layers having a relative permittivity less than four. There is also provided a method of making an integrated circuit having a plurality of bond pads. A circuit design of the integrated circuit is developed. A layout of the integrated circuit is developed according to the circuit design, wherein the layout comprises a plurality of interconnect layers. A force region is defined around and under a first bond pad of the plurality of bond pads, wherein the force region comprises a first portion of each of the plurality of interconnect layers. A first interconnect layer of the plurality of interconnect layers is identified in which the first portion of the first interconnect layer has a metal density below a predetermined percentage. The layout is modified by adding dummy metal lines to the first portion of the first interconnect layer to increase the metal density of the first portion of the first interconnect layer. The integrated circuit is made comprising the dummy metal lines. In one form the interconnect layers comprise copper. In another form the layout comprises low-k dielectric layers separating the plurality of interconnect layers, wherein the low-k dielectric layers have vias for interconnecting the interconnect layers. In another form conductive balls are formed on the bond pads. In another form the plurality of interconnect layers comprise copper. In yet another form the predetermined percentage is not greater than fifty-five percent. In yet another form the predetermined percentage is not greater than forty percent. In yet another form the dummy lines run in one of two directions in which the two directions are orthogonal to each other. In one form the first portion of the first interconnect layer comprises functional metal lines. There is also provided a method of making an integrated circuit having a plurality of bond pads. A circuit design of the integrated circuit is developed. A layout of the integrated circuit is developed according to the circuit design, wherein the layout comprises a plurality of interconnect layers that extend under the plurality of bond pads. The layout is modified by adding dummy metal lines to the plurality of interconnect layers to achieve a metal density of at least forty percent for each metal line of the plurality of interconnect layers. The integrated circuit is made comprising the dummy metal lines. In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments. However, one of ordinary skill in the art appreciates that various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims below. For example, although in the form illustrated dummy lines are added when the predetermined minimum is not met in such a way as to fill in all empty layout areas consistent with design rules criteria, a lesser amount of dummy metal may be added. Therefore, various amounts of dummy metal may be added to any one interconnect layer and the various interconnect layers may contain differing amounts of dummy metal. Accordingly, the specification and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense, and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of present invention. Benefits, other advantages, and solutions to problems have been described above with regard to specific embodiments. However, the benefits, advantages, solutions to problems, and any element(s) that may cause any benefit, advantage, or solution to occur or become more pronounced are not to be construed as a critical, required, or essential feature or element of any or all the claims. As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion, such that a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. The terms “a” or “an”, as used herein, are defined as one or more than one. The term “plurality”, as used herein, is defined as two or more than two. The term “another”, as used herein, is defined as at least a second or more. The terms “including” and/or “having”, as used herein, are defined as “comprising” (i.e., open language). The term “coupled”, as used herein, is defined as connected, although not necessarily directly, and not necessarily mechanically. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This disclosure relates to packaged semiconductors and more particularly to interconnect pads of integrated circuits for making electrical connection to underlying conductive layers. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not by limitation in the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements, and in which: FIG. 1 illustrates in cross-sectional form a portion of an integrated circuit having a bond pad structure underlying a conductive bump; FIG. 2 illustrates a top plan view of a portion of one conductive layer of the bond pad structure of FIG. 1 taken substantially along line 2 - 2 . FIG. 3 illustrates a top plan view of the conductive layer of FIG. 2 after increasing metal density of the conductive layer; and FIG. 4 illustrates in flow chart form a method for providing structural support of a flip chip interconnect pad. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? Skilled artisans appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention. | 20050111 | 20070724 | 20060713 | 99595.0 | H01L214763 | 1 | SARKAR, ASOK K | INTEGRATED CIRCUIT HAVING STRUCTURAL SUPPORT FOR A FLIP-CHIP INTERCONNECT PAD AND METHOD THEREFOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H01L | 2,005 |
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11,033,087 | ACCEPTED | Nanotube-based transfer devices and related circuits | Nanotube transfer devices controllably form a nanotube-based electrically conductive channel between a first node and a second node under the control of a control structure. A control structure induces a nanotube channel element to deflect so as to form and unform the conductive channel between the nodes. The nanotube channel element is not in permanent electrical contact with either the first node or the second node. The nanotube channel element may have a floating potential in certain states of the device. Each output node may be connected to an arbitrary network of electrical components. The nanotube transfer device may be volatile or non-volatile. In preferred embodiments, the nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal device or a four-terminal device. Electrical circuits are provided that ensure proper switching of nanotube transfer devices interconnected with arbitrary circuits. The circuits may overdrive the control structure to induce the desired state of channel formation. | 1. A nanotube transfer device, comprising: a first output node for electrical connection to a first arbitrary network; a second output node for electrical connection to a second arbitrary network; a nanotube channel element including at least one electrically conductive nanotube, said nanotube channel element being constructed and arranged so that it is not in electrical contact with said first output node or said second output node in a state of the device, said nanotube channel element having a first operating voltage range; and a control structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to controllably form and unform an electrically conductive channel between said first output node and said second output node for transferring a signal between said first output node and said second output node, said channel including said nanotube channel element, said control structure including a control electrode having a second operating voltage range wherein an upper operating voltage of said second operating range exceeds an upper operating voltage of said first operating range by at least an amount sufficient to ensure channel formation. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element is constructed and arranged so that no electrical signal is provided to the nanotube channel element in a state of the device. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element has a floating potential in a state of the device. 4. The device of claim 1, wherein said control structure is arranged in relation to the nanotube channel element to form said conductive channel by causing electromechanical deflection of said nanotube channel element. 5. The device of claim 4, wherein the electromechanical deflection causes the nanotube channel element to electrically contact a first output electrode in said first output node and a second output electrode in said second output node. 6. The device of claim 1, wherein said first and second output nodes each include an isolation structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element so that channel formation is substantially regardless of the state of the output nodes. 7. The device of claim 6, wherein said isolation structure includes electrodes disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element and said electrodes produce substantially equal but opposite electrostatic forces. 8. The device of claim 7, wherein electrodes of said first and second output nodes disposed on one side of said nanotube channel element are electrically insulated from said nanotube channel element by an insulator. 9. The device of claim 7, wherein said isolation structure includes electrodes disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element that are in low resistance electrical communication with each other. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element is suspended between insulative supports in spaced-relation relative to a control electrode of the control structure and wherein deflection of said nanotube channel element is in response to electrostatic attractive forces resulting from signals on the control electrode, independent of signals on the first output node or the second output node. 11. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element is constructed from nanofabric. 12. The device of claim 1, wherein said control electrode is electrically isolated from said nanotube channel element by an insulator. 13. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element retains a positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. 14. The device of claim 1, wherein said nanotube channel element returns to a normal positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. 15. The device of claim 1, wherein each output node includes a pair of output electrodes in electrical communication, the output electrodes of each pair being disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. 16. The device of claim 1, the control structure including a second control electrode, the control electrode and second control electrode being disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to control formation of the electrically conductive channel between the first output node and the second output node, the control electrode and the second control electrode being positioned on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. 17. A transfer device circuit, comprising: a nanotube transfer device, including a first node, a second node, a nanotube channel element including at least one electrically conductive nanotube, and a control structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to controllably form and unform an electrically conductive channel between said first node and said second node, said channel including said nanotube channel element; and a signal shaping circuit electrically coupled to said control structure, said signal shaping circuit receiving an input signal and providing a control signal representative of said input signal to the control structure, a value of said control signal inducing channel formation regardless of the potential of the nanotube switching element. 18. The circuit of claim 17, wherein said signal shaping circuit overdrives said control signal to a voltage above a supply voltage to predictably induce formation of the channel. 19. The circuit of claim 17, wherein a second value of said control signal ensures the absence of channel formation regardless of the potential of the nanotube switching element. 20. The circuit of claim 17, wherein said signal shaping circuit shifts said input signal from a first range to a second range to provide said control signal, wherein the state of channel formation is predictable at the endpoints of the second range. 21. The circuit of claim 17, wherein said control structure includes a first control electrode and a second control electrode disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element, the control signal being provided to the first control electrode, further comprising a second signal shaping circuit electrically coupled to said control structure, said second signal shaping circuit receiving a second input signal and providing a second control signal representative of the second input signal to the second control electrode, a value of said second input signal inducing unforming of the channel regardless of the potential of the nanotube switching element. 22. The circuit of claim 17, wherein said nanotube channel element is not in direct electrical communication with either said first node or said second node in a state of the device. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/580,799 filed Jun. 18, 2004, entitled Carbon Nanotube Microswitch Transfer Devices, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. This application is related to the following applications: U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/917,794, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Nanotube-Based Switching Elements; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/918,085, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Nanotube-Based Switching Elements With Multiple Controls; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/918,181, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Nanotube Device Structure And Methods Of Fabrication; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/917,893, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Nanotube-Based Switching Elements And Logic Circuits; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/917,606, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Isolation Structure For Deflectable Nanotube Elements; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/917,932, filed on Aug. 13, 2004, entitled Circuits Made From Nanotube-Based Switching Elements With Multiple Controls; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Integrated Nanotube And Field Effect Switching Device; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Receiver Circuit Using Nanotube-Based Switches And Transistors; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Receiver Circuit Using Nanotube-Based Switches And Logic; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Nanotube-Based Logic Driver Circuits; U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Storage Elements Using Nanotube Switching Elements; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______ not yet assigned, filed on date even herewith, entitled Tristate Circuit Using Nanotube Switching Elements. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to nanotube technology and to switching devices that may be used in integrated circuits, including logic circuits, memory devices, etc. BACKGROUND Digital logic circuits are used in personal computers, portable electronic devices such as personal organizers and calculators, electronic entertainment devices, and in control circuits for appliances, telephone switching systems, automobiles, aircraft and other items of manufacture. Early digital logic was constructed out of discrete switching elements composed of individual bipolar transistors. With the invention of the bipolar integrated circuit, large numbers of individual switching elements could be combined on a single silicon substrate to create complete digital logic circuits such as inverters, NAND gates, NOR gates, flip-flops, adders, etc. However, the density of bipolar digital integrated circuits is limited by their high power consumption and the ability of packaging technology to dissipate the heat produced while the circuits are operating. The availability of metal oxide semiconductor (“MOS”) integrated circuits using field effect transistor (“FET”) switching elements significantly reduces the power consumption of digital logic and enables the construction of the high density, complex digital circuits used in current technology. The density and operating speed of MOS digital circuits are still limited by the need to dissipate the heat produced when the device is operating. Digital logic integrated circuits constructed from bipolar or MOS devices do not function correctly under conditions of high heat or extreme environments. Current digital integrated circuits are normally designed to operate at temperatures less than 100 degrees centigrade and few operate at temperatures over 200 degrees centigrade. In conventional integrated circuits, the leakage current of the individual switching elements in the “off” state increases rapidly with temperature. As leakage current increases, the operating temperature of the device rises, the power consumed by the circuit increases, and the difficulty of discriminating the off state from the on state reduces circuit reliability. Conventional digital logic circuits also short internally when subjected to certain extreme environments because electrical currents are generated inside the semiconductor material. It is possible to manufacture integrated circuits with special devices and isolation techniques so that they remain operational when exposed to such environments, but the high cost of these devices limits their availability and practicality. In addition, such digital circuits exhibit timing differences from their normal counterparts, requiring additional design verification to add protection to an existing design. Integrated circuits constructed from either bipolar or FET switching elements are volatile. They only maintain their internal logical state while power is applied to the device. When power is removed, the internal state is lost unless some type of non-volatile memory circuit, such as EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), is added internal or external to the device to maintain the logical state. Even if non-volatile memory is utilized to maintain the logical state, additional circuitry is necessary to transfer the digital logic state to the memory before power is lost, and to restore the state of the individual logic circuits when power is restored to the device. Alternative solutions to avoid losing information in volatile digital circuits, such as battery backup, also add cost and complexity to digital designs. Important characteristics for logic circuits in an electronic device are low cost, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional logic solutions are limited to silicon substrates, but logic circuits built on other substrates would allow logic devices to be integrated directly into many manufactured products in a single step, further reducing cost. Important characteristics for a memory cell in an electronic device are low cost, nonvolatility, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional memory solutions include Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read only Memory (PROM), Electrically Programmable Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). ROM is relatively low cost but cannot be rewritten. PROM can be electrically programmed but with only a single write cycle. EPROM has read cycles that are fast relative to ROM and PROM read cycles, but has relatively long erase times and reliability only over a few iterative read/write cycles. EEPROM (or “Flash”) is inexpensive, and has low power consumption but has long write cycles (ms) and low relative speed in comparison to DRAM or SRAM. Flash also has a finite number of read/write cycles leading to low long-term reliability. ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are all non-volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted, the memory will retain the information stored in the memory cells. DRAM stores charge on transistor gates that act as capacitors but must be electrically refreshed every few milliseconds, complicating system design by requiring separate circuitry to “refresh” the memory contents before the capacitors discharge. SRAM does not need to be refreshed and is fast relative to DRAM, but has lower density and is more expensive relative to DRAM. Both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted, the memory will lose the information stored in the memory cells. Consequently, existing technologies are either non-volatile but are not randomly accessible and have low density, high cost, and limited ability to allow multiples writes with high reliability of the circuit's function, or they are volatile and complicate system design or have low density. Some emerging technologies have attempted to address these shortcomings. For example, magnetic RAM (MRAM) or ferromagnetic RAM (FRAM) utilizes the orientation of magnetization or a ferromagnetic region to generate a nonvolatile memory cell. MRAM utilizes a magnetoresisitive memory element involving the anisotropic magnetoresistance or giant magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic materials yielding nonvolatility. Both of these types of memory cells have relatively high resistance and low-density. A different memory cell based upon magnetic tunnel junctions has also been examined but has not led to large-scale commercialized MRAM devices. FRAM uses a circuit architecture similar to DRAM but which uses a thin film ferroelectric capacitor. This capacitor is purported to retain its electrical polarization after an externally applied electric field is removed yielding a nonvolatile memory. FRAM suffers from a large memory cell size, and it is difficult to manufacture as a large-scale integrated component. Another technology having non-volatile memory is phase change memory. This technology stores information via a structural phase change in thin-film alloys incorporating elements such as selenium or tellurium. These alloys are purported to remain stable in both crystalline and amorphous states allowing the formation of a bi-stable switch. While the nonvolatility condition is met, this technology appears to suffer from slow operations, difficulty of manufacture and reliability and has not reached a state of commercialization. Wire crossbar memory (MWCM) has also been proposed. These memory proposals envision molecules as bi-stable switches. Two wires (either a metal or semiconducting type) have a layer of molecules or molecule compounds sandwiched in between. Chemical assembly and electrochemical oxidation or reduction are used to generate an “on” or “off” state. This form of memory requires highly specialized wire junctions and may not retain non-volatility owing to the inherent instability found in redox processes. Recently, memory devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, to form crossbar junctions to serve as memory cells. See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays, and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for Molecular Computing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 Jul. 2000. Hereinafter these devices are called nanotube wire crossbar memories (NTWCMs). Under these proposals, individual single-walled nanotube wires suspended over other wires define memory cells. Electrical signals are written to one or both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative to one another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires) corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuit junction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectified junction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wires retain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming a non-volatile memory cell. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003-0021966 discloses, among other things, electromechanical circuits, such as memory cells, in which circuits include a structure having electrically conductive traces and supports extending from a surface of a substrate. Nanotube ribbons that can electromechanically deform, or switch are suspended by the supports that cross the electrically conductive traces. Each ribbon comprises one or more nanotubes. The ribbons are typically formed from selectively removing material from a layer or matted fabric of nanotubes. For example, as disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003 0021966, a nanofabric may be patterned into ribbons, and the ribbons can be used as a component to create non-volatile electromechanical memory cells. The ribbon is electromechanically-deflectable in response to electrical stimulus of control traces and/or the ribbon. The deflected, physical state of the ribbon may be made to represent a corresponding information state. The deflected, physical state has non-volatile properties, meaning the ribbon retains its physical (and therefore informational) state even if power to the memory cell is removed. As explained in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003-0124325, three-trace architectures may be used for electromechanical memory cells, in which the two of the traces are electrodes to control the deflection of the ribbon. The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital information storage has also been suggested. The creation and operation of bi-stable, nano-electro-mechanical switches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructed thereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in previous patent applications of Nantero, Inc. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,574,130, 6,643,165, 6,706,402; U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/033,032, 10/128,117, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 10/776,059, 10/776,572, 10/917,794, and 10/918,085, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the invention provides nanotube transfer devices that controllably form a nanotube-based electrically conductive channel between a first node and a second node under the control of a control structure. Each output node may be connected to an arbitrary network of electrical components. In certain embodiments, the electrical potential of the control structure induces a nanotube channel element to deflect into contact with or away from an electrode at each node. In certain embodiments, electrical circuits are provided that ensure proper switching of nanotube transfer devices interconnected with arbitrary circuits. The nanotube transfer device may be volatile or non-volatile. In preferred embodiments, the nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal device or a four-terminal device. The nanotube transfer device of various embodiments can be interconnected with other nanotube transfer devices, nanotube switching devices, nanotube-based logic circuits, MOS transistors, and other electrical components to form electrical circuits implementing analog functions, digital logic circuits, memory devices, etc. The nanotube transfer device of preferred embodiments has low capacitances, no forward voltage drop, high speed and low power operation. It is also radiation and heat tolerant. In another aspect, the invention also provides electrical circuits incorporating nanotube transfer devices having this or other architectures. Signal shaping circuits shift one or more control signals provided to a nanotube transfer device to an operating range where the state of channel formation can be predictably controlled, regardless of the potential of the nanotube channel element. This circuit enables a nanotube-based transfer device to be coupled to variable signals, with arbitrary values in the operating range of the circuit provided by the supply voltage, while retaining defined and predictable switching characteristics. In one aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal element. In one aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device includes a first output node, a second output node, a nanotube channel element including at least one electrically conductive nanotube and a control structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to controllably form and unform an electrically conductive channel between the first output node and the second output node, the channel including the nanotube channel element. The nanotube channel element is constructed and arranged so that the nanotube channel element is not in electrical contact with either the first output node or the second output node in a state of the device. The control structure includes an electrode having an upper operating voltage that exceeds an upper operating voltage of the first operating range by at least an amount sufficient to ensure channel formation. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is constructed and arranged so that no electrical signal is provided to the nanotube channel element in a state of the device. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element has a floating potential in a state of the device. In another aspect of the invention, the control structure induces electromechanical deflection of the nanotube channel element to form the conductive channel. In another aspect of the invention, the electromechanical deflection forms the channel by causing the nanotube channel element to electrically contact an output electrode in the first output node and an output electrode in the second output node. In another aspect of the invention, the first and second output nodes each include an isolation structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element so that channel formation is substantially independent of the state of the output nodes. In some embodiments, the isolation structure is provided by electrodes disposed on the opposite side of the nanotube channel element from output node contact electrodes in such a way as to produce substantially equal but opposite electrostatic forces. In some embodiments, the opposing electrodes are in low resistance electrical communication with the corresponding contact electrodes. In some embodiments, each output node includes a pair of output electrodes in electrical communication and the output electrodes of each pair are disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is suspended between insulative supports in spaced relation relative to a control electrode of the control structure. The device is constructed so that deflection of the nanotube channel element is in response to electrostatic attractive forces resulting from signals on the control electrode, independent of signals on the first output node or the second output node. In another aspect of the invention, the control electrode is electrically isolated from the nanotube channel element by an insulator. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is constructed from nanofabric. In another aspect of the invention, the nanofabric is preferably carbon nanofabric. In another aspect of the invention, the device is non-volatile. In certain embodiments, the nanotube channel element is non-volatile such that it retains a positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. In another aspect of the invention, the device is volatile. In some embodiments, the nanotube channel element is volatile such that it returns to a normal positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. In another aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device is a four-terminal device. The control structure includes a control electrode and a second control electrode disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to control formation of the electrically conductive channel between the first output node and the second output node. The control electrode and the second control electrode are positioned on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. One control electrode can be used to deflect the nanotube channel element to induce channel formation and one control electrode can be used to deflect the nanotube channel element in the opposite direction to prevent channel formation. In another aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device circuit includes circuitry to ensure reliable switching of the nanotube channel element in a typical circuit application. In some embodiments, a signal shaping circuit is electrically coupled to the control structure. The signal shaping circuit receives an input signal from other circuitry and provides a control signal representative of the input signal to the control structure. A value of the control signal induces channel formation independent of the potential of the nanotube switching element. This aspect of the invention can be applied to nanotube-based transfer devices with various architectures. In some embodiments, the signal shaping circuit overdrives the control signal to a voltage above the supply voltage to predictably induce formation of the channel. In some embodiments, a second value of the control signal ensures the absence of channel formation independent of the potential of the nanotube switching element. In some embodiments, the signal shaping circuit shifts the input signal from a first range to a second range to provide the control signal, such that the state of channel formation is predictable at the endpoints of the second range. In another aspect of the invention, for four-terminal devices, wherein the control structure includes a first control electrode and a second control electrode disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element, a control signal is provided to each electrode. A second signal shaping circuit is electrically coupled to the control structure, and the second signal shaping circuit receives a second input signal and provides a second control signal representative of the second input signal to the second control electrode. A value of the second input signal induces unforming of the channel regardless of the potential of the nanotube switching element. One advantage of certain embodiments is to provide an alternative to FET transfer devices that are becoming very difficult to scale. FET transfer devices have increasing problems with leakage currents because threshold voltages do not scale well. The transfer device of various embodiments of the present invention has low capacitances, no forward voltage drop, high speed and low power operation. These devices can also be used with complementary carbon nanotube (CCNT) logic devices as part of a nanotube CCNT logic family. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1a is a side cross-sectional view of a nanotube transfer device according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1b is a top plan view or layout view of a nanotube transfer device according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2a is a schematic representation of the nanotube transfer device of FIG. 1a; FIG. 2b is a schematic representation of the nanotube transfer device of FIG. 1a; FIG. 2c is a schematic used to calculate the amount of input voltage coupled to the nanotube channel element; FIG. 2d is a table showing representative values for the electrical parameters in FIG. 2b; FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of a nanotube transfer device circuit according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 4a-c are graphs of operating voltages in the nanotube transfer device circuit of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a nanotube transfer device circuit according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 6a-c are graphs of operating voltages in the nanotube transfer device circuit of FIG. 5; FIG. 7a is a side cross-sectional view of a nanotube transfer device according an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7b is a top plan view or layout view of a nanotube transfer device according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8a is a schematic representation of the nanotube transfer device of FIG. 7a; FIG. 8b is a schematic representation of the nanotube transfer device of FIG. 7a; FIG. 8c is a schematic used to calculate the amount of input voltage coupled to the nanotube channel element; FIG. 8d is a table showing representative values for the electrical parameters in FIG. 8b; FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of a nanotube transfer device circuit according to an embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 10a-d are graphs of operating voltage in the nanotube transfer device circuit of FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of a nanotube transfer device circuit according to an embodiment of the invention; and FIGS. 12a-d are graphs of operating voltages in the nanotube transfer device of FIG. 11. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The invention provides nanotube transfer devices that controllably form a nanotube-based electrically conductive channel between a first node and a second node under the control of a control node, and also provides electrical circuits incorporating such nanotube transfer devices. The electrical potential at the control node induces a nanotube channel element to deflect into contact with or away from an electrode at each node. Each output node may be connected to an arbitrary network of electrical components. In certain embodiments, electrical circuits are designed to ensure proper switching of nanotube transfer devices interconnected with arbitrary circuits. The nanotube transfer device may be volatile or non-volatile. In preferred embodiments, the nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal device or a four-terminal device. The nanotube transfer device of various embodiments can be interconnected with other nanotube transfer devices, nanotube-based logic circuits, nanotube switching devices (for example, those disclosed in application Ser. No. 10/918,085 and application Ser. No. 10/917,794) MOS transistors, and other electrical components to form electrical circuits implementing analog functions, digital logic circuits, memory devices, etc. The nanotube transfer device of preferred embodiments has low capacitances, no forward voltage drop, high speed and low power operation. It is also radiation and heat tolerant. Electrical circuits shape the control signals such that the desired state of channel formation can be produced regardless of the potential of the nanotube channel element (within its operating range, typically defined by the power supply voltages). The electrical circuits can be applied to different nanotube-based switch architectures to provide devices that can be connected to arbitrary, variable signals, while maintaining the desired switching characteristics. FIG. 1a is a cross-sectional view of a nanotube transfer device constructed according to one embodiment of the invention. A nanotube channel element 102 is suspended and clamped by support structure 116 (including supports 116a and 116b). Transfer device 100 includes a control electrode 104, a first output node 106 (including output electrodes 106a and 106b) and a second output node 108 (including output electrodes 108a and 108b). The transfer device 100 is disposed on a substrate 101 and includes a lower portion and an upper portion. The lower portion includes control electrode 104, first output electrode 106a and second output electrode 108a. Control electrode 104, first output electrode 106a and second output electrode 108a are made of conductive material. Input electrode 104 is also referred to herein as the control node or gate. First output electrode 106a and second output electrode 108a are also referred to herein as the source node and drain node, respectively, for convenience. The lower portion also includes an insulating layer 118 that insulates the electrodes from each other and also covers the upper face of control electrode 104 to isolate the nanotube channel element 102 from the control electrode 104. Nanotube channel element 102 is separated from the facing surface of insulator 118 by a gap height G1. G1 is defined by the respective thickness of input electrode 104, insulator 118 and support structures 116a and 116b. Nanotube channel element 102 is also separated from the facing surfaces of first output electrode 106a and second output electrode 108a by a gap height G2. In the illustrated embodiment, G1 is greater than G2. The upper portion includes a first opposing output electrode 106b and a second opposing output electrode 108b. First opposing output electrode 106b and second opposing output electrode 108b are made of conductive material. An insulating layer 114 insulates the electrodes 106b and 108b from each other and from the nanotube channel element 102. The nanotube channel element 102 is suspended by support structure 116 between the upper portion and the lower portion of transfer device 100; the nanotube channel element 102 is in spaced relation to electrodes 104, 106a, 106b, 108a and 108b. The spaced relationship is defined by G1 and G2. As described further below, because electrodes 106b and 108b are preferably provided to cancel the effects of undefined signals on electrodes 106a and 108a, electrodes 106b and 108b are preferably also spaced apart from nanotube channel element 102 by gap G3, which may be equal to gap G2. Of the electrodes, only first output electrode 106a and second output electrode 108a are not insulated from the nanotube channel element. The nanotube channel element 102 is subjected to various capacitive interactions with the electrodes of transfer device 100. The gap between nanotube channel element 102 and input electrode 104 defines a capacitance C1. The gap between nanotube channel element 102 and output electrode 106 defines a second capacitance C2. The gap between nanotube channel element 102 and output electrode 108 defines a third capacitance C3. In certain embodiments, the nanotube channel element 102 is made of a porous fabric of nanotubes, e.g., single-walled carbon nanotubes. In preferred embodiments, each nanotube has homogenous chirality, being either a metallic or semiconductive species. The fabric however may contain a combination of nanotubes of different species, and the relative amounts may be tailorable, e.g., fabrics with higher concentrations of metallic species. The nanotube channel element 102 is lithographically defined to a predetermined shape as explained in the patent references incorporated herein by reference. The nanotube channel element of preferred embodiments is suspended by insulative supports 116a and 116b in spaced relation to the control electrode 104 and the output electrodes 106a, 106b, 108a, 108b. The nanotube channel element 102 can be held to the insulating support structure 116 by friction, or other techniques. With LSEG=90 nm, the suspended length of the carbon nanotube channel is 450 nm. The support is assumed to be an insulator such as SiO2. The support can be made from any appropriate material, however. Gap G1 is selected 100 nm, of which 80 nm is air (or vacuum) with εR=1, and 20 nm is a dielectric layer such as SiO2, with εR=4. The channel element width WNT=450 nm. An input signal on electrode 104 activates the channel element 102 by applying an electrostatic force FE α VE2, where VE is a nanotube activation voltage. Gap G2 is selected such that channel element 102 contacts output nodes 106 and 108 when the input signal is activated. By design, there is no net disturbing force between channel element 102 and the output terminals, regardless of applied voltages, due the presence of an opposing electrode at each output node. In certain embodiments, the thickness of the insulating layers 118 and 114 is in the range of 5-30 nm. In certain embodiments, the suspended length to gap ration is about 5-15 to 1 for nonvolatile devices, and less than 5 for volatile devices. While other dimensions are possible, these dimensions are provided as representative ranges of dimensions for typical devices. FIG. 1b is a plan view or layout of nanotube transfer device 100. As shown in this figure, electrodes 106a, b are electrically connected as depicted by the notation ‘X’. Electrodes 106a, b collectively form a single output node 106 of device 100. Likewise, electrodes 108a, b are electrically connected as depicted by the ‘X’. Electrodes 108a, b collectively form a single output node 108 of device 100. Each output node 106, 108 can respectively be connected to an electrical network. A potential difference between the input electrode 104 and the nanotube channel element 102 causes the nanotube channel element 102 to be attracted to the input electrode 104 and causes deformation of the nanotube channel element to contact the lower portion of transfer device 100. Placing an electrical potential on input electrode 104 induces deformation of the nanotube channel element 102 when the potential difference rises above a threshold voltage VT. Input electrode 104 is insulated by a dielectric 118. When nanotube channel element 102 deforms under electrical stimulation through input terminal 104, it contacts output terminals 106 and 108. Nanotube transfer device 100 operates as follows. Nanotube transfer device 100 is in an OFF state when nanotube channel element is in the position shown in FIG. 1a (or in any other position where the nanotube channel element 102 is not contacting both output electrode 106a and output electrode 108a). In this state, there is no connection to the nanotube channel element 102, which has a floating potential. Control electrode 104 and nanotube channel element 102, however, are capacitively coupled (capacitance C1). Nanotube channel element 102 is also capacitively coupled to output electrode 106 (capacitance C2) and to output electrode 108 (capacitance C3). In the OFF state, there is no electrical connection between output node 106 and output node 108 through transfer device 100. The respective networks connected to each output node 106, 108 are electrically isolated from each other. Nanotube transfer device 100 is in an ON state when nanotube channel element 102 is deflected towards the lower portion of transfer device 100 and contacts output electrode 106a and output electrode 108a at the same time. Nanotube channel element 102 is deflected by attractive electrostatic forces created by a potential difference between control electrode 104 and nanotube channel element 102. When the potential difference exceeds a threshold value VT, the nanotube channel element 102 is attracted toward control electrode 104 and the fabric stretches and deflects until it contacts the lower portion of nanotube transfer device 100. Nanotube channel element 102 is not sensitive to the polarity of the signal on control electrode 104, only the difference in potential. Since control electrode 104 is isolated from nanotube channel element 102 by insulating layer 118, control electrode 104 does not mechanically or electrically contact nanotube channel element 102. Nanotube channel element mechanically and electrically contacts output electrode 106a and output electrode 108a when it deflects. Nanotube channel element 102 provides a conductive path between output electrodes 106a and 108a in the ON state. Accordingly, the respective networks connected to each are electrically interconnected in the ON state. A control signal provided on control electrode 104 can be used to controllably form and unform the channel between output electrode 106a and output electrode 108a by controlling the position of nanotube channel element 102. By properly tailoring the geometry of nanotube transfer device 100, the nanotube transfer device 100 may be made to behave as a non-volatile or a volatile transfer device. When nanotube channel element 102 deflects due to electrostatic forces, when the control signal is removed, van der Waals forces between the nanotube channel element 102 and the control electrode 104 tend to hold the nanotube channel element 102 in place. The nanotube channel element 102 is under mechanical stress due to the deflection and a mechanical restoring force is also present. The restoring force tends to restore nanotube channel element 102 to the rest state shown in FIG. 1a. The device 100 will be volatile if the restoring force is greater than the van der Waals forces. Device 100 will be non-volatile if the restoring force is not sufficient to overcome the van der Waals forces. By way of example, the device may be made to be non-volatile by proper selection of the length of the channel element relative to the gap G1. Length to gap ratios of greater than 5 and less than 15 are preferred for non-volatile devices; length to gap rations of less than 5 are preferred for volatile devices. Output nodes 106 and 108 are constructed to include an isolation structure in which the operation of the channel element 102, and thereby the state of the channel, is invariant to the state of either of output nodes 106 and 108. A floating output node 106 or 108 could have any potential between ground and the power supply voltage VDD in theory, determined by the network to which it is interconnected. Since the channel element 102 is electromechanically deflectable in response to electrostatically attractive forces, when the potential on an output node is sufficiently different relative to the potential of the nanotube channel element 102, a floating output node could cause the nanotube channel element 102 to deflect unpredictably and interfere with the operation of the transfer device 100. In the illustrated embodiment, this problem is addressed by providing an opposing output electrode that is insulated for each output electrode. Output electrodes 106b and 108b are electrically connected to and effectively cancel out the floating potentials on output electrodes 106a and 108a. As shown in FIG. 1a, nanotube channel element 102 is disposed between pairs of oppositely disposed electrodes 106a, b and 108a, b. The corresponding electrodes are interconnected as shown in FIG. 1b. Each electrode in an output node 106, 108 is at the same potential. The gap distance between nanotube channel element 102 and output electrodes 106a and 108a and opposing output electrodes 106b and 108b is the same in the preferred embodiment. Thus the respective electrodes of each output node exert opposing electrostatic forces on nanotube channel element 102 regardless of the actual voltage present on each node. The nanotube channel element 102 is thus isolated from the voltage present on each output node. The deflection of nanotube channel element 102 and formation/unformation of the conductive channel can be reliably determined by the signal provided on control electrode 104. FIG. 2a is a schematic representation of nanotube transfer device 100. Nanotube transfer device 100 is modeled in terms of equivalent resistances and capacitances. In the open or OFF state, nanotube transfer device 100 includes a first variable capacitance C1 between nanotube switching element 102 and input electrode 104, second capacitance C2 between nanotube switching element 102 and first output electrode 106, and third capacitance C3 between nanotube switching element 102 and second output electrode 108. In the closed or ON state, nanotube transfer device 100 includes the C1 and also includes a first resistance R1 between the first output electrode 106 and the nanotube switching element 102 and a second resistance R2 between the second output electrode 108 and the nanotube switching element 102. FIG. 2b is a transfer device equivalent circuit (schematic) derived from the schematic representation of FIG. 2a. FIG. 2c is a schematic, derived from the schematic of FIG. 2a, used to calculate the amount of input voltage coupled to the nanotube layer. FIG. 2d provides exemplary values for the electrical variables in FIGS. 2a, b, c in one embodiment of the present invention. In operation, connecting nanotube transfer device 100 to arbitrary circuits at the first output node 106 and the second output node 108 requires overdriving the device to insure correct operation regardless of the voltage on either output node. If the rail voltages are 0 V and VDD, output nodes 106 and 108 may be at any voltage between (and including) the rail voltages. When nanotube channel element 102 is in the OFF state, its potential is not defined. The capacitance network coupled to the nanotube channel element 102 determines the voltage VNT. It may be any value between 0 V and VDD. If C2=C3=0.66 aF, Ceq=0.33 aF because C2 and C3 are in series between the output nodes 106 and 108. The impedance at output electrodes 106 and 108 is small compared to the impedance associated with C2 and C3. To ensure that the nanotube channel element 102 remains OFF in the OFF steady state, the voltage on input electrode 104 Vin must be greater than about 0.4 V in the OFF state. To ensure that nanotube channel element 102 switches properly from OFF to ON, Vin, the voltage on input electrode 104 must be greater than the potential of the nanotube channel element 102 by at least the threshold voltage VT. Thus, input electrode 104 must be overdriven to a value sufficient to guarantee that the nanotube channel element 102 deforms regardless of its floating potential. The transition voltage ΔV on the input terminal 104 is partially coupled to nanotube channel element 102 during switching. As ΔV increases, VNT also increases by a proportional amount. The network shown in FIG. 2c, is used to estimate the coupling voltage. The voltage Vin applied to terminal 104 is distributed between input capacitance C1 and capacitances C2 and C3 in parallel, as illustrated by the equivalent circuit in FIG. 2c, resulting in approximately 15% of the ΔV coupling to nanotube channel element 102. Thus, Vin at input terminal 104 only increases by 0.85 ΔV, the relative voltage between input electrode 104 and nanotube channel element 102. To attain VT=0.6 V, ΔV must be proportionally greater. FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a nanotube-based transfer device circuit 300. Transfer device circuit 300 includes nanotube switching element 100 and a voltage step-up converter 310. Voltage step-up converter shifts the input range of Vin to the desired voltage range to ensure proper switching of nanotube switching element 100 when connected to arbitrary networks at output terminal 106 and output terminal 108. VDD is 1.0 V. The minimum Vin is set to 0.5 V. The maximum Vin must be sufficient to be 0.6 greater than VNT, while factoring in coupling. Maximum Vin is determined as follows. By design of transfer device 100 and its components: Vin=Vin(min)+ΔV; VNT(max)=1.0 V+0.15 ΔV; and Vin−VNT(max)>=0.6 V Solving for ΔV: (0.5+ΔV)−(1.0V+0.15ΔV)>=0.6 V 0.85ΔV>=1.1 V ΔV>=1.3 V For transfer device 100, Vin(max)=1.8 V. Voltage step-up converter 310 shifts Vin to this range, 0.5 V<=Vin<=1.8 V. Voltage step-up converter can be implemented using any one of a variety of known techniques and circuit designs. Nanotube switching element 100 switches OFF when Vin falls to about 0.5 V. By that point, the potential difference between Vin and VNT falls below VT, or 0.6 V. The nanotube channel element 102 switches off due to the mechanical restoring forces. FIGS. 4a-c illustrate the respective voltages in transfer device 300 as it switches between the ON and OFF states. Vin transitions from 0.5 V to 1.8 V back to 0.5 V. VO1 and VO2 are initially independent, determined by the respective networks they are connected to. When nanotube switching element 100 switches ON, the output electrodes 106 and 108 are connected by nanotube channel element 104 and are at approximately the same potential. There may be a small potential drop between the outputs 106 and 108 depending on the nanotube resistance. When nanotube channel element 102 is in the open position, the voltage capacitively coupled to the channel element 102 varies with changes in VO1 and VO2, with a maximum range of 0.85 volts determined by capacitance coupling ratios. VO1 and VO2 are not necessarily equal, and may vary in magnitude from 0 to 1.0 volts. When the channel element 102 is in the closed position, the channel element 102 forms the path between outputs O1 and O2; therefore, VO1=VO2=VNT, and can range in voltage from 0 to VDD=1.0 V. The voltage waveforms are as illustrated in FIGS. 4a-4c. FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of a nanotube-based transfer device circuit 500 according to another embodiment of the invention. In this embodiment, Vin(min)=1.0 V. Accordingly, Vin(max)=2.3 V. FIGS. 6a-c illustrate the respective voltages in transfer device 500 as it switches between the ON and OFF states. Vin transitions from 1.0 V to 2.5 V back to 1.0 V. The transfer device 500 is ON (or closed) only while Vin is at its upper maximum value. When Vin drops to its low value, the device turns OFF. FIG. 7a illustrates a cross-sectional view of a four-terminal nonvolatile nanotube transfer device 700. In addition to the structures described above with respect to nanotube transfer device 100, nanotube transfer device 700 includes a release electrode 120 in the upper portion of the device. Release electrode 120 is covered by insulating layer 114 and isolated from mechanical contact with nanotube channel element 102. Control electrode 104 and release electrode 120 together form a control structure for transfer device 700. Control electrode 104 and release electrode 120 are used to control the switching operation of transfer device 700. Transfer device 700 is dimensioned to be a non-volatile device that retains its state even when power is interrupted or turned off. Release electrode 120 functions in a way similar to control electrode 104 but is preferably connected to a complementary control signal. When nanotube channel element 102 is deflected by a control signal Vin provided on control electrode 104, nanotube channel element 102 will remain deflected even after the control signal returns to an OFF value or when power is interrupted, etc. To turn transfer device 700 to an OFF state, a second control signal VR provided on release electrode 120 induces deflection of nanotube channel element 102 away from the lower portion and output electrodes 106a and 108a and toward the upper portion, including output electrodes 106b and 108b and release electrode 120, all of which are insulated by dielectric layer 114. Consequently, activation of the release electrode 120 to a sufficient potential causes nanotube transfer device 700 to “reset” to the OFF state. In the non-volatile operating mode, a narrow input pulse of Vin applied to control electrode 104 activates the transfer device, and van der Waals forces hold the transfer device in the closed position. A narrow pulse applied to release electrode 120 releases the transfer device. The transfer device does not require the activation voltage to remain on the input terminal. Since at any given time, the transfer device 700 should be in a known state ON or OFF, for correct operation of transfer device 700 in logical circuits, it is preferred that the control signal provided on release electrode 120 is complementary to the signal provided on control electrode 104. In switching network applications, however, the device may be turned OFF only when the network interconnections are reset; in this case, the release signal might not be complementary to the control signal at all times. For example, if control signal and release signals are both at the same voltage, ground (zero volts) for example, then the state of transfer device 700 remains unchanged (ON or OFF) independent of the values of output voltages O1 and O2. FIG. 7b illustrates a layout view of the four-terminal non-volatile nanotube switching element 700. As in device 100, in device 700, output electrodes 106a and 106b are electrically connected forming a first output node 106 and output electrodes 108a and 108b are also electrically connected forming a second output node 108. FIG. 8a is a schematic representation of nanotube transfer device 700. Nanotube transfer device 700 is modeled in terms of equivalent resistances and capacitances. In the open or OFF state, nanotube transfer device 700 includes a first variable capacitance C1 between nanotube switching element 102 and control electrode 104, second capacitance C2 between nanotube switching element 102 and first output electrode 106a, third capacitance C3 between nanotube switching element 102 and second output electrode 108a, and fourth variable capacitance C4 between nanotube switching element 102 and release electrode 120. In the closed or ON state, nanotube transfer device 100 includes the capacitance C1, a first resistance R1 and a second resistance R2, and the capacitance C4. FIG. 8b is a transfer device equivalent circuit (schematic) derived from the schematic representation of FIG. 8a. FIG. 8c is a schematic, derived from the schematic of FIG. 8a, used to calculate the amount of input voltage coupled to the nanotube layer. Less than 10% of the input voltage couples to the nanotube channel element. FIG. 8d provides assumptions and exemplary values for the electrical parameters in FIGS. 8a, b, c, in one embodiment of the present invention. The calculations are also based on 10 nanotubes for each transfer device, and a fabric fill of 6% (void of 94%). FIG. 9 illustrates a nanotube transfer device circuit 900 incorporating nanotube transfer device 700 and signal step-up circuitry to shift the control and release input signals Vin and VR to a range where correct operation of nanotube transfer device 700 can be expected. Nanotube transfer device circuit 900 includes nanotube 700 (shown by its electrical equivalent representation) and a control signal step-up converter 310 and a release signal step-up converter 910. Operation of control signal step-up converter 310 has been described above. Release signal step-up converter 910 operates similarly with respect to a release signal provided to release electrode 120. Release signal step-up converter 910 shifts an input signal VR to an operating range wherein operation of nanotube transfer device 700 can be reliably controlled, and overdrives the release electrode 120 in order to ensure that nanotube channel element 102 is released and returns to an OFF state when the release signal is asserted, since the actual potential of nanotube channel element can vary from 0 V to VDD. In the illustrated embodiment, release signal step-up converter 910 shifts the input signal from a range of 0 V to VDD, to a range of 0.5 V to 1.8 V. FIG. 10a illustrates input pulse of Vin applied to activate (close) the nanotube transfer device 700, with a voltage swing of ΔV=1.3 volts. FIG. 10b illustrates pulse of VR applied to de-activate (open) the transfer device. The release voltage is assumed to be larger than the activation voltage, with a voltage swing of ΔV=1.3 volts. FIGS. 10c and 10d illustrate waveforms that are the same as those of FIGS. 3b and 3c, respectively. FIG. 11 illustrates a nanotube transfer device circuit 1100 as in FIG. 9, except that the reference voltage of the signal step-up converter 510 is VDD=1.0 volts. The voltage output swing remains ΔV=1.3 V applied to terminal 1 when activating (closing) the transfer device, and ΔV=1.3 V when releasing (opening) the transfer device. However, the maximum voltages increase because of the higher 1.0 V reference voltage to signal step-up converter 510. Signal step-up converter 1110 here has an output range of 1.0 V to 2.3 V. FIG. 12a illustrates Vin applied to activate (close) the transfer device 700 in circuit 1100, with a voltage swing of ΔV=1.3 volts. FIG. 12b illustrates VR applied to de-activate (open) the transfer device 700. FIGS. 12c and 12d waveforms are the same as those of FIGS. 10c and 10d respectively. The voltage step-up technique described herein may also be applied to other nanotube-based switch architectures. Providing signal conditioning circuitry to shift the operating range of one or more control signals ensures that the desired state of channel formation is attained regardless of the electrical potential of the nanotube channel element (within its operating range). This technique enables coupling of arbitrary, variable signals to a transfer node of a nanotube-based switching device, while maintaining desired switching characteristics. This technique may also be applied, for example, to the devices disclosed in application Ser. Nos. 10/917,794 and 10/918,085, which are incorporated herein by reference. Devices 100, 700 can be used to implement a wide variety of circuits, logic circuits, memory circuits, etc. It is contemplated that devices 100, 700 can be used to replace MOS field effect transfer devices and can be used on a single substrate integrated with MOS technology or in pure nanotube-based logic (nanologic) designs. The examples given herein are based on a projected 90 nm technology node, however, it will be appreciated that other technologies are within the scope of the present invention. The transfer device according to aspects of the invention can be used in many applications. For example, it could be used to construct an NRAM memory array of very small cell size. When used in such a non-volatile memory array, it is possible to layout a less than 8 F2 cell with bit selectivity for the read, release, and write operations. There are many other applications because the transfer device 100, 700 is such a versatile active electrical element. For example, such transfer devices 100, 700 in product chips can be used to repeatedly change on-chip generated timings and voltages after fabrication at the wafer level, or after chip assembly at the module, card, or system level. This can be done at the factory, or remotely in field locations. Such usage can enhance product yield, lower power, improve performance, and enhance reliability in a wide variety of products. Devices 100 and 700 may also be used to interconnect various networks as well. The following are assigned to the assignee of this application, and are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety: Electromechanical Memory Having Cell Selection Circuitry Constructed With Nanotube Technology (U.S. Pat. No. 6,643,165), filed on Jul. 25, 2001; Electromechanical Memory Array Using Nanotube Ribbons and Method for Making Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/915,093), filed on Jul. 25, 2001; Hybrid Circuit Having Nanotube Electromechanical Memory (U.S. Pat. No. 6,574,130), filed on Jul. 25, 2001; Electromechanical Three-Trace Junction Devices (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/033,323), filed on Dec. 28, 2001; Methods of Making Electromechanical Three-Trace Junction Devices (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/033,032), filed on Dec. 28, 2001; Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. Pat. No. 6,706,402), filed Apr. 23, 2002; Methods of Nanotube Films and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/128,117), filed Apr. 23, 2002; Methods of Making Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,005), filed on Jan. 13, 2003; Methods of Using Thin Metal Layers to Make Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,055), filed Jan. 13, 2003; Methods of Using Pre-formed Nanotubes to Make Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,054), filed Jan. 13, 2003; Carbon Nanotube Films, Layers, Fabrics, Ribbons, Elements and Articles (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/341,130), filed Jan. 13, 2003; Electro-Mechanical Switches and Memory Cells Using Horizontally-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods of Making the Same, (U.S. Provisional Pat. Apl. Ser. No. 60/446,783), filed Feb. 12, 2003; now Devices Having Horizontally-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods of Making the Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/776,059), filed Feb. 11, 2004; Electromechanical Switches and Memory Cells using Vertically-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods of Making the Same (U.S. Provisional Pat. Apl. Ser. No. 60/446,786), filed Feb. 12, 2003; now Devices Having Vertically-Disposed Nanofabric Articles and Methods of Making the Same (U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/776,572), filed Feb. 11, 2004. The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The present embodiments are therefore to be considered in respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of the equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to be embraced therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Digital logic circuits are used in personal computers, portable electronic devices such as personal organizers and calculators, electronic entertainment devices, and in control circuits for appliances, telephone switching systems, automobiles, aircraft and other items of manufacture. Early digital logic was constructed out of discrete switching elements composed of individual bipolar transistors. With the invention of the bipolar integrated circuit, large numbers of individual switching elements could be combined on a single silicon substrate to create complete digital logic circuits such as inverters, NAND gates, NOR gates, flip-flops, adders, etc. However, the density of bipolar digital integrated circuits is limited by their high power consumption and the ability of packaging technology to dissipate the heat produced while the circuits are operating. The availability of metal oxide semiconductor (“MOS”) integrated circuits using field effect transistor (“FET”) switching elements significantly reduces the power consumption of digital logic and enables the construction of the high density, complex digital circuits used in current technology. The density and operating speed of MOS digital circuits are still limited by the need to dissipate the heat produced when the device is operating. Digital logic integrated circuits constructed from bipolar or MOS devices do not function correctly under conditions of high heat or extreme environments. Current digital integrated circuits are normally designed to operate at temperatures less than 100 degrees centigrade and few operate at temperatures over 200 degrees centigrade. In conventional integrated circuits, the leakage current of the individual switching elements in the “off” state increases rapidly with temperature. As leakage current increases, the operating temperature of the device rises, the power consumed by the circuit increases, and the difficulty of discriminating the off state from the on state reduces circuit reliability. Conventional digital logic circuits also short internally when subjected to certain extreme environments because electrical currents are generated inside the semiconductor material. It is possible to manufacture integrated circuits with special devices and isolation techniques so that they remain operational when exposed to such environments, but the high cost of these devices limits their availability and practicality. In addition, such digital circuits exhibit timing differences from their normal counterparts, requiring additional design verification to add protection to an existing design. Integrated circuits constructed from either bipolar or FET switching elements are volatile. They only maintain their internal logical state while power is applied to the device. When power is removed, the internal state is lost unless some type of non-volatile memory circuit, such as EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), is added internal or external to the device to maintain the logical state. Even if non-volatile memory is utilized to maintain the logical state, additional circuitry is necessary to transfer the digital logic state to the memory before power is lost, and to restore the state of the individual logic circuits when power is restored to the device. Alternative solutions to avoid losing information in volatile digital circuits, such as battery backup, also add cost and complexity to digital designs. Important characteristics for logic circuits in an electronic device are low cost, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional logic solutions are limited to silicon substrates, but logic circuits built on other substrates would allow logic devices to be integrated directly into many manufactured products in a single step, further reducing cost. Important characteristics for a memory cell in an electronic device are low cost, nonvolatility, high density, low power, and high speed. Conventional memory solutions include Read Only Memory (ROM), Programmable Read only Memory (PROM), Electrically Programmable Memory (EPROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM), Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). ROM is relatively low cost but cannot be rewritten. PROM can be electrically programmed but with only a single write cycle. EPROM has read cycles that are fast relative to ROM and PROM read cycles, but has relatively long erase times and reliability only over a few iterative read/write cycles. EEPROM (or “Flash”) is inexpensive, and has low power consumption but has long write cycles (ms) and low relative speed in comparison to DRAM or SRAM. Flash also has a finite number of read/write cycles leading to low long-term reliability. ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM are all non-volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted, the memory will retain the information stored in the memory cells. DRAM stores charge on transistor gates that act as capacitors but must be electrically refreshed every few milliseconds, complicating system design by requiring separate circuitry to “refresh” the memory contents before the capacitors discharge. SRAM does not need to be refreshed and is fast relative to DRAM, but has lower density and is more expensive relative to DRAM. Both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, meaning that if power to the memory is interrupted, the memory will lose the information stored in the memory cells. Consequently, existing technologies are either non-volatile but are not randomly accessible and have low density, high cost, and limited ability to allow multiples writes with high reliability of the circuit's function, or they are volatile and complicate system design or have low density. Some emerging technologies have attempted to address these shortcomings. For example, magnetic RAM (MRAM) or ferromagnetic RAM (FRAM) utilizes the orientation of magnetization or a ferromagnetic region to generate a nonvolatile memory cell. MRAM utilizes a magnetoresisitive memory element involving the anisotropic magnetoresistance or giant magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic materials yielding nonvolatility. Both of these types of memory cells have relatively high resistance and low-density. A different memory cell based upon magnetic tunnel junctions has also been examined but has not led to large-scale commercialized MRAM devices. FRAM uses a circuit architecture similar to DRAM but which uses a thin film ferroelectric capacitor. This capacitor is purported to retain its electrical polarization after an externally applied electric field is removed yielding a nonvolatile memory. FRAM suffers from a large memory cell size, and it is difficult to manufacture as a large-scale integrated component. Another technology having non-volatile memory is phase change memory. This technology stores information via a structural phase change in thin-film alloys incorporating elements such as selenium or tellurium. These alloys are purported to remain stable in both crystalline and amorphous states allowing the formation of a bi-stable switch. While the nonvolatility condition is met, this technology appears to suffer from slow operations, difficulty of manufacture and reliability and has not reached a state of commercialization. Wire crossbar memory (MWCM) has also been proposed. These memory proposals envision molecules as bi-stable switches. Two wires (either a metal or semiconducting type) have a layer of molecules or molecule compounds sandwiched in between. Chemical assembly and electrochemical oxidation or reduction are used to generate an “on” or “off” state. This form of memory requires highly specialized wire junctions and may not retain non-volatility owing to the inherent instability found in redox processes. Recently, memory devices have been proposed which use nanoscopic wires, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, to form crossbar junctions to serve as memory cells. See WO 01/03208, Nanoscopic Wire-Based Devices, Arrays, and Methods of Their Manufacture; and Thomas Rueckes et al., “Carbon Nanotube-Based Nonvolatile Random Access Memory for Molecular Computing,” Science, vol. 289, pp. 94-97, 7 Jul. 2000. Hereinafter these devices are called nanotube wire crossbar memories (NTWCMs). Under these proposals, individual single-walled nanotube wires suspended over other wires define memory cells. Electrical signals are written to one or both wires to cause them to physically attract or repel relative to one another. Each physical state (i.e., attracted or repelled wires) corresponds to an electrical state. Repelled wires are an open circuit junction. Attracted wires are a closed state forming a rectified junction. When electrical power is removed from the junction, the wires retain their physical (and thus electrical) state thereby forming a non-volatile memory cell. U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003-0021966 discloses, among other things, electromechanical circuits, such as memory cells, in which circuits include a structure having electrically conductive traces and supports extending from a surface of a substrate. Nanotube ribbons that can electromechanically deform, or switch are suspended by the supports that cross the electrically conductive traces. Each ribbon comprises one or more nanotubes. The ribbons are typically formed from selectively removing material from a layer or matted fabric of nanotubes. For example, as disclosed in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003 0021966, a nanofabric may be patterned into ribbons, and the ribbons can be used as a component to create non-volatile electromechanical memory cells. The ribbon is electromechanically-deflectable in response to electrical stimulus of control traces and/or the ribbon. The deflected, physical state of the ribbon may be made to represent a corresponding information state. The deflected, physical state has non-volatile properties, meaning the ribbon retains its physical (and therefore informational) state even if power to the memory cell is removed. As explained in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2003-0124325, three-trace architectures may be used for electromechanical memory cells, in which the two of the traces are electrodes to control the deflection of the ribbon. The use of an electromechanical bi-stable device for digital information storage has also been suggested. The creation and operation of bi-stable, nano-electro-mechanical switches based on carbon nanotubes (including mono-layers constructed thereof) and metal electrodes has been detailed in previous patent applications of Nantero, Inc. (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,574,130, 6,643,165, 6,706,402; U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/915,093, 10/033,323, 10/033,032, 10/128,117, 10/341,005, 10/341,055, 10/341,054, 10/341,130, 10/776,059, 10/776,572, 10/917,794, and 10/918,085, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties). | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the invention provides nanotube transfer devices that controllably form a nanotube-based electrically conductive channel between a first node and a second node under the control of a control structure. Each output node may be connected to an arbitrary network of electrical components. In certain embodiments, the electrical potential of the control structure induces a nanotube channel element to deflect into contact with or away from an electrode at each node. In certain embodiments, electrical circuits are provided that ensure proper switching of nanotube transfer devices interconnected with arbitrary circuits. The nanotube transfer device may be volatile or non-volatile. In preferred embodiments, the nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal device or a four-terminal device. The nanotube transfer device of various embodiments can be interconnected with other nanotube transfer devices, nanotube switching devices, nanotube-based logic circuits, MOS transistors, and other electrical components to form electrical circuits implementing analog functions, digital logic circuits, memory devices, etc. The nanotube transfer device of preferred embodiments has low capacitances, no forward voltage drop, high speed and low power operation. It is also radiation and heat tolerant. In another aspect, the invention also provides electrical circuits incorporating nanotube transfer devices having this or other architectures. Signal shaping circuits shift one or more control signals provided to a nanotube transfer device to an operating range where the state of channel formation can be predictably controlled, regardless of the potential of the nanotube channel element. This circuit enables a nanotube-based transfer device to be coupled to variable signals, with arbitrary values in the operating range of the circuit provided by the supply voltage, while retaining defined and predictable switching characteristics. In one aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device is a three-terminal element. In one aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device includes a first output node, a second output node, a nanotube channel element including at least one electrically conductive nanotube and a control structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to controllably form and unform an electrically conductive channel between the first output node and the second output node, the channel including the nanotube channel element. The nanotube channel element is constructed and arranged so that the nanotube channel element is not in electrical contact with either the first output node or the second output node in a state of the device. The control structure includes an electrode having an upper operating voltage that exceeds an upper operating voltage of the first operating range by at least an amount sufficient to ensure channel formation. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is constructed and arranged so that no electrical signal is provided to the nanotube channel element in a state of the device. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element has a floating potential in a state of the device. In another aspect of the invention, the control structure induces electromechanical deflection of the nanotube channel element to form the conductive channel. In another aspect of the invention, the electromechanical deflection forms the channel by causing the nanotube channel element to electrically contact an output electrode in the first output node and an output electrode in the second output node. In another aspect of the invention, the first and second output nodes each include an isolation structure disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element so that channel formation is substantially independent of the state of the output nodes. In some embodiments, the isolation structure is provided by electrodes disposed on the opposite side of the nanotube channel element from output node contact electrodes in such a way as to produce substantially equal but opposite electrostatic forces. In some embodiments, the opposing electrodes are in low resistance electrical communication with the corresponding contact electrodes. In some embodiments, each output node includes a pair of output electrodes in electrical communication and the output electrodes of each pair are disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is suspended between insulative supports in spaced relation relative to a control electrode of the control structure. The device is constructed so that deflection of the nanotube channel element is in response to electrostatic attractive forces resulting from signals on the control electrode, independent of signals on the first output node or the second output node. In another aspect of the invention, the control electrode is electrically isolated from the nanotube channel element by an insulator. In another aspect of the invention, the nanotube channel element is constructed from nanofabric. In another aspect of the invention, the nanofabric is preferably carbon nanofabric. In another aspect of the invention, the device is non-volatile. In certain embodiments, the nanotube channel element is non-volatile such that it retains a positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. In another aspect of the invention, the device is volatile. In some embodiments, the nanotube channel element is volatile such that it returns to a normal positional state when a deflecting control signal provided via the control structure is removed. In another aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device is a four-terminal device. The control structure includes a control electrode and a second control electrode disposed in relation to the nanotube channel element to control formation of the electrically conductive channel between the first output node and the second output node. The control electrode and the second control electrode are positioned on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element. One control electrode can be used to deflect the nanotube channel element to induce channel formation and one control electrode can be used to deflect the nanotube channel element in the opposite direction to prevent channel formation. In another aspect of the invention, a nanotube transfer device circuit includes circuitry to ensure reliable switching of the nanotube channel element in a typical circuit application. In some embodiments, a signal shaping circuit is electrically coupled to the control structure. The signal shaping circuit receives an input signal from other circuitry and provides a control signal representative of the input signal to the control structure. A value of the control signal induces channel formation independent of the potential of the nanotube switching element. This aspect of the invention can be applied to nanotube-based transfer devices with various architectures. In some embodiments, the signal shaping circuit overdrives the control signal to a voltage above the supply voltage to predictably induce formation of the channel. In some embodiments, a second value of the control signal ensures the absence of channel formation independent of the potential of the nanotube switching element. In some embodiments, the signal shaping circuit shifts the input signal from a first range to a second range to provide the control signal, such that the state of channel formation is predictable at the endpoints of the second range. In another aspect of the invention, for four-terminal devices, wherein the control structure includes a first control electrode and a second control electrode disposed on opposite sides of the nanotube channel element, a control signal is provided to each electrode. A second signal shaping circuit is electrically coupled to the control structure, and the second signal shaping circuit receives a second input signal and provides a second control signal representative of the second input signal to the second control electrode. A value of the second input signal induces unforming of the channel regardless of the potential of the nanotube switching element. One advantage of certain embodiments is to provide an alternative to FET transfer devices that are becoming very difficult to scale. FET transfer devices have increasing problems with leakage currents because threshold voltages do not scale well. The transfer device of various embodiments of the present invention has low capacitances, no forward voltage drop, high speed and low power operation. These devices can also be used with complementary carbon nanotube (CCNT) logic devices as part of a nanotube CCNT logic family. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following more particular description of preferred embodiments of the invention, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. | 20050110 | 20100126 | 20051222 | 63639.0 | 0 | SUCH, MATTHEW W | NANOTUBE-BASED TRANSFER DEVICES AND RELATED CIRCUITS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,152 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus for feeding sheet using retractable edge guide for guiding lateral edge of sheet | An apparatus for feeding a sheet to a processing device processing the sheet is disclosed that includes: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to the processing device, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed is to be loaded; a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet; and a supporting device supporting each of the edge guides pivotably about a pivot axis perpendicular to the feeding direction, to thereby allow the each edge guide to be displaced to a selected one of a standing position on the sheet-loaded plane and an inclined position inclined to the standing position, | 1. An apparatus for feeding a sheet to a processing device processing the sheet, comprising: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to the processing device, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the processing device is to be loaded; a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet; and a supporting device supporting each of the edge guides pivotably about a pivot axis parallel to the feeding direction, to thereby allow the each edge guide to be displaced to a selected one of a standing position on the sheet-loaded plane and an inclined position inclined to the standing position. 2. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a holding mechanism holding each of the edge guides in the standing position, with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position. 3. The apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the holding mechanism holds each of the edge guides in the standing position, using a friction applied to the each edge guide, with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position. 4. The apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the holding mechanism elastically biases each of the edge guides toward the standing position, to thereby allow the each edge guide to return to the standing position in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the retracted position to the unfolded position. 5. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a tilting mechanism tilting each of the edge guides from the standing position to the inclined position through pivotal movement of the each edge guide in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. 6. The apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the tilting mechanism tilts each of the edge guides from the standing position to the inclined position through the pivotal movement, using a reaction force applied from the processing device to the each edge guide upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device, in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a moving body disposed at the feeder tray for connecting each of the edge guides to the feeder tray, the moving body being movable in a direction perpendicular to the feeding direction relative to the feeder tray, the each edge guide and the corresponding moving body being formed separately from and rotatably connected with each other at a position located above the sheet-loaded plane. 8. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the supporting device is located in the vicinity of the sheet-loaded plane. 9. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the supporting device includes: a shaft disposed at a selected one of each of the edge guides and the corresponding moving body, and extending parallel to the feeding direction; and a bearing device disposed at a remainder of the each edge guide and the corresponding moving body, and supporting the shaft rotatably. 10. The apparatus according to claim 9, wherein the bearing device includes a pair of bearings, the shaft includes a pair of ends projecting from both end faces of each of the edge guides opposed to each other in the feeding direction, the shaft is rotatably supported at the pair of projecting ends thereof by the pair of bearings. 11. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a holder holding each of the edge guides in a selected one of the standing position and the inclined position, wherein each of the edge guides is positioned in the standing position with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position, while each of the edge guides is pivoted to the inclined position upon displacement of the feeder tray to the retracted position. 12. The apparatus according to claim 11, wherein the holder includes a pivotal-direction limiter limiting an allowed pivotal direction of each of the edge guides to a predetermined unilateral direction from the standing position. 13. The apparatus according to claim 12, wherein the pivotal-direction limiter is disposed at a corresponding one of the edge guides. 14. The apparatus according to claim 13, wherein the pivotal-direction limiter includes a bend to a corresponding one of the edge guides, disposed at a base end of the corresponding edge guide, and extending away from a corresponding one of the side walls. 15. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein each of the edge guide is pivoted between the standing position and the inclined position in timed relation with motion of the feeder tray between the retracted position and the unfolded position. 16. The apparatus according to claim 15, wherein each of the edge guides is pivoted to the inclined position upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device during displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. 17. The apparatus according to claim 16, further comprising a translating mechanism translating a reaction force applied to each of the edge guides from the processing device upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device, into a moment causing the each edge guide to pivot. 18. The apparatus according to claim 16, wherein the processing device includes an abutting surface which each of the edge guides abuts during displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position, the abutting surface having a profile allowing an application to the each edge guide a force causing the each edge guide to pivot, through abutting of the each edge guide against the abutting surface. 19. The apparatus according to claim 16, further comprising a friction reduction mechanism reducing a friction developed between each of the edge guides and the processing device, with the each edge guide and the processing device being in contact with each other. 20. The apparatus according to claim 19, wherein the friction reduction mechanism includes a roller attached rotatably to a portion of each of the edge guides which is to be brought into contact with the processing device. 21. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a biasing mechanism biasing each of the edge guides toward the standing position. 22. The apparatus according to claim 21, wherein the biasing mechanism includes a spring member. 23. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein each of the edge guides is pivoted between the standing position and the inclined position depending on a manual operation independent of a motion of the feeder tray between the retracted position and the unfolded position. 24. The apparatus according to claim 23, further comprising an auxiliary tray slidable parallel to the feeding direction relative to the feeder tray, and displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an extended position, each of the edge guides being pivoted from the inclined position to the standing position in timed relation with a manual sliding motion of the auxiliary tray from the retracted position to the extended position relative to the feeder tray. 25. The apparatus according to claim 24, further comprising a biasing mechanism biasing each of the edge guides toward the standing position, wherein each of the edge guides includes a base end at which an engaging projection is formed at a position away from the pivot axis, wherein the engaging projection is disposed to be engageable with the auxiliary tray in the retracted position through a hole formed at the sheet-loaded plane, and wherein the engaging projection is moved away from the auxiliary tray upon a sliding motion of the auxiliary tray from the retracted position to the extended position, to thereby allow each of the edge guides to pivot to the standing position by a biasing force provided by the biasing mechanism, while the engaging projection is brought into engagement with the auxiliary tray upon a sliding motion of the auxiliary tray of the extended position to the retracted position, to thereby hold the each edge guide in the inclined position. 26. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the edge guides are independent of each other in pivoting between the standing position and the inclined position. 27. The apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a separation feeding mechanism separating sheets stacked on the sheet-loaded plane of the feeder tray, to thereby feed individual sheets one by one. 28. An apparatus for forming an image on the sheet fed from the apparatus for feeding a sheet set forth in claim 1. 29. An apparatus for forming an image using a removable process cartridge incorporating a developer developing an electrostatic latent image formed on a photoconductor, comprising the apparatus for feeding a sheet set forth in claim 1, wherein the feeder tray of the apparatus for feeding a sheet is displaceable in a direction allowing the process cartridge to be attached to and removed from the apparatus for forming an image. | This application is based on Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-006333 filed Jan. 14, 2004, the content of which is incorporated hereinto by reference. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS Not Applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus for feeding a sheet using edge guides for guiding the lateral edges of the sheet, and more particularly to a technique of reducing a space required for accommodating the apparatus for feeding a sheet. 2. Description of the Related Art An apparatus for feeding a sheet (hereinafter, referred to as “sheet feeder”) is for use in various applications. One of the applications is an apparatus for forming an image (hereinafter, referred to as “image forming apparatus”) such as a printer. Such a sheet feeder for use in combination with such an image forming apparatus is categorized into one for use in manual feed, and one for use in auto feed. The auto feed allows stacked sheets to be separated, to thereby feed individual sheets one by one. Such a sheet feeder allows a feeding of a sheet using edge guides guiding the lateral edges of the sheet to be fed. More particularly, as disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No, Hei 10-291696, for example, such a sheet feeder is configured to include: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to an image forming apparatus, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the image forming apparatus is to be loaded; and a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet. An example of such a sheet feeder is further configured such that the edge guides are movable relative to each other in a direction perpendicular to the feeding direction of the sheet, to thereby control the width of a sheet travel path on the sheet-loaded plane. For accommodating such a sheet feeder, an example of the image forming apparatus is configured to have an exposed recess formed in a body panel of the image forming apparatus at a position in conformity with a space in which the edge guides are to be displaced. In this example, once the feeder tray is brought into the retracted position relative to the image forming apparatus, the edge guides are retracted or accommodated within the recess. For the reason, the image forming apparatus is required to be configured such that the recess is dimensioned to avoid the edge guides from abutting the body panel of the image forming apparatus, irrespective of where the edge guides are positioned. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A conventional sheet feeder is configured such that the edge guides disposed at the feeder tray are always each placed in the standing position on the sheet-loaded plane, resulting in a fixed size in height of the edge guides. The recess is required to be deep enough to accommodate the height of the edge guides so as not to cause physical interference between the recess and the edge guides upon the feeder tray being retracted. As a result, the conventional sheet feeder makes it more difficult to downsize the image forming apparatus. Further, the downsizing of the image forming apparatus without reduction in depth of the recess for storage of the edge guides would affect the interior of the image forming apparatus. In general, the image forming apparatus contains a laser scanner device, a toner delivery device, a developing device, a cleaning device, a fusing device, etc. An example of the image forming apparatus is configured such that the cleaning device and the fusing device are disposed adjacent to each other. In this example, the reduction in clearance between the cleaning device and the fusing device would possibly arise a heat problem in the cleaning device due to heat in the fusing device, possibly resulting in melting of toner accumulated by the cleaning device for cleaning. In addition, it is understood that the downsizing of a toner box or toner container would contribute to the downsizing of the image forming apparatus with adequate clearances between the adjacent ones of those devices contained in the image forming apparatus being ensured. However, the downsizing of the toner box would require an unfavorable reduction in capacity of the toner box. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an apparatus for feeding a sheet enabling reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. According to the present invention, an apparatus for feeding a sheet is provided in which the edge guides are configured to be retractable or tiltable, resulting in an easier reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. More specifically, according to the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for feeding a sheet to a processing device processing the sheet, comprising: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to the processing device, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the processing device is to be loaded; a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet; and a supporting device supporting each of the edge guides pivotably about a pivot axis perpendicular to the feeding direction, to thereby allow the each edge guide to be displaced to a selected one of a standing position on the sheet-loaded plane and an inclined position inclined to the standing position. The above apparatus according to the present invention may be practiced such that, once the feeder tray is displaced away from the processing device such as a printer into the unfolded position, the edge guides are brought into the standing position allowing a sheet to be guided, and on the other hand, once the feeder tray is displaced toward the processing device into the retracted position, the edge guides are pivoted to the inclined position allowing the edge guides to be accommodated within the processing device. The above apparatus according to the present invention is configured to guide a sheet using the retractable or tiltable edge guides facilitating reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. Therefore, where the above apparatus according to the present invention is practiced in combination with the processing device in the form of the aforementioned image forming apparatus, the retractable or tiltable edge guides allow an easier reduction in depth of the recess formed in the image forming apparatus for accommodating the edge guides, contributing to an easier downsizing of the image forming apparatus. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities show. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a perspective view illustrating the exterior of a laser printer incorporating a sheet feeding unit, with a feeder tray of the sheet feeding unit being in a retracted position, the sheet feeding unit being constructed according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view illustrating the exterior of the laser printer shown in FIG. 1, with the feeder tray being in an unfolded position; FIG. 3 is a sectional side view illustrating the laser printer shown in FIG. 1, with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position; FIG. 4 is a fragmentary sectional side view illustrating the laser printer shown in FIG. 1, with the feeder tray being in the retracted position; FIG. 5 is a front view illustrating the feeder tray shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a rear view illustrating an upper plate of the feeder tray shown in FIG. 5; FIG. 7 is a front view of a representative one of edge guides of the feeder tray of the sheet feeding unit shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 8 is a view taken in the direction of arrow A in FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is a front view illustrating the edge guide shown in FIG. 8, with the feeder tray being in the retracted position shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 10 is a view taken in the direction of arrow B in FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is an enlarged view illustrating movable members shown in FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is a front view illustrating the edge guide shown in FIG. 7 in comparison with a conventional edge guide for better understanding of a difference therebetween in dimension required for storage of the edge guides; FIG. 13 is a front view illustrating a representative one of edge guides of a feeder tray of a sheet feeding unit constructed according to a second embodiment of the present invention;. FIG. 14 is a view taken in the direction of arrow C in FIG. 13; FIG. 15 is a front view illustrating the edge guide shown in FIG. 13, with the feeder tray being in a retracted position; FIG. 16 is a view taken in the direction of arrow D in FIG. 15; FIG. 17 is a front view illustrating a representative one of edge guides of a feeder tray of a sheet feeding unit constructed according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is a view taken in the direction of arrow E in FIG. 17; FIG. 19 is a front view illustrating the edge guide shown in FIG. 17, with the feeder tray being in a retracted position; FIG. 20 is a view taken in the direction of arrow F in FIG. 19; FIG. 21 is a front view illustrating a representative one of edge guides of a feeder tray of a sheet feeding unit, with the feeder tray being in a retracted position, the sheet feeding unit being constructed according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 22 is a view taken in the direction of arrow G in FIG. 21; and FIG. 23 is a front view illustrating the edge guide shown in 21. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The object mentioned above may be achieved according to any one of the following modes of this invention. These modes will be stated below such that these modes are sectioned and numbered, and such that these modes depend upon the other mode or modes, where appropriate. This is for a better understanding of some of a plurality of technological features and a plurality of combinations thereof disclosed in this description, and does not mean that the scope of these features and combinations is interpreted to be limited to the scope of the following modes of this invention. That is to say, it should be interpreted that it is allowable to select the technological features which are stated in this description but which are not stated in the following modes, as the technological features of this invention. Furthermore, stating each one of the selected modes of the invention in such a dependent form as to depend from the other mode or modes does not exclude a possibility of the technological features in a dependent-form mode to become independent of those in the corresponding depended mode or modes and to be removed therefrom. It should be interpreted that the technological features in a dependent-form mode is allowed to become independent according to the nature of the corresponding technological features, where appropriate. (1) An apparatus for feeding a sheet to a processing device processing the sheet, comprising: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to the processing device, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the processing device is to be loaded; a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet; and a supporting device supporting each of the edge guides pivotably about a pivot axis parallel to the feeding direction, to thereby allow the each edge guide to be displaced to a selected one of a standing position on the sheet-loaded plane and an inclined position inclined to the standing position. The apparatus according to the above mode (1) may be practiced in a manner that, once the feeder tray is displaced away from the processing device into the unfolded position, the edge guides are brought into the standing position allowing a sheet to be guided, and on the other hand, once the feeder tray is displaced toward the processing device into the retracted position, the edge guides are pivoted to the inclined position allowing the edge guides to be accommodated within the processing device. The apparatus according to the above mode (1), because of the edge guides being retractable or tiltable, allows an easier reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. The “sheet” set forth in the above mode (1) may be interpreted to mean a sheet of paper, or may be interpreted to mean a sheet of medium made up of any one of materials other than paper, e.g., plastic film. (2) The apparatus according to mode (1), further comprising a holding mechanism holding each of the edge guides in the standing position, with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position. (3) The apparatus according to mode (2), wherein the holding mechanism holds each of the edge guides in the standing position, using a friction applied to the each edge guide, with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position. (4) The apparatus according to mode (2), wherein the holding mechanism elastically biases each of the edge guides toward the standing position, to thereby allow the each edge guide to return to the standing position in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the retracted position to the unfolded position. (5) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (4), further comprising a tilting mechanism tilting each of the edge guides from the standing position to the inclined position through pivotal movement of the each edge guide in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. (6) The apparatus according to mode (5), wherein the tilting mechanism tilts each of the edge guides from the standing position to the inclined position through the pivotal movement, using a reaction force applied from the processing device to the each edge guide upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device, in timed relation with displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. (7) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (6), further comprising a moving body disposed at the feeder tray for connecting each of the edge guides to the feeder tray, the moving body being movable in a direction perpendicular to the feeding direction relative to the feeder tray, the each edge guide and the corresponding moving body being formed separately from and rotatably connected with each other at a position located above the sheet-loaded plane. The apparatus according to the above mode (7) employs a configuration that the edge guides and the corresponding respective moving bodies are formed separately from and rotatably connected with each other at a position located above the sheet-loaded plane. The configuration permits each of the edge guides to be tilted into the inclined position. Therefore, the apparatus according to the above mode (7) facilitates reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides, contributing to an easier downsizing of the processing device. For the aforementioned image forming apparatus such as a printer, the above space corresponds to a space within the recess for storage of the edge guides. (8) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (7), wherein the supporting device is located in the vicinity of the sheet-loaded plane. The apparatus according to the above mode (8) employs an arrangement allowing each of the edge guides to be pivoted and tilted about the pivot axis located in the vicinity of the sheet-loaded plane. The arrangement allows a much easier reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides, leading to a much easier downsizing of the processing device. (9) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (8), wherein the supporting device includes: a shaft disposed at a selected one of each of the edge guides and the corresponding moving body, and extending parallel to the feeding direction; and a bearing device disposed at a remainder of the each edge guide and the corresponding moving body, and supporting the shaft rotatably The apparatus according to the above mode (9) employs an arrangement that the supporting device is constructed using a combination of the shaft and the bearing device. The arrangement allows a smoother pivot of the edge guides. (10) The apparatus according to mode (9), wherein the bearing device includes a pair of bearings, the shaft includes a pair of ends projecting from both end faces of each of the edge guides opposed to each other in the feeding direction, the shaft is rotatably supported at the pair of projecting ends thereof by the pair of bearings. The apparatus according to the above mode (10) employs an arrangement that the pair of bearings is engaged with the shaft on both sides of a corresponding one of the edge guides. The arrangement facilitates the assembly of the bearings and the shaft. (11) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) though (10), further comprising a holder holding each of the edge guides in a selected one of the standing position and the inclined position, wherein each of the edge guides is positioned in the standing position with the feeder tray being in the unfolded position, while each of the edge guides is pivoted to the inclined position upon displacement of the feeder tray to the retracted position. (12) The apparatus according to mode (11), wherein the holder includes a pivotal-direction limiter limiting an allowed pivotal direction of each of the edge guides to a predetermined unilateral direction from the standing position. The apparatus according to the above mode (12) employs the pivotal-direction limiter for surely achieving a unilateral tilt or pivot of each of the edge guides toward the inclined position. (13) The apparatus according to mode (12), wherein the pivotal-direction limiter is disposed at a corresponding one of the edge guides. The apparatus according to the above mode (13) allows an easier improvement in position of the pivotal-direction limiter in a corresponding one of the edge guides. (14) The apparatus according to mode (13), wherein the pivotal-direction limiter includes a bend to a corresponding one of the edge guides, disposed at a base end of the corresponding edge guide, and extending away from a corresponding one of the side walls. The apparatus according to the above mode (14) allows an easier improvement in shape of the pivotal-direction limiter in a corresponding one of the edge guides. (15) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (14), wherein each of the edge guide is pivoted between the standing position and the inclined position in timed relation with motion of the feeder tray between the retracted position and the unfolded position. The apparatus according to the above mode (15) allows pivot of the edge guides without requiring an additional manual action for pivoting the edge guides, rendering the edge guides labor-saving. (16) The apparatus according to mode (15), wherein each of the edge guides is pivoted to the inclined position upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device during displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. The apparatus according to the above mode (16), upon the feeder tray being brought into the retracted position, allows the edge guides to be pivoted into the inclined position as a result of abutting of the edge guides against the abutting surface of the processing device. An additional manual action is not required for the edge guides to pivot, rendering the edge guides labor-saving. (17) The apparatus according to mode (16), further comprising a translating mechanism translating a reaction force applied to each of the edge guides from the processing device upon abutting of the each edge guide against the processing device, into a moment causing the each edge guide to be pivoted. The apparatus according to the above mode (17), because of the translating mechanism, allows the edge guides to be pivoted at improved mechanical efficiency. (18) The apparatus according to mode (16) or (17), wherein the processing device includes an abutting surface which each of the edge guides abuts during displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position, the abutting surface having a profile allowing an application to the each edge guide a force causing the each edge guide to pivot, through abutting of the each edge guide against the abutting surface. The apparatus according to the above mode (18) employs the abutting surface having a profile allowing an application to each of the edge guides a force causing the each edge guide to pivot. An example of the abutting surface is formed as an inclined surface to the direction in which the edge guides abut the abutting surface. Therefore, the apparatus according to the above mode (18) allows a much smoother pivot of the edge guides. (19) The apparatus according to any one of modes (16) through (18), further comprising a friction reduction mechanism reducing a friction developed between each of the edge guides and the processing device, with the each edge guide and the processing device being in contact with each other. The apparatus according to the above mode (19), because of the friction reduction mechanism conducive to reduction in an unfavorable friction in pivoting the edge guides, provides a smoother pivot of the edge guides. (20) The apparatus according to mode (19), wherein the friction reduction mechanism includes a roller attached rotatably to a portion of each of the edge guides which is to be brought into contact with the processing device. The apparatus according to the above mode (20), because of the roller conducive to a more efficient reduction in an unfavorable friction in pivoting the edge guides, provides a much smoother pivot of the edge guides. (21) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (20), further comprising a biasing mechanism biasing each of the edge guides toward the standing position. The apparatus according to the above mode (21), because of the biasing mechanism, allows an automated return of the edge guides to the standing position. (22) The apparatus according to mode (21), wherein the biasing mechanism includes a spring member. The apparatus according to the above mode (22) makes it easier to stabilize the magnitude of a biasing force applied from the biasing mechanism to the edge guides. (23) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (14), (21) and (22), wherein each of the edge guides is pivoted between the standing position and the inclined position depending on a manual operation independent of a motion of the feeder tray-between the retracted position and the unfolded position. The apparatus according to the above mode (23) is advantageous in satisfying the need to separate a motion of the feeder tray from a motion of the edge guides. (24) The apparatus according to mode (23), further comprising an auxiliary tray slidable parallel to the feeding direction relative to the feeder tray, and displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an extended position, each of the edge guides being pivoted from the inclined position to the standing position in timed relation with a manual sliding motion of the auxiliary tray from the retracted position to the extended position relative to the feeder tray. The apparatus according to the above mode (24) is operated in a manner that each of the edge guides is pivoted from the inclined position to the standing position in timed relation with the manual motion of the auxiliary tray from the retracted position to the extended position. Therefore, the apparatus allows an automated return of the edge guides to the standing position using the manual motion of the auxiliary tray. (25) The apparatus according to mode (24), further comprising a biasing mechanism biasing each of the edge guides toward the standing position, wherein each of the edge guides includes a base end at which an engaging projection is formed at a position away from the pivot axis, wherein the engaging projection is disposed to be engageable with the auxiliary tray in the retracted position through a hole formed at the sheet-loaded plane, and wherein the engaging projection is moved away from the auxiliary tray upon a sliding motion of the auxiliary tray from the retracted position to the extended position, to thereby allow each of the edge guides to pivot to the standing position by a biasing force provided by the biasing mechanism, while the engaging projection is brought into engagement with the auxiliary tray upon a sliding motion of the auxiliary tray of the extended position to the retracted position, to thereby hold the each edge guide in the inclined position. The apparatus according to the above mode (25) employs a selective engagement of the engaging projection with the auxiliary tray for ensuring in holding the edge guides in the inclined position. (26) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (25), wherein the edge guides are independent of each other in pivoting between the standing position and the inclined position. The apparatus according to the above mode (26) allows both of the edge guides to be pivoted without requiring a linking mechanism linking the edge guides with each other. Therefore, the apparatus makes it easier to avoid the apparatus from becoming more complex in construction, and to reduce a space required for accommodating the edge guides when the feeder tray is in the retracted position with respect to the processing device. (27) The apparatus according to any one of modes (1) through (26), further comprising a separation feeding mechanism separating sheets stacked on the sheet-loaded plane of the feeder tray, to thereby feed individual sheets one by one. A type of a sheet feeder using edge guides exists that incorporates a separation feeding mechanism feeding mechanism separating stacked sheets, to thereby feed individual sheets one by one. This type of sheet feeder can be referred to as “multi-purpose tray device.” For this type of sheet feeder, the side walls of the edge guides are larger in height because of the need for accommodating the stacked sheets, than a manual feed type of sheet feeder. In view of the above, the apparatus according to the above mode (27) is configured to include the separation feeding mechanism, and therefore, the apparatus is more advantageous in reducing a space required for accommodating the edge guides having the higher side walls. (28) An apparatus for forming an image on the sheet fed from the apparatus for feeding a sheet set forth in any one of modes (1) through (27), The apparatus for forming an image constructed according to the above mode (28) makes it easier to downsize the instant apparatus by virtue of the employment of the apparatus for feeding a sheet constructed according to any one of the preceding modes. (29) An apparatus for forming an image using a removable process cartridge incorporating a developer developing an electrostatic latent image formed on a photoconductor, comprising the apparatus for feeding a sheet set forth in any one of modes (1) through (27), wherein the feeder tray of the apparatus for feeding a sheet is displaceable in a direction allowing the process cartridge to be attached to and removed from the apparatus for forming an image. The apparatus according to the above mode (29) makes it easier to reduce a space within the apparatus for storage of the edge guides when the feeder tray is in the retracted position. This contributes to an enlargement in space within the apparatus for accommodating the process cartridge, for example. The enlargement in space enables increase in size of a developing device available with in the above apparatus, the developing device being located within the process cartridge and incorporating a container for storing developer material. This makes it easier to increase a storage capacity of a container available within the apparatus for accommodating developer material. Several presently preferred embodiments of the invention will be described in more detail by reference to the drawings in which like numerals, are used to indicate like elements throughout. Described first schematically, each one of the embodiments described in greater detail below relates to a sheet feeding unit disposed for use in an image forming apparatus (a printer, for example) The sheet feeding unit includes a feeder tray having a sheet-loaded plane on which a sheet of paper is to be loaded. The feeder tray is configured to be displaceable between a retracted or folded position (referred also to a non-working position, and an inoperative position) in which the feeder tray is retracted into the image forming apparatus, and an unfolded position (referred also to a working position, and an operative position) in which the feeder tray is protruded from the image forming apparatus. The sheet feeding unit further includes a pair of retractable or tiltable edge guides (or side guides) mounted on the sheet-loaded plane for guiding the lateral edges of a sheet of paper moving in a feeding direction along a sheet travel path assigned onto the sheet-loaded plane. The pair of edge guides includes a pair of side walls opposed to each other, with the sheet travel path being interposed therebetween. The sheet feeding unit further includes a supporting device supporting the edge guides pivotally about the respective axes parallel to the feeding direction, for rendering the edge guides to be retractable or tiltable. The sheet feeding unit further includes a holder holding each one of the edge guides selectively in a standing position allowing the each edge guide to stand on the sheet-loaded plane, or in an inclined position allowing the each edge guide to be inclined to the standing position. The inclined position also means a retracted position of each of the edge guides. The sheet feeding unit is operated in a manner that the each edge guide is situated in the standing position while the feeder tray is in the unfolded position, and that the each edge guide is pivoted from the standing position to the inclined position upon displacement of the feeder tray from the unfolded position to the retracted position. FIG. 1 shows in perspective view a laser printer 1 as an image forming apparatus having a sheet feeding unit constructed in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention. The laser printer 1 has a body 4 which has a front panel 4a. The front panel 4a extends approximately vertically. The laser printer 1 includes a sheet feeding unit 2 disposed at the front panel 4a and incorporating a feeder tray 3. The feeder tray 3 is configured to be displaceable between a retracted position in which the feeder tray 3 is retracted into an open recess 5 formed at the front panel 4a of the body 4, and an unfolded position in which the feeder tray 3 is protruded outward from the front panel 4. FIG. 1 shows in perspective view the laser printer 1 with the feeder tray 3 being in the retracted position, while FIG. 2 shows in perspective view the laser printer 1 with the feeder tray 3 being in the unfolded position allowing loading of a fresh sheet of paper into the feeder tray 3. As shown in FIG. 2, the feeder tray 3 is pivotally linked at a base end 3a of the feeder tray 3, with a lower area of the open recess 5 of the body 4. The base end 3a is, for example, linked at both ends of the base end 3a, with lower ends of both side walls of the open recess 5 via a suitable pivotally-supporting mechanism such as a pair of bearings not shown. The feeder tray 3 is displaced from the retracted position shown in FIG. 1 to the unfolded position shown in FIG. 2, as a result of a pivotal movement of the feeder tray 3 about the base end 3a. In the unfolded position, the feeder tray 3 is protruded approximately horizontally from the front panel 4a. In the protruded position, the feeder tray 3 is opened at an upper end of the feeder tray 3 in the unfolded position, allowing loading of a fresh sheet of paper into the feeder tray 3. As shown in FIG. 2, the feeder tray 3 has a sheet-loaded plane 6 on which a pair of edge guides 7 and 8 is disposed. The pair of edge guides 7 and 8 includes a pair of side walls 7a and 8a disposed in parallel with the feeding direction FD for guiding the lateral edges of a sheet of paper. The side walls 7a and 8a are opposed to each other, with the travel path of the sheet of paper being interposed therebetween, and are movable perpendicularly to the feeding direction. As shown in FIG. 2, the edge guides 7 and 8 in the standing position are projected from the sheet-loaded plane 6 within the plane perpendicular to the sheet-loaded plane 6 and parallel to the displacement direction (folding direction) of the feeder tray 3. The construction of the sheet feeding unit 2 including the pair of edge guides 7 and 8 will be described below in more detail. FIG. 3 shows in sectional side view the laser printer 1 with the feeder tray 3 being in the unfolded position allowing loading of a fresh sheet of paper into the feeder tray 3. FIG. 4 shows in sectional side view a relevant portion of the laser printer 1 with the feeder tray 3 being in the retracted position. The entire construction of the laser printer 1 will be described below in greater detail with reference to FIG. 3. The laser printer 1 includes: the body 4; the sheet feeding unit 30 2 disposed at the front panel 4a of the body 4; a sheet transport mechanism 9 disposed within the body 4; a scanning unit 10; a process cartridge 11; a fuser unit 12; etc. There is formed at an upper surface of a rear portion 4b of the body 4a portion of the body 4 which functions as a tray for receiving printed sheets of paper. In the laser printer 1, the scanning unit 10, the process cartridge 11, the fuser unit 12, etc. cooperate to correspond to a printing mechanism. The process cartridge 11, which employs a cartridge-type in structure, includes a detachable casing. The casing contains: a photoconductive drum 13; a charger 14; a developer roller 15; a transfer roller 16; a cleaning roller 17, etc. not shown at a predetermined position within the body 4. The feeder tray 3 constructing the sheet feeding unit 2, which is attached to the front panel 4a of the body 4, as described above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, is displaceable (foldable or retractable) in a direction allowing the process cartridge 11 to be removed from and attached to the laser printer 1, although the construction of the feeder tray 3 will be described below in more detail. The sheet feeding mechanism 9 is configured to deliver the sheet P of paper fed from the feeder tray 3 to the process cartridge 11. To this end, the sheet feeding mechanism 9 includes: a pick-up roller 18 separating sheets of paper stacked on the feeder tray 3 for feeding individual sheets of paper one by one; and a pair of registration rollers 19a and 19b, both of which are disposed on a lower end side of the feeder tray 3. The registration roller 19a is a driving roller, while the registration roller 19b is a driven or idle roller. While the feeder tray 3 is for use in feeding a stack of sheets of paper or an auto feeder, a feeder tray to which the present invention may be applied is not limited to the feeder tray 3, and may be one for use in manual feed. As shown in FIG. 3, a sheet P of paper is fed from the feeder tray 3 via the pick-up roller 18 into the pair of registration rollers 19a and 19b for a registration of the leading edge of the sheet P of paper using the pair of registration rollers 19a and 19b, and is then delivered to the process cartridge 11. As shown in FIG. 3, the scanning unit 10 includes: a laser emitting unit 20 disposed above the process cartridge 11 and having a polygon mirror, an object having a lens, etc., as not shown, a reflective mirror 21; etc. The scanning unit 10, as indicated by the solid arrow in FIG. 3, guides via the reflective mirror 21 a laser beam emitted from the laser emitting unit 20 to the outer periphery of the previously-charged photoconductive drum 13 in rotation within the process cartridge 11. The scanning unit 10 illuminates with the laser beam the outer periphery of the photoconductive drum 13, such that the laser beam scans the photoconductive drum 13 at a high speed, thereby allowing the exposure of the photoconductive drum 13 to the laser beam. As a result, an electrostatic latent image is formed on the surface of the photoconductive drum 13. As shown in FIG. 3, the process cartridge 11 incorporates within a casing not shown: the photoconductive drum 13; a Scorotron-type charger 14; the developer roller 15; the transfer roller 16; a cleaning roller 17; a toner box 22; a toner delivery roller 23; etc. The toner box 22 is replenished with fresh toner, with the process cartridge 11 being removed from the body 4. The toner contained in the toner box 22 is delivered via the toner delivery roller 23 to the developer roller 15 on which the toner is then carried via a blade 15a so as to form a toner layer of a uniform thickness. The toner carried on the developer roller 15 is subsequently supplied to the photoconductive drum 13. The electrostatic latent image formed on the surface of the photoconductive drum 13 is developed or visualized as a result of the movement of the toner from the developer roller 15 onto the electrostatic latent image. The visualized electrostatic latent image, namely, a toner image, is transferred to the sheet P of paper during the passing thereof through between the photoconductive drum 13 and the transfer roller 15. The sheet P of paper is then delivered to the fuser unit 12 for fusing the sheet P. The toner remaining after the above transfer on the surface of the photoconductive drum 13 is temporarily collected by the cleaning roller 17, and is subsequently collected through the photoconductive drum 13 by the developer roller 15 operated in timed relation therewith. The fuser unit 12 which is provided for heat-fusing the toner to the sheet P of paper, includes a heat roller 24, and a pressure roller 25 which presses the sheet P of paper to the heat roller 24. The fuser unit 12 further includes a pair of exit rollers 26a and 26b, and a pair of exit rollers 27a and 27b, both of which are disposed downstream from the roller 24 and 25, and which allow the sheet P of paper exit from the body 4. As shown in FIG. 3, an ordinary cassette 28 for auto feed is mounted at a lower portion of the body 4. The sheet P of paper in the cassette 28 is also fed via the pick-up roller 29 into the pair of registration rollers 19a and 19b for registration of the leading edge of the sheet P of paper using the pair of registration rollers 19a and 19b. The sheet P of paper, upon registered, is fed by means of the pair of registration rollers.19a and 19b into the process cartridge 11 and the fuser unit 12 sequentially through the sheet travel path described above. Upon development and fusing, the sheet P of paper exits from the laser printer 4. Next, with reference to FIGS. 5-11, the sheet feeder unit 2 will be described in more detail. FIG. 5 shows a front view of the feeder tray 3 in the sheet feeder unit 2, while FIG. 6 shows a rear view of 30 an upper plate 3b forming a portion of the feeder tray 3. As shown in FIG. 5, the feeder tray 3 includes the upper plate 3b and a lower support plate 3c. The lower support plate 3c supports the upper plate 3b so as to be apart from and opposed to the upper plate 3b. The sheet-loaded plane 6 is formed with the upper surface of the upper plate 3b (or a combination of the upper surface of the upper plate 3b and the upper surface of the lower support plate 3c) On the upper plate 3b of the feeder tray 3, the pair of edge guides 7 and 8 made of a synthetic resin in the form of a thin plate is disposed to extend parallel to the feeding direction FD. The edge guides 7 and 8 have side walls 7a and 8a opposed to each other, for guiding a sheet of paper by regulating the width of the sheet travel path. As shown in FIG. 8, a base end 7b of the edge guide 7 is supported by a pair of synthetic-resin-made attachment bases (sliders or movable bodies) 35 and 36 which is provided for enabling the edge guide 7 to move perpendicular to the feeding direction FD (i.e., the direction of arrow F in FIG. 8). Further, the attachment bases 35 and 36 are disposed to be separate from the base end 7b for allowing the edge guide 7 to be retractable or foldable with regard to the sheet-loaded plane 6. Similarly, a base end 8b of the edge guide 8 is supported by a pair of synthetic-resin-made attachment bases (sliders or movable bodies) 37 and 38 (see FIGS. 7-11) separated from the base end 8b for allowing the edge guide 8 to move perpendicular to the feeding direction FD. Any of the attachment bases 35, 36, 37, and 38 is configured to be movable in the width-wise direction of the sheet P of paper. As shown in FIG. 8, the attachment bases 35 and 36 are linked with each other by means of a supporting device 40 including a shaft 41, and a pair of bearings 42 and 42 through which the shaft 41 is passed at the respective ends thereof. The shaft 41 has an axis parallel to the feeding direction FD. Therefore, the edge guide 7 is pivotable about the axis, thereby allowing the edge guide 7 to be foldable,with regard to the sheet-loaded plane 6. Similarly, the attachment bases 37 and 38, although are not shown, are each linked each other by means of the supporting device 40 including the shaft 41 and the pair of bearings 42 and 42. The shaft 41 has the axis parallel to the feeding direction FD. Therefore, the edge guide 8 is also pivotable about the axis of the shaft 41, thereby allowing the edge guide a to be foldable with respect to the sheet-loaded plane 6. The edge guide 8 is pivotable about the axis independently from the edge guide 7. As will be evident from FIG. 7, the disposition of the supporting device 40 in the vicinity of the upper surface of the upper plate 3b, that is, the sheet-loaded plane 6 reduces the length of a portion of each of the edge guides 7 and 8 which projects from the sheet-loaded plane 6, when in the inclined position as shown in FIG. 9. However, the suitable position of the supporting device 40 is not limited to the vicinity of the sheet-loaded plane 6, and the supporting device 40 may be disposed at an alternative position. FIGS. 5 and 6 illustrate respectively in front view and rear view an exemplary construction of a linking mechanism 31 which enables the edge guides 7 and 6 to move in linked relation with each other. The linking mechanism 31, which is well-known, will be described as to only the basic construction thereof. As shown in FIG. 5, the linking mechanism 31 is disposed within a space between the upper plate 3b and the lower support plate 3c, and a first rack 32 and a second rack 33, both of which are primary components of the linking mechanism 31, are attached to the back face of the upper plate 3b. As shown in FIG. 6, the first rack 32 is connected with the attachment bases 35 and 36(see FIGS. 7-11) which are connected with the base end 7b of the edge guide 7. On the other hand, the second rack 33 is connected with the attachment bases 37 and 38 which are connected with the base end 8b of the edge guide B. Any of the attachment bases 35, 36, 37, and 38 is configured to be movable in the width-wise direction of the sheet P of paper, that is, the lateral direction as viewed in FIG. 6. As shown in FIG. 6, the first and second racks 32 and 33 are disposed to be apart from and opposed to each other at respective ear faces of the racks 32 and 33, and a pinion 34 is disposed between the racks 32 and 33 so as to fit with the racks 32 and 33 at the respective gear faces thereof. The pinion 34 is disposed rotatably about a stationary axis perpendicular to the sheet-loaded plane 6. Therefore, the pinion 34 is rotated in both clockwise-and-counterclockwise directions with the axis being fixed in position as the first and the second racks 32 and 33 move, It is added that, for better illustration of edge guides 7 and 8 shown in FIGS. 5 and 6, FIG. 7-11 show representatively only the edge guide 7, without explicit representation of the counterpart edge guide 8 which is common in construction to the edge guide 7. The specific construction of the edge guide 8 can be reached by virtually modifying the illustrated construction of the edge guide 7 in consideration of the symmetric relation therebetween. Because of the above-described construction of the linking mechanism 31, when the user moves one of the edge guides 7 (or 8) in the width-wise direction of the sheet P of paper outwardly of the central thereof, the other edge guide 8 (or 7) is moved in the opposite direction in linked relation with the one of the edge guides 7 (or 8), resulting in increase in the dimension of the sheet-loaded plane 6 of the feeder tray 3 in the width-wise direction. Conversely, when the user moves one of the edge guides 7 (or 8) in the width-wise direction of the sheet e of paper inwardly toward the center thereof, the other edge guide 8 (or 7) is moved in the opposite direction in linked relation with the one of the edge guides 7 (or 8), resulting in reduction in the dimension of the sheet-loaded plane 6 of the feeder tray 3 in the width-wise direction. In this manner, the user can adjust the feeder tray 3 more easily to variations in the width of the sheet P of paper. Then, with reference to FIGS. 6-11, the construction of the edge guides 7 and 8 will be described in greater detail by means of an example of the edge guide 7. As described above, the edge guides 7 and 8 are common in construction to each other so that only the edge guide 7 is representatively illustrated. FIG. 6 illustrates in rear view the linking mechanism 31, FIG. 7 illustrates in front view the edge guide 7, and FIG. 8 is a side view taken in the direction of arrow A in FIG. 7. FIG. 9 illustrates in front view the edge guide 7 in the retracted position in which the feeder tray 3 is retracted within the open recess 5 of the body 4. FIG. 10 is a side view taken in the direction of arrow B in FIG. 9. FIG. 11 illustrates in enlarged view the relevant portions of the attachment bases 35 and 36 in FIG. 8. As shown in FIG. 6, an elongated hole 39 is formed at the upper plate 3b of the feeder tray 3, for enabling the lateral movement of edge guide 7 in a direction perpendicular to the feeding direction FD (the direction indicated by arrow F in FIG. 6). As viewed from above, the elongated hole 39 is generally in the form of a rectangular extending in the perpendicular direction described above, that is, the moving direction of the edge guide 7 (the direction indicated by arrow M in FIG. 6). More specifically, the elongated hole 39 is shaped generally as a rectangular constructed by a pair of longer sides extending in the moving direction M and a pair of shorter sides extending in the feeding direction FD. As shown in FIG. 6, the elongated hole 39 is formed at the upper plate 3b with a pair of hole forming portions 39a and 39b extending parallel to each other in the moving direction M. As shown in FIG. 8, the attachment bases 35 and 36 each formed 30 in a thin plate are separated from the edge guide 7 at the base end 7b thereof, and are linked with the edge guide 7 via the supporting device 40. The attachment bases 35 and 36 are disposed to be overlaid on the upper surface of the upper plate 3b, and are arrayed to be spaced apart from each other in the feeding direction FD. Fit portions 35a and 36a, each having a C-like shape cross-section, are formed at respective end portions of the attachment bases 35 and 36 which are apart from and opposed to each other in the feeding direction FD. As illustrated in enlargement in FIG. 11, the fit portions 35a and 36a are fitted with respective edge portions 39c and 39d of the hole forming portions 39a and 39b which are opposed to each other in the feeding direction FD, to thereby render the fit portions 35a and 36a to be slidable relative to the edge portions 39c and 39d in the moving direction M. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 11, the edge portion 39c is fitted into the fit portion 35a of the attachment base 35, such that an upper surface portion 35b thereof is overlaid on the upper plate 3b. Similarly, the edge portion 39d is fitted into the fit portion 36a of the attachment base 36, such that an upper surface portion 36b there is overlaid on the upper plate 3b. As shown in FIG. 8, the bearings 42 and 42, which support the shaft 41 rotatably, are fixed to the upper surface portions 35b and 36b of the attachment bases 35 and 36, respectively. The supporting device 40, which is constituted by the assembly of the shaft Al and the bearings 42 and 42, connects pivotably the attachment bases 35 and 36 each formed in a thin plate and the edge guide 7. The rack 32 (see FIG. 6) is linked with at least one of the attachment bases 35 and 36 for the edge guide 7, and the rack 33 is linked with at least one of the attachment bases 37 and 38 for the edge guide 8. The rack 33 is not illustrated in FIG. 6 by virtue of the common construction to the edge guide 7. It is well known that the arrangement makes any one of the edge guides 7 and 8 to be slidable. It is added that, the bearings 42 and 42 may be integrally formed with the upper surface portions 35b and 36b of the attachment bases 35 and 36 using a synthetic resin. The bearings 42 and 42 may also be fixed to the upper surface portions 35b and 36b using an alternative suitable arrangement. The bearings 42 and 42 may be of any one of a rolling type and a sliding type, and may be modified in number or position as desired. It is further added that, in the present embodiment, the fit portions 35a and 36a are formed by respective separate members so as to be separate from each other. Alternatively, the fit portions 35a and 36a may be integrally formed in one member (a sheet of a flat plate, for example). As shown in FIG. 8, the shaft 41 extending parallel to the feeding direction FD is fixed with the edge guide 7 at the base end 7b, and is passed through the bearings 42 and 42, whereby the edge guide 7 is rotatably supported by the bearings 42 and 42. In the present embodiment, the supporting device 40 is constructed, such that the shaft 41 includes extensions 41a and 41b which extend from the respective side faces of the edge guide 7 opposed to each other in the feeding direction FD, and which are supported rotatably by the bearings 42 and 42. The shaft 41, which is supported 20 by the bearings 42 and 42 at the respective extensions 41a and 41b, is therefore easily assembled to the bearings 42 and 42. The bearings 42 and 42 and the edge guide 7 may be integrally formed with each other using a synthetic resin. Alternatively, the bearings 42 and 42 and the edge guide 7 may be fixed to each other using an alternative suitable arrangement. In the present embodiment, the shaft 41 is fixed with the edge guide 7, while the bearings 42 and 42 are fixed with the attachment bases 35 and 36. Conversely, the shaft 41 may be fixed with the attachment bases 35 and 36, while the bearings 42 and 42 may be fixed with the edge guide 7. That is, it is enough that the edge guide 7 is pivotable relative to the attachment bases 35 and 36. As shown in FIG. 7, the edge guide 7 is generally L-shaped as viewed in the direction of the pivot axis of the edge guide 7. More specifically, the edge guide 7 is constructed so as to include the side wall 7a for guiding a sheet of paper, and a bottom wall 43 projecting from the side wall 7a at the base end 7b of both the side wall 7a. The bottom wall 43 projects outwardly of the pivot axis of the base end 7b in the direction away from the sheet-loaded plane 6. The bottom wall 43 projects from the above-mentioned pivot axis at about 90 degrees to the side wall 7a. The bottom wall 43 allows the side wall 7a to be inclined from the standing position in the direction closer to the sheet-loaded plane 6. However, even if the side wall 7a attempts to be inclined from the standing position in the opposite direction, the bottom wall 43 abuts the attachment bases 35 and 36 at the lower surface of the bottom wall 43, to thereby inhibit the side wall 7a from being inclined from the standing position in the direction away from the sheet-loaded plane 6. Thus, the bottom wall 43 allows the edge guide 7 to be inclined closer to the sheet-loaded plane 6, while inhibits the edge guide 7 from being inclined in the direction away from the sheet-loaded plane 6, to thereby function as a pivotal-direction limiter which limits a pivotal direction of the edge guide 7, and also, as a holder which holds the edge guide 7 in the standing position. More specifically, it is the pivotal movement of the edge guide 7 about the shaft 41 in the counterclockwise direction as viewed in FIG. 7 that the bottom wall 3 allows. The allowed pivotal movement means an inclination of the edge guide 7 from the standing position as illustrated, toward the left-hand side of FIG. 7. On the other hand, it is the pivotal movement of the edge guide 7 about the shaft 41 in the clockwise direction as viewed in FIG. 7 that the bottom wall inhibits. The inhibited pivotal movement means an inclination of the edge guide 7 from the standing position as illustrated, toward the right-hand side of FIG. 7. As described above, the bottom wall 43 has the function to limit the pivotal direction of the edge guide 7. Further, the bottom wall 43 is configured to establish the maximum limit of pivotal-angle of the edge guide 7 so that the side wall 7a, which limits the width of the sheet travel path, extends perpendicular to the sheet-loaded plane 6 at the standing position of the edge guide 7, as viewed in the feeding direction FD. As shown in FIG. 7, the supporting device 40 and the bearings 42 and 42, which connect rotatably the edge guide 7 and the attachment bases 35 and 36 with each other, are disposed not to project from the surface of the side wall 7a closer to the sheet-loaded plane 6 (toward the left-hand side of FIG. 7). More specifically, the supporting device 40 may be disposed to have a tangential plane at the top of the circumference of the supporting device 40 in coplanar relationship with the surface of the side wall 7a, or may be deviated from the surface of the side wall 7a away from the sheet-loaded plane 6 (toward the right-hand side of FIG. 7). The above arrangement is employed to avoid the loading of a sheet P of paper on the sheet-loaded plane 6 from being interfered by the supporting device 40. The arrangement is achieved by optimizing the outer dimension and/or the position of the pivot axis of the supporting device 40, for example. It is added that, although, in the present embodiment, the above-described pivotal-direction limiter is in the form of the bottom wall 43 extending from the base end 7b of the edge guide 7 generally perpendicularly thereto, is not limited in construction, the limiter may be modified to one formed at the attachment bases 35 and 36 so as to limit the pivotal direction of the edge guide 7, for example. In any case, the pivotal-direction limiter is not limited in construction as long as it performs the function of limiting the pivotal direction of the edge guide 7. The direction in which the edge guide 7 is inclined from the standing position may be selected, as the direction away from the sheet-loaded plane 6, or may also be selected as the direction closer to the sheet-loaded plane 6, like in the present embodiment. The latter arrangement, as compared with the former arrangement, allows an easier downsizing of the feeder tray 3 with respect to the width dimension thereof, wherein the feeder tray 3 is constructed so as to contain the entirety of the edge guide 7 at the inclined position thereof. In the case of the latter arrangement, similarly with the edge guide 7, the counterpart edge guide 8 is preferably configured such that the direction in which the edge guide 8 is inclined from the standing position coincides with the direction closer to the sheet-loaded plane 6. Further, in the present embodiment, the edge guides 7 and 8 are each tiltable and also movable in the direction in which the edge guide 7 and 8 are opposed to each other, namely, in the direction perpendicular to the feeding direction FD. Alternatively, the edge guide 7 and 8 may be each configured such that the corresponding supporting device 40 is mounted on the feeder tray 3 without intervention of the attachment bases 35 and 36, so that the edge guide 7 and 8 is tiltable but not movable, for example. Then, with reference to FIGS. 9 and 10, the retraction of the feeder tray 3 into the open recess 5 of the front panel 4a of the body 4 will be described below. FIG. 9 illustrates the feeder tray 3 together with the front panel 4a in a fragmentary sectional front view, while FIG. 10 illustrates the feeder tray 3 and the front panel 4a in a view taken in the direction of arrow B in FIG. 9. For the feeder tray 3 to be retracted into the open recess 5, as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10, the user first pivots the edge guide 7 (in common to the edge guide 8) from the standing position toward the inclined position, namely, in the direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 9. The edge guide 7 is eventually tilted to the inclined position. The edge guide 7, as described above, is limited in pivotal direction by the bottom wall 43 functioning as the pivotal-direction limiter to inhibit the pivotal movement from the standing position in the direction opposite to the direction of the arrow indicated in FIG. 9, resulting in a unilateral tilting direction indicated by the arrow in FIG. 9. With the edge guide 7 being in the inclined position, the user retracts the feeder tray 3 into the open recess 5 by pivoting the feeder tray 3 closer to the open recess 5. Accordingly, the depth of the open recess 5 of the body 4 is deep enough if it has a minimum dimension conforming to the length of the bottom wall 43. Now, with reference to FIG. 12, the edge guide 7 will be described in comparison with a conventional edge guide. Conventionally, an edge guide was rigidly fixed to a feeder tray, and as a result, the feeder tray 3 was required to be retracted into the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in the standing position as represented by the broken line in FIG. 12. For this reason, conventionally, the open recess 5 was required to be dimensioned in depth equal to or longer than the height dimension H2 of the edge guide 7. Conversely, in the present embodiment, the user can retract the feeder tray 3 into the open recess. 5 with the edge guide 7 being laid on the feeder tray 3 represented by the solid line in FIG. 12. Accordingly, the open recess 5 of the body 4 is deep enough if it has a minimum dimension conforming to the height dimension HI of the bottom wall 43. As a result, the open recess 5 is able to reduce in depth by the difference the dimension H2 minus the dimension HI, leading to downsize the body 4. For the laser printer 1 to be replenished with a sheet P of paper by loading the sheet P of paper on the feeder tray 3, the user unfolds the feeder tray 3 away from the body 4, and then manually raises up the edge guide 7 with the feeder tray 3 being in the unfolded position. In the present embodiment, the user's operations of the feeder tray 3 and the edge guide 7 are independent of each other. However, as described later in a second embodiment of the present invention, a disposition of a biasing mechanism BM biasing normally the edge guide 7 toward the standing position, between the attachment bases 35 and 36 and the edge guide 7, enables the edge guide 7 to pivot automatically from the inclined position to the standing position in linked relation with the user's operation of the feeder tray 3. Although the operation of the feeder tray 3 has been described above by way of an example of the edge guide 7, it is easily understood that the edge guide 7 and the counterpart edge guide 8 are common in construction and operation, which is applicable to alternative embodiments of the present invention described later. As will be better understood from the above description, the present embodiment facilitates the downsizing of the laser printer 1. The present embodiment allows an easier downsizing of the laser printer 1 without affecting clearances between the adjacent ones of the inside components of the laser printer 1. More specifically, the downsizing of the laser printer 1 does not require arranging two components such as the toner box 22 and the fuser unit 12 which are not favorable to be arranged within the laser printer 1 so as to be closely spaced away from each other, such that these two components become excessively closely spaced away from each other. In general, in a large-sized printer, there is an adequate clearance between the toner box 22 and the fuser unit 12, for avoiding the toner box 22 from being heated by the fuser unit 12. By contrast, in a small-sized printer, the downsizing thereof tends to sacrifice the clearance between the toner box 22 and the fuser unit 12 within the small-sized printer. Nevertheless, even when the laser printer 1 is small-sized, the present embodiment facilitates the downsizing thereof while ensuring an adequate clearance between the toner box 22 and the fuser unit 12. The downsizing of the laser printer 1 does not arouse any concern for a heat problem in designing the laser printer 1. Further, the present embodiment allows the downsizing of the laser printer 1 without affecting in size the inside components of the laser printer 1. Accordingly, the downsizing of the laser printer 1, because of no need to reduce in size the toner box 22, is achieved so as to allow an adequate capacity of the toner box 22 for accommodating toner to be ensured as with a conventional laser printer. As will be readily understood from the above description, in the present embodiment, the laser printer 1 constitutes an example of the “processing device” set forth in mode (1), and the sheet feeding unit 2 constitutes an example of the “apparatus for feeding a sheet of paper” to which mode (1) is directed. Further, in the present embodiment, the supporting device 40 includes the combination of the shaft 41 and the bearings 42 and 42 as an example of the “holding mechanism” set forth in mode (2) or (3). The attachment bases 35, 36, 37, and 38 each constitute an example of the “moving body” set forth in mode (7). The bottom wall 43 constitutes an example of the,“pivotal-direction limiter” set forth in mode (12) or (13), and also constitutes an example of the “bend” set forth in mode (14). Then, with reference to FIGS. 13-16, a second embodiment of the present invention will be described. In view of the fact that the present embodiment is common in basic construction to the first embodiment, the common elements of the present embodiment to those of the first embodiment will be referenced the same reference numerals as those in the description and illustration of the first embodiment, wihtout a redundant description and illustration, while the different elements of the present embodiment from those of the first embodiment will be described in more detail. Further, in view of the fact that the edge guides 7 and 8 are structurally common to each other in the present embodiment like in the first embodiment, only the edge guide 7 will be representatively illustrated and described. FIG. 13 is a front view illustrating the edge guide 7 in accordance with the present embodiment, and FIG. 14 shows the edge guide 7 in a view taken in the direction of arrow C in FIG. 13. FIG. 15 is a front view illustrating the edge guide 7, with the feeder tray 3 being retracted in the open recess 5 of the body 4, and FIG. 16 shows the edge guide 7 in a view taken in the direction of arrow D in FIG. 15. As shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, in the present embodiment, biasing mechanisms BM are provided between the edge guide 7 and the corresponding respective attachment bases 35 and 36 to bias the edge guide 7 toward the standing position. Each of the biasing mechanisms BM may be formed in a leaf spring, a wire-like spring, a coil spring, or any one of other types of elastic members. In the present embodiment, the each biasing mechanism BM includes a coil-like center section wounded around the shaft 41, and two wire-like springs 44 and 44 extending away from the center section at both ends thereof. One of the wire-like springs 44 and 44 is engaged at the top end thereof with a corresponding one of the attachment bases 35 and 36, while the other of the wire-like springs 44 and 44 is engaged at the top end thereof with the edge guide 7. The edge guide 7 is always elastically biased by the thus-constructed biasing mechanisms BM toward the standing position. As shown in FIG. 15, a projection 45 is formed on the abutting surface 5a of the open recess 5 of the body 4 at a position which one of both corners of a top end 7c of the edge guide 7 (hereinafter, referred to as “contact corner”) is to be brought into contact with the abutting surface 5a. The projection 45 includes a contact surface 46 opposed to the edge guide 7. The contact surface 46 is inclined to the abutting surface 5a so as to face the above-mentioned contact corner. A reaction force is applied from the contact surface 46 to the contact corner, upon abutting of the contact corner against the contact surface 46. The reaction force is applied along a line not passing through the pivot axis of the edge guide 7, resulting in application of a moment to the edge guide 7 in a direction allowing the edge guide 7 to be tilted from the standing position to the inclined position. In the present embodiment, the contact surface 46 is formed in a flat plane having such a slope that the height of the flat plane measured from the abutting surface 5a is continuously and linearly reduced as the edge guide 7 is tilted from the standing position toward the inclined position. However, the profile of the contact surface 46 is not restrictive, and it may be modified to an arc-shaped surface allowing the height of the flat plane is continuously and non-linearly changed. In any case, it is enough only if the contact surface 46 has a plane so inclined to the abutting surface 5a as to allow the edge guide 7 to be tilted from the standing position to the inclined position. Next, with reference to FIGS. 13 and 14, the retraction of the feeder tray 3 into the open recess 5 of the body.4 will be described. As shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, as a result of the approach of the feeder tray 3 to the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in the standing position, the top end 7c of the edge guide 7 is first brought into contact at the aforementioned contact corner thereof with the contact surface 46 of the projection 45 of the open recess 5. The edge guide 7 is so limited in an allowable pivotal-direction by the bottom wall 43 functioning as the aforementioned pivotal-direction limiter, as to inhibit the edge guide 7 from being pivoted away from the inclined position. Therefore, the edge guide 7 is rendered to be pivotable only in the tilt direction indicated by the curved arrow in FIG. 9. As a result, while the top end 7c of the edge guide 7 is being guided by the contact surface 46 of the projection 45, the edge guide 7 is pivoted about the centerline of the supporting device 40 in the aforementioned tilt direction. Once the feeder tray 3 has been completely retracted into the open recess 5, the edge guide 7 is accommodated within the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in the inclined position. Then, once the feeder tray 3 has been unfolded away from the open recess 5, the edge guide 7 is automatically pivoted form the inclined position toward the standing position by virtue of the biasing force of the biasing mechanisms BM. While the edge guide 7 is in contact with the contact surface 46, as the feeder tray 3 is increasing the unfolding angle thereof measured from the body 4, the edge guide 7 is increasing the pivot angle thereof measured from the inclined position. Once the edge guide 7 terminates the contact with the contact surface 46, the edge guide 7 completely returns to the standing position. As will be readily understood from the above description, in the present embodiment, the biasing mechanisms BM each constitute an example of the “holding mechanism” set forth in mode (4), the top end 7c and the projection 45 forming the inclined contact surface 46 together constitute an example of the “tilting mechanism” set forth in mode (5) or (6), and also together constitute an example of the “translating mechanism” set forth in mode (17). Then, with reference to FIGS. 17-20, a third embodiment of the present invention will be described. In view of the fact that the present embodiment is common in basic construction to the first embodiment, the common elements of the present embodiment to those of the first embodiment will be referenced the same reference numerals as those in the description and illustration of the first embodiment, without a redundant description and illustration, while the different elements of the present embodiment from those of the first embodiment will be described in more detail. Further, in view of the fact that the edge guides 7 and 8 are structurally common to each other in the present embodiment like in the first embodiment, only the edge guide 7 will be representatively illustrated and described. FIG. 17 is a front view illustrating the edge guide 7 in accordance with the present embodiment, and FIG. 18 shows the edge guide 7 in a view taken in the direction of arrow E in FIG. 17. FIG. 19 is a front view illustrating the edge guide 7, with the feeder tray 3 being retracted in the open recess 5 of the body 4, and FIG. 20 shows the edge guide 7 in a view taken in the direction of arrow F in FIG. 19. As shown in FIG. 17, in the present embodiment, an inclined portion 47 is formed at the top end of the edge guide 7 so as to extend therefrom in the tilt direction thereof. A roller 48 is provided at the top end of the inclined portion 47. The roller 48 is to be brought into contact with the abutting surface 5a of the open recess 5 of the body 4, for functioning as a friction reduction mechanism. As shown in FIG. 17, a shaft 50 is fixed at the top end of the inclined portion 47 in parallel to the shaft 41. The shaft 50 is inserted into the roller 48 for rotatable connection therebetween The roller 48 is preferably made up of synthetic resin or rubber. Additionally, a shaft 51 is fixed at the base end of the inclined portion 47 in the same manner as described above, and is inserted into a roller 49 for rotatable connection therebetween. The roller 49 is preferably made up of synthetic resin or rubber. In the present embodiment, the friction reduction mechanism is in the form of roller 48 which may be coated with a synthetic resin having a slippery surface due to a better lubricity thereof, such as PTFE resin. The roller 49 may be removed, where appropriate. Further, in the present embodiment, as shown in FIG. 17, there is employed, for always biasing the edge guide 7 toward the standing position, a biasing mechanism BM in the form of a wire-like spring. The detailed description thereof will be omitted, in view of the biasing mechanism BM being common in construction to that of the third embodiment, for avoiding a redundant description. Next, the retraction of the feeder tray 3 into the open recess of the body 4 will be described. As shown in FIGS. 17 and 18, once the feeder tray 3 attempts to be retracted into the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in the standing position, the roller 48 disposed at the inclined portion 47 of the edge guide 7 is first brought into contact with the abutting surface 5a of the open recess 5. As a result, the roller 48, while being rotated smoothly, is pivoted in the aforementioned tilt direction indicated by the curved arrow in FIG. 9 toward the inclined position. The edge guide 7 is so limited in an allowable pivotal-direction by the bottom wall 43 functioning as the aforementioned pivotal-direction limiter, as to inhibit the edge guide 7 from being pivoted away from the inclined position. Therefore, the edge guide 7 is rendered to be pivotable only in the tilt direction. As a result, upon the feeder tray 3 being further advanced toward the retracted position within the open recess 5, the roller 49 disposed at the base end of the inclined portion 47 is then brought into contact with the abutting surface 5a of the open recess 5. Thereafter, the edge guide 7 is further tilted toward the inclined position, while the roller 49 is being rotated due to relative movement thereof with the abutting surface 5a. Once the feeder tray 3 has been completely retracted into the open recess 5, the edge guide 7 is accommodated within the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in the inclined position. At the moment, the depth of the open recess 5 required for accommodating the entire of the edge guide 7 becomes equal to the height of the bottom wall 43. As will be readily understood from the above description, in the present embodiment, the roller 48 constitutes an example of the “translating mechanism” set forth in mode (17), and the rollers 48 and 49 each constitute an example of the “friction reduction mechanism” set forth in mode (19). Then, with reference to FIGS. 21-23, a fourth embodiment of the present invention will be described. In view of the fact that the present embodiment is common in basic construction to the first embodiment, the common elements of the present embodiment to those of the first embodiment will be referenced the same reference numerals as those in the description and illustration of the first embodiment, without a redundant description and illustration, while the different elements of the present embodiment from those of the first embodiment will be described in more detail. Further, in view of the fact that the edge guides 7 and 8 are structurally common to each other in the present embodiment like in the first embodiment, only the edge guide 7 will be representatively illustrated and described. FIG. 21 is a front view illustrating the edge guide 7 in accordance with the present embodiment, with the feeder tray 3 being in the retracted position, and FIG. 22 shows the edge guide 7 in a view taken in the direction of arrow G in FIG. 21. FIG. 23 is a side view illustrating the edge guide 7. As shown in FIG. 21, in the present embodiment, the feeder tray 3 is configured to incorporate a retractable auxiliary tray 53 so as to be slidable parallel to the feeding direction FD. The auxiliary tray 53 is generally in the form of a plate which is interposed between two opposing plate-like sections of the feeder tray 3, with the auxiliary tray 53 and the two sections being superposed on each other. The auxiliary tray 53 is displaceable between a retracted position and an extended position. In the retracted position of the auxiliary tray 53, the feeder tray 3 is stored within the open recess 5 with the edge guide 7 being in-the inclined position, i.e., the retracted position. An engaging projection 43a is formed at a selected portion of the base end of the bottom wall 43 functioning as the aforementioned pivotal-direction limiter. The engaging projection 43a is fitted into and passed through the elongated hole 39 formed in the feeder tray 3, as shown in FIG. 22. The engaging projection 43a projects from the edge guide 7 toward the auxiliary tray 53, with the edge guide 7 being in the inclined position, as shown in FIG. 21. As shown in FIG. 21, where the auxiliary tray 53 is in the retracted position, the engaging projection 43a is engaged with an upper surface of the auxiliary tray 53, preventing the edge guide 7 from being pivoted from the inclined position to the standing position irrespective of the biasing force applied from the biasing mechanism BM. Once the user has withdrawn the auxiliary tray 53 from the feeder tray 3, the engaging projection 43a is released from engagement with the auxiliary tray 53, permitting the edge guide 7 to be pivoted. As a result, the edge guide. 7 is pivoted to the standing position because of the biasing force applied from the biasing mechanism BM. In the standing position of the edge guide 7, as shown in FIG. 22, both end portions 43b and 43b of the bottom wall 43, which are portions of the bottom wall 43 other than the engaging projection 43a, are engaged with the upper surface of the attachment base 35 or 36 or the upper surface of the feeder tray 3. The engagement prevents the edge guide 7 from being further pivoted away from the standing position. Then, the retraction of the feeder tray 3 into the open recess 5 of the body 4 will be described. As shown in FIGS. 21 and 23, upon manual tilt of the edge guide 7 up to the inclined position, the auxiliary tray 53 is retracted into and in turn stored within the feeder tray 3. In this state, the engaging projection 43a of the bottom wall 43 has been fitted into the elongated hole 39 and engaged with the upper surface of the auxiliary tray 53, inhibiting the edge guide 7 from being pivoted. As a result, the edge guide 7 is kept to be in the inclined position. The feeder tray 3 is then retracted into the open recess 5 with the feeder tray 3 being kept in state. On the other hand, in the unfolded position of the feeder tray 3, once the user has withdrawn the auxiliary tray 53 from the feeder tray 3, the engagement between the upper surface of the auxiliary tray 53 and the engaging projection 43a is released, rendering the edge guide 7 and the engaging projection 43a being pivotable. As a result, the biasing mechanism BM raises up the edge guide 7 up to the standing position, and in turn the both end portions 43b and 43b are brought into engagement with the upper surface of the attachment base 35 or 36 or the upper surface of the feeder tray.3, preventing further pivot of the edge guide 7 from the standing position in the same direction. As will be readily understood from the above description, in the present embodiment, the edge guides 7 and 8 each constitute an example of the “edge guide” set forth in mode -(23) or (24), and the auxiliary tray 53 constitutes an example of the “auxiliary tray” set forth in mode (24). Further, in the present embodiment, the biasing mechanism 3M constitutes an example of the “biasing mechanism” set forth in mode (25), the base end 7b of the edge guide 7 constitutes an example of the “base end” set forth in the same mode, and the elongated hole 39 constitutes an example of the “hole” set forth in the same mode. It is added that the edge guides 7 and 8 may be replaced with edge guides for a separation feeding mechanism separating stacked sheets of paper, to thereby retrieve individual sheets of paper one by one. The edge guides are used for guiding the lateral edges of the separated and retrieved sheet of paper in the separation feeding mechanism, an example of which is embodied as the cassette 28 shown in FIG. 3. Although the several embodiments of the present invention have been described individually above, it is of course possible to practice the present invention in any one of combinations of these embodiments within the scope of the present invention. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes could be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the broad inventive concept thereof. It is understood, therefore, that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments disclosed, but it is intended to cover modifications within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus for feeding a sheet using edge guides for guiding the lateral edges of the sheet, and more particularly to a technique of reducing a space required for accommodating the apparatus for feeding a sheet. 2. Description of the Related Art An apparatus for feeding a sheet (hereinafter, referred to as “sheet feeder”) is for use in various applications. One of the applications is an apparatus for forming an image (hereinafter, referred to as “image forming apparatus”) such as a printer. Such a sheet feeder for use in combination with such an image forming apparatus is categorized into one for use in manual feed, and one for use in auto feed. The auto feed allows stacked sheets to be separated, to thereby feed individual sheets one by one. Such a sheet feeder allows a feeding of a sheet using edge guides guiding the lateral edges of the sheet to be fed. More particularly, as disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No, Hei 10-291696, for example, such a sheet feeder is configured to include: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to an image forming apparatus, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the image forming apparatus is to be loaded; and a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet. An example of such a sheet feeder is further configured such that the edge guides are movable relative to each other in a direction perpendicular to the feeding direction of the sheet, to thereby control the width of a sheet travel path on the sheet-loaded plane. For accommodating such a sheet feeder, an example of the image forming apparatus is configured to have an exposed recess formed in a body panel of the image forming apparatus at a position in conformity with a space in which the edge guides are to be displaced. In this example, once the feeder tray is brought into the retracted position relative to the image forming apparatus, the edge guides are retracted or accommodated within the recess. For the reason, the image forming apparatus is required to be configured such that the recess is dimensioned to avoid the edge guides from abutting the body panel of the image forming apparatus, irrespective of where the edge guides are positioned. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A conventional sheet feeder is configured such that the edge guides disposed at the feeder tray are always each placed in the standing position on the sheet-loaded plane, resulting in a fixed size in height of the edge guides. The recess is required to be deep enough to accommodate the height of the edge guides so as not to cause physical interference between the recess and the edge guides upon the feeder tray being retracted. As a result, the conventional sheet feeder makes it more difficult to downsize the image forming apparatus. Further, the downsizing of the image forming apparatus without reduction in depth of the recess for storage of the edge guides would affect the interior of the image forming apparatus. In general, the image forming apparatus contains a laser scanner device, a toner delivery device, a developing device, a cleaning device, a fusing device, etc. An example of the image forming apparatus is configured such that the cleaning device and the fusing device are disposed adjacent to each other. In this example, the reduction in clearance between the cleaning device and the fusing device would possibly arise a heat problem in the cleaning device due to heat in the fusing device, possibly resulting in melting of toner accumulated by the cleaning device for cleaning. In addition, it is understood that the downsizing of a toner box or toner container would contribute to the downsizing of the image forming apparatus with adequate clearances between the adjacent ones of those devices contained in the image forming apparatus being ensured. However, the downsizing of the toner box would require an unfavorable reduction in capacity of the toner box. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an apparatus for feeding a sheet enabling reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. According to the present invention, an apparatus for feeding a sheet is provided in which the edge guides are configured to be retractable or tiltable, resulting in an easier reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. More specifically, according to the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for feeding a sheet to a processing device processing the sheet, comprising: a feeder tray displaceable to a selected one of a retracted position and an unfolded position relative to the processing device, and having a sheet-loaded plane on which the sheet to be fed to the processing device is to be loaded; a pair of edge guides disposed at the sheet-loaded plane, having a pair of corresponding respective side walls co-extending along a feeding direction of the sheet in opposed relation with each other, to thereby guide lateral edges of the sheet; and a supporting device supporting each of the edge guides pivotably about a pivot axis perpendicular to the feeding direction, to thereby allow the each edge guide to be displaced to a selected one of a standing position on the sheet-loaded plane and an inclined position inclined to the standing position. The above apparatus according to the present invention may be practiced such that, once the feeder tray is displaced away from the processing device such as a printer into the unfolded position, the edge guides are brought into the standing position allowing a sheet to be guided, and on the other hand, once the feeder tray is displaced toward the processing device into the retracted position, the edge guides are pivoted to the inclined position allowing the edge guides to be accommodated within the processing device. The above apparatus according to the present invention is configured to guide a sheet using the retractable or tiltable edge guides facilitating reduction in space required for accommodating the edge guides. Therefore, where the above apparatus according to the present invention is practiced in combination with the processing device in the form of the aforementioned image forming apparatus, the retractable or tiltable edge guides allow an easier reduction in depth of the recess formed in the image forming apparatus for accommodating the edge guides, contributing to an easier downsizing of the image forming apparatus. | 20050112 | 20080930 | 20050714 | 71816.0 | 0 | SEVERSON, JEREMY R | APPARATUS FOR FEEDING SHEET USING RETRACTABLE EDGE GUIDE FOR GUIDING LATERAL EDGE OF SHEET | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,180 | ACCEPTED | System and method for flame stabilization and control | A system and method for providing continuous measurement and control of a combustion device by altering the fuel composition delivered thereto. The system includes devices for sensing related information, such as fuel characteristics, combustion characteristics, or other device characteristics, and controlling the performance of the combustion device based on the sensed information. Performance control occurs via addition of one or more additives to the fuel to adjust combustion characteristics. Via such sensing and performance control, consistent combustion device performance may be maintained, despite varying fuel characteristics. In one variation, sensing occurs for the fuel delivered to the combustion device, and one or more additives are added to the fuel, based on the composition and flow rate for the fuel. In another variation, characteristics of the combustion device in operation, such as flame characteristics, are sensed and used to adjust fuel characteristics via iterative addition of one or more additives. | 1. A fuel feed adjustment system for use with a combustion device having a fuel feed, the system comprising: a sensor for sensing a combustion related characteristic for the combustion device; a processor for comparing the sensed combustion related characteristic to an acceptable range and for outputting an output upon the sensed combustion characteristic being outside the acceptable range; and an additive feed for feeding an additive to the fuel feed, the additive feed being triggered by the processor output. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the sensed combustion related characteristic is a sensed fuel characteristic for the fuel feed. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein the sensor senses the fuel characteristic using a method selected from a group consisting of infrared absorption spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, gas chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, electron spin resonance, mass spectrometry, and ion mobility spectroscopy. 4. The system of claim 2, wherein the sensor senses the fuel characteristic using a device selected from a group consisting of a flame ionization detector (FID), a thermal conductivity measurement device, a heat capacity measurement device, a sound measurement device; and a density measurement device. 5. The system of claim 2, wherein the fuel characteristic comprises at least one selected from a group consisting of fuel composition, a fuel combustion property, and fuel flow rate. 6. The system of claim 2, wherein the sensed fuel characteristic is a sensed fuel combustion property, wherein the sensor further senses a fuel flow rate, wherein the acceptable range is a predetermined combined range for a fuel combustion property and a fuel flow rate, and wherein, if the sensed fuel combustion property and sensed fuel flow rate are below the predetermined combined range, the additive includes a combustion enhancer, and wherein if the sensed fuel combustion property and sensed fuel flow rate are above the predetermined combined range, the additive includes a combustion retardant. 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the additive is selected from a group consisting of a combustion enhancer and a combustion retardant. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the fuel enhancer comprises a reactive chemical species selected from a group consisting of hydrogen, acetylene, oxygen, oxygen enhanced air, and nitrous oxide. 9. The system of claim 7, wherein the fuel retardant is an inert diluent selected from a group consisting of nitrogen, oxygen depleted air, carbon dioxide, recirculated exhaust gas, water, and steam. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the sensor senses indices of fuel performance. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the indices of fuel performance comprise one selected from a group consisting of a Wobbe Index and a Weaver index. 12. The system of claim 1, wherein the combustion related characteristic is a combustion characteristic for the combustion device. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the combustion characteristic for the combustion device comprises a flame characteristic. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the flame characteristic is selected from a group consisting of flame flicker, flame color, flame products composition, flame location, and flame oscillation. 15. The system of claim 13, wherein the sensor is selected from a group consisting of a chemiluminescence detector, a flame scanner, an accelerometer, a flame imager, a pressure transducer, a sound sensor, a motion sensor, and a flame detector. 16. The system of claim 13, wherein the sensor determines one selected from a group consisting of combustion stability and combustion performance. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein combustion stability is determined by measuring one selected from a group consisting of chamber pressure and chamber pressure fluctuation. 18. The system of claim 16, wherein combusting performance is determined by measuring one selected from a group consisting of flame temperature, exhaust temperature, and emissions content. 19. The system of claim 1, wherein the sensor comprises one selected from a group consisting of a pressure transducer, a sound sensor, a vibration sensor, and a motion sensor. 20. The system of claim 1, wherein the combustion device is a turbine. 21. The system of claim 1, wherein the combustion device is a reciprocating engine. 22. The system of claim 1, wherein the fuel feed is a natural gas feed. 23. The system of claim 1, wherein the additive feed is provided from an additive feed source. 24. The system of claim 22, wherein the additive feed is controlled via a feed control mechanism. 25. The system of claim 23, wherein the feed control mechanism comprises a metering valve. 26. The system of claim 1, wherein the processing device comprises one selected from a group consisting of an analog controller and a digital computer. 27. The system of claim 1, wherein the sensed combustion related characteristic is used to control feeding of a second additive feed to the fuel feed for a second combustion device. 28. The system of claim 1, wherein the fuel feed with the fed additive is connected to a second combustion device. 29. A fuel feed adjustment system for use with a combustion device having a fuel feed, the system comprising: a sensor for sensing fuel composition and a fuel feed rate; a processing device for comparing the sensed fuel composition and fuel feed rate to an acceptable range for fuel composition and fuel rate, and for outputting an output upon the sensed fuel composition and fuel rate being outside the acceptable range; and an additive feed for feeding a selected additive to the fuel feed, the selected additive feed being triggered by the processing device output, wherein the selected additive is selected from a group consisting of a combustion enhancer and a combustion retardant, and wherein the additive feed has an additive feed rate, the additive feed rate being selected so as to produce a combined fuel and additive producing a combustion characteristic within a preselected range. 30. A fuel feed adjustment system for use with a combustion device having a fuel feed, the system comprising: a sensor for sensing a combustion characteristic for the combustion device; a processor for comparing the sensed combustion characteristic for the combustion device to an acceptable range and for producing a first output upon the sensed combustion characteristic being outside the acceptable range and a second output upon the sensed combustion characteristic being within the acceptable range; and an additive feed for feeding an additive to the fuel feed, the additive feed being triggered by the first output, and termination of the additive feed being triggered by the second output. 31. A method for adjusting fuel feed for a combustion device, the method comprising: sensing a combustion related characteristic for the combustion device; comparing the sensed combustion related characteristic to an acceptable range to produce a comparison result; and variably feeding an additive to the fuel feed depending on the comparison result. | The present invention claims priority to Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/535,716, filed Jan. 12, 2004, entitled “System and Method for Flame Stabilization and Control,” which is hereby incorporated by reference. The present invention also claims priority to Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/634,286, filed Dec. 9, 2004, entitled “Dilution of Gaseous Fuels with Inert Gases to Maintain Constant Combustion Characteristics,” which is also hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to combustion-related devices, and specifically to combustion-related devices that monitor and control combustion via control of one or more additives to a fuel feed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 contains a block diagram of various computer system components for use with an exemplary implementation of a control system for fuel feed for a combustion device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a method for determining combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a method for determining combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Description of Embodiments of the Method and System Embodiments of the present invention provide methods and systems for real-time or near real-time sensing or otherwise determining combustion related information, such as fuel characteristics, combustion characteristics, or other device characteristics, and controlling the performance of a combustion device (e.g., a turbine or other device containing a combustor), based on the sensed information, using an additive to the fuel to adjust one or more combustion characteristics. Via such sensing and performance control, for example, consistent combustion device performance may be maintained, despite varying inputs or other factors, such as varying fuel quality or type. Such variations in fuel may include, for example, variations in combustion characteristics for natural gas, depending on the source of the natural gas, or variations in fuel type to be used for the combustion device. In a first embodiment, combustion device performance is controlled (indirectly) via sensing of fuel characteristics and addition of one or more additives to the fuel feed, as necessary. For example, in one variation of this embodiment, fuel characteristics (e.g., fuel feed rate and chemical or other aspects of the fuel relating to combustion performance of the fuel) for the fuel to be fed to the combustion device are monitored, such as via fuel composition and feed rate sensors. The monitored results are compared to an acceptable range of fuel characteristics (e.g., a range of fuel characteristics that produce acceptable combustor performance), and if the monitored results are outside the acceptable range, an appropriate amount of an available fuel additive is determined, and the additive is added to the fuel feed, so as to produce combustor performance that would have resulted had the fuel been within the acceptable range. For example, if the fuel without additive is determined by analysis of the fuel to produce too slow of a flame speed within the combustor, an appropriate calculated amount of combustion enhancer (based, for example, on calculated combustion enhancement with the additive, given the sensed rate of fuel feed) as an additive is added to the fuel feed, so as to increase the flame speed to an acceptable level. On the other hand, if the fuel without additive is determined by analysis of the fuel to produce too fast of a flame speed within the combustor, an appropriate calculated amount of combustion retardant as an additive is added to the fuel feed, so as to decrease the flame speed to an acceptable level. In this embodiment, once the proper additive characteristics for the fuel are determined, no continuous additional monitoring and control is necessary (although additional monitoring and control may optionally be used, either at the fuel or combustion end of the combustion device, so as, for example, to maintain combustion quality). In a second embodiment, combustion device performance is controlled via sensing of combustor performance characteristics, with addition of one or more additives to the fuel feed being provided, as necessary, to place the combustor within an acceptable performance range. For example, in one variation of this embodiment, combustion performance characteristics (e.g., pressure produced in the combustor, combustion or emission products, temperature, or other combustion features) are monitored, and the monitored results are compared to an acceptable range of combustion performance characteristics (e.g., a range of combustion characteristics that produce acceptable combustor performance). If the monitored results are outside the acceptable range, an appropriate amount of an available fuel additive is added to the fuel feed, and combustor characteristics are remonitored to determine if the results are within the acceptable range. This process is repeated, as a continuous feedback loop, until the combustion characteristics fall within an acceptable range, and additive feed is then maintained. For example, if the fuel without additive is determined by combustor performance characteristics to produce too low of a flame temperature within the combustor, a feed of a combustion enhancer as an additive is added to the fuel feed, so as to produce an increase in the flame temperature. If an acceptable flame temperature is reached, the feed of additive is maintained; otherwise, more additive is iteratively added until an acceptable flame temperature is reached. Similarly, if the fuel without additive is determined by combustor performance characteristics to produce too high of a flame temperature within the combustor, a feed of a combustion retardant as an additive is added to the fuel feed, so as to produce a decrease in the flame temperature. If an acceptable flame temperature is reached, the feed of additive is maintained, otherwise, more additive is iteratively added until an acceptable flame temperature is reached. In an exemplary second variation of the second embodiment, other (non-combustion) characteristics of the combustion device are monitored to determine performance, and additive is added, as necessary, so as to place or maintain the combustion device within an acceptable performance range. For example, vibration in the combustion device may result if pressure fluctuations within the combustor are too high. Similarly to the first variation for this embodiment, an additive to produce an increase in pressure in the combustor is iteratively added to the fuel feed until acceptable performance (e.g., acceptable vibration level) is produced for the combustion device. In each variation of the second embodiment, sensed fuel feed rates and fuel characteristics or other information may be used in conjunction with the sensed combustion device characteristics so as, for example, to more precisely determine and control additive feed. In order to carry out these functions with a combustion device, each of the embodiments of the present invention generally utilize one or more sensors, one or more sources of additives, one or more additive flow control devices (e.g., valves) having one or more corresponding control mechanisms, and one or more processors or processing devices to receive the sensor input, to optionally determine appropriate amounts of additive to add to the fuel flow (depending on the embodiment), and to direct the operation of the additive flow control devices via the control mechanisms. Combustion Device. The combustion device usable with the present invention may comprise any a number of known or developed combustor or burner devices used to combust fuel and that may be used for any number of purposes that such devices are typically used. For example, the combustion device may comprise a turbine or reciprocating engine designed to use natural gas or other fuel (or, for example, capable of running on, or being adjusted to run on, a variety of fuels) for power generation. Sensors. A wide number of sensors are usable with the present invention. For example, such sensors usable with the present invention can directly or indirectly measure fuel composition, or combustion properties, or both. When directly measuring fuel composition, a number of techniques can be utilized within the sensors (or, for example within the processors or processing devices coupled to the sensors, as described further below) to measure the amounts of the various chemical species that make up the fuel. These techniques include, but are not limited to: infrared absorption spectroscopy; Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) spectroscopy; Raman spectroscopy; gas chromatography; mass spectrometry; nuclear magnetic resonance; electron spin resonance; or ion mobility spectroscopy; or any combination thereof. When indirectly measuring fuel composition, the procedures that can be utilized include, but are not limited to, the following: use of flame ionization detectors (FID); thermal conductivity measurement; heat capacity measurement; speed of sound measurement; or density measurement; or any combination thereof. Particularly when used with embodiments involving indirect measurment, the sensors can also measure or be used to determine indices of combustion performance, as necessary, including a Wobbe Index, as described in detail below, and the sensors can include known types and methods designed to measure flow rate for the fuel. With regard to flame sensing (direct measurement), sensors can be used to measure combustion stability by, for example, measuring flame location or oscillation or both utilizing (but not limited to) one or more of the following: a chemiluminescence detector; a flame scanner; a flame imager; or a flame detector. The sensors can also be selected or configured to measure combustion stability by measuring, for example, combustion chamber pressure and pressure fluctuations, or an accelerometer may be used to measure vibrations in the combustion device resulting from combustion induced pressure oscillations. Combustion performance can be measured by measuring such characteristics as combustion flame temperature; exhaust temperature; or emissions; or any combination thereof. Processor. The processor (also interchangeably referred to herein as a “processing device” or “controller”) can perform calculations to assess combustion performance or stability based on inputs from the sensors or other information, and is capable of generating control signals, mechanical or hydraulic operations, or other control functions for the additive system (e.g., to control valves or other mechanisms to control additive feed), such that constant combustion performance and/or stability is produced and maintained. The controller can control the properties of the input fuel to the combustor (e.g., by controlling feed of one or more additives), such that, for example, both constant heat rate and fuel jet characteristics can be maintained. The controller can also maintain constant combustion properties by such methods as maintaining a constant index of combustion. The index, as described below, can be a Wobbe Index, or a Weaver Index, or both (or some other index devised to characterize combustion properties of a fuel). The controller can also maintain stable combustion by, for example, adjusting flame speed or some other primary combustion property (e.g., through control of the amount of additive added to the fuel). The controller can be an analog device, such as a PID (Proportional, Integral, Derivative) controller generating the control output from the input signal through the use of tuned control coefficients. The controller can also be a digital device, such as a PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) or computer. A computer can mimic an analog device in software, or it can use the information from the sensing system to calculate a combustion index or other fuel property and then calculate the required additive level to maintain a predetermined value of the index or property. The controller may be a stand-alone device, or may comprise more than one coupled device, including devices forming or coupled to a network, such as the Internet. Such a device or devices may have a “learning” capability, which allows the invention to self-optimize the controlling algorithms based on operational experience, as applicable for some embodiments. Output of the controller may also be correlated with combustion device stability and used as a stability indicator. The stability indicator may be used to shut down the combustion device before a severe loss of stability occurs. In addition, the stability indicator may be used as part of or in conjunction with other features for a combustion device, such as to develop an operating record to aid in determining the cause of upsets. As shown in FIG. 1, the controller of the present invention may be implemented using hardware, software or a combination thereof and may be implemented in one or more computer systems or other processing systems. In one embodiment, the invention is directed toward one or more computer systems capable of carrying out the functionality described herein. Computer system 1 includes one or more processors, such as processor 4. The processor 4 is connected to a communication infrastructure 6 (e.g., a communications bus, cross-over bar, or network). Various software embodiments are described in terms of this exemplary computer system. After reading this description, it will become apparent to a person skilled in the relevant art(s) how to implement the invention using other computer systems and/or architectures. Computer system 1 can include a display interface 2 that forwards graphics, text, and other data from the communication infrastructure 6 (or from a frame buffer not shown) for display on the display unit 30. Computer system 1 also includes a main memory 8, preferably random access memory (RAM), and may also include a secondary memory 10. The secondary memory 10 may include, for example, a hard disk drive 12 and/or a removable storage drive 14, representing a floppy disk drive, a magnetic tape drive, an optical disk drive, etc. The removable storage drive 14 reads from and/or writes to a removable storage unit 18 in a well known manner. Removable storage unit 18, represents a floppy disk, magnetic tape, optical disk, etc., which is read by and written to removable storage drive 14. As will be appreciated, the removable storage unit 18 includes a computer usable storage medium having stored therein computer software and/or data. In alternative embodiments, secondary memory 10 may include other similar devices for allowing computer programs or other instructions to be loaded into computer system 1. Such devices may include, for example, a removable storage unit 22 and an interface 20. Examples of such may include a program cartridge and cartridge interface (such as that found in video game devices), a removable memory chip (such as an erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM), or programmable read only memory (PROM)) and associated socket, and other removable storage units 22 and interfaces 20, which allow software and data to be transferred from the removable storage unit 22 to computer system 1. Computer system 1 may also include a communications interface 24. Communications interface 24 allows software and data to be transferred between computer system 1 and external devices. Examples of communications interface 24 may include a modem, a network interface (such as an Ethernet card), a communications port, a Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) slot and card, etc. Software and data transferred via communications interface 24 are in the form of signals 28, which may be electronic, electromagnetic, optical or other signals capable of being received by communications interface 24. These signals 28 are provided to communications interface 24 via a communications path (e.g., channel) 26. This path 26 carries signals 28 and may be implemented using wire or cable, fiber optics, a telephone line, a cellular link, a radio frequency (RF) link and/or other communications channels. In this document, the terms “computer program medium” and “computer usable medium” are used to refer generally to media such as a removable storage drive 14, a hard disk installed in hard disk drive 12, and signals 28. These computer program products provide software to the computer system 1. The invention is directed to such computer program products. Computer programs (also referred to as computer control logic) are stored in main memory 8 and/or secondary memory 10. Computer programs may also be received via communications interface 24. Such computer programs, when executed, enable the computer system 1 to perform the features of the present invention, as discussed herein. In particular, the computer programs, when executed, enable the processor 4 to perform the features of the present invention. Accordingly, such computer programs represent controllers of the computer system 1. In an embodiment where the invention is implemented using software, the software may be stored in a computer program product and loaded into computer system 1 using removable storage drive 14, hard drive 12, or communications interface 24. The control logic (software), when executed by the processor 4, causes the processor 4 to perform the functions of the invention as described herein. In another embodiment, the invention is implemented primarily in hardware using, for example, hardware components, such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Implementation of the hardware state machine so as to perform the functions described herein will be apparent to persons skilled in the relevant art(s). In yet another embodiment, the invention is implemented using a combination of both hardware and software. Additive Feed. The additive feed portion of the present invention provides capability to add the additives to the fuel, as appropriate, per the controller calculations or other controller function. The additive feed portion of the present invention can include, but does not require, a reservoir for holding additives. The additive portion of the present invention can also add additives “on the fly” by using readily available material, such as steam, air, readily available exhaust gases, or other generated or generatable material. Such additives can be generated, for example, by taking a component (e.g., air or water) and separating it into one or more components to be used with the present invention, or by generating a reaction to a particular component. Such additives can derived, for example, from exhaust gases or via use of air separation methods, and can also include or use of steam or water. In addition, the additives in the additive system can comprise reactive chemical species, which act, for example, as combustion enhancers, including, but not limited to: hydrogen (H2); acetylene (C2H2); nitrous oxide (N2O); or any combination thereof. To function as combustion retardants, the additives can comprise inert diluents, including, but not limited to: nitrogen (N2); air; oxygen depleted air; carbon dioxide (CO2); recirculated exhaust gas; water; or steam; or any combination thereof. Combustion retardant additives can also similarly comprise flame retarding species, including, but not limited to halogen containing species. The additive feed portion of the present invention can comprise metering valves or other valves or control mechanisms to control how much additive is mixed with the fuel, as well as electronic, mechanical, hydraulic, or other operating mechanisms to control operation of the control mechanisms. The metering valves, either directly or through such control mechanism or mechanisms, can be controlled, for example, via coupling to the controller. Properties of Fuel and Combustion Devices The following fuel and combustion device information and properties are generally applicable to systems and methods for implementing embodiments of the present invention. Fuel Characteristics. Certain fuel characteristics help determine whether different fuels will behave similarly in the same combustion device. If a parameter known as the Wobbe Index is the same for both fuels, they will often behave similarly in a given combustion system. A Wobbe Index (WI) is defined as the ratio of the volumetric calorific value of the fuel to the square-root of the fuel density. When the WI is the same for two fuels, heat input to the device for the two fuels will be approximately equal, with same pressure drop across the fuel inlet nozzles. Fuel jet penetration and thus fuel-air mixing will also be approximately the same. Thus, maintaining a constant fuel WI is important to maintaining constant performance of a combustion device. The WI was originally developed to determine the interchangeability of fuels burned in diffusion flame combustors and simple premixed burners that operate in a stable combustion regime, for which constant heat rate is a suitable constraint on gas interchangeability. Lean, premixed Dry Low Emissions (DLE) combustors (such as those used in modern gas turbines used for power generation), however, operate in a less stable combustion regime, so heat rate alone is typically not a sufficient constraint to guarantee consistent operation. Thus, application of the WI for computing interchangeability in lean-premixed combustors may not always be sufficient, without consideration of further constraints. Other indices have been developed that monitor for interchangeability of other flame properties. For example, the Weaver Index compares the heat release, flame lift, flashback, and yellow tipping of a proposed substitute gas, relative to a reference gas, for a combustion application. In addition, fundamental combustion properties, such as flame speed, may also be monitored for use as part of a method to predict combustion stability. Combustion stability control may thus be achieved by adjusting the chemical composition of the fuel mixture entering the combustor, so that fuel characteristics, like those described above, are controlled. This maybe accomplished by changing the fuel stream composition through the addition of additives to the fuel mixture. Additives can increase or decrease flame speed, flame temperature, or volumetric heat release rate, for example. Additives include, but are not limited to: reactive chemical species (e.g., hydrogen, acetylene, or N2O); diluents (e.g., nitrogen, CO2, steam, or recirculated exhaust gases); or flame-radical scavenging chemical species (e.g., halogen containing species); or any combination thereof. Premixed Combustion Devices and Burners. Premixed combustion devices usable with the present invention can include, but are not limited to, those used in low-emissions gas turbines, for which operation may suffer in the face of variable natural gas or other feed gas (such as process gas or syngas) composition. Premixed combustion systems that are tuned for very low pollutant emissions operate in a narrow stability region between flashback and blow-off. Flashback occurs when the flame speed is faster than the flow velocity through the combustor, allowing flame propagation upstream. Blow-off occurs when the flame speed is slower than the flow velocity through the combustor, allowing the flame to be blown downstream and extinguished. Flame speed must generally equal flow velocity for stable combustion. Numerous techniques are used to stabilize the flame so that flame speed does not have to exactly match flow velocity. These constraints result in a small window of stability; however, too great a mismatch between flame speed and flow velocity can still result in flashback or blow-off. Since flame speed is a function of fuel composition, stability problems can arise due to the variable composition of natural gas or other feed gases (see, e.g., “Influence of Variations in the Natural Gas Properties on the Combustion Process in Terms of Emissions and Pulsations for a Heavy Duty Gas Turbine” by L. Nord and H. Andersen, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety). Premixed combustors are particularly sensitive to variability of fuel properties, as the premixing depends critically on control of the fluid mechanics, and flame stability is dependent on fluid mechanics and chemical kinetics. The loss of flame stability leads to pressure fluctuations and pulsations, and resonant acoustics, which can cause damage to and degradation of hot section components. (These characteristics, however, also may be sensed or otherwise utilized to assist with operation of the combustion device, in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention.) Example Embodiments Combustor performance may be measured and/or sensed in numerous ways. For example, combustor performance may be measured and/or sensed directly by determining performance characteristics of the combustion device, or performance may be measured and/or sensed indirectly by determining fuel characteristics. In both of these examples, the addition of additives (e.g., reactive species, reaction inhibiting species, or inert diluents) to the fuel can be used to cause a change in the fuel composition. The direct measurement may be used as the input in a feedback type control loop, while the indirect measurement may be used as the input in a feed-forward type control loop. Combustion performance may be determined directly by determining performance characteristics of a combustion device. For example, stability can be determined by measuring an indicator of flame position in the combustor, such as flame chemiluminescence, or by sensing flame intermittency by detecting, for example, the acoustic or optical (chemiluminescence) emissions generated by the flame. FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. As illustrated in FIG. 2, the system comprises: a fuel line 105; a sensing system 110; a controller 115 to access the information from the sensing system 110 (e.g., to control the fuel composition or provide a stability risk assessment, data records, and emissions predictions); an additive system 120 to control the fuel additive(s) using the information provided by the controller 115; and a combustor 125 to burn the fuel. FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a method that determines combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. In step 205, at least one combustion characteristic is determined using the sensing system. For example, a flame or combustor characteristic such as dynamic pressure oscillations could be measured. These dynamic pressure oscillations could be measured using a pressure transducer that indicates changes in combustor pressure as a function of time. In step 210, the controller analyzes the combustion characteristic(s). Thus, for example, the dynamic pressure oscillations could be analyzed to determine a running average or be compared to prescribed limit values. If the analysis indicates that the combustor performance is deteriorating, some change to fuel composition may be needed. In step 215, the output from the controller determines if the fuel composition should be changed to correct a combustion dynamics problem. If no problem is indicated (e.g., fuel composition is within predetermined acceptable range for combustion device operation), in step 220, the data can be archived, and the system can continue to be monitored. If there is a problem (e.g., fuel composition is outside of predetermined acceptable range for combustion device operation), in step 225, the proper change to the fuel composition (e.g., addition of appropriate additive to fuel feed) is determined. The change to the fuel composition can be determined from, for example, prior experience with a particular combustion system, from computation of a stability index or fundamental flame property, or by other information or method. In step 230, a signal is sent to the additive system indicating that a certain amount of additive should be mixed into the fuel stream. In step 235, the fuel entering the combustor is modified accordingly (e.g., by causing the opening or adjusting of a valve). Thus, in the example, the fuel entering the combustor is modified by the addition of the additive to have combustion characteristics that produce a more stable flame. These steps comprise a feedback control loop that may require iteration or other techniques to optimize the additive process. Combustion performance may also be determined indirectly by measuring fuel characteristics (e.g., chemical composition, density and heating value) and inferring combustion behavior. FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the system comprises: a fuel line 305; a combustor 325 to bum the fuel; a sensing system 310; a controller 315 to access the information from the sensing system and determine how much fuel additive(s) to add or otherwise select to vary the additive(s) delivered to the fuel; and an additive system 320 to store and control the flow of the additive(s) into the fuel line. FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a method that determines combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. In step 405, the sensing system determines the fuel characteristics. Thus, for example, the sensing system can utilize an FTIR spectrometer to measure the individual chemical species that make up the fuel. In step 410, the controller analyzes the fuel characteristics. Thus, for example, the controller utilizes the fuel composition to compute a regulating quantity, such as the flame speed, and/or Wobbe Index or another stability index. In step 415, the output from the controller is analyzed to determine if the fuel composition should be changed to meet this goal (e.g., to fall within a predetermined range). Thus, for example, if the composition of the fuel is changing, such that the regulating quantity indicates a flame stability problem, the composition can be altered before combustion problems arise. If the value of the regulating quantity does not need to be changed, in step 420 the data can be archived, and the regulating quantity can continue to be monitored. If value of the regulating quantity does need to be changed, in step 425, a determination is made that changes need to be made. The changes to fuel composition required to alter the value of the regulating quantity may require addition of a diluent or reactive species to obtain the necessary alteration of combustion characteristics In step 430, the proper change to the fuel composition is determined. Thus, for example, the adjustment required to the fuel composition to maintain flame stability and/or pollutant emissions is determined. In step 435, a signal is sent to the additive system 320 controlling the amount of either diluent or reactive species to be mixed into the fuel stream to obtain the required composition and hence value of regulating quantity. In step 440, the fuel entering the combustor is modified accordingly thus improving the flame stability characteristics in order to minimize pressure oscillations in the combustor. Example Applications and Other Uses of Information Generated. As explained above, embodiments of the present invention can be used to stabilize a combustion system (in both premixed and non-premixed combustors), to thereby compensate for effects of time-varying fuel composition and combustion properties. In addition, the measurement of input fuel composition may also be useful. For example, emissions predictions (e.g., predicting the emissions level based on the measured chemical composition of the fuel), stability risk assessments (e.g., blow-off or flashback due to a measured chemical composition), and archival records, from which the cause of combustor upsets may be determined, can be utilized. Another application is to use the composition and/or flame speed information to perform a continuous assessment of the risk of loss of combustor stability. Furthermore, fuel composition information can be used to augment calculation of combustion device NOx emissions based on combustion device operating parameters. One embodiment could also be used with a surrogate combustor or burner for the purpose of adjusting the composition of the fuel supply to a number of combustion devices that obtain fuel from the source without the need to monitor the other combustion devices. Another embodiment could be used to control individual combustion devices by customizing the fuel sent to each combustion device. Those experienced in the art will realize that the above uses are merely examples, and that multiple other uses are possible. The present invention is described in terms of the above embodiments. This is for convenience only and is not intended to limit the application of the present invention. In fact, after reading the description of the present invention, it will be apparent to one skilled in the relevant arts how to implement the present invention in alternative embodiments. In addition, it should be understood that the Figures described above, which highlight the functionality and advantages of the present invention, are presented for example purposes only. The architecture of the present invention is sufficiently flexible and configurable, such that it may be utilized in ways other than that shown in the Figures. Further, the purpose of the Abstract of the Disclosure is to enable the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and the public generally, and especially the scientists, engineers and practitioners in the art who are not familiar with patent or legal terms or phraseology, to determine quickly from a cursory inspection the nature and essence of the technical disclosure of the application. The Abstract of the Disclosure is not intended to be limiting as to the scope of the present invention in any way. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates generally to combustion-related devices, and specifically to combustion-related devices that monitor and control combustion via control of one or more additives to a fuel feed. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES <EOH>FIG. 1 contains a block diagram of various computer system components for use with an exemplary implementation of a control system for fuel feed for a combustion device, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a method for determining combustion performance directly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a system that determines combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a method for determining combustion performance indirectly, according to one embodiment of the invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050112 | 20081014 | 20060302 | 66530.0 | F23N500 | 2 | BASICHAS, ALFRED | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR FLAME STABILIZATION AND CONTROL | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | F23N | 2,005 |
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11,033,211 | ACCEPTED | Method of establishing communication link in ADSL system | In a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system, a bearer channel and latency mode are used and message and backup tones are used in order to transmit/receive initialization messages. The method of establishing the communication link includes: (a) performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones; (b) correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones of which the errors are bit-masked in the step (a); (c) performing a cyclic redundancy check operation on the initialization message having the corrected errors; and (d) determining link establishment or link failure based on the result of the cyclic redundancy check of the step (c). Accordingly, since some portion of errors of the initialization messages are removed in advance of a cyclic redundancy check operation, it is possible to stably perform a link establishment process. | 1. A method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system using a bearer channel and latency mode when transmitting/receiving initialization messages and transmitting/receiving the initialization messages by using message tones and backup tones, the method comprising: (a) performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones; (b) correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones of which the errors are bit-masked in the step (a); (c) performing a cyclic redundancy check operation on the initialization message having the corrected errors; and (d) determining link establishment or link failure of the communication link on which the initialization messages are transmitted based on the result of the cyclic redundancy check of the step (c). 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method further comprises a step (e) of detecting bit-masked errors of the initialization messages in the message tones and the backup tones by using a predetermined logic operation, and utilizing the number of the detected errors as a repetition number of the cyclic redundancy check operation of the step (c). 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the logic operation of the step (e) includes an exclusive-OR operation. 4. The method according to claim 2, wherein the errors in the step (a) occur due to a crosstalk or noise on the communication link. 5. The method according to claim 2, wherein, in a case where the number of the errors detected in the step (e) is 3, at least one error out of the three errors is changed by the error correction performed in the step (b). 6. The method according to claim 2, wherein the initialization messages corrected in the step (b) are initialization messages having a few errors. 7. The method according to claim 3, wherein the step (a) comprises a step of receiving the initialization message from the message tones and the backup tones. 8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the step (e) comprises: (e1) counting the number of the detected errors and setting the number to a count value; and (e2) setting a reference count value to zero. 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein the step (d) comprises: (d1) determining whether the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is zero; (d2) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be zero in the step (d1), asserting that there is a link establishment in the ADSL system; (d3) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be not zero in the step (d1), determining whether the reference count value is smaller than the set count value; (d4) when the reference count value is determined to be not smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), asserting that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; (d5) when the reference count value is determined to be smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), determining whether time associated with the set count value is longer than a link initialization time; (d6) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), proceeding to the step (d4) to assert that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; and (d7) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be not longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), increasing the reference count value by one and providing the increased count value to the step (b). | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority of Korean Patent Application No. 2004-9627, filed on Feb. 13, 2004, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system, and more particularly, to a method of establishing a communication link in the ADSL system. 2. Description of the Related Art An asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system generally comprises a central office (CO) such as a telephone office and customer premises equipment (CPE). The CO and the CPE may include their own corresponding ADSL modems. In order to establish a communication link in the ADSL system, the following initialization process is performed during a boot operation of the ADSL modem. Phase locking is initially obtained by a phase locked loop (PLL) in response to an initial pilot tone output from the CO. An equalizer and echo canceller are subjected to learning or training in response to a reception reverb signal, which is a cyclic signal output from the CO. Next, a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the ADSL system is calculated in response to a medley signal output from the CO. An appropriate downstream data rate is determined based on the calculated SNR. The determined downstream data rate is transmitted from the CPE to the CO. An upstream data rate is similarly determined using the same method as the method for determining the downstream data rate. The upstream data rate is transmitted from the CO to the CPE. A process for exchanging initialization messages including the data rates is performed in a 4 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) system using 4 message transfer tones (hereinafter, referred to as a “message tone”) and 4 associated backup tones. The backup tones have the same initialization messages as the message tones. Each of the initialization messages comprises 2-byte cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) messages. On the other hand, the message tones and the backup tones may be affected by noise such as a high bit-rate DSL (HDSL) crosstalk and European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) FA/FB/FC/FD crosstalk. The ETSI 388 test specification is a European standard specification. In the test specification, 8 types of test loops are specified. In addition, it is specified that the desired test rate is generated by applying the ETSI FA/FB/FC/FD crosstalk to the test loops while increasing the lengths of the test loops. If the ETSI FA or FB crosstalk is applied to the test loops and the lengths of the test loops increase, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL may not be successful. For example, in a case where the ADSL system modem attempts to perform the process for establishing the communication link on a test loop of 26 American wire gauge (AWG) having a length of 2950 m by using an European standard ADSL annex B mode, if the ETSI FB crosstalk is applied to the test loop, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL system may not be successful. In addition, in a case where the ADSL modem attempts to perform the process for establishing the communication link on a test loop of 26 AWG having a length of more than 2950 m by using the ADSL annex B mode, if the ETSI FA crosstalk is applied to the test loop, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL system may not be successful. FIG. 1 depicts the HDSL crosstalk that occurs in an American standard ADSL annex A mode. Referring to FIG. 1, a frequency response of the HDSL crosstalk is depicted. As shown in FIG. 1, noise power of the HDSL crosstalk is relatively large in the low frequency band. Since noise such as the HDSL crosstalk affects the message tones and the backup tones in the low frequency band, errors may occur in the initialization message transmitted or received through the message tones and the backup tones. In turn, the erroneous initialization messages may generate a link failure in the ADSL system. FIG. 2 depicts the ETSI FB crosstalk that occurs in a European standard ADSL annex B mode. Referring to FIG. 2, a frequency response of the ETSI FB crosstalk is depicted. Locations of the message tones and the associated backup tones in the ADSL annex B mode are indicated by A and B. Similar to the HDSL crosstalk shown in FIG. 1, noise power of the ETSI FB crosstalk is also relatively large in a low frequency band. Therefore, as described above, the erroneous initialization messages may generate link failures in the ADSL system. In other words, in the ADSL system of the ADSL annex B mode, as shown in FIG. 2, since the initialization messages (for example, C_RATESRA, C_MSGRA, CRATES2, C_MSG2, and C_B&G) and the CRC messages associated with the initialization messages are transmitted in the 4 QAM system using the 75-th to 78-th message tones and the 91-th to 94-th backup tones in the low frequency band, a large number of errors in the initialization message occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk, so that a link failure may be generated. In addition, since an ADSL system of the T1.413 annex A mode utilizes the 37-th to 40-th backup tone in a lower frequency band, the backup tones may be further affected by a crosstalk such as the ETSI FB crosstalk. Therefore, a large number of errors in the initialization messages occur due to the crosstalk, so that it may be impossible to correct the errors. FIG. 3 is a table illustrating an example of C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the message tones in which errors occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk. FIG. 4 is a table illustrating an example of transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the backup tones in which errors occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk, wherein the transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages correspond to the transmitted/received messages in the message tones shown in FIG. 3. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, there are listed C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages of the initialization messages generated in the case where ETSI FB crosstalk is applied to the ETSI test loop 1 having a length of 2950 m. In the tables shown in FIG. 3 and 4, “OX” at each cell denotes hexadecimal. The C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages have 2-byte CRC messages at their own end portions. The C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages are transmitted in a fast mode of operation of the ADSL system. A frame contained in each of the messages has 1-byte information. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages transmitted/received by the message tones and the backup tones have a large number of errors due to the crosstalk. The errors take the form of different data values that are received during respective transmissions of the same data using the message tones (FIG. 3) and the backup tones (FIG. 4). Even though the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones are compared and checked in this manner, it is impossible to determine which of the tones comprise the initialization messages having a small number of errors. Therefore, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL will not be successful due to the large amount of errors. These errors, which lead to link failures, are indicated in the tables of FIGS. 3 and 4 as shaded cells. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system in a stable manner, by reducing errors in the initialization messages that occur due to noise such as crosstalk. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system using a bearer channel and latency mode when transmitting/receiving initialization messages and transmitting/receiving the initialization messages by using message tones and backup tones. The method comprises: (a) performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones; (b) correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and backup tones of which the errors are bit-masked in the step (a); (c) performing a cyclic redundancy check operation on the initialization message having the corrected errors; and (d) determining link establishment or link failure of the communication link on which the initialization messages are transmitted based on the result of the cyclic redundancy check of the step (c). The method may further comprise a step (e) of detecting bit-masked errors of the initialization messages in the message tones and the backup tones by using a predetermined logic operation, and utilizing the number of the detected errors as a repetition number of the cyclic redundancy check operation of the step (c). In the method, the logic operation of the step (e) may include an exclusive-OR operation. In addition, in the method, the errors in the step (a) may occur due to a crosstalk or noise on the communication link. In the method, in a case where the number of the errors detected in the step (e) is 3, at least one error out of the three errors may be changed by the error correction performed in the step (b). In the method, the initialization messages corrected in the step (b) may be initialization messages having a few errors. In the method, the step (a) may comprise a step of receiving the initialization message from the message tones and the backup tones. In the method, the step (e) may comprise: (e1) counting the number of the detected errors and setting the number to a count value; and (e2) setting a reference count value to zero. In the method, the step (d) may comprise: (d1) determining whether the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is zero; (d2) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be zero in the step (d1), asserting that there is a link establishment in the ADSL system; (d3) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be not zero in the step (d1), determining whether the reference count value is smaller than the set count value; (d4) when the reference count value is determined to be not smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), asserting that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; (d5) when the reference count value is smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), determining whether time associated with the set count value is longer than a link initialization time; (d6) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), proceeding to the step (d4) to assert that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; and (d7) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be not longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), increasing the reference count value by one and providing the increased count value to the step (b). According to the method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system of the present invention, since some portion of errors of initialization messages are removed by performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones and correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones of which errors are bit-masked in advance of a cyclic redundancy check operation, it is possible to stably perform a link establishment, or set-up, process. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent by describing in detail exemplary embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a chart that depicts the occurrence of HDSL crosstalk in an American standard ADSL annex A mode; FIG. 2 is a chart that depicts the occurrence of ETSI FB crosstalk occurring in a European standard ADSL annex B mode; FIG. 3 is a table illustrating an example of C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the message tones in which errors occur due to a particular form of crosstalk; FIG. 4 is a table illustrating an example of transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the backup tones in which errors occur due to a particular form of crosstalk, wherein the transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the backup tones of FIG. 4 correspond to the transmitted/received messages in the message tones shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a table illustrating transmitted/received messages generated when a bit masking step according to the present invention is performed on the transmitted/received messages shown in FIG. 4; and FIG. 7 is a table that illustrates test results obtained in a case where a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system according to the present invention is applied to test loops according to the ETSI 388 annex B test specification. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention and operational advantages thereof can be fully understood by referring to the accompanying drawings and explanations thereof. Now, exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings to explain the present invention in detail. In the drawings, the same reference numerals refer to the same elements. FIG. 5 is a flow diagram that illustrates a method of establishing a communication link in an asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system according to an embodiment of the present invention. The method of establishing a communication link in the ADSL system according to the embodiment of the present invention will be described based on a system that includes customer premises equipment (CPE) comprising an ADSL modem with reference to FIG. 5. In a receiving step S105, initialization messages (for example, C_RATESRA, C_MSGRA, CRATES2, C_MSG2, and C_B&G) are received from message tones and backup tones corresponding to the message tones. The initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones have the same values before being transmitted from a central office (CO) to the CPE. On the other hand, the data of the received initialization messages of the message tones and backup tones may contain differences in value, which are interpreted as errors that occur due to a crosstalk or noise. In a bit masking step S110, a bit masking operation is performed on errors contained in the received messages. The bit masking step S110 will be described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 6. The ADSL system to which the method of establishing the communication link according to the present invention is applied can transmit the initialization messages in one of a fast mode and an interleaved mode (sometimes referred to as a “slow mode”). In addition, the ADSL system can optionally transmit the initialization messages through a bearer channel. A transmitting procedure that utilizes one of the fast and interleaved modes is referred to as a “single latency” mode. In addition, the ADSL system to which the method of establishing the communication link according to the present invention is applied may transmit the initialization messages in a transmitting procedure referred to as a “double latency” mode using both the fast and interleaved modes. In addition, the ADSL system can optionally transmit the initialization messages through two or more bearer channels. If the received initialization message (C_RATESRA in FIG. 4) is transmitted in the fast mode, information about all BI channels of the received initialization message (C_RATESRA in FIG. 4) must have a value of zero. In addition, information of the 7-th FS field of the RRSI fields must always have a value of zero. In BF channels of the received initialization messages, since only the ASO bearer channel of the downstream channels is used and since only the LSO bearer channel of the upstream channels is used, other bearer channels must always have a value of zero. If the bit masking step S110 is performed on the initialization messages transmitted by the backup tones as shown in FIG. 4, four errors are removed, and only three errors remain. The result is shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 6 is a table illustrating transmitted/received messages generated when the bit masking step S110 according to the present invention is performed on the transmitted/received messages shown in FIG. 4. In another embodiment, the bit masking step S110 may also optionally be performed on the initialization messages transmitted by the message tones as shown in FIG. 3 to remove errors thereof. Accordingly, byte information reserved at the ITU-T is changed by the bit masking step S110 to have a value of zero, so that it is possible to reduce the probability of error occurrence in the subsequent cyclic redundancy check (CRC) operation. In an error detection step S115, a predetermined logic operation is performed on the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones subjected to the bit masking step S110 in order to detect errors having different byte values in the initialization messages. The logic operation includes an exclusive OR operation. In a count value setting step S120, the number of the errors detected by the logic operation is counted and a count value is set. For example, as shown in FIG. 6, if the number of errors is 3, the count value is set to 7. The count value of 7 represents three cases of one error being changed, three cases of two errors being changed, and one case of three errors being changed. In a reference count value setting step S125, a reference count value to be compared with the set count value is set to 0. In an error correction step S130, errors in one of the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones on which the bit masking step S110 is performed are corrected. As shown in FIG. 6, in a case where there are three errors, in the error correction step S130, at least one error can be changed. Preferably, after the bit masking step S110 is performed on the initialization messages, the error correction step is performed on the initialization messages having a few errors. By performing the error correction step S130, it is possible to further reduce the probability of error occurrence in the subsequent cyclic redundancy check (CRC) operation. In a cyclic redundancy check step S135, the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) operation is performed on the corrected initialization messages. In a first determination step S140, it is determined whether or not the number of CRC errors is zero. If the number of the CRC errors is zero, the operation proceeds to a link set-up step S145, where it is asserted that a link is established in the ADSL system, and a decoding operation is performed on the initialization messages. If the number of the CRC errors is not zero, the procedure proceeds to a second determination step S150. In the second determination step S150, it is determined whether or not the reference count value is smaller than the set count value. If the reference count value is determined to be not smaller than the set count value, the procedure proceeds to a link fail assertion step S155, where it is asserted that a link failure has occurred in the ADSL system, and that the link establishment procedure should be re-attempted. Returning to step S150, in the ADSL system in accordance with an actual test specification, when the reference count value is smaller than the set count value, the link establishment process is performed. Therefore, the operation does not proceed to the link fail assertion step S155 but instead proceeds to a third determination step S160. In the third determination step S160, it is determined whether or not the time that has elapsed associated with the set count value is longer than a link initialization time. If the elapsed time associated with the set count value is longer than the link initialization time, the operation proceeds to the link fail determination step S155 and the link establishment process is once again initiated. If the set count value is not longer than the link initialization time, the operation proceeds to a reference count value increasing step S165. In the reference count value increasing step S165, the reference count value is increased by one, and the operation returns to the error correction step S130. In another embodiment of the present invention, though not shown in FIG. 5, the error detection step S115, the count value setting step S120, and the reference count value setting step S125 may be omitted in the method of establishing a communication link in the ADSL. In this embodiment, the error correction step S130 is performed immediately following the bit masking step S110. FIG. 7 is a table that illustrates a test result obtained in a case where a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system according to the present invention is applied to test loops according to the ETSI 388 annex B test specification. In the case where test loops according to ETSI 388 annex B test specification are tested using a conventional embodiment, without using the method of establishing a communication link according to the present invention, about 6 errors in the initialization messages occur due to crosstalk. The link failure occurs primarily due to errors induced by noise such as ETSI FA/FB crosstalk. In addition, the link failure occurs at the test loops operating at a low data rate of 512˜1024 kbps. The test loops where the link failure occurs are listed at the shaded cells. Referring to values listed in the shaded cells, in a case where the method of establishing a communication link according to the present invention is performed on the test loops where the link failure occurs and the test is performed again, it can be understood that the data rate of the test loops is faster than the data rate in the test specification. Accordingly, it is possible to stably perform the link establishment, or set-up, process by applying the method of establishing a communication link according to the present invention to the test loops in which the link failure occurs. For example, it is possible to readily perform the link establishment operation even in a case where the ETSI FA crosstalk is applied to the test loop 1 having a length of 2700 m. While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system, and more particularly, to a method of establishing a communication link in the ADSL system. 2. Description of the Related Art An asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) system generally comprises a central office (CO) such as a telephone office and customer premises equipment (CPE). The CO and the CPE may include their own corresponding ADSL modems. In order to establish a communication link in the ADSL system, the following initialization process is performed during a boot operation of the ADSL modem. Phase locking is initially obtained by a phase locked loop (PLL) in response to an initial pilot tone output from the CO. An equalizer and echo canceller are subjected to learning or training in response to a reception reverb signal, which is a cyclic signal output from the CO. Next, a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the ADSL system is calculated in response to a medley signal output from the CO. An appropriate downstream data rate is determined based on the calculated SNR. The determined downstream data rate is transmitted from the CPE to the CO. An upstream data rate is similarly determined using the same method as the method for determining the downstream data rate. The upstream data rate is transmitted from the CO to the CPE. A process for exchanging initialization messages including the data rates is performed in a 4 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) system using 4 message transfer tones (hereinafter, referred to as a “message tone”) and 4 associated backup tones. The backup tones have the same initialization messages as the message tones. Each of the initialization messages comprises 2-byte cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) messages. On the other hand, the message tones and the backup tones may be affected by noise such as a high bit-rate DSL (HDSL) crosstalk and European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI) FA/FB/FC/FD crosstalk. The ETSI 388 test specification is a European standard specification. In the test specification, 8 types of test loops are specified. In addition, it is specified that the desired test rate is generated by applying the ETSI FA/FB/FC/FD crosstalk to the test loops while increasing the lengths of the test loops. If the ETSI FA or FB crosstalk is applied to the test loops and the lengths of the test loops increase, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL may not be successful. For example, in a case where the ADSL system modem attempts to perform the process for establishing the communication link on a test loop of 26 American wire gauge (AWG) having a length of 2950 m by using an European standard ADSL annex B mode, if the ETSI FB crosstalk is applied to the test loop, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL system may not be successful. In addition, in a case where the ADSL modem attempts to perform the process for establishing the communication link on a test loop of 26 AWG having a length of more than 2950 m by using the ADSL annex B mode, if the ETSI FA crosstalk is applied to the test loop, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL system may not be successful. FIG. 1 depicts the HDSL crosstalk that occurs in an American standard ADSL annex A mode. Referring to FIG. 1 , a frequency response of the HDSL crosstalk is depicted. As shown in FIG. 1 , noise power of the HDSL crosstalk is relatively large in the low frequency band. Since noise such as the HDSL crosstalk affects the message tones and the backup tones in the low frequency band, errors may occur in the initialization message transmitted or received through the message tones and the backup tones. In turn, the erroneous initialization messages may generate a link failure in the ADSL system. FIG. 2 depicts the ETSI FB crosstalk that occurs in a European standard ADSL annex B mode. Referring to FIG. 2 , a frequency response of the ETSI FB crosstalk is depicted. Locations of the message tones and the associated backup tones in the ADSL annex B mode are indicated by A and B. Similar to the HDSL crosstalk shown in FIG. 1 , noise power of the ETSI FB crosstalk is also relatively large in a low frequency band. Therefore, as described above, the erroneous initialization messages may generate link failures in the ADSL system. In other words, in the ADSL system of the ADSL annex B mode, as shown in FIG. 2 , since the initialization messages (for example, C_RATESRA, C_MSGRA, CRATES2, C_MSG2, and C_B&G) and the CRC messages associated with the initialization messages are transmitted in the 4 QAM system using the 75-th to 78-th message tones and the 91-th to 94-th backup tones in the low frequency band, a large number of errors in the initialization message occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk, so that a link failure may be generated. In addition, since an ADSL system of the T1.413 annex A mode utilizes the 37-th to 40-th backup tone in a lower frequency band, the backup tones may be further affected by a crosstalk such as the ETSI FB crosstalk. Therefore, a large number of errors in the initialization messages occur due to the crosstalk, so that it may be impossible to correct the errors. FIG. 3 is a table illustrating an example of C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the message tones in which errors occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk. FIG. 4 is a table illustrating an example of transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages in the backup tones in which errors occur due to the ETSI FB crosstalk, wherein the transmitted/received C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages correspond to the transmitted/received messages in the message tones shown in FIG. 3 . Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4 , there are listed C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages of the initialization messages generated in the case where ETSI FB crosstalk is applied to the ETSI test loop 1 having a length of 2950 m. In the tables shown in FIG. 3 and 4 , “OX” at each cell denotes hexadecimal. The C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages have 2-byte CRC messages at their own end portions. The C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages are transmitted in a fast mode of operation of the ADSL system. A frame contained in each of the messages has 1-byte information. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4 , the C_RATESRA and C_MSGRA messages transmitted/received by the message tones and the backup tones have a large number of errors due to the crosstalk. The errors take the form of different data values that are received during respective transmissions of the same data using the message tones ( FIG. 3 ) and the backup tones ( FIG. 4 ). Even though the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones are compared and checked in this manner, it is impossible to determine which of the tones comprise the initialization messages having a small number of errors. Therefore, the process for establishing the communication link in the ADSL will not be successful due to the large amount of errors. These errors, which lead to link failures, are indicated in the tables of FIGS. 3 and 4 as shaded cells. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system in a stable manner, by reducing errors in the initialization messages that occur due to noise such as crosstalk. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system using a bearer channel and latency mode when transmitting/receiving initialization messages and transmitting/receiving the initialization messages by using message tones and backup tones. The method comprises: (a) performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones; (b) correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and backup tones of which the errors are bit-masked in the step (a); (c) performing a cyclic redundancy check operation on the initialization message having the corrected errors; and (d) determining link establishment or link failure of the communication link on which the initialization messages are transmitted based on the result of the cyclic redundancy check of the step (c). The method may further comprise a step (e) of detecting bit-masked errors of the initialization messages in the message tones and the backup tones by using a predetermined logic operation, and utilizing the number of the detected errors as a repetition number of the cyclic redundancy check operation of the step (c). In the method, the logic operation of the step (e) may include an exclusive-OR operation. In addition, in the method, the errors in the step (a) may occur due to a crosstalk or noise on the communication link. In the method, in a case where the number of the errors detected in the step (e) is 3, at least one error out of the three errors may be changed by the error correction performed in the step (b). In the method, the initialization messages corrected in the step (b) may be initialization messages having a few errors. In the method, the step (a) may comprise a step of receiving the initialization message from the message tones and the backup tones. In the method, the step (e) may comprise: (e1) counting the number of the detected errors and setting the number to a count value; and (e2) setting a reference count value to zero. In the method, the step (d) may comprise: (d1) determining whether the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is zero; (d2) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be zero in the step (d1), asserting that there is a link establishment in the ADSL system; (d3) when the number of the errors obtained by the cyclic redundancy check operation is determined to be not zero in the step (d1), determining whether the reference count value is smaller than the set count value; (d4) when the reference count value is determined to be not smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), asserting that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; (d5) when the reference count value is smaller than the set count value in the step (d3), determining whether time associated with the set count value is longer than a link initialization time; (d6) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), proceeding to the step (d4) to assert that there is a link failure in the ADSL system; and (d7) when the time associated with the set count value is determined to be not longer than the link initialization time in the step (d5), increasing the reference count value by one and providing the increased count value to the step (b). According to the method of establishing a communication link in an ADSL system of the present invention, since some portion of errors of initialization messages are removed by performing a bit masking operation on errors occurring in initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones and correcting errors of one of the initialization messages of the message tones and the backup tones of which errors are bit-masked in advance of a cyclic redundancy check operation, it is possible to stably perform a link establishment, or set-up, process. | 20050111 | 20090428 | 20050818 | 72148.0 | 0 | FOUD, HICHAM B | METHOD OF ESTABLISHING COMMUNICATION LINK IN ADSL SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,278 | ACCEPTED | Method of making an endless image-forming medium | A method of making an endless image-forming medium starting from a strip of semi-crystalline support material, which strip extends between a first and second end, wherein the ends of the strip are brought together and fused to form an endless support, and the fused ends are post-crystallized, wherein prior to the application of the image-forming layer to the support at least a portion of the support is stretched, and the stretched part of the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition temperature of the support material. | 1. A method of making an endless image-forming medium which comprises: bringing the ends of a strip of semi-crystalline support material together, fusing these ends together to form an endless support, post-crystallizing the fused ends, and applying an image-forming layer to the endless support, wherein prior to the application of the image-forming layer at least a part of the endless support containing the fused ends is stretched and heated to a temperature above the glass transition temperature of the support material. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein after heating above the glass transition temperature and before the application of the image-forming layer, the support material is cooled to a temperature below the glass transition temperature of the support material. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the entire endless support is stretched. 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the endless support is stretched over a drum having a radius slightly larger than the length L of the strip divided by 2π. 5. The method according to claim 4, wherein the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition temperature by placing a drum on which the endless support is applied in an oven. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein the image-forming layer comprises a dielectric layer which is applied as a solution, whereafter the solvent is evaporated. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein the image-forming layer comprises a metal layer which is applied to the surface of the endless support. 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein a polyester is used as the support material. 9. The method according to claim 8, wherein Melinex is used as the support material. | This non-provisional application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) on patent application Ser. No. 1025243 filed in The Netherlands on Jan. 14, 2004, which is herein incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method of making an endless image-forming medium starting from a strip of semi-crystalline support material which strip extends between a first and second end, wherein the first and second ends are brought together and fused to form an endless support. The fused parts are post-crystallized and an image-forming layer is applied to the support. Such a method is known from the international patent application WO 03/028982 and can be used, for example, as described in this application for forming a photoconductor for use in a printer. In this method, a strip of semi-crystalline support material is used as starting material, i.e. a material which is partially crystalline and partially amorphous such as, for example, the semi-crystalline polyester described therein. In this method, the head edges of the ends of the strip of support material are positioned against one another. The two ends are then fused together forming a weld. In the known method, the strip is heated to a temperature above the melting temperature of the material from which the strip is formed using radiation at the required weld location. As a result the ends of the strip are fused together. However, after fusing, the support material is significantly amorphous and thus a weak weld is formed. Also, tension is built up in the endless support. To make the weld sufficiently stronger and to reduce the problem of tension, the weld is treated so that the amorphous material at least partially re-crystallizes. In this connection, it is not necessary to achieve the same degree or form of crystallization as that of the original starting material. In one embodiment, and for this purpose, the weld is heated to a temperature where it does not melt but where the molecules of the molten material still have sufficient freedom of movement to be oriented with respect to one another, whereby the support material post-crystallizes and obtains a higher degree of crystallization at the weld location. In another embodiment, directly after the fusion of the two ends, the weld is slowly cooled so that the melted amorphous material has the opportunity to crystallize. If an image-forming layer is applied to the endless support obtained in this way, an endless image-forming medium can be obtained which has no loss of image-forming functionality at the weld location. The advantage of this is that during image formation, no consideration need be paid to the location of the weld. An important disadvantage of the known process is that the efficiency is relatively low. Although it is possible to obtain image media which have the same functionality at the location of the fused parts (hereinafter referred to as “the weld” in this description) as at any other location of the belt, the majority of the image media, that is, up to some 70%, has been found to exhibit considerably deviating functionality at this location. This deviating functionality takes the form, for example, in the occurrence of a stripe in the image at the place corresponding to the weld. Although the reason for this is not completely clear, it appears to be connected with defects in the image-forming layer at the weld location. The purpose of the present invention is to provide a method having better efficiency. Thus, according to the present invention, prior to the application of the image-forming layer, at least a part of the support containing the fused parts is stretched, and the stretched part of the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition point of the support material. It has been surprisingly found that thermal treatment of the endless support, during which at least a part of the belt around said weld is under tension, enables the efficiency of the method to be significantly improved. By the application of this method it has been found possible to reduce the loss to 20% or less. It has been found that this treatment of the support should take place before the actual image-forming layer is applied to the support. To obtain the effect of the present invention, it is not important how much time elapses between the treatment of the support and the application of the image-forming layer or whether there are additional process steps therebetween. Moreover, the favorable effect of the present invention does not appear to be due to the removal of any tension built up in the weld by the recrystallization process. On the one hand, the above-mentioned international application teaches that any tension build-up can be avoided precisely by recrystallization. On the other hand, in the method according to the present invention it is important that the temperature at which the endless support should be after-treated is above the temperature at which the initial support material has its glass transition point. If there is any tension in the weld, it would be precisely expected that a temperature above the glass transition point of the recrystallized weld material, which is typically 5 to 10° C. lower than that of the starting support material, should be sufficient. Also, the glass transition point of the support material can be determined, for example, in a method as known from the handbook Thermal Analysis by Bernhard Wunderlich, 1990, page 101 et seq. In the light of the present invention, the term glass transition point does not mean one temperature but all temperatures in the range of the glass transition point (described by Wunderlich on page 101, line 18, as “range of the glass transition”). The present invention can be applied at a temperature above the start of the transition (referred to as “Tb” by Wunderlich). The range of the glass transition point can be determined at different cooling (or heating) rates. Preferably, a very low rate is used, for example 1° C./min, particularly using a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). It should also be noted that the tension applied need have only a minimum value. It has been found that the present invention can be successfully used if the endless support is stretched at a tension not equal to zero, i.e. greater than zero. It should also be noted that the present invention is not restricted to a photoconductive layer as the image-forming layer. In principle the invention can be successfully applied to obtain a support for any layer on which an image can be formed. Nor is the invention restricted to obtaining a weld using a heat source to fuse the two ends. In principle, any technique leading to a comparable result can be used in the present invention. From U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,885,512 and 6,068,722 it is known to thermally treat an endless photoconductor having a weld, the photoconductor being kept at a certain tension. The after-treatment known from this is not aimed at obtaining a higher percentage of photoconductors which initially have a good image-forming functionality at the weld location, but to withstand mechanical ageing of the photoconductor at the weld location. The processes known from this propose to subject the photoconductor to thermal after-treatment as a whole, i.e. including the image-forming layer. This after-treatment is aimed at removing internal tensions forming due to the application of different layers to one another. The present invention has realized that this known method does not provide the required improvement in production efficiency. From U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,028 there is also known a method in which a photoconductor is subjected to tension at least in respect of a part and its temperature at the same time temporarily increased. This patent states that it is advantageous to select the temperature of the after-treatment which is below the glass transition point of the support. In one embodiment of the present invention, after heating above the glass transition point and before the application of the image-forming layer the support material is cooled to a temperature below the glass transition point of the support material. As a result, the new state obtained is consolidated and the endless support can be mechanically treated without having an adverse effect on the production process. The result is greater freedom in the production process. Thus a support can be temporarily maintained before the image-forming layer is actually applied. In another embodiment, the entire support is stretched. This embodiment has the advantage that the tension required can be easily obtained, for example by stretching the support over one or more rollers. This avoids the need to grip the surface of the support in order to stretch it. This might cause soiling or damage of the surface and this can, in turn, affect the functionality of the required image-forming medium. Also, apart from reducing the incidence of damage or soiling of the support as described above, it appears possible to further improve the production efficiency using this embodiment. The reason for this is not completely clear. In another embodiment, the support is stretched over a drum having a radius slightly greater than the length L of the strip divided by 2π. In this embodiment, the support is stretched over one drum only, which has a periphery somewhat greater than the length of the endless support, typically up to 1%, and in one embodiment up to 0.15% greater. As a result, the support is as it were stretched over the drum by itself. This is a simplification of the method and consequently gives less rise to production defects. In a further embodiment, the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition point by placing it in an oven and on the drum on which the support is applied. This method on the one hand has the advantage that heating can be carried out very simply. On the other hand there is the advantage that as a result of the expansion of the drum the tension in the support can increase. This creates the possibility of keeping the initial tension at a minimum when the support is applied to the drum. The advantage of this is that the application of the support to the drum can take place with simple means and the risk of tearing when applying the support, particularly at the weld location, is very restricted. In one embodiment, the image-forming layer is applied in the form of a solution, whereafter the solvent is evaporated. It has been found that precisely in this embodiment the maximum increase in production efficiency can be obtained. The reason for this is not clear. In one embodiment the image-forming layer comprises a metal layer applied to the surface of the endless support. It is precisely with an image-forming medium of this kind that a deviant image-forming functionality was obtained at the weld location when using a method as known from the prior art. By the application of the method according to the present invention this can be significantly obviated. In one embodiment, a polyester is used as the support material. The advantage of this material is that it is very resistant to water vapour and organic solvents. It also appears to be very suitable for use in the present invention. In another embodiment, Melinex is used as support material. This is a biaxially oriented polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) film made by DuPont/Teijin. This film appears particularly suitable for use in the method according to the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will now be explained further with reference to the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a diagram of an image-forming device; FIG. 2 diagrammatically shows an arrangement for welding a strip of support material; FIG. 3 shows an arrangement for treating an endless support; and FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the construction of an image-forming medium. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The image-forming device shown in FIG. 1 is provided with an endless image-forming medium 1, in this case a chargeable belt with photoconductive properties which is advanced at a uniform speed by means of drive and guide rollers 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The image of an original placed on a window 5 is projected on to the medium 1 by means of flash lamps 6 and 7, a lens 8 and a mirror 9, after the medium 1 has been electrostatically charged by a corona device 10. Thus a latent charge image is obtained on medium 1. In another embodiment, the charge image is formed by using a scanning light source, for example as known from raster output scanners or LED-bar printers. The latter light sources are frequently used in digital printers. The latent charge image formed after the exposure is developed with a magnetic brush device 11 using toner powder to form a toner image which is then brought into contact, under pressure, with an endless intermediate medium belt 12 in a first transfer zone, said belt 12 being provided with a top layer of soft elastic and heat-resistant material, such as, for example, silicone rubber, as known from European Patent 0 349 072. The toner image is transferred by adhesion forces from medium 1 to the belt 12. In this way an image is formed on said intermediate medium. After this image transfer, any image residues remaining are removed from medium 1 by means of a cleaning device 13, whereafter the photoconductive medium 1 is ready for re-use. The intermediate medium belt 12 is trained over drive and guide rollers 14, 15, the intermediate medium belt 12 being heated to a temperature above the toner powder softening temperature, for example by means of an infrared emitter 17 disposed inside roller 14. While belt 12 with the toner image thereon is advanced, the toner image becomes sticky as a result of the heating. In a second transfer zone the sticky toner image is then transferred under pressure by means of a pressure means in the form of a belt 22 trained over rollers 23 and 24, and at the same time fixed, on a sheet of receiving material fed from reservoir 18 via rollers 19, 20. Finally, the copy obtained in this way is deposited in delivery tray 25 by belt 22 which is trained over rollers 23 and 24. FIG. 2 is a diagram showing the welding of a strip of support material, as known from WO 03/028982, particularly page 5, line 4, to page 13, line 21 of this publication, where the details of this process are described in detail. A short description of the known process will be given below. The Figure shows a strip of Melinex foil 100 disposed in an arrangement for welding together two ends of this strip. Two opposite ends of the strip are applied with their head edges against one another at location 45. These ends, and the area therearound, are enclosed between two glass plates 46 and 47. These plates are pressed against the foil by pressure-application means 48 and 49 so that the mutual distance between the plates is, at all times, equal to the thickness of the foil itself. In this embodiment, the ends of the strip 100 are welded together by means of a laser light which is fed to the arrangement via laser radiation guide wires 50 and 51. In order to melt the material of the foil at location 45, the laser rays are focused by optical system 40 and 41 on the transition zone between the two ends. A laser-light-absorbing coating is optionally applied to the surfaces 60 and 61 to provide an adequate heat evolution in the foil. After the ends of the strip 100 have melted, they flow into one another and a weld forms which is amorphous. This weld is treated in such a manner that the support material crystallizes at the location of the weld. For this purpose, an amorphous weld that has cooled in the meantime can be heated to a temperature at which the molecules in the foil are sufficiently mobile to re-crystallize, but not so mobile that the material again passes over to the melt. Typically, a temperature is selected which is a few degrees below the melting temperature of the material. Heating of the weld to this temperature can be effected by irradiating the weld with laser light from the laser sources 50 and 51 referred to above. In the manner described above it is thus possible to obtain an endless support suitable for forming an endless image-forming medium. In a particular embodiment of the present invention the ends of the initially amorphous weld, i.e. those parts of the weld that coincide with the edges of the newly formed belt, are not treated to become crystalline. Instead, these ends remain amorphous. It appears that in this way the local resistance against mechanical damage of the weld is increased significantly. FIG. 3 shows an endless support 100 obtained by the use of the welding process as described with reference to FIG. 2. This support is formed from a strip of Melinex having a thickness of 150 μm, a width of 35 cm and a length of 1200.0 mm. Since, in the welding process according to this embodiment, the head edges of the ends of the strip are applied against one another, the endless support 100 has the same length. The glass transition point of the Melinex used is at a temperature of 80° C. In order to treat this endless support according to the present invention, before an image-forming layer is applied thereto, it is pushed over drum 200. This drum has a wall 201 of aluminium which is 15 mm thick, which forms a circular peripheral edge. The diameter of the drum is 382.00 mm and the length is 50 cm. The diameter is so selected that the support 100 fits on the drum 200 with a small stretch tension. In order to simplify the mounting of the belt over the drum, one end of the drum is tapered somewhat. In this way the belt can easily be pushed over that end of the drum in the direction F as indicated in the drawing. In order to simplify the further pushing of the support over the drum, air is blown through the holes 202 using a pump (not shown). By means of this air the support is stretched some tens of millimeters so that it has an inside diameter which is slightly greater than 382.0 mm. In this way the support can readily be pushed over the drum. When the support has been completely pushed over the drum the pump is switched off so that the support shrinks again and encloses the drum. The support is then cleaned, for example with a solvent. After cleaning, the drum is placed in an oven maintained at a temperature of 85° C. This oven contains a fan to circulate the air. As a result of the heating of the arrangement, the drum wall 201 expands more than the support 100 and in this way the stretch tension in the support will increase further. After the drum together with the support has been brought to this temperature, this situation is maintained for 15 minutes. The drum is then removed from the oven in order to cool in an unforced manner to room temperature. The entire process takes place under low-dust conditions to avoid soiling of the support as far as possible. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the construction of the image-forming medium 1. The drawing shows part of a cross-section of a medium of this kind. An image-forming layer 300 built up from sub-layers 301 to 305 is applied to the support 100. Sub-layer 301 is a titanium layer 50 nm thick which can be applied to the support by means of a sputtering process. An adhesive layer 302, which is 100 nm thick is applied to this metal layer by means of a spray coat process. In the example illustrated, this adhesive layer comprises Dynapol, which is a commercially available polyester. This layer is cleaned by blowing away any impurities with air. A generation layer 303 is applied to the adhesive layer and contains a pigment which can absorb light while releasing free charge carriers. Pigments of this kind are sufficiently known from the prior art, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,587,189. In this example, the generation layer has a thickness of 500 nm. After the application of the generation layer, the transport layer 304 is applied. A layer of this kind and its application are sufficiently known from the prior art, for example as described in Example III of the above-mentioned U.S. Pat. No. 4,587,189. Further details of that process are also described in that patent specification. Finally, a protective layer 305 is applied, in this example an amorphous carbon layer, with a thickness of 150 nm. This layer reduces the mechanical wear of the image-forming medium when used in the process as shown in FIG. 1. The invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a method of making an endless image-forming medium starting from a strip of semi-crystalline support material which strip extends between a first and second end, wherein the first and second ends are brought together and fused to form an endless support. The fused parts are post-crystallized and an image-forming layer is applied to the support. Such a method is known from the international patent application WO 03/028982 and can be used, for example, as described in this application for forming a photoconductor for use in a printer. In this method, a strip of semi-crystalline support material is used as starting material, i.e. a material which is partially crystalline and partially amorphous such as, for example, the semi-crystalline polyester described therein. In this method, the head edges of the ends of the strip of support material are positioned against one another. The two ends are then fused together forming a weld. In the known method, the strip is heated to a temperature above the melting temperature of the material from which the strip is formed using radiation at the required weld location. As a result the ends of the strip are fused together. However, after fusing, the support material is significantly amorphous and thus a weak weld is formed. Also, tension is built up in the endless support. To make the weld sufficiently stronger and to reduce the problem of tension, the weld is treated so that the amorphous material at least partially re-crystallizes. In this connection, it is not necessary to achieve the same degree or form of crystallization as that of the original starting material. In one embodiment, and for this purpose, the weld is heated to a temperature where it does not melt but where the molecules of the molten material still have sufficient freedom of movement to be oriented with respect to one another, whereby the support material post-crystallizes and obtains a higher degree of crystallization at the weld location. In another embodiment, directly after the fusion of the two ends, the weld is slowly cooled so that the melted amorphous material has the opportunity to crystallize. If an image-forming layer is applied to the endless support obtained in this way, an endless image-forming medium can be obtained which has no loss of image-forming functionality at the weld location. The advantage of this is that during image formation, no consideration need be paid to the location of the weld. An important disadvantage of the known process is that the efficiency is relatively low. Although it is possible to obtain image media which have the same functionality at the location of the fused parts (hereinafter referred to as “the weld” in this description) as at any other location of the belt, the majority of the image media, that is, up to some 70%, has been found to exhibit considerably deviating functionality at this location. This deviating functionality takes the form, for example, in the occurrence of a stripe in the image at the place corresponding to the weld. Although the reason for this is not completely clear, it appears to be connected with defects in the image-forming layer at the weld location. The purpose of the present invention is to provide a method having better efficiency. Thus, according to the present invention, prior to the application of the image-forming layer, at least a part of the support containing the fused parts is stretched, and the stretched part of the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition point of the support material. It has been surprisingly found that thermal treatment of the endless support, during which at least a part of the belt around said weld is under tension, enables the efficiency of the method to be significantly improved. By the application of this method it has been found possible to reduce the loss to 20% or less. It has been found that this treatment of the support should take place before the actual image-forming layer is applied to the support. To obtain the effect of the present invention, it is not important how much time elapses between the treatment of the support and the application of the image-forming layer or whether there are additional process steps therebetween. Moreover, the favorable effect of the present invention does not appear to be due to the removal of any tension built up in the weld by the recrystallization process. On the one hand, the above-mentioned international application teaches that any tension build-up can be avoided precisely by recrystallization. On the other hand, in the method according to the present invention it is important that the temperature at which the endless support should be after-treated is above the temperature at which the initial support material has its glass transition point. If there is any tension in the weld, it would be precisely expected that a temperature above the glass transition point of the recrystallized weld material, which is typically 5 to 10° C. lower than that of the starting support material, should be sufficient. Also, the glass transition point of the support material can be determined, for example, in a method as known from the handbook Thermal Analysis by Bernhard Wunderlich, 1990, page 101 et seq. In the light of the present invention, the term glass transition point does not mean one temperature but all temperatures in the range of the glass transition point (described by Wunderlich on page 101, line 18, as “range of the glass transition”). The present invention can be applied at a temperature above the start of the transition (referred to as “T b ” by Wunderlich). The range of the glass transition point can be determined at different cooling (or heating) rates. Preferably, a very low rate is used, for example 1° C./min, particularly using a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). It should also be noted that the tension applied need have only a minimum value. It has been found that the present invention can be successfully used if the endless support is stretched at a tension not equal to zero, i.e. greater than zero. It should also be noted that the present invention is not restricted to a photoconductive layer as the image-forming layer. In principle the invention can be successfully applied to obtain a support for any layer on which an image can be formed. Nor is the invention restricted to obtaining a weld using a heat source to fuse the two ends. In principle, any technique leading to a comparable result can be used in the present invention. From U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,885,512 and 6,068,722 it is known to thermally treat an endless photoconductor having a weld, the photoconductor being kept at a certain tension. The after-treatment known from this is not aimed at obtaining a higher percentage of photoconductors which initially have a good image-forming functionality at the weld location, but to withstand mechanical ageing of the photoconductor at the weld location. The processes known from this propose to subject the photoconductor to thermal after-treatment as a whole, i.e. including the image-forming layer. This after-treatment is aimed at removing internal tensions forming due to the application of different layers to one another. The present invention has realized that this known method does not provide the required improvement in production efficiency. From U.S. Pat. No. 6,232,028 there is also known a method in which a photoconductor is subjected to tension at least in respect of a part and its temperature at the same time temporarily increased. This patent states that it is advantageous to select the temperature of the after-treatment which is below the glass transition point of the support. In one embodiment of the present invention, after heating above the glass transition point and before the application of the image-forming layer the support material is cooled to a temperature below the glass transition point of the support material. As a result, the new state obtained is consolidated and the endless support can be mechanically treated without having an adverse effect on the production process. The result is greater freedom in the production process. Thus a support can be temporarily maintained before the image-forming layer is actually applied. In another embodiment, the entire support is stretched. This embodiment has the advantage that the tension required can be easily obtained, for example by stretching the support over one or more rollers. This avoids the need to grip the surface of the support in order to stretch it. This might cause soiling or damage of the surface and this can, in turn, affect the functionality of the required image-forming medium. Also, apart from reducing the incidence of damage or soiling of the support as described above, it appears possible to further improve the production efficiency using this embodiment. The reason for this is not completely clear. In another embodiment, the support is stretched over a drum having a radius slightly greater than the length L of the strip divided by 2π. In this embodiment, the support is stretched over one drum only, which has a periphery somewhat greater than the length of the endless support, typically up to 1%, and in one embodiment up to 0.15% greater. As a result, the support is as it were stretched over the drum by itself. This is a simplification of the method and consequently gives less rise to production defects. In a further embodiment, the support is heated to a temperature above the glass transition point by placing it in an oven and on the drum on which the support is applied. This method on the one hand has the advantage that heating can be carried out very simply. On the other hand there is the advantage that as a result of the expansion of the drum the tension in the support can increase. This creates the possibility of keeping the initial tension at a minimum when the support is applied to the drum. The advantage of this is that the application of the support to the drum can take place with simple means and the risk of tearing when applying the support, particularly at the weld location, is very restricted. In one embodiment, the image-forming layer is applied in the form of a solution, whereafter the solvent is evaporated. It has been found that precisely in this embodiment the maximum increase in production efficiency can be obtained. The reason for this is not clear. In one embodiment the image-forming layer comprises a metal layer applied to the surface of the endless support. It is precisely with an image-forming medium of this kind that a deviant image-forming functionality was obtained at the weld location when using a method as known from the prior art. By the application of the method according to the present invention this can be significantly obviated. In one embodiment, a polyester is used as the support material. The advantage of this material is that it is very resistant to water vapour and organic solvents. It also appears to be very suitable for use in the present invention. In another embodiment, Melinex is used as support material. This is a biaxially oriented polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) film made by DuPont/Teijin. This film appears particularly suitable for use in the method according to the present invention. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention will now be explained further with reference to the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a diagram of an image-forming device; FIG. 2 diagrammatically shows an arrangement for welding a strip of support material; FIG. 3 shows an arrangement for treating an endless support; and FIG. 4 is a diagram showing the construction of an image-forming medium. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050112 | 20071016 | 20050714 | 57625.0 | 0 | GOFF II, JOHN L | METHOD OF MAKING AN ENDLESS IMAGE-FORMING MEDIUM | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,283 | ACCEPTED | Knife and cutting wheel for a food product slicing apparatus | A knife for a cutting wheel provided to slice food products including a knife holder having a recessed portion located along a leading side thereof, a clamp secured to the knife holder, and a cutting blade mounted between the clamp and knife holder along the leading side of the knife holder. A replaceable insert member with a wear surface is positioned within the recess of the knife holder, and this insert member is contiguous with the cutting blade and protrudes from the knife holder to provide a substitute leading edge therefore in close apposition to the cutting blade. | 1. A knife comprising: a knife holder having a body with parallel first and second leading edges extending along a leading side thereof and a trailing edge located opposite the first and second leading edges, the body defining a first surface between the first leading edge and the trailing edge, and a second surface opposite the first surface and extending between the second leading edge and the trailing edge, the body further defining a recess along the leading side delimited by the first and second leading edges and extending a distance into the body; a cutting blade having a cutting edge and secured to the knife holder so that the cutting edge of the cutting blade extends beyond the leading side of the knife holder; and an insert member mounted in the recess of the knife holder, the insert member having a leading edge protruding from the leading side of the knife holder and generally contiguous therewith. 2. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the cutting blade is secured to the knife holder with a plurality of fasteners. 3. The knife according to claim 1, further comprising a clamp attached to the first surface of the knife holder along the first and second leading edges thereof, said cutting blade being secured between the clamp and the first surface of the knife holder. 4. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the recess defines a tapered clearance, said clearance progressively increasing in thickness into the knife holder and clamping onto the insert member at least near the first and second leading edges of the knife holder. 5. The knife according to claim 4, wherein the recess defines an indent section along at least one wall near or at an end portion thereof. 6. The knife according to claim 1, wherein said recess is defined along a segment of the leading side of the knife holder and said insert member is configured and sized for accommodation within said recess. 7. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the insert member defines beveled wear surfaces joining to form the leading edge thereof. 8. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the insert member defines a beveled wear surface along at least along a central portion of the leading edge thereof. 9. The knife according to claim 8, wherein the insert member defines end portions having a generally rectangular cross-sectional profile. 10. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the body of the knife holder comprises a truncated triangular plate member having a shorter end and an opposed longer end. 11. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the knife holder has a concaved bevel surface extending from the first leading edge to a portion of the first surface. 12. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the cutting blade has a sinusoidal configuration, the knife holder, the clamping element and the insert member configured to accommodate the sinusoidal configuration of the cutting blade. 13. The knife according to claim 1, wherein the insert member includes at least one locating indicia located at one end thereof. 14. A rotatable cutting wheel for cutting slices from food products advanced towards the wheel in a feed direction, the cutting wheel having a hub, a rim and including a plurality of knives, each knife assembly comprising: a knife holder having a body defining parallel first and second leading edges extending along a leading side thereof facing a direction of rotation of the wheel and extending generally radially from the hub to the rim, a trailing edge located opposite the leading side, a first surface between said first leading edge and the trailing edge, and a second surface opposite the first surface and extending between the second leading edge and the trailing edge, said body defining a recess along the leading side and extending a distance into the body; a cutting blade having a cutting edge and secured to the knife holder so that the cutting edge of the cutting blade extends beyond the leading side of the knife holder; and an insert member mounted in the recess of the knife holder, the insert member having a leading edge protruding from the leading side of the knife holder and being generally contiguous therewith. 15. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, further comprising a plurality of adjustment fasteners engaging the rim and the hub of the cutting wheel, each adjustment fastener extending from the rim and hub and abutting respective portions of the knife assembly to urge deflection of the knife holder as each of said adjustment fasteners is rotated in a direction directed towards the rim and hub. 16. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the cutting blade is secured to the knife holder with a plurality of fasteners. 17. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein each knife assembly further comprises a clamp attached to the first surface of the knife holder along the first and second leading edges thereof, said cutting blade being secured between the clamp and the first surface of the knife holder. 18. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the recess of each knife holder defines a tapered clearance, said clearance progressively increasing in thickness into the knife holder and clamping onto the insert member at least near the first and second leading edges of the knife holder. 19. The cutting wheel according to claim 18, wherein the recess defines an indent section along at least one wall near or at an end portion thereof. 20. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein said recess is defined along a segment of the leading side of the knife holder and said insert member is configured and sized for accommodation within said recess. 21. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the insert member defines beveled wear surfaces joining to form the leading edge thereof. 22. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the insert member defines a beveled wear surface along at least along a central portion of the leading edge thereof. 23. The cutting wheel according to claim 22, wherein the insert member defines end portions having a generally rectangular cross-sectional profile. 24. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the body of the knife holder comprises a truncated triangular plate member having a shorter end and an opposed longer end. 25. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the knife holder has a concaved bevel surface extending from the first leading edge to a portion of the first surface. 26. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the cutting blade has a sinusoidal configuration, the knife holder, the clamping element and the insert member configured to accommodate the sinusoidal configuration of the cutting blade. 27. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the insert member includes at least one locating indicia located at one end thereof. 28. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, wherein the hub and rim each define a plurality of equally spaced depressions extending radially across at least a portion of the hub and the rim. 29. The cutting wheel according to claim 28, wherein said plurality of depressions include a set for each knife, each set comprising at least one depression on the hub and at least one depression on the rim each depression of the hub generally radially aligned with a depression of the same set on the rim. 30. The cutting wheel according to claim 29, wherein each set of depressions corresponds to a knife assembly mounted on the hub and rim. 31. The cutting wheel according to claim 14, further comprising: a plurality of adjustment fasteners engaging the rim and the hub of the cutting wheel, each adjustment fastener extending from the rim and hub and abutting respective portions of the knife assembly to urge deflection of the knife holder as each of said adjustment fasteners is rotated in a direction directed towards the rim and hub; and a plurality of equally spaced, radially extending depressions located about the circumferences of the rim and the hub. 32. The cutting wheel according to claim 31, wherein each of the depressions intersects with at least one of the adjustment fasteners. 33. A knife holder for a cutting blade for use on a rotary cutting wheel, said knife holder comprising: a body having opposed parallel first and second leading edges extending along a leading side of the body and a trailing edge located opposite the first and second leading edges, the knife holder defining a first surface between the first leading edge and the trailing edge, and a second surface opposite the first surface and extending between the second leading edge and the trailing edge, said body further defining a recess along the leading side delimited by the first and second leading edges and extending a distance into the body. 34. The knife holder according to claim 33, further comprising an insert member mounted in the recess of the knife holder, the insert member having a leading edge protruding from the leading side of the knife holder and generally contiguous therewith. 35. The knife holder according to claim 33, wherein the body of the knife holder comprises a truncated triangular plate having a shorter end and an opposed longer end. 36. The knife holder according to claim 33, including a clamp attached to the first surface of the body along the leading side on the first surface. 37. The knife holder according to claim 36, including a cutting blade having a cutting edge retained between the first surface of the body and the clamp so that the cutting edge of the cutting blade is disposed on the first surface of the body and extending from the leading edge of the body. 38. The knife according to claim 33, wherein the recess defines a tapered clearance, said clearance progressively increasing in thickness into the body and clamping onto the insert member at least near the first and second leading edges of the body. 39. The knife according to claim 38, wherein the recess defines an indent section along at least one wall near or at an end portion thereof. 40. The knife according to claim 33, wherein said recess is defined along the entire length of the leading side of the body and said insert member is configured and sized for accommodation within said recess. | This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/535,819 filed Jan. 13, 2004. BACKGROUND The present invention relates to a knife for a cutting wheel for a food product slicing apparatus, and more specifically, to an improved knife having a replaceable insert member provided along a leading side of the knife and adjacent to a cutting blade of such knife. Many types of food slicing apparatuses are known in which food products are transported into a rotating wheel having a plurality knives each with a cutting blade to cut the food products into slices. In the food processing industry, it is important that the food product be cut into slices having a uniform thickness without damaging the food product. Such thickness uniformity facilitates the further processing of the food product providing a maximum amount of usable food product with minimum amount of waste. An embodiment of a known rotatable cutting wheel described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,992,284 and 6,148,709, of which are incorporated herein by reference, is illustrated in FIG. 1. This known cutting wheel comprises a hub 10, about which is concentrically arranged a rim 12 being interconnected by a plurality of knives 14. Each of the knives 14 has a knife holder 18 securing a cutting blade 16 with a cutting edge 20 facing in the direction of rotation of the wheel indicated by arrow 28. The cutting edge 20 of each knife 14 is located adjacent to a second edge 22 of an adjacent knife 14. The second edge 22 extends substantially parallel to the cutting edge 20 of the adjacent knife 14 such that a radial space or gate opening 26 is formed extending between the hub 10 and the rim 12 which has a constant circumferential dimension throughout its radial length. As shown in FIG. 1, each knife 14 defines a back surface having a gauging portion 24. In operation, food products are fed into the plane of the cutting wheel so as to maintain contact with the gauging portion of the knives as they pass through the food product. The dimension of the gate opening will accurately control the thickness of the sliced food product. An embodiment of the knives of the cutting wheel of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,992,284 and 6,148,709 is shown in FIGS. 2 and 3. As can be seen, the knife 14 comprises the knife holder 18 on which the cutting blade 16 is mounted. The cutting blade may be permanently attached to the knife holder, or may be removably held by a clamping device. In this embodiment, the cutting blade 16 is held against a bevel surface 34 of the knife holder 18 by clamp 32 which is attached to the knife holder 18 by a plurality of fasteners 36. The clamp 32 engages the fasteners 36 by way of keyhole-shaped slots 38 which enable removal of the clamp 32 such that the heads of the fasteners 36 are aligned with the larger opening portion of the keyhole shaped slots 38. Locating studs 40 extend from the knife holder 18 and engage openings 30a and 30b in the cutting blade 16 to locate the cutting blade 16 on the knife holder 18. The known knife holder 18 has a rear edge 22 formed thereon which extends obliquely with respect to the cutting edge 20 of the cutting blade 16. The knife holder 18 has a hub mounting hole 46 and rim mounting holes 48a and 48b formed therein for attachment to the hub and rim, respectively of a cutting wheel. Moreover, the width of the knife holder 18 at the hub mounting end is less than the width of the knife holder 18 at the rim mounting end. Typically, the food product is transported through the cutting plane of the cutting wheel at a constant speed and the cutting wheel is rotated at a constant speed to produce slices having a generally uniform thickness. It has been found with the aforementioned knives of the known cutting wheel that the leading edge of knife holder undergoes considerable wear or is subjected to chipping or bending when harmful debris damages the knife when slicing food products. As a result, the knife holder often requires replacement which results in downtime of the cutting wheel and thus, the food processing operation is undesirably halted. Replacement of knife holders is expensive due to their specifically dimensioned configuration, and considerable time is required to disassemble the knife from the cutting wheel and the components thereof, and subsequently reassemble the new knife holder with the components onto the cutting wheel. Moreover, adjustment of the knife holders on the cutting wheel is cumbersome and requires precision that may not be feasible when assembled on a cutting wheel with multiple knives. Accordingly, there is a demand and a need for an improved knife holder wherein repair of such knife holders is greatly simplified and adjustment thereof is substantially facilitated. SUMMARY In accordance with one aspect of the invention, there is provided an improved knife for a cutting wheel having a replaceable insert member for substitution as a leading edge of a knife holder adapted for mounting on a cutting wheel and securing a cutting blade. More specifically, in an embodiment of the invention, the knife holder of the improved knife defines mutually parallel first and second leading edges extending along a leading side thereof and a trailing edge located opposite the leading edges, a first surface between the first leading edge and the trailing edge, a second surface opposite the front surface and extending between the second leading edge and trailing edge, and a recess located along the leading surface and extending into at least a portion of the knife holder. A clamp is provided and attached to the front surface of the knife holder and is generally positioned along the leading surface of the knife holder. The cutting blade has a sharpened leading edge retained between the knife holder and the clamp so that the leading edge of the cutting blade is disposed on the front surface in front of the leading edges of the knife holder. The insert member is mounted in the recess of the knife holder and has a leading edge protruding from the upper and second leading edges of the knife holder and is generally contiguous therewith. By virtue of this design, the knife addresses the problem of replacement or adjustment of the knife holder due to wear by providing the replaceable insert member. Replacement of the insert member is easily conducted when mandated by wear occurring on an installed insert member, or should a differently shaped wear surface be required to accommodate a different shaped cutting blade. The insert member, while detachable and replaceable, is incorporated in the support structure for the knife in such a manner that the insert member is positively mechanically held from displacement during use of the knife. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, the knife may be adjusted relative to the cutting wheel by a plurality of tensioning fasteners. Such tensioning fasteners are configured for smooth rotation for adjustment of the knife holder. The tensioning fasteners are constructed to include fine threads at fine angles to achieve the preferable smooth operation discussed above. Such fasteners engage the rim and the hub of a cutting wheel and abut portions of the knife holder, wherein rotation of the tensioning fasteners towards the hub and rim of the cutting wheel will urge deflection of the knife holder and provide adjustment of the knife relative to the cutting wheel. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a better understanding of the present invention and to show how the same can be carried out in practice, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a front view of a known type of cutting wheel; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a known knife for a cutting wheel; FIG. 3 is an exploded view of the knife illustrated in FIG. 3; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a first embodiment of a knife according to the present invention; FIG. 5 is an exploded view of the knife illustrated in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a knife holder and insert member according to the invention; FIG. 7 is sectional side view of the knife illustrated in FIG. 4; FIG. 8 is a sectional side view of an embodiment of the recess of the knife holder of the invention; FIG. 9 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a knife according to the present invention; FIG. 10 is an exploded view of the knife illustrated in FIG. 9; FIG. 11 is plan view of a back side of the knife illustrated in FIG. 9; FIG. 12 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the tensioning fasteners on a cutting wheel with a knife holder of the invention; and FIG. 13 is a plan view of the tensioning fasteners in FIG. 12 on a cutting wheel with a knife of the invention. FIG. 14 is a detailed plan view showing an embodiment of a cutting wheel of the invention having notched portions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS In accordance with the invention, an embodiment of the inventive knife 50 having an insert member 58 is illustrated in FIGS. 4 and 5. The knife 50 comprises a knife holder 54 having a similar construction to the knife holder 18 of FIGS. 2 and 3 with the added features of a recess 60 extending along at least a portion of the leading side thereof. As a result of the recess 60, the knife holder 54 defines an first leading edge 61 and a mutually parallel second leading edge 63. Mounted in the recess 60 is an insert member 58 having a leading edge 59 protruding from leading edges 61, 63 of the knife holder 54 and generally contiguous therewith. The knife includes a cutting blade 52 that is held against a bevel surface 64 of the knife holder 54 by clamp 56. The clamp 56 may be attached to the knife holder by a plurality of suitable fasteners that engage keyhole-shaped slots 72 of the clamp 56. Suitable locating studs may be provided to extend from the knife holder 54 and engage openings 76 in the cutting blade 52 to position the cutting blade 52 on the knife holder 54. It will be understood, however, that in lieu of the clamp 56, the cutting blade may be secured to the knife holder solely by fasteners or other known clamping elements available to those skilled in the art. The knife holder 54 has a rear edge 66 formed thereon which extends obliquely with respect to the cutting edge 62 of the cutting blade 52. The knife holder 54 has a hub mounting hole 68 and rim mounting holes 70a and 70b formed therein for attachment to a hub and rim, respectively, of a cutting wheel. Moreover, the width of the knife holder 54 at the hub mounting end is less than the width of the knife holder 54 at the rim mounting end. The recess 60 generally has a length equal substantially to the length of the opposed leading edges 61, 63 of the knife holder 54. The insert member 58 preferably defines opposed first and second beveled wear surfaces 82, 84 joining to form the leading edge 59 thereof. The beveled wear surfaces 82, 84 may conform to the contours of the front and rear surfaces of the knife holder 54 and thus, extend at oblique angles relative to one another. Alternatively, the beveled wear surfaces may be configured so as to serve as a mere extension of the front and rear surfaces of the knife holder. Moreover, the beveled wear surfaces may be shaped so that at least one of the beveled wear surface has a curved profile. In another embodiment illustrated in FIG. 6, the insert member 65 has opposed end portions with squared edges 67 bordering a central portion 69 thereof defined as a leading bevel. The central portion 69 preferably corresponds to a first bevel 73 of knife holder 71 such that the central portion 69 extends at the same angle as bevel 73 relative to a first surface 75 of the knife holder 128. While in a preferred embodiment the end portions generally have a rectangular cross-sectional profile, the end portions may have a variety of cross-sectional profiles known to one skilled in the art and the invention is thus not limited to rectangular profiles. The wear surfaces of the insert member provide a replaceable artificial leading edge to the knife holder of the invention. When the cutting edge of the cutting blade requires replacement due to chipping, cracking, or other wear factors, the leading edge of the insert member will likely exhibit the same wear and similarly will require replacement. As opposed to replacing the entire knife holder and adjustment of a new knife holder on a cutting wheel, the invention permits replacement of only the cutting blade or the insert member, and therefore removes the necessity of replacing or readjusting the entire knife assembly. The insert member 58 may include an identification feature 86 that permits orientation of the insert member relative to the knife holder 54. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, the orientation feature 86 comprises a locating hole disposed on the end of the insert member 58 located near the rim mounting holes 70a and 70b of the knife holder 54. It will be understood that the orientation feature 86 is not limited to a hole and may be defined by any identification means, such as a notch or an engraving, suitable for demarcating a portion of the insert member. Preferably, the insert member has a hardness that will resist cracking, chipping and instead yield and bend upon striking debris. Accordingly, it is desirable that the insert member is constructed from a material that is not too brittle and is sufficiently tough. Moreover, it is desirable that the insert member is corrosion resistant due to its primary application in food processing. While other suitable materials may be used, a preferred construction material is stainless steel, more specifically 410 stainless steel. FIG. 7 is an enlarged, sectional side view of the leading portion of the knife 50 including a slightly exaggerated depiction of the recess 60. The recess 60 includes a rear wall portion 86, and upper and lower wall portions 88, 90. In a preferred embodiment, the upper and lower wall portions define a tapered clearance progressively increasing in thickness from the leading edges 61, 63 to the rear wall portion 86. The thickness of the taper of the clearance in the preferred embodiment begins at approximately 0.0395 inches at the leading edges 61, 63 and increases to 0.0475 inches at the rear wall portion 86. Preferably, the depth of the recess is 0.3125 inches and the insert member is sized to protrude approximately 0.125 inches from the leading edges 61, 63 of the knife holder 54. In one embodiment, the corners of the recess defined at the junction of the upper and lower walls and the rear wall of the recess may be wire cut so as to have a rounded profile. The rear portion 92 of the insert member 58 preferably abuts the rear wall portion 86 of the recess 60. It will be understood, however, that portions of the upper and lower wall portions 88, 90 near the rear wall portion 86 of the recess 60 only minimally or do not clamp the insert member 58. Accordingly, the insert member 58 is more firmly clamped by the walls 88, 90 of the recess 60 near the leading edges 61, 63 of the knife holder 54. Moreover, the rear edges of the insert member 58 do not abut the walls of the recess so as not to chip or bend when inserted into the recess 60. In another embodiment of the recess 60, FIG. 8 shows the lower wall portion 90 of the recess 60 having an indent section 94 located near the rear wall portion 86. In this embodiment, the indent section 94 is preferably within a range of 0.0008 to 0.0014 inches in depth relative to the portion of the lower wall portion 90 without the indent section 94. An opposed indent section may also be provided on the upper wall portion 88, either alone or in combination with the indent section 94 of the lower wall portion 90. In each embodiment, the insert member is precisely positioned within the recess and is snugly received by the recess so as to be held from any shifting along its axis or laterally relative to the rear wall portion. Suitable fasteners may be employed to additionally secure the insert member within the recess and tensioning fasteners, which will be discussed below, may exert pressure against the recess and the insert member to maintain the insert member within the recess. Moreover, pressure exerted by the clamp and the protruding portion of the insert member against the cutting blade forms a mechanical seal, thereby preventing any build-up of debris from food processing operations in the recess. The components of the knife of the invention may be configured to accommodate a variety of cutting blades known to those skilled in the art such as a cutting blade having a convexly or concavely curved cutting edge, a cutting edge formed in a series of curves to impart a sinusoidal or “wavy” configuration, or a cutting edge comprised of a series of “V's” along its length. In an embodiment shown in FIGS. 9-11, the knife 96 includes knife holder 98 configured to support cutting blade 100 having a cutting edge with a profile 102 comprising a plurality of “V's” along its length. The knife holder 98 is provided with a recess 104 configured to receive and secure insert member 106. The insert member 106 includes a profile 108 along a segment thereof along its length complementary to the profile 102 of the cutting blade 100. Moreover, as depicted in detail in FIG. 11, the back surface 110 of the knife holder 98 has a profile 112 that accommodates the profile 102 of the cutting blade 100 and the profile 108 of the insert member 106. A clamp, as illustrated above in connection with the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, may be employed to secure the cutting blade 100 to a knife holder. The clamp, in similarity to the insert member 106 and knife holder 98, may be configured with a profile accommodating the shape of the cutting blade 100. As indicated above, the knife of the invention is adapted for use on a cutting wheel of a known food slicing apparatus. Another feature of the invention is the addition of tensioning fasteners that may be provided to adjust a knife holder on a cutting wheel relative to the rim and hub of a known cutting wheel. As exemplified in FIGS. 12-13, tensioning fasteners 114 may be provided that extend through and engage through holes 122 of a hub 116 and a rim 118 of a cutting wheel. The through holes 122 preferably correspond to a section near the leading side of a knife holder 120 when mounted to the hub 116 and rim 118 so as to more fully take advantage of adjusting the position of the leading side of knife holder 120, and subsequently a cutting edge of a cutting blade when installed thereon. The tensioning fasteners 114 are arranged to abut a rear surface of the knife holder 120, whereupon rotation of the tensioning fasteners 114 in one direction, the tensioning fasteners 114 urge deflection of the knife holder 120 relative to the hub 116 and rim 118 of the cutting wheel. Conversely, rotation of the tensioning fasteners 114 in an opposite direction relieves the deflection of the knife holder 120 relative to the hub 116 and rim 118 of the cutting wheel. The tensioning fasteners are constructed to include fine threads at fine angles to achieve the preferable, smooth rotation thereof relative to the rim and hub. Moreover, the tensioning fasteners include tapered end portions to prevent excessive wear of both the fasteners themselves and the knife holder. The tensioning fasteners permit fine adjustments of the knife holder on a cutting wheel and remove the necessity of disassembling the knife from the rim and hub to achieve a desired adjustment thereof. Moreover, the tensioning screws improve the precision of the adjustability of the knife holder relative to the rim and hub of a cutting wheel since the tensioning fasteners are positioned closely to the leading side of the cutter support segments, and substantially near the cutting edge of the cutting blades mounted on the knife holder. In another embodiment best illustrated in FIG. 14, a hub 124 and a rim 126 of a cutting wheel in an embodiment of the invention may be provided with depressions 128, 130, respectively, for each knife to be mounted thereon and located on a side of the hub and rim upon which the knife holder 134 is mounted. As shown, the depressions 128, 130 radially extend along at least a portion of each hub 124 and rim 126, and preferably have a depth of 0.015 inches. The depressions may intersect with through holes 136 used to accommodate tensioning fasteners, such as those described in connection with FIGS. 12 and 13. Moreover, opposed depressions 128, 130 corresponding to each knife holder are preferably radially aligned with one another. One of the purposes behind the depressions is that they facilitate starch cleaning of the rim, hub and each knife holder of a cutting wheel assembly. It will be understood that the above described embodiments of the invention may assume a variety of different shapes, sizes and configurations without departing from the scope of the present invention. It will be understood that the above described embodiments of the invention are illustrative in nature, and that modifications thereof may occur to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, this invention is not to be regarded as limited to the embodiments or particular uses disclosed herein, but are to be limited only as defined in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates to a knife for a cutting wheel for a food product slicing apparatus, and more specifically, to an improved knife having a replaceable insert member provided along a leading side of the knife and adjacent to a cutting blade of such knife. Many types of food slicing apparatuses are known in which food products are transported into a rotating wheel having a plurality knives each with a cutting blade to cut the food products into slices. In the food processing industry, it is important that the food product be cut into slices having a uniform thickness without damaging the food product. Such thickness uniformity facilitates the further processing of the food product providing a maximum amount of usable food product with minimum amount of waste. An embodiment of a known rotatable cutting wheel described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,992,284 and 6,148,709, of which are incorporated herein by reference, is illustrated in FIG. 1 . This known cutting wheel comprises a hub 10 , about which is concentrically arranged a rim 12 being interconnected by a plurality of knives 14 . Each of the knives 14 has a knife holder 18 securing a cutting blade 16 with a cutting edge 20 facing in the direction of rotation of the wheel indicated by arrow 28 . The cutting edge 20 of each knife 14 is located adjacent to a second edge 22 of an adjacent knife 14 . The second edge 22 extends substantially parallel to the cutting edge 20 of the adjacent knife 14 such that a radial space or gate opening 26 is formed extending between the hub 10 and the rim 12 which has a constant circumferential dimension throughout its radial length. As shown in FIG. 1 , each knife 14 defines a back surface having a gauging portion 24 . In operation, food products are fed into the plane of the cutting wheel so as to maintain contact with the gauging portion of the knives as they pass through the food product. The dimension of the gate opening will accurately control the thickness of the sliced food product. An embodiment of the knives of the cutting wheel of U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,992,284 and 6,148,709 is shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 . As can be seen, the knife 14 comprises the knife holder 18 on which the cutting blade 16 is mounted. The cutting blade may be permanently attached to the knife holder, or may be removably held by a clamping device. In this embodiment, the cutting blade 16 is held against a bevel surface 34 of the knife holder 18 by clamp 32 which is attached to the knife holder 18 by a plurality of fasteners 36 . The clamp 32 engages the fasteners 36 by way of keyhole-shaped slots 38 which enable removal of the clamp 32 such that the heads of the fasteners 36 are aligned with the larger opening portion of the keyhole shaped slots 38 . Locating studs 40 extend from the knife holder 18 and engage openings 30 a and 30 b in the cutting blade 16 to locate the cutting blade 16 on the knife holder 18 . The known knife holder 18 has a rear edge 22 formed thereon which extends obliquely with respect to the cutting edge 20 of the cutting blade 16 . The knife holder 18 has a hub mounting hole 46 and rim mounting holes 48 a and 48 b formed therein for attachment to the hub and rim, respectively of a cutting wheel. Moreover, the width of the knife holder 18 at the hub mounting end is less than the width of the knife holder 18 at the rim mounting end. Typically, the food product is transported through the cutting plane of the cutting wheel at a constant speed and the cutting wheel is rotated at a constant speed to produce slices having a generally uniform thickness. It has been found with the aforementioned knives of the known cutting wheel that the leading edge of knife holder undergoes considerable wear or is subjected to chipping or bending when harmful debris damages the knife when slicing food products. As a result, the knife holder often requires replacement which results in downtime of the cutting wheel and thus, the food processing operation is undesirably halted. Replacement of knife holders is expensive due to their specifically dimensioned configuration, and considerable time is required to disassemble the knife from the cutting wheel and the components thereof, and subsequently reassemble the new knife holder with the components onto the cutting wheel. Moreover, adjustment of the knife holders on the cutting wheel is cumbersome and requires precision that may not be feasible when assembled on a cutting wheel with multiple knives. Accordingly, there is a demand and a need for an improved knife holder wherein repair of such knife holders is greatly simplified and adjustment thereof is substantially facilitated. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with one aspect of the invention, there is provided an improved knife for a cutting wheel having a replaceable insert member for substitution as a leading edge of a knife holder adapted for mounting on a cutting wheel and securing a cutting blade. More specifically, in an embodiment of the invention, the knife holder of the improved knife defines mutually parallel first and second leading edges extending along a leading side thereof and a trailing edge located opposite the leading edges, a first surface between the first leading edge and the trailing edge, a second surface opposite the front surface and extending between the second leading edge and trailing edge, and a recess located along the leading surface and extending into at least a portion of the knife holder. A clamp is provided and attached to the front surface of the knife holder and is generally positioned along the leading surface of the knife holder. The cutting blade has a sharpened leading edge retained between the knife holder and the clamp so that the leading edge of the cutting blade is disposed on the front surface in front of the leading edges of the knife holder. The insert member is mounted in the recess of the knife holder and has a leading edge protruding from the upper and second leading edges of the knife holder and is generally contiguous therewith. By virtue of this design, the knife addresses the problem of replacement or adjustment of the knife holder due to wear by providing the replaceable insert member. Replacement of the insert member is easily conducted when mandated by wear occurring on an installed insert member, or should a differently shaped wear surface be required to accommodate a different shaped cutting blade. The insert member, while detachable and replaceable, is incorporated in the support structure for the knife in such a manner that the insert member is positively mechanically held from displacement during use of the knife. In accordance with another aspect of the invention, the knife may be adjusted relative to the cutting wheel by a plurality of tensioning fasteners. Such tensioning fasteners are configured for smooth rotation for adjustment of the knife holder. The tensioning fasteners are constructed to include fine threads at fine angles to achieve the preferable smooth operation discussed above. Such fasteners engage the rim and the hub of a cutting wheel and abut portions of the knife holder, wherein rotation of the tensioning fasteners towards the hub and rim of the cutting wheel will urge deflection of the knife holder and provide adjustment of the knife relative to the cutting wheel. | 20050112 | 20070220 | 20050714 | 75312.0 | 0 | HAMILTON, ISAAC N | KNIFE AND CUTTING WHEEL FOR A FOOD PRODUCT SLICING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,329 | ACCEPTED | Ventilated seat | A ventilated vehicle seat includes a first portion and a tongue portion. The first portion includes a porous upper surface layer, a non-porous first inner layer that is adjacent to the upper surface layer and that includes ventilation holes, a non-porous lower surface layer, and an expanded spacer layer between the non-porous layers that provides an air space. The tongue portion includes a tongue that is integrally-formed with the first portion. The tongue extends from the edge of the first portion and includes an opening in one of the non-porous layers. The opening provides access to the air space within the expanded spacer layer. | 1. A ventilated vehicle seat comprising: a first portion having at least one edge comprising: a porous upper surface layer; a non-porous first inner layer adjacent to the upper surface layer and including ventilation holes; a non-porous lower surface layer; and an expanded spacer layer between the non-porous layers providing an air space; and a tongue portion comprising a tongue integrally-formed with the first portion and extending from the edge of the first portion and including an opening in one of the non-porous layers, the opening providing access to the air space within the expanded spacer layer. 2. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 1, wherein the first portion comprises a front edge, two side edges, and a rear edge. 3. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 2, wherein the edge from which the tongue extends is the front edge of the first portion. 4. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 2, wherein the edge from which the tongue extends is one of the two side edges of the first portion. 5. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 2, wherein the edge from which the tongue extends is the rear edge of the first portion. 6. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 1, further comprising a fan coupled to the opening in the tongue and having access to the air space of the expanded spacer layer. 7. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 6, wherein the tongue supports the fan. 8. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 7, wherein the tongue at least partially encloses the fan. 9. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 8, further comprising a sound absorbing material at least partially surrounding the fan. 10. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 6, further comprising a non-air permeable seal coupling the fan to at least one of the non-porous layers. 11. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 6, wherein the tongue extends from the edge of the first portion such that the fan is spaced apart from the edge of the first portion. 12. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 11, wherein the tongue is configured to allow the fan to be placed below the vehicle seat. 13. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 6, wherein the fan is coupled to the opening in the tongue such that the operation of the fan draws air through the ventilation holes and out from the air space within the expanded spacer layer. 14. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 6, wherein the fan is coupled to the opening in the tongue such that the operation of the fan draws air into the air space within the expanded spacer layer and out of the ventilation holes. 15. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 1, wherein the first portion has a first width and the tongue has a second width, the second width being less than the first width. 16. The ventilated vehicle seat of claim 1, wherein the first inner layer is coupled to the lower surface layer to form an air impermeable bag. 17. A ventilated seat pad assembly for a vehicle seat comprising: a first portion including at least one side having a first width comprising: at least two non-porous layers; an expanded spacer layer between the two non-porous layers providing an air space; and ventilation holes in at least one of the non-porous layers; a tongue extending from the side of the first portion and having a second width less than the first width, the tongue comprising an extension of the at least two non-porous layers and an extension of the expanded spacer layer and including an opening in one of the non-porous layers, the opening providing access to the air space within the expanded spacer layer; and a fan operatively coupled to the opening in the tongue and having access to the air space of the expanded spacer layer. 18. The ventilated seat pad assembly of claim 17, wherein the tongue supports the fan. 19. The ventilated seat pad assembly of claim 18, wherein the tongue comprises a pocket to support the fan. 20. A ventilated seat pad assembly for a vehicle seat comprising: a first portion comprising: a first non-porous layer; a second non-porous layer; an expanded spacer layer between the first and second non-porous layers providing an air space; and ventilation holes in one of the first and second non-porous layers; a tongue extending from the first portion, the tongue comprising an extension of the first and second non-porous layers and including an opening in one of the non-porous layers, the opening providing access to the air space within the expanded spacer layer; and a fan coupled to the opening in the tongue and having access to the air space of the expanded spacer layer. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/445,506, filed by Ekern et al. on May 27, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. ______, entitled “Ventilated Seat, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/755,506, filed by Ekern et al. on Jan. 5, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,629,724, entitled “Ventilated Seat,” both of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention generally relates to a ventilated seat for a vehicle. More specifically, this invention relates to a portable ventilated seat for a vehicle including a top pad assembly that forms at least a seat cushion, and preferably a seat cushion and seat back, suitable for use with any vehicle seat. Air passes through the seating surface of the pad assembly by suction or forced air flow. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION When driving a car in hot weather, occupants may experience excessive sweating from contact with the vehicle seat, because the seat prevents or blocks the body's ability to radiate excess heat. To reduce sweating, the occupant may roll down the window of the vehicle, or if provided, turn on the air conditioning to allow cool air to pass through the vehicle interior. A disadvantage of both solutions is that areas of the occupant's body are in contact with the vehicle seat preventing any cooling airflow from reaching those areas. In cold weather, the reverse phenomena may occur, i.e., cold seats may be difficult to warm quickly due to occupant contact with the seat. Seat covers or pads designed for placement on top of vehicle seats are known. In some cases, these seat covers or pads are made of fashion based materials that allow some air to flow therethrough, thus allowing the occupant to more readily emit heat radiated from the body during hot days or long drives and vice versa in cold weather. These devices have been made from wooden rollers, springs covered with porous sheet material and the like. A disadvantage of these seat covers is that they rely only on passive air flow and thus they do not fully resolve the issues discussed above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, this invention provides for a portable ventilated seat pad that overcomes the problems and disadvantages discussed above. The invention provides a non-rigid pad assembly for cooling or heating an occupant primarily through evaporative cooling or forced air heating. The invention further provides, in its most preferred embodiment, a range of different air flows, e.g., low/medium/high, by a switch coupled to a fan. Briefly, the invention is a portable ventilated seat pad assembly that lays on an existing seat in a vehicle. This non-porous pad has an upper surface layer formed of a porous material, a lower surface layer and two inner layers. The first inner layer is preferably formed of a non-porous material which confronts the upper surface. This non-porous layer is provided with ventilation holes for allowing air to flow through the upper surface layer. The second inner layer is a porous material and is positioned between the first inner layer and the lower surface layer. This porous layer is preferably a spring-like cushion having top and bottom netting and an interior consisting of rigidized threads extending between the top and bottom netting. A fan (vacuum or forced air) is connected to an extension or tongue provided on a bag that is formed by the first inner layer and the lower surface layer and air moves through the second inner layer into or out of the ventilation holes provided in the first inner layer and hence through the upper surface layer. A vacuum would draw interior air from the vehicle through the occupant's clothes, through the ventilated seat pad assembly and out through the vacuum device, or the reverse would occur if it were desired to use forced air to heat or cool the air leaving the pad. The pad assembly of the present invention allows the occupant's perspiration to evaporate efficiently from his skin and clothing or to warm or cool the occupant more quickly than has previously been possible. Preferably, the occupant can adjust the airflow rate through the pad to maximize comfort at-any time. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Further features and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following discussion and accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the ventilated pad of the preferred embodiment of the invention with a cutaway of the upper surface layer to illustrate a pattern of ventilation holes in the first inner layer; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional side view of the pad of the preferred embodiment showing by arrows the airflow of the ventilated pad through a fan; FIG. 2A is an exploded view of the fan area of FIG. 2 and illustrating a noise reduction layer about the fan; FIG. 3 is a side sectional view of the pad of the preferred embodiment; FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of the ventilated pad showing an alternative location for the fan and fan coupling, i.e., through the seat bite line; and FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a ventilated pad arrangement showing a side connection of the fan, e.g., between an inboard bolster and center console of a vehicle. In the various FIGURES, like reference numerals are used to denote like components. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following description of the preferred embodiment is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention or its application or uses. As shown in FIG. 1, the portable ventilated seat pad assembly 10 of the preferred embodiment of the invention includes a pad 12 which lays on top of a vehicle seat 44, 45 (FIG. 4). As best shown in FIGS. 2 and 3, the pad 12 includes an upper surface layer 14. The upper surface area 14 is preferably formed of a porous material, e.g., fabric or perforated leather. A first inner layer 16 is formed of a non-porous material, as is a lower surface layer 20. Upper surface layer 14, first inner layer 16, and lower surface layer 20 are attached, for example, by sewing 18 (FIG. 1), forming an air impermeable bag between the first inner layer 16 and the lower surface layer 20. An expanded, porous second inner layer 22 is located between non-porous layers 16, 20 and is preferably 5900 series spacer fabric available from Mueller Textil located at Wiehl, Germany. It will be described in greater detail in connection with FIGS. 2, 2A and 3. Extending forwardly from the pad 12, is tongue 24 (FIGS. 1 and 2) coupled to a fan 26 powered by wire 27. The fan 26 is coupled to the air space within layer 22. FIGS. 2 and 2A show fan 26 coupled to an opening 28 in layer 20. Tongue 24 can form a pocket-like structure 30 to support fan 26. In the illustrated embodiment, a layer of any suitable sound-absorbing material 29 surrounds fan 26. Referring to FIG. 1, tongue 24 extends from the front side or edge of pad 12 and is an extension of the different layers of pad 12 (e.g. tongue 24 is integrally-formed with the rest of pad 12). Although the tongue is illustrated in FIG. 1 as extending from the front side of pad 12, the tongue may alternatively extend from other sides of the pad. In one embodiment, the width of the side from which tongue 24 extends is greater than the width of tongue 24. For example, according to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1, the front side of pad 12 has a width that extends approximately between the left and right side of pad 12, which is greater than the width of tongue 24. With reference to FIGS. 1, 3 and 5, ventilation holes 32 are provided in first inner layer 16. Ventilation holes 32 are preferably positioned in a U-shape along the lower half of pad 12 to provide airflow about the thighs and seat of the occupant sitting on the pad 12. Ventilation holes 32 provided in the upper seating area of the pad 12 are linear to provide good suction or forced airflow to assist in the elimination or reduction of sweating of the occupant's back. In a preferred embodiment, non-porous material 16 is formed of a laminated continuous resin-film layer 34 to a foam layer 35, wherein the continuous layer 34 provides support about ventilation holes 32, thereby preventing tearing of them when the occupant sits on pad 12. Lower surface layer 20 may be provided with a tacky interior layer 36 (e.g. an adhesive) for fixing the position of the porous material 22 between layers 16 and 20 and preventing slipping thereof while allowing airflow through the pad 12. Alternatively, the porous material 22 can be stitched to either or both of layers 16 and 20. The porous material 22 is preferably formed of a spacer fabric (as described above). This spacer fabric has an upper layer of netting 38 and a lower layer of netting 40 supported by a middle layer comprised of plurality of semi-rigid threads 42. Threads 42 extend between upper netting 38 and lower netting 40. The porous material 22 is strong enough to provide a cushion for the occupant while ensuring airflow in all directions, i.e., laterally and longitudinally as well as perpendicular to the netting layers 38 and 40, even when the seat is occupied. With reference to FIGS. 2, 4, and 5, fan 26 is shown attached to the pad 12 in several different locations. In one preferred embodiment, as shown in FIG. 2, the fan 26 is located in the tongue 24 extending between the occupant's legs. Other embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 4 and 5, show fan 26 under or to the side of a lower seat cushion 44. Specifically, FIG. 4 shows a vehicle seat cushion 44 and a seat back 45 provided with pad 12. Attachment of the fan 26 to the pad 12 is through the bite line of the seat in FIG. 4 and between an inboard bolster (not shown) and a center console (not shown) in FIG. 5. A quick connect for electrical wiring 27 to the fan 26 may be provided. Fan 26 may, for example, be powered by plugging wire 27 into a conventional cigarette lighter provided in vehicles or the wire 27 may be hard wired to the vehicle electrical system. As best shown in FIGS. 1-3, the vehicle seat pad assembly 10 of the present invention pulls cabin air of the vehicle through the occupant's clothes and porous upper surface layer 14 when the fan is activated in a suction made. Ventilation holes 32 provide patterned openings for pulling the air away from upper surface layer 14 through the first inner layer 16. Air then passes through the spacer material 22. Lower surface area 20 (or upper layer 16 or both) seals about the entrance to fan 26. The coupling to fan 26 may include a separate non-air permeable seal 50, which in turn is coupled to one or both of the air impermeable layers. As fan 26 draws air away from the occupant or forces air into pad 12, air speed may be controlled by any suitable fan speed switch, e.g., at high, medium or low speeds. The foregoing discussion describes preferred and alternate embodiments of the invention. One skilled in the art will readily recognize from such discussion and from the accompanying drawings and claims that changes and modifications can be made to the invention without departing from the true spirit and fair scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>When driving a car in hot weather, occupants may experience excessive sweating from contact with the vehicle seat, because the seat prevents or blocks the body's ability to radiate excess heat. To reduce sweating, the occupant may roll down the window of the vehicle, or if provided, turn on the air conditioning to allow cool air to pass through the vehicle interior. A disadvantage of both solutions is that areas of the occupant's body are in contact with the vehicle seat preventing any cooling airflow from reaching those areas. In cold weather, the reverse phenomena may occur, i.e., cold seats may be difficult to warm quickly due to occupant contact with the seat. Seat covers or pads designed for placement on top of vehicle seats are known. In some cases, these seat covers or pads are made of fashion based materials that allow some air to flow therethrough, thus allowing the occupant to more readily emit heat radiated from the body during hot days or long drives and vice versa in cold weather. These devices have been made from wooden rollers, springs covered with porous sheet material and the like. A disadvantage of these seat covers is that they rely only on passive air flow and thus they do not fully resolve the issues discussed above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, this invention provides for a portable ventilated seat pad that overcomes the problems and disadvantages discussed above. The invention provides a non-rigid pad assembly for cooling or heating an occupant primarily through evaporative cooling or forced air heating. The invention further provides, in its most preferred embodiment, a range of different air flows, e.g., low/medium/high, by a switch coupled to a fan. Briefly, the invention is a portable ventilated seat pad assembly that lays on an existing seat in a vehicle. This non-porous pad has an upper surface layer formed of a porous material, a lower surface layer and two inner layers. The first inner layer is preferably formed of a non-porous material which confronts the upper surface. This non-porous layer is provided with ventilation holes for allowing air to flow through the upper surface layer. The second inner layer is a porous material and is positioned between the first inner layer and the lower surface layer. This porous layer is preferably a spring-like cushion having top and bottom netting and an interior consisting of rigidized threads extending between the top and bottom netting. A fan (vacuum or forced air) is connected to an extension or tongue provided on a bag that is formed by the first inner layer and the lower surface layer and air moves through the second inner layer into or out of the ventilation holes provided in the first inner layer and hence through the upper surface layer. A vacuum would draw interior air from the vehicle through the occupant's clothes, through the ventilated seat pad assembly and out through the vacuum device, or the reverse would occur if it were desired to use forced air to heat or cool the air leaving the pad. The pad assembly of the present invention allows the occupant's perspiration to evaporate efficiently from his skin and clothing or to warm or cool the occupant more quickly than has previously been possible. Preferably, the occupant can adjust the airflow rate through the pad to maximize comfort at-any time. | 20050111 | 20060905 | 20050609 | 94666.0 | 1 | BARFIELD, ANTHONY DERRELL | VENTILATED SEAT | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,362 | ACCEPTED | FOLDING LOUNGE CHAIR | A lounge chair is configured with backrest and seat frames operative to pivot relative to one another between erected and folded positions. In the erected position of the lounge chair, inner end surfaces of longitudinal members of the seat frame each extend complementary to, abut and support a respective inner surface of longitudinal members of the backrest seat. | 1. A lounge chair comprising: a backrest frame having a first and a second spaced elongated member, each member being provided with a respective inner end portion; a seat frame having a first and a second spaced elongated member, each member being provided with a respective inner end portion, the first and the second spaced elongated members of the seat frame having a curved and a straight portion, respectively; the seat frame being pivotally coupled to the backrest frame to permit movement from a folded position, in which free ends of the backrest and seat frames are substantially next to one another, and an erected position, in which the backrest and seat frames extend transversely to one another, and the inner end portions of the first and second elongated members of the seat frame each extending complementary to and abutting a respective one of the inner end portions of the first and second elongated members of the backrest frame in the erected position; and a weight disposed in the seat frame between the first and the second spaced elongated members of the seat frame in substantially the straight portion for balancing the backrest frame and the seat frame when in the erected position when not being used by a user and when being entered by a user to counterbalance a weight of the user. 2. The lounge chair of claim 1 further comprising an armrest fixedly connected to one of the first and the second spaced elongated members of the seat frame. 3. The lounge chair of clam 1 farther comprising an armrest pivotally connected to one of the first and the second spaced elongated members of the seat frame and slideably connected to one of the fast and the second spaced elongated members of the backrest frame. 4. The lounge chair of claim 1, wherein the inner end portion of the first and second elongated members of the backrest and seat frames, respectively, is curved. 5. The lounge chair of claim 1 further comprising a plurality of hinges each having a respective outer and inner end, the outer ends of the plurality of hinges each being mounted to a respective one of the first and second elongated members of the seat and backrest frames, respectively, so that the inner ends of the hinges, which are coupled to the first elongated members of the seat and backrest frames, respectively, are pivotally attached to one another, and the inner ends of the hinges, which are coupled to the second elongated members of the seat and backrest frames, respectively, are pivotally attached to one another. 6. The lounge chair of claim 5, wherein the inner ends of the plurality of hinges each extend angularly from a respective one of the outer ends, the inner ends of the hinges, which are coupled to the first elongated members of the seat and backrest frames, respectively, overlap one another, and the inner ends of the hinges, which are coupled to the second elongated members of the backrest and seat frames, respectively, overlap one another. 7. The lounge chair of claim 6 further comprising a plurality of pins each extending through and pivotally coupling a respective pair of the overlapped inner ends of the plurality of hinges. 8. The lounge chair of claim 7, wherein the inner ends of the plurality of hinges each have a respective eyelet, the eyelets of each pair of the overlapped inner ends of the plurality of hinges being aligned in the erected and folded positions of the backrest and seat frames and dimensioned to receive a respective one of the plurality of pins. 9. The lounge chair of claim 6, wherein the plurality of hinges each have a respective one of an L-shaped cross-section and a J-shaped cross-section. 10. The lounge chair of claim 1 further comprising a plurality of spaced apart crossbars extending between and coupled to the first and second elongated members of the backrest and seat frames, respectively. 11. The lounge chair of claim 10 further comprising a plurality of triangular reinforcements blocks each coupling a respective one of the plurality of crossbars to the first and second elongated members of the backrest and seat frames, respectively. 12. The lounge chair of claim 1, wherein the seat and backrest frames are made from material selected from the group consisting of wood, plastic, bamboo and metal. 13. The lounge chair of claim 12 further comprising a layer of foam coupled to each of the seat and backrest frames and a layer of material atop the layer of foam, the material selected from the group consisting of leather, velour and fabric. 14. The lounge chair of claim 1, wherein the weight is disposed in the seat frame at an underside. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is based on and claims priority to Chinese Patent Application Ser. Nos. 2004200851956 and 200400766978 filed on Aug. 4, 2004 and fully incorporated herein by reference. BACKROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to chairs and, more particularly, to lounge chairs that are capable of being folded for transportation and storage. 2. Background The concept of producing furniture that can be easily transported by a distributor to effect efficient shipping costs and by a user for ease of transporting after purchase and for tucking away once in the household has become increasingly popular. A common piece of furniture is video lounge chair used by teens, tweens and their parents to watch TV in a family room or for their older siblings to use to furnish their dorm rooms. Such chairs are preferably low to the ground having no legs, comfortable to relax in to watch the latest installment of a popular series or a new video game, and tend to affect a sense of informality. Some video lounge chair designs are primarily geared towards comfort, whereas such concerns as space management and flexibility often escape the designer's attention. These chairs are constructed as rigid, unitary structures made from wood, bamboo and/or steel and typically are cumbersome and heavy. Accordingly, moving such chairs around in a house or shipping or transporting them is not easy. Thus, if a need exists for storing even a single lounge chair, it will occupy a substantial amount of storage space. Other designs that do go beyond comfort and aesthetics and take into consideration such concerns as portability employ complicated structural assemblies, which may often malfunction. Moreover, all types of chair designs are too often limited to traditional designs where chairs are disposed remain static. Static chairs have a propensity for making their occupants feel deprived of an opportunity to stir about, shift their weight, or just plain fidget. In contrast, chairs such as rocking chairs relieve at least some of that frustration. When applied to video lounge chairs, chairs that are static limit the opportunity of the occupants to truly relax. Thus, it is preferred that the occupant has some opportunity to move when seated. Borrowing from the rocking chair, there are suggestions to employ means to allow the video lounge chair to rock. However, such chairs are notoriously difficult to enter from a standing position and easy exit from the seated portion. Thus, there exists a need for a video lounge chair formed with a minimal number of components that are foldable to assume a structure, which is easily transportable and occupies a small amount of space. Another need exist for the lounge chair that has an ergonomically configured and stable structure. A further need exists for the video lounge chair provided with a coupling unit for converting the erected position of the lounge chair to the collapsed or folded position thereof, and conversely in a simple and time-efficient manner. Another need exists for the video lounge chair to be relaxing and entertaining. Yet a further need exists for the video lounge chair to be easy to enter from a standing position and easy to exit from a seated position. A need exists for the structure of the video lounge chair to accommodate such desires. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a lounge chair that meets these needs. Configured of two major parts, seat and backrest frames, the inventive lounge chair is operative to fold between an erected position, in which the backrest and seat frames extend transversely to one another, and a folded or collapsed position, in which both the backrest and seat frames extend in substantially parallel planes. Accordingly, a person user can relatively easily displace the folded lounge chair around his/her house or apartment and store it without occupying too much space. A coupling unit, configured to provide the backrest and seat frames with pivoting motion, includes a plurality of J- or L-shaped hinges, each pair of which is rotatably mounted on a respective pin. The pin extends through bent ends of hinges and allows for a wide range of pivotal motion between the frames. As a result, the backrest frame can lie atop the seat frame in the collapsed position of the lounge chair. Inner end portions of the frames are configured so that in the erected position of the frames, the end portions of the backrest frame are abutted by the end portions of the seat frame so as to provide the inventive lounge chair with necessary stability. Accordingly, no additional mechanical assemblies are required to maintain the erected position of the lounge chair. As a result, the inventive lounge chair is cost-effective and has a simple structure. These and other features and aspects of the present invention will be better understood with reference to the following description, figures, and appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of the erected position of the inventive folding rocking video lounge chair in which backrest and seat frames of the lounge chair extend transversely to one another. FIG. 2 is a side view of a coupling unit that connects the backrest and seat frames illustrated in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 illustrates the assembled and upholstered lounge chair in the erected position. FIG. 4A is a side view of the inner portions of the backrest and seat frames, respectively, which are configured in accordance with one embodiment of the invention and shown in the erected position of the inventive lounge chair. FIG. 4B is a side view of the inner end portions of the inventive lounge chair configured in accordance with a further aspect of the invention. FIGS. 5A and 5B are views of one embodiment of the inventive lounge chair having armrests. FIGS. 6A and 6B are views of a further embodiment of the inventive lounge chair having armrests. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference will now be made in detail to the embodiment of the invention that is illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Wherever possible, same or similar reference numerals are used in the drawings and the description to refer to the same or like parts or steps. The drawings are highly schematic and are not to precise scale. For purposes of convenience and clarity only, directional terms, such as top, bottom, inner, outer, side may be used with respect to the drawings. These and similar directional terms should not be construed to limit the scope of the invention in any manner. The words “attach,” “connect,” “couple,” and similar terms with their inflectional morphemes do not necessarily denote direct and immediate connections, but also include connections through mediate elements or devices. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 3, the inventive lounge chair includes, among other components, a seat frame 1 for a seat portion 1a and a backrest frame 8 for a back portion 8a, which are pivotally interconnected to move relative to one another between an erected and folded position. Backrest frame 8 is configured with two spaced-apart elongated side members 16 (FIG. 1) and a plurality of spaced crossbars 2, which extend between and connect opposing inner faces 17a of elongated side members 16. Seat frame 1 has a structure similar to backrest frame 8 and includes two elongated side members 18 coupled to one another by crossbars 2 and has at least one portion that is curved so that the lounge chair may rock and a substantially straight portion. Triangular blocks 3 are configured to act as block and are rigidly attached to opposite ends of each of crossbars 2 to inner faces 17b of elongated members 18. Coupling frames 1 and 8 in a manner, which is described below, forms the inventive lounge chair having a simple, readily assembleable/disassemblable and esthetically appealing structure. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 3, both frames 1 and 8, i.e. seat portion 1a and back portion 8a, are ergonomically designed to conform to respective parts of the human body. In particular, elongated members 16 of backrest frame 8 each have a respective inner end portion 10 bridging the top and bottom surfaces 14a and 15a of these elongated members. Similarly, at least elongated members 18 of seat frame 1 each are slightly downwardly convex—having on portion that is curved so that the lounge chair may rock and a substantially straight portion—and have a respective bottom and top surfaces 14b and 15b (FIGS. 1 and 2), respectively, which are bridged by an inner end portion 12. In the erected position, inner end portions 10 of the backrest frame coextend complementary to and contact inner end portions 12 of the seat frame. Thus, the contacting inner end portions 10 and 12 of the frames define a support for backrest frame 8 in the erected position. To provide reliable abutment of inner end portions 10 and 12, these portions may be rectilinearly slanted (FIG. 4A), curved (FIG. 4B) or have any another configuration, provided, of course, that these surfaces coextend complementary to one another in the erected position of the chair. As a consequence, when the user sits in the inventive lounge chair, it has a stable structure. Inner end portion 10 and 12 (FIGS. 1, 4A and 4B) of each pair of elongated members 16 and 18, respectively, which abut one another in the erected positions of the rock chair, are pivotally interconnected by a coupling unit allowing seat and backrest frames 1 and 8, respectively, to rotate relative to one another. The coupling unit includes a plurality of hinges 6, each of which has a respective J-shaped or L-shaped cross-section defined by a generally rectangular outer end 34 and an arcuate inner end 30 (FIG. 2A) that extends at an angle to the outer end. During assembly of the lounge chair, rectilinear outer end 34 of each hinge 6 is initially screwed by a respective, preferably, wooden screw 5 to the inner end portions of members 16 and 18 so that inner end 30 of attached hinge 6 extends upwards from respective bottom surface 14 of the elongated members in the erected position of the chair. A location of attachment of hinges 6 to the elongated members is so selected that inner curved ends 30 of hinges 6, which are to be coupled together, overlap. In this position, eyelets, each of which is formed on a respective inner end 30 of hinges 6 to be coupled (FIG. 2), are aligned with one another and further traversed by a respective pin 4. Since each pin 4 extends in a plane spaced laterally from a respective one of planes in which outer ends 34 of the hinges extend, pivoting of backrest frame 8 can be continued until its longitudinal members 16 extend substantially parallel to longitudinal members 18 of seat frame 1. As a consequence, in the collapsed or folded position of the lounge chair, it has a banana-like contour and is space-effective. To improve stability of lounge chair in its erected position, seat frame 1 has a weight 60, which is made from a piece of cement or other material and mounted to the bottom of this seat portion 1a. Weight 60 interacts with seat frame 1 so as to balance the lounge chair, when erected, in an upright and inviting position having a pivot point 64 when not occupied by a user. Therein, pivot point 64 is the contact point between the floor and the lounge chair. Pivot point 64 is disposed closer to the back portion of the lounge chair than weight 60. When a user enters the chair, seat frame 1 is so shaped that weight 60 counters at least partially the additional weight of the user until the user is seated. Therein, a chief advantage for an inattentive user is that such a user does not tumble backwards in the chair as he attempts to seat himself as is a common problem in low rocking chairs. Furthermore, when the user is seated, seat frame 1 and weight 60 act so as To provide the user with even more comfort, the lounge chair has a pair of armrests 50, only the near side armrest being shown, in FIGS. 5A and 5B in one embodiment and armrests 52 shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B in a further embodiment. Armrests 50 are fastened to frame 18 and are spaced so that back portion 8a can be moved to the folded position without being interfered by armrests 50. Armrest 52 is coupled to member 18 by fastener 65 so that the armrest 52 is rotatable about fastener 65. A recess 54 formed in elongated member 16. Armrest 52 is received either directly or through a fastener in recess 54. When the user moves backrest frame 8 to the folded position of the lounge chair, armrests 52 are guided through recesses 54, which are so dimensioned that displacement of backrest frame 8 is smooth during the entire folding operation. Therein, back portion 8a can be displaced to the folded position of the lounge chair without being interfered by armrests 52. Armrest 52 would then pivot about fastener 65 and simultaneously travel in recess 54 so as to permit more efficient storage. Seat and backrest frames 1 and 8, respectively, can be made from different materials, which include, for example, wood, plastic, bamboo and metal. A layer of foam is then put on each of the frames, which further are upholstered with material including, but not limited to, leather, PVC and/or fabric. Material covering the backside of backrest frame 8 may be provided with a pocket conveniently located and easily reachable by the user in case if he/she wants to either put something in or take it out from the pocket. Once manufactured, the lounge chair may have a headrest and/or pillow, which is formed at the inner side of backrest frame 8. This document describes the inventive lounge chair for illustration purposes only. Neither the specific embodiments of the invention as a whole, nor those of its features limit the general principles underlying the invention. In particular, the invention is not limited to any particular size or shape of the lounge chair or materials used for manufacturing this chair. The specific features described herein may be used in some embodiments, but not in others, without departure from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth. Many additional modifications are intended in the foregoing disclosure, and it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that in some instances some features of the invention will be employed in the absence of a corresponding use of other features. For example, longitudinal members may be rectangular, circular or have any other cross-section. The illustrative examples therefore do not define the metes and bounds of the invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a lounge chair that meets these needs. Configured of two major parts, seat and backrest frames, the inventive lounge chair is operative to fold between an erected position, in which the backrest and seat frames extend transversely to one another, and a folded or collapsed position, in which both the backrest and seat frames extend in substantially parallel planes. Accordingly, a person user can relatively easily displace the folded lounge chair around his/her house or apartment and store it without occupying too much space. A coupling unit, configured to provide the backrest and seat frames with pivoting motion, includes a plurality of J- or L-shaped hinges, each pair of which is rotatably mounted on a respective pin. The pin extends through bent ends of hinges and allows for a wide range of pivotal motion between the frames. As a result, the backrest frame can lie atop the seat frame in the collapsed position of the lounge chair. Inner end portions of the frames are configured so that in the erected position of the frames, the end portions of the backrest frame are abutted by the end portions of the seat frame so as to provide the inventive lounge chair with necessary stability. Accordingly, no additional mechanical assemblies are required to maintain the erected position of the lounge chair. As a result, the inventive lounge chair is cost-effective and has a simple structure. These and other features and aspects of the present invention will be better understood with reference to the following description, figures, and appended claims. | 20050111 | 20060328 | 20060420 | 64013.0 | A47C702 | 2 | NELSON JR, MILTON | FOLDING LOUNGE CHAIR | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A47C | 2,005 |
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11,033,395 | ACCEPTED | ESD protection unit with ability to enhance trigger-on speed of low voltage triggered PNP | The invention relates to an ESD protection with ability to enhance trigger-on speed of a low voltage Triggered PNP (LVTPNP) unit for protecting internal circuits of an integrated circuit from attack of an ESD stress. The ESD protection unit incorporates either detection circuit or power clamp circuit to efficiently trigger on a trigger node as a heavily doped region of LVTPNP devices among an I/O pad, a VDD pin and a VSS pin. As soon as the trigger node of each LVTPNP device receives a trigger signal from either the ESD detection circuit or power clamp circuit, the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP devices are capable of being therefore reduced to enhance trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP devices that discharge ESD current. | 1. An ESD protection unit for providing an ESD path from an I/O pad to either a high voltage node VDD pin or a low voltage node VSS pin, the unit comprising: a first ESD detection circuit connecting to the I/O pad; an N-trigger LVTPNP device including an emitter connecting to the VDD pin, a collector connecting to the I/O pad, and an N-trigger node connecting to an output of the first ESD detection circuit wherein the N-trigger LVTPNP device shuts down in a normal operation and is speedily triggered on by way of a higher potential-level output applied by the first ESD detection circuit on the N-trigger node of the LVTPNP device upon an ESD stress occurs between the I/O pad and the VDD pin; a second ESD detection circuit connecting to the I/O pad; and a P-trigger LVTPNP device including an emitter connecting to the I/O pad, a collector connecting to the VSS pin, and an P-trigger node connecting to an output of the second ESD detection circuit wherein the P-trigger LVTPNP device shuts down in a normal operation and is speedily triggered on by a lower potential-level output applied from the first ESD detection circuit on the P-trigger node of the LVTPNP device upon an ESD stress occurs between the I/O pad and the VSS pin. 2. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 1, further comprising: an isolation device connected between the collector of the N-trigger LVTPNP device and the I/O pad. 3. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the first ESD detection circuit comprises a first RC delay and an NMOS transistor. 4. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 3, wherein the first RC delay has a first capacitor connected to the VDD pin and a first resistor connected to the VSS pin. 5. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 4, wherein a gate of the N-MOS transistor connecting to the VDD pin through the first capacitor and connecting to the VSS pin through the first resistor, a source of the N-MOS transistor connecting to the I/O pad, and a drain of the NMOS connecting to the N-trigger node of the N-trigger LVTPNP device. 6. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 4, wherein said first capacitor can be one of various kinds of capacitors including a PMOS, NMOS, MIM, and varator. 7. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 1, wherein the second ESD detection circuit comprises a second RC delay and a PMOS transistor. 8. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 7, wherein the second RC delay has a second capacitor connected to the VSS pin and a second resistor connected to the VDD pin. 9. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 8, wherein a gate of the PMOS transistor connects to the VSS pin through the second capacitor and connecting to the VDD pin through the second resistor, a source of the PMOS transistor connecting to the I/O pad, a drain of the NMOS connecting to the P-trigger node of the P-trigger LVTPNP device. 10. An ESD protection unit for providing ESD path from a plurality of I/O pad either to a high voltage node VDD pin or a low voltage node VSS pin, the unit comprising: a first ESD detection circuit connecting to the I/O pad, having a first RC delay interconnected between the VDD pin and the VSS pin, and a plurality of N-MOS transistors each having a gate connecting to said first RC delay, and a source connecting to the I/O pad; a plurality of N-trigger LVTPNP devices each including an emitter connecting to the VDD pin, a collector connecting to the I/O pad, and an N-trigger node connecting to a drain of a corresponding NMOS transistor wherein the N-trigger LVTPNP devices shut down in a normal operation and are speedily triggered on by a higher potential-level output of the first ESD detection circuit when an ESD stress occurs between the I/O pad and the VDD pin; a second ESD detection circuit connecting to the I/O pad, having a second RC delay interconnected between the VSS pin and the VDD pin, and a plurality of PMOS transistors each having a gate connecting to said second RC delay, and a source connecting to the I/O pad; and a plurality of P-trigger LVTPNP devices each including an emitter connecting to the I/O pad, a collector connecting to the VSS pin, and a P-trigger node connecting to a drain of the corresponding NMOS transistor wherein the P-trigger LVTPNP devices shut down in a normal operation and are speedily triggered on by a lower potential-level output of the first ESD detection circuit when an ESD stress occurs between the I/O pad and the VSS pin. 11. An ESD protection unit for an integrated circuit, at least part of which comprises a circuit high voltage power supply VDD pin and a ground supply VSS pin, comprising: a trigger circuit coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin to detect a power supply voltage thereby generating a trigger signal upon an ESD stress occurs between the VDD pin and the VSS pin; and a LVTPNP device coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin, having an trigger node connected to an output of the trigger circuit wherein the LVTPNP device conducts ESD current between the VDD pin and the VSS pin in response to the trigger signal. 12. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, wherein the LVTPNP device includes an emitter connected to the VDD pin and a collector connected to the VSS pin. 13. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, wherein the trigger circuit is cooperated with a power clamp circuit. 14. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, wherein the trigger circuit comprises an RC delay having a resistor connected to the VDD pin and a capacitor connected to VSS, and an inverter receiving an output of the RC delay and outputting the trigger signal to the LVTPNP devices as soon as the LVTPNP device is P-trigger type. 15. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, wherein the trigger circuit comprises an RC delay having a resistor connected to the VDD pin and a capacitor connected to the VSS pin, and a couple of inverters receiving an output of the RC delay and outputting the trigger signal to the LVTPNP device as soon as the LVTPNP device is N-trigger type. 16. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, further comprising a plurality of diodes connected between the collector of the LVTPNP device and the VSS pin. 17. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, further comprising a plurality of diodes connected between the emitter of the LVTPNP device and the VDD pin. 18. The ESD protection unit as claimed in claim 11, further comprising a plurality of diodes connected between the emitter of the LVTPNP device and the VDD pin and a plurality of diodes connected between the P-substrate of the LVTPNP device and the VSS pin. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an ESD protection unit, and particularly to an ESD protection unit capable of enhancing trigger-on speed of a low voltage Triggered PNP (LVTPNP) thereby achieving a better ESD performance. 2. Description of the Prior Art As known, an ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) total-protection design is usually considered as one of the reliability for an integrated circuit (IC). Even through less ESD may cause serious damages on the integrated circuit. For example, during delivery process, such IC products are readily to suffer accidental attacks of various external static electricity, i.e. a HBM (Human Body Model) or MM (Machine Model) ESD stress. Generally speaking, each of the input and output pins of IC products has to sustain HBM ESD stress over ±2000V and MM ESD stress over ±200V. Therefore, ESD protection circuits need be disposed around the input and output (I/O) pads of the IC. Presently, a semiconductor circuit such as a CMOS with an on-chip ESD protection utilizing large amount of diodes or MOS transistors that occupy larger silicon areas. Furthermore, to overcome the high diode reverse-biased breakdown voltage and high MOS transistors holding voltage would cause the ESD protection inefficient. FIGS. 1-3 are schematic circuit diagrams introducing three traditional ESD protection circuits. In FIG. 1, the ESD protection device 1 includes two diodes 61, 62 connected between an input pad 103 and a high power supply VDD, and the input pad 103 and a low power supply VSS, respectively. The diode 61 is turned on by a positive ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VDD rather than to the internal circuit 104. Similarly, the diode 62 is turned on by a negative ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VSS rather than to the internal circuit 104. In FIG. 2, the ESD protection device 2 includes a P-type MOS FET (Metal-oxide semiconductor Field-effect Transistor) 63 and N-type MOS FET 64. Operations of the ESD protection devices 1 and 2 are similar. The transistors 63 and 64 are turned on by a positive and negative ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VDD and VSS, respectively. This protects the internal circuit 104 from being damaged by ESD stress. Generally speaking, the highest and lowest voltage levels of the input signals of integrated circuits are between the power supply voltages VDD and VSS. However, with the advance of the CMOS manufacturing process, ICs derived from different processes operate at different voltages. For example, the ICs derived from a 0.5 μm CMOS process operate at VDD of 5V, while those derived from a 0.18 μm CMOS process operate at VDD of 1.8V. On a single circuit board, there may be several ICs providing different functions and having I/O pads electrically connected with each other. Thus, each IC may receive I/O signals with different high and low voltage levels. For example, an IC using VDD of 1.8 or 3.3V may receive signals having a high voltage level of 5V output from another IC. This results in an input signal level higher than VDD. Similarly, some situations may cause an input signal lower than VSS. Moreover, in some ICs for network communication, such as ICs receiving signals from a remote device through connection lines, there may be input signals with voltage levels higher than VDD and lower than VSS. The previously described traditional ESD protection devices do not apply to an IC receiving input signals with voltage levels higher than VDD or lower than VSS since they induce leakage currents. In FIG. 3, the ESD protection device is applicable to ICs receiving input signals with voltage levels lower than VSS. It includes a PNP bipolar junction transistor 67, a silicon controlled rectifier 66 and a PMOS transistor 65. Although this circuit provides ESD protection for ICs receiving input signals with voltage levels lower than VSS, the N well 661 is floated to prevent forward bias of the parasitic diode formed by the junction between the P substrate 662 and N well 661, which makes the silicon controlled rectifier 66 easy to be unintentionally triggered on. This results in latch-up issue to the circuit. A low voltage triggered PNP (LVTPNP) technology disclosed in a pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/383,643 which now is a publication No. 2004/0085691, just provides an internal circuit with an ESD protection from input signals with voltage level either higher than VDD or lower than Vss, by way of a floating region such as “N+” without usage of any other external trigger signal applied thereon. The disclosure of which is incorporated here. However, since the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP has a higher potential, therefore results in slowing down the conduction speed of the LVTPNP. The internal circuit is still easy to be directly damaged by the ESD stress if ESD current is not able to pass through the LVTPNP in time to the ground. Furthermore, the on-stage high voltage of the LVTPNP device facilitate heat energy rise and may burn itself out at last to result in lost in ESD protection. Conventional ESD protection circuitry is located between the input pads and the ground potential, VSS and the high voltage, VDD. However, there continues to be a need to prevent damage to the internal circuitry from the increased power supply voltage associated with electrostatic discharge. Thus, it is necessary to design a power clamp circuit disposed between VDD and VSS. As known, a variety of power clamp circuits have been widely used in ICs. These clamp circuits consist of a primary device to carry the current and a control circuit to condition the primary conduction device to conduct during an ESD event, but not conduct under normal IC operation. The primary conduction devices that have previously been used in CMOS ICs are the NMOS transistor, the PMOS transistor, and a special device called as silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). Puar in U.S. Pat. No. 5,287,241 describes an ESD network using a PMOS clamp circuit. Ker in U.S. Pat. No. 6,011,681 used an SCR clamp. Each of these primary conduction devices has their respective advantages and disadvantages. The NMOS transistor has a high conductivity, but is itself susceptible to damage by the ESD event. The PMOS transistor is more rugged than the NMOS type, but the PMOS is less than half the conductivity per unit area when compared to the NMOS type. The SCR is both highly conductive and rugged, but difficult to appropriately control. Maloney in U.S. Pat. No. 5,530,612 discusses diodes that function as clamp circuits that result in parasitic PNP transistors for use between isolated power buses. The clamp circuit requires that the control circuitry be relatively simple, spatially compact, electrically rugged, and also reliable, triggering the conduction of the primary conduction device only during the ESD event. The primary feature of most ESD control circuits is their use of the fast transient nature of the ESD event to trigger the conduction device. The control circuits switch the conducting device to the conducting state when the power bus to ground bus potential increases faster than a certain rate and the increase is greater than a certain value. In some cases, the clamp circuit may become conductive simply when a certain power bus to ground bus potential is exceeded. Dugan in U.S. Pat. No. 5,311,391 describes improvements to the control circuitry and thereby reaching minimum of triggering the ESD conducting device when the IC is in normal operation, but results in consuming additional area and circuit complexity. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide an ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit to facilitate efficient trigger on of each of LVTPNP in I/O circuit of an integrated circuit under ESD stress, by way of lowering threshold voltage and enhancing trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP thereby achieving high ESD ability and less silicon area. It is another object of the present invention to provide an ESD protection unit utilizing an ESD clamp circuit to facilitate efficient trigger-on of each of LVTPNP in power supply circuit of an integrated circuit under ESD stress by way of lowering threshold voltage and enhance trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP thereby achieving high ESD ability and less silicon area. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objects, an ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, with an ESD path from an I/O pad to a high voltage node VDD pin and a low voltage node VSS pin, comprises a first ESD detection circuit respectively connecting to the I/O pad and an N-trigger LVTPNP with an emitter connecting to the VDD pin and a collector connecting to the I/O pad, a second ESD detection circuit respectively connecting to the I/O pad and a P-trigger LVTPNP with an emitter connecting to the I/O pad and a collector connecting to the VSS pin, and an isolation device interconnected between the collector of the N-trigger LVTPNP and the I/O pad. Furthermore, the drain output of the first ESD detection circuit is connected to an N-trigger node of the LVTPNP. The N-trigger LVTPNP shuts down in a normal operation but is speedily triggered on by a higher potential-level output (now the voltage of the N-trigger node is lower than the collector) generated form the first ESD detection circuit in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the I/O pad and the VDD pin. The drain output of the second ESD detection circuit is connected to a P-trigger node of the LVTPNP device. The P-trigger LVTPNP shuts down in a normal operation but is speedily triggered on by a lower potential-level output (now the voltage of the P-trigger node is higher than the collector) generated from the second ESD detection circuit in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the I/O pad and the VSS pin. The isolation device is a diode with its negative node connected with the I/O pad and with its positive node connected with the collector of the N-trigger LVTPNP. The first and second ESD detection circuits each respectively comprise an RC delay circuit and an NMOS/a PMOS transistor controlled by said RC delay circuit. An ESD protection unit incorporating power clamp circuit in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention for protecting a CMOS integrated internal circuit, at least part of which comprises a circuit high voltage power supply VDD pin and a ground supply VSS pin, comprises a trigger circuit coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin to detect a power supply voltage, and a LVTPNP device coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin. The trigger circuit is utilized to generate a trigger signal in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the VDD pin and the VSS pin. The LVTPNP device includes a trigger node connected to the output of the trigger circuit so that an ESD current between the VDD pin and the VSS pin can be discharged to the ground supply VSS by way of applying the trigger signal on the trigger node of the LVTPNP device. In Another embodiment, a plurality of diodes are capable of further being interconnected between the collector of the LVTPNP device and the VSS pin and/or between the emitter of the LVTPNP device and the VDD pin. Hence, the ESD protection circuit according to the present invention, incorporating either an RC detection circuit or the ESD power clamp circuit to facilitate efficient trigger on of LVTPNP devices among the I/O pad, the VDD pin and the VSS pin. Each LVTPNP device can be speedily triggered on by way of applying a trigger signal from either an RC detection circuit or the ESD power clamp circuit on a trigger node of the LVTPNP device to reduce the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP devices upon an ESD stress occurs. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1-3 are schematic circuit diagrams showing three traditional ESD protection circuits; FIGS. 4A&4B are schematic circuit diagrams showing an N-trigger type LVTPNP device used for ESD protection unit according to one of embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic circuit diagram of ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a sixth embodiment a of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to a seventh embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 14 is a schematic circuit diagram of an ESD protection unit incorporating an ESD clamp circuit according to an eighth embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Please referring to FIGS. 4A&4B, an N-trigger type LVTPNP device 7 is used for ESD protection devices according to several embodiments of the present invention. Meanwhile, a Path “S” denotes a discharge direction of an ESD current from an emitter to a collector of the LVTPNP upon an external trigger signal is applied on an “N+” node (an n-type heavily doped region) to enhance breakdown speed of an NP interface region “A” of the N-trigger type LVTPNP device. Regarding a structure of a conventional LVTPNP with a floating node such as “N” where is not applied by any external trigger signal, please refer to a disclosure of U.S. Patent application Publication No. 2004/0085691. The N-trigger type LVTPNP 7 includes a P substrate 71, an N well 72 in the P substrate 71, P-type heavily doped regions 731 and 732 in the P substrate 71, a P-type heavily doped region 74 in the N well 72, N-type heavily doped regions 751 and 752 adjacent to the N well 72, and isolation layers 76 isolating the doped regions 731, 732, 74, 751 and 752. Thus formed, the structure is equivalent to a PNP bipolar junction transistor with a low breakdown voltage. It provides a current path between the emitter and collector when the PN or NP junction avalanches. The emitter is formed with the P-type heavily doped region 74. The base is formed with the N well 72, and N-type heavily doped regions 751 and 752. The collector is formed with the P substrate 71 and the P-type heavily doped regions 731 and 732. The N-type heavily doped regions 751 and 752 form a N-trigger node. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the P-type heavily doped regions 731 and 732 are used as contact regions coupling the P substrate 71 to another element or to receive a voltage level. On the contrary, the P-type heavily doped region 74 electrically isolates the P-type heavily doped regions 731 and 732 from other elements. Thus, only the PN or NP junction may be forward biased when there is no ESD pulse to eliminate leakage current. Moreover, the junction C has a low breakdown voltage since the region 74 is heavily doped, while the junction A has a relatively high breakdown voltage since both the N well 72 and P substrate 71 are lightly doped. The junction A is disadvantageous to formation of the ESD current path. Fortunately, the N-type heavily doped regions 751 and 752 compensate for this disadvantage. The junction B has a low breakdown voltage due to the heavily doped regions 751 and 752, which avalanches earlier than the junction A when the ESD pulse zapping on the I/O pad. As soon as there is a trigger signal (i.e. a current with higher potential-level output) applied on the heavily doped regions 751 and 752 (N-trigger node), the voltage of the heavily doped regions 751 and 752 is higher than that of the P-type heavily doped regions 732 and 731 instantaneously, and thus enhances breakdown speed of junction A. P-trigger type and other types of the LVTPNP devices are similar to the N-trigger type LVTPNP 7. Oppositely, the conventional LVTPNP device according to said U.S. Patent application Publication No. 2004/0085691 lacks an external trigger signal applied thereon to timely break down its junction A due to a threshold voltage with a higher potential as aforementioned. Please refer to FIG. 5, an ESD protection unit 5 incorporates detection circuits in accordance with a first embodiment of the invention. An I/O pad 103 provides electrical signals to an internal circuit 104. Each of said detection circuits respectively includes an RC delay 2, 3 and a gate-coupled circuit 41, 42. The principle of the RC delays 2, 3 is used to distinguish ESD-zapping events from the normal circuit operation conditions. The gate-coupled circuits 41, 42 as a P-MOS and N-MOS transistor are respectively controlled by said corresponding RC delays 2, 3 to generate a trigger current to speedily turn on of two different LVTPNP devices 11, 12 during ESD-zapping conditions. On the upper part of the ESD protection circuit 5 as shown in FIG. 5, a drain 412 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is connected to an n-trigger node 111 of an n-trigger node of the LVTPNP device 11. A gate 411 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is interconnected between a VDD pin 101 and VSS pin 102 through the RC delay 3 including of a capacitor 32 and a resistor 31. A source 413 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is connected to the I/O pad 103. The capacitor 32 is one of various kinds of capacitors, e.g. PMOS, NMOS, MIM (Metal-Insulator-Metal), Varator, etc. An emitter 113 of the LVTPNP device 11 is connected to the VDD PIN 101 and a collector 112 of the LVTPNP device 11 is connected to the I/O pad 103 through a diode 114. Because the collector 112 (P substrate) is connected the VSS pin 102 and biased at low voltage, so the diode 114 functions as isolating the collector 112 from the I/O pad 103. In normal operation conditions, the diode 114 ensures the N-type LVTPNP device 11 to shut down and has no leakage current. Similar to the upper part of the circuit, a drain 423 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is connected to a P-trigger node 121 of the LVTPNP device 12 on the lower part of the ESD protection circuit 5 as shown in FIG. 5. The gate 421 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is connected to the VDD pin 101 through a resistor 21 and connected to the VSS pin 102 through a capacitor 22. The source 422 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is connected to the I/O pad 103 directly. The emitter 123 of the LVTPNP device 12 is connected to the I/O pad 103 and the collector 122 is connected to the VSS pin 102. In the normal circuit operating conditions with VDD and VSS power supplies, the input gate 411 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is biased at VSS. Therefore, the output of the drain 412 is biased at VDD whenever the input signal of the I/O PAD 103 is logic high (VDD) or logic low (VSS). The N-trigger node 111 of the LVTPNP device 11 is kept at VDD by the output of the drain 412 of the N-MOS transistor 41, so the N-trigger LVTPNP device is guaranteed to be kept off in the normal circuit operating conditions. The input gate 421 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is biased at VDD. Thus, the output of the drain 423 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is biased at VSS. The P-trigger node 121 of the LVTPNP device 12 is kept at VSS by the output of the drain 423, so the P-trigger LVTPNP device 12 is guaranteed to be kept off in the normal circuit operating conditions. An ESD energy applied on the I/O PAD 103 may have the positive or negative voltage with reference to the grounded VDD pin 101 or the VSS pin 102, so there are four modes of ESD stresses at each I/O PAD of CMOS IC products, includes a PS mode (a positive voltage pulse relative to the VSS pin 102 is applied to the I/O PAD 103), an NS mode (a negative voltage pulse relative to the VSS pin 102 is applied to the I/O PAD 103), a PD mode (a positive pulse voltage relative to the VDD pin 101 is applied to the I/O PAD 103), an ND mode (a negative pulse voltage relative to the VDD pin 101 is applied to the I/O PAD 103). Under the PS mode ESD-zapping condition, the input gate 421 of the P-MOS transistor 42 is initially floating with a zero voltage level by the Relay 2, thereby the output of the drain 423 of the P-MOS transistor 42 will be turned on due to the positive ESD voltage on the I/O PAD 103. So, the output of the P-MOS transistor 42 is charged up by the ESD energy to generate the trigger signal (higher potential-level output) into the P-trigger node 121 of the P-trigger LVTPNP device 12. The voltage of the P-trigger node 121 is higher than that of the collector 122 instantaneously. Therefore, the P-trigger LVTPNP device 12 is triggered on and the ESD current is discharged from the I/O PAD 103 to the grounded VSS pin 102 through the P-trigger LVTPNP device 12, the RC time constant is designed to keep the input of the gate 421 at a relatively low-voltage level during ESD stress condition. Under the ND mode ESD-zapping condition, the input gate 411 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is initially floating with a high voltage level by the relay 3, thereby the N-MOS transistor 41 will be turned on due to the negative ESD voltage on the I/O PAD 103. So, the output of the drain 412 of the N-MOS transistor 41 is pulled down by the negative ESD voltage to draw the trigger signal (lower potential-level output) out from the N-trigger LVTPNP device 11. The voltage of the N-trigger node 111 is higher than that of the collector 112 instantaneously. Therefore, the N-trigger LVTPNP device 11 is triggered on and the negative ESD current is discharged from the VDD pin 101 to the I/O pad 103 through the N-trigger LVTPNP device 11 and the diode 114. When the NS mode ESD stress is applied to the circuit, the ESD current is discharged form VSS pin 102 to the I/O pad 103 through the LVTPNP device 12. When the PD mode ESD stress is applied to the circuit, the ESD current is discharged form the I/O pad 103 to the VDD pin 101 through the LVTPNP device 11. FIG. 6 is a diagram showing another embodiment of ESD protection unit according to the present invention. The circuit shown in FIG. 6 is similar to that shown in FIG. 5, except that there are a plurality of I/O PADs IO1˜IOn. Each I/O PAD has an N-trigger LVTPNP device In connecting to the VDD pin 101 and a P-trigger LVTPNP device 1m connecting to the VSS pin 102. Each N-trigger LVTPNP device has an N-trigger node 1n1 connecting to a drain 4n2 of an n-MOS transistor 4n and each P-trigger LVTPNP device 1m has a P-trigger node 1m1 connecting to a drain 4m3 of a P-MOS transistor 4m. All of the N-MOS transistors share an RC delay and all of the P-MOS transistors share an RC delay, such that the area occupied by the ESD protection is minimized. FIG. 7 shows an ESD power clamp circuit according to a first embodiment of the invention. The VDD pin 101 is connected with the VSS pin 102 through an RC delay 20. The RC delay 20 comprises a resistor 23 connected to the VDD pin 101 and a capacitor 24 connected to the VSS pin 102. The output of the RC delay 20 is input into the inverter 40. The inverter 40 is made by CMOS process and comprises a PMOS transistor 43 and an NMOS transistor 44. A P-trigger LVTPNP device 13 has a P-trigger node 131 connected to an output node 45 of the inverter 40. The emitter 133 of the P-trigger LVTPNP device 13 is connected to the VDD pin 101 and the collector (P substrate) 132 is connected to the VSS pin 102. In normal operation conditions, the output node 25 of the RC delay 20 is biased at VDD and the output node 45 of the inverter 40 is biased at VSS. Thus, the P-trigger LVTPNP device 12 is guaranteed to be kept off in the normal circuit operating conditions. When a positive ESD stress is zapping on the VDD pin 101, the output node 25 of the RC delay 20 is biased at low voltage. Thus, the output node 45 of the inverter 40 is biased at VDD and the LVTPNP device 13 is triggered on. The positive ESD current is discharged from the VDD pin 101 to the VSS pin 102 through the P-trigger LVTPNP device 7, and will not be inputted into the internal circuit (not shown). FIG. 8 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a second embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 8 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 50 connected between the collector 132 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VSS pin 102. The diodes 50 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. FIG. 9 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a third embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 9 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 51 connected between the emitter 133 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VDD pin 101. The diodes 51 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. FIG. 10 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a fourth embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 10 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 52 connected between the emitter 133 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VDD pin 101 and a plurality of diodes 53 connected between the P-substrate of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VSS pin 102. The diodes 52, 53 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. FIG. 11 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a fifth embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 11 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that the LVTPNP device 13 is N-trigger type and there are two inverters 40, 46 between RC delay 20 and the N-trigger node 135. In normal operation conditions, the output node 25 is biased at VDD and the output node 45 of the inverter 40 is biased at VSS and thus the output node 47 of the second inverter 46 is biased at VDD. Thus, the N-trigger LVTPNP device 12 is guaranteed to be kept off in the normal circuit operating conditions. When a positive ESD zaps on the VDD pin 101, the input node 25 of the inverter 40 is biased at a low voltage. The output node 45 of the inverter 40 is biased at VDD and the output node 47 of inverter 46 is biased at VSS. Thus, the LVTPNP device 12 is triggered on. The positive ESD current is discharged from the VDD pin 101 to the VSS pin 102 through the N-trigger LVTPNP device 13. FIG. 12 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a sixth embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 12 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 50 connected between the collector 132 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VSS pin 102. The diodes 55 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. FIG. 13 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to a seventh embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 13 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 56 connected between the emitter 133 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VDD pin 101. The diodes 56 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. FIG. 14 is a diagram showing an ESD clamp circuit according to an eighth embodiment of the invention. The same elements in FIGS. 7 and 14 are designated by the same reference numerals for clarity. It is noted that there are a plurality of diodes 57 connected between the emitter 133 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VDD pin 101 and a plurality of diodes 58 connected between the collector 132 of the LVTPNP device 13 and the VSS pin 102. The diodes 57, 58 increase holding voltage of the clamp circuit. The ESD protection unit according to the present invention incorporates LVTPNP devices among the I/O pad, the VDD pin and the VSS pin. Each LVTPNP device can receive a trigger signal generated from either an ESD detecting circuit or power clamp circuit to a trigger node of the LVTPNP device thereby reducing the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP devices and enhancing trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP devices are increased upon an ESD stress occurs. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an ESD protection unit, and particularly to an ESD protection unit capable of enhancing trigger-on speed of a low voltage Triggered PNP (LVTPNP) thereby achieving a better ESD performance. 2. Description of the Prior Art As known, an ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) total-protection design is usually considered as one of the reliability for an integrated circuit (IC). Even through less ESD may cause serious damages on the integrated circuit. For example, during delivery process, such IC products are readily to suffer accidental attacks of various external static electricity, i.e. a HBM (Human Body Model) or MM (Machine Model) ESD stress. Generally speaking, each of the input and output pins of IC products has to sustain HBM ESD stress over ±2000V and MM ESD stress over ±200V. Therefore, ESD protection circuits need be disposed around the input and output (I/O) pads of the IC. Presently, a semiconductor circuit such as a CMOS with an on-chip ESD protection utilizing large amount of diodes or MOS transistors that occupy larger silicon areas. Furthermore, to overcome the high diode reverse-biased breakdown voltage and high MOS transistors holding voltage would cause the ESD protection inefficient. FIGS. 1-3 are schematic circuit diagrams introducing three traditional ESD protection circuits. In FIG. 1 , the ESD protection device 1 includes two diodes 61 , 62 connected between an input pad 103 and a high power supply VDD, and the input pad 103 and a low power supply VSS, respectively. The diode 61 is turned on by a positive ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VDD rather than to the internal circuit 104 . Similarly, the diode 62 is turned on by a negative ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VSS rather than to the internal circuit 104 . In FIG. 2 , the ESD protection device 2 includes a P-type MOS FET (Metal-oxide semiconductor Field-effect Transistor) 63 and N-type MOS FET 64 . Operations of the ESD protection devices 1 and 2 are similar. The transistors 63 and 64 are turned on by a positive and negative ESD pulse across the input pad 103 that flows therefrom to the power supply VDD and VSS, respectively. This protects the internal circuit 104 from being damaged by ESD stress. Generally speaking, the highest and lowest voltage levels of the input signals of integrated circuits are between the power supply voltages VDD and VSS. However, with the advance of the CMOS manufacturing process, ICs derived from different processes operate at different voltages. For example, the ICs derived from a 0.5 μm CMOS process operate at VDD of 5V, while those derived from a 0.18 μm CMOS process operate at VDD of 1.8V. On a single circuit board, there may be several ICs providing different functions and having I/O pads electrically connected with each other. Thus, each IC may receive I/O signals with different high and low voltage levels. For example, an IC using VDD of 1.8 or 3.3V may receive signals having a high voltage level of 5V output from another IC. This results in an input signal level higher than VDD. Similarly, some situations may cause an input signal lower than VSS. Moreover, in some ICs for network communication, such as ICs receiving signals from a remote device through connection lines, there may be input signals with voltage levels higher than VDD and lower than VSS. The previously described traditional ESD protection devices do not apply to an IC receiving input signals with voltage levels higher than VDD or lower than VSS since they induce leakage currents. In FIG. 3 , the ESD protection device is applicable to ICs receiving input signals with voltage levels lower than VSS. It includes a PNP bipolar junction transistor 67 , a silicon controlled rectifier 66 and a PMOS transistor 65 . Although this circuit provides ESD protection for ICs receiving input signals with voltage levels lower than VSS, the N well 661 is floated to prevent forward bias of the parasitic diode formed by the junction between the P substrate 662 and N well 661 , which makes the silicon controlled rectifier 66 easy to be unintentionally triggered on. This results in latch-up issue to the circuit. A low voltage triggered PNP (LVTPNP) technology disclosed in a pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/383,643 which now is a publication No. 2004/0085691, just provides an internal circuit with an ESD protection from input signals with voltage level either higher than VDD or lower than Vss, by way of a floating region such as “N+” without usage of any other external trigger signal applied thereon. The disclosure of which is incorporated here. However, since the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP has a higher potential, therefore results in slowing down the conduction speed of the LVTPNP. The internal circuit is still easy to be directly damaged by the ESD stress if ESD current is not able to pass through the LVTPNP in time to the ground. Furthermore, the on-stage high voltage of the LVTPNP device facilitate heat energy rise and may burn itself out at last to result in lost in ESD protection. Conventional ESD protection circuitry is located between the input pads and the ground potential, VSS and the high voltage, VDD. However, there continues to be a need to prevent damage to the internal circuitry from the increased power supply voltage associated with electrostatic discharge. Thus, it is necessary to design a power clamp circuit disposed between VDD and VSS. As known, a variety of power clamp circuits have been widely used in ICs. These clamp circuits consist of a primary device to carry the current and a control circuit to condition the primary conduction device to conduct during an ESD event, but not conduct under normal IC operation. The primary conduction devices that have previously been used in CMOS ICs are the NMOS transistor, the PMOS transistor, and a special device called as silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). Puar in U.S. Pat. No. 5,287,241 describes an ESD network using a PMOS clamp circuit. Ker in U.S. Pat. No. 6,011,681 used an SCR clamp. Each of these primary conduction devices has their respective advantages and disadvantages. The NMOS transistor has a high conductivity, but is itself susceptible to damage by the ESD event. The PMOS transistor is more rugged than the NMOS type, but the PMOS is less than half the conductivity per unit area when compared to the NMOS type. The SCR is both highly conductive and rugged, but difficult to appropriately control. Maloney in U.S. Pat. No. 5,530,612 discusses diodes that function as clamp circuits that result in parasitic PNP transistors for use between isolated power buses. The clamp circuit requires that the control circuitry be relatively simple, spatially compact, electrically rugged, and also reliable, triggering the conduction of the primary conduction device only during the ESD event. The primary feature of most ESD control circuits is their use of the fast transient nature of the ESD event to trigger the conduction device. The control circuits switch the conducting device to the conducting state when the power bus to ground bus potential increases faster than a certain rate and the increase is greater than a certain value. In some cases, the clamp circuit may become conductive simply when a certain power bus to ground bus potential is exceeded. Dugan in U.S. Pat. No. 5,311,391 describes improvements to the control circuitry and thereby reaching minimum of triggering the ESD conducting device when the IC is in normal operation, but results in consuming additional area and circuit complexity. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide an ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit to facilitate efficient trigger on of each of LVTPNP in I/O circuit of an integrated circuit under ESD stress, by way of lowering threshold voltage and enhancing trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP thereby achieving high ESD ability and less silicon area. It is another object of the present invention to provide an ESD protection unit utilizing an ESD clamp circuit to facilitate efficient trigger-on of each of LVTPNP in power supply circuit of an integrated circuit under ESD stress by way of lowering threshold voltage and enhance trigger-on speed of the LVTPNP thereby achieving high ESD ability and less silicon area. In order to achieve the above-mentioned objects, an ESD protection unit incorporating an RC detection circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, with an ESD path from an I/O pad to a high voltage node VDD pin and a low voltage node VSS pin, comprises a first ESD detection circuit respectively connecting to the I/O pad and an N-trigger LVTPNP with an emitter connecting to the VDD pin and a collector connecting to the I/O pad, a second ESD detection circuit respectively connecting to the I/O pad and a P-trigger LVTPNP with an emitter connecting to the I/O pad and a collector connecting to the VSS pin, and an isolation device interconnected between the collector of the N-trigger LVTPNP and the I/O pad. Furthermore, the drain output of the first ESD detection circuit is connected to an N-trigger node of the LVTPNP. The N-trigger LVTPNP shuts down in a normal operation but is speedily triggered on by a higher potential-level output (now the voltage of the N-trigger node is lower than the collector) generated form the first ESD detection circuit in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the I/O pad and the VDD pin. The drain output of the second ESD detection circuit is connected to a P-trigger node of the LVTPNP device. The P-trigger LVTPNP shuts down in a normal operation but is speedily triggered on by a lower potential-level output (now the voltage of the P-trigger node is higher than the collector) generated from the second ESD detection circuit in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the I/O pad and the VSS pin. The isolation device is a diode with its negative node connected with the I/O pad and with its positive node connected with the collector of the N-trigger LVTPNP. The first and second ESD detection circuits each respectively comprise an RC delay circuit and an NMOS/a PMOS transistor controlled by said RC delay circuit. An ESD protection unit incorporating power clamp circuit in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention for protecting a CMOS integrated internal circuit, at least part of which comprises a circuit high voltage power supply VDD pin and a ground supply VSS pin, comprises a trigger circuit coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin to detect a power supply voltage, and a LVTPNP device coupled between the VDD pin and the VSS pin. The trigger circuit is utilized to generate a trigger signal in response to an ESD stress that occurs between the VDD pin and the VSS pin. The LVTPNP device includes a trigger node connected to the output of the trigger circuit so that an ESD current between the VDD pin and the VSS pin can be discharged to the ground supply VSS by way of applying the trigger signal on the trigger node of the LVTPNP device. In Another embodiment, a plurality of diodes are capable of further being interconnected between the collector of the LVTPNP device and the VSS pin and/or between the emitter of the LVTPNP device and the VDD pin. Hence, the ESD protection circuit according to the present invention, incorporating either an RC detection circuit or the ESD power clamp circuit to facilitate efficient trigger on of LVTPNP devices among the I/O pad, the VDD pin and the VSS pin. Each LVTPNP device can be speedily triggered on by way of applying a trigger signal from either an RC detection circuit or the ESD power clamp circuit on a trigger node of the LVTPNP device to reduce the threshold voltage of the LVTPNP devices upon an ESD stress occurs. | 20050112 | 20070710 | 20060713 | 66790.0 | H02H900 | 0 | ROMAN, LUIS ENRIQUE | ESD PROTECTION UNIT WITH ABILITY TO ENHANCE TRIGGER-ON SPEED OF LOW VOLTAGE TRIGGERED PNP | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | H02H | 2,005 |
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11,033,538 | ACCEPTED | Tampering detector and system disabler | A vehicle disablement device detects whether it has been tampered with. If the vehicle disablement device determines that it has been tampered with, the vehicle disablement device sends a signal to a tamper disabler. The tamper disabler is then able to disable the vehicle in the same manner in which the vehicle disablement device disables the vehicle. Accordingly, the vehicle may be disabled even when the vehicle disablement device is tampered with. | 1-15. (canceled) 16. A system for disabling equipment comprising: an equipment disablement device, wherein the equipment disablement device disables the equipment if a payment is not made on the equipment prior to a payment due date; and a tamper disabler which receives a signal from the equipment disablement device if the equipment disablement device detects it is being tampered with and which disables the equipment. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein the tamper disabler further comprises: a backup power source for powering the tamper disabler if a primary source of power for the tamper disabler fails. 18. The system of claim 16, wherein the equipment is a vehicle. 19. A method for disabling a equipment comprising the steps of: determining whether an equipment disablement device is being tampered with; sending a signal to a tamper disabler if it is determined that the equipment disablement device is being tampered with; and disabling, by the tamper disabler, equipment if it is determined that the equipment disablement device is being tampered with, wherein the equipment disablement device is connected to a critical system and disables the critical system if a payment is not made prior to a payment due date. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the equipment disablement device performs the determining and sending steps. 21. The method of claim 19, wherein another device performs the determining and sending steps. 22. A method for disabling a vehicle comprising the steps of: determining, by a vehicle disablement device, whether a date has passed; determining, if the date has passed, whether a code which corresponds to the date has been entered into the device; determining, if the code has been entered into the device or if the date has not passed, whether the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with; sending a signal to a tamper disabler to disable a critical system of the vehicle if the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with. | The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/236,392 “Automatic Code System, GETIT, Tamper Proof” to Michael Simon filed Sep. 29, 2000 and to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/288,795 “Tampering Detector and System Disabler” to Michael Simon filed on May 7, 2001, the disclosure of both of these are herein expressly incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is related to systems and methods for disabling equipment in response to the failure of a user to perform a specific task. More particulary, the present invention is related to systems and methods for preventing tampering with systems which disable a vehicle in response to the failure of a user to enter a code that corresponds with a stored code in the vehicle. Typically, monthly payments to utility companies are made with very high reliability. This is partly due to the threat of service cut-off. For example, failure to pay a telephone bill will result in loss of telephone services. Thus, telephone bills are paid regularly because failure to do so has immediate and tangible results. Monthly payments on an automobile loan, for example, are not likely to be paid as regularly. Although an automobile may be repossessed, the process is expensive and complex. Thus, the threat of repossession is less immediate than telephone service cut-off. To encourage reliable loan re-payments, it is desirable to have a “service” cut-off for equipment subject to the loan, such as an automobile. Conventional systems to encourage reliable loan re-payments interrupt the ignition system of an automobile on a regular, timed interval. To re-enable the automobile, a user is required to return to a payment center, make a payment, and have an agent reset the interrupt mechanism for a renewed timed interval. The system can only be reset by an authorized agent as it requires a key held in escrow at the payment center. While such a system is effective in encouraging users to repay their loans in a timely fashion, it has extreme overhead considerations. For example, the system requires a user to travel to the payment center each payment period of the loan in order to re-enable the automobile. In addition, a user must arrive at the payment center during its customer service hours. Still further, a user may have to wait to receive the attention of the first available agent at the payment center. One solution to these problems is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,195,648, entitled “Loan Repay Enforcement System” issued on Feb. 27, 2001 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/397,132, entitled “Time Based Disablement of Equipment” filed on Sep. 16, 1999, both of which are incorporated in their entirety herein by reference. This patent and application describe systems and methods for disabling of equipment if a payment is not timely made. Specifically, a control module associated with the equipment stores a plurality of codes. In order to prevent disablement of the equipment, a code which corresponds to one of the stored plurality of codes must be entered prior to the expiration of a payment period. In order to receive a code, timely payment must be received and logged in a payment center. If a vehicle disablement device is tampered with or removed, it may be possible to continue to operate the vehicle without having made a proper payment. If it is possible to operate the vehicle without having made a proper payment, the intention of the vehicle disablement device has been overcome. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide techniques which, in the case that a disablement device is tampered with or removed, the vehicle is still prevented from operating. SUMMARY OF INVENTION The above-identified and other deficiencies of prior methods and systems for preventing tampering with a vehicle disablement device. The vehicle disablement device detects whether it has been tampered with. If the vehicle disablement device determines that it has been tampered with, the vehicle disablement device sends a signal to a tamper disabler. The tamper disabler is then able to disable the vehicle in the same manner in which the vehicle disablement device disables the vehicle. Accordingly, the vehicle may be disabled even when the vehicle disablement device is tampered with. In accordance with the present invention, a vehicle disablement device determines whether a date has passed. If the date has passed then the vehicle disablement device determines whether a code which corresponds to the date has been entered into the device. If the code has been entered into the device or if the date has not passed then it is determined whether the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with. If the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with, then a signal is sent to a tamper disabler to disable a critical system of the vehicle. The vehicle disablement device can communicate through a hard-wire connection, or a wireless connection. Using the tampering detector of the present invention, prevents operation of a vehicle when a vehicle disablement device, which is intended to ensure payment for the vehicle, is tampered with. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS These and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become better understood with regard to the following description, appended claims and drawings where: FIG. 1 illustrates a vehicle with a vehicle disablement device and a tamper disabler device in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates the relationship between a vehicle disablement device, a critical system and a tamper disabler in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention; and FIG. 3 illustrates a method for tamper disablement in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In accordance with each of the exemplary embodiments of the invention, there is provided apparatus for and methods of a tamper proof disablement of equipment. It will be appreciated that each of the embodiments described include both an apparatus and a method and that the apparatus and method of one exemplary embodiment may be different than the apparatus and method of another exemplary embodiment. FIG. 1 illustrates a vehicle with a vehicle disablement device and a tamper disabler device in accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention. As illustrated in FIG. 1, a vehicle 110 is equipped with a vehicle disablement device 120 and a tamper disabler 130. In accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention, when it is detected that the vehicle disablement device 120 has been tampered with, a wireless signal is sent from the vehicle disablement device 120 to the tamper disabler 130. The wireless signal can be a radio frequency signal, an infrared signal or any other known type of wireless signal. By sending a wireless signal from the vehicle disablement device 120 to the tamper disabler 130, the tamper disabler can be located in any portion of vehicle 110. Further, since there are no wires connecting vehicle disablement device 120 and tamper disabler 130, it is difficult for a person who is attempting tamper with vehicle disablement device 120, from discovering the existence, let alone the location, of tamper disabler 130. Alternatively, vehicle disablement device 120 and tamper disabler 130 can be connected by a hard-wire connection. FIG. 2 illustrates the relationship between a vehicle disablement 130 device, a critical system of a vehicle and a tamper disabler. As illustrated in FIG. 2, both the vehicle disablement device 120 and the tamper disabler are connected to a critical system 210 of a vehicle. Accordingly, if vehicle disablement device 120 is tampered with such that the device can no longer disable critical system 210, tamper disabler 130, upon receipt of a signal from vehicle disablement device 120, can still disable a critical system 210 of a vehicle. Since vehicle disablement device 120 may be powered by the vehicle, removing the vehicle disablement device 120 from the vehicle, e.g., by cutting the wires connecting the vehicle disablement device to the vehicle, the vehicle disablement device may no longer have power to send the signal to tamper disabler 130. In accordance with exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the vehicle disablement device can be provided with a battery with a sufficient amount of power for sending the tamper disabling signal to the tamper disabler 130 in case the main source of power to the vehicle disablement device is removed. In accordance with another exemplary embodiment of the present invention, the vehicle disablement device may store power it has received from the vehicle such that when the vehicle's power to the vehicle disablement device 120 is removed the vehicle disablement device 120 can still transmit the tamper disabling signal. In accordance with a further embodiment of the present invention, vehicle disablement device 120 can be powered by solar cells. The vehicle disablement device 120 can store this power via a capacitor, a rechargeable battery or any other known means for storing power. Since the vehicle disablement device 120 will only need to transmit the tamper disablement signal immediately after a tamper is detected, the amount of power that needs to be stored in the vehicle disablement device can be quite minimal. FIG. 3 illustrates an exemplary method in accordance with the present invention. Initially, the vehicle disablement device determines whether it has detected a tampering (step 310). In accordance with the present invention there are many techniques for detecting a tampering. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, the vehicle disablement device can detect a tampering by determining whether its power from the vehicle has been interrupted. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, the tampering can be detected based upon movement of the vehicle disablement device. Typically the vehicle disablement device will be securely mounted in a vehicle. Accordingly, if a movement, other than normal movements due to driving, is detected the vehicle disablement device can determine that a tampering is taking place. If the vehicle disablement device does not detect tampering (“NO” path out of decision step 310), the vehicle disablement device continues to monitor for tampering. If, however, the vehicle disablement device detects tampering (“YES” path out of decision step 310), then the vehicle disablement device sends a signal to the tamper disabler (step 320). The tamper disabler then disables a critical system of the vehicle, thereby preventing operation of the vehicle (step 330). Although not illustrated in FIG. 3, the method can also include the steps of: the user inputting the code into a time-based equipment disablement device; the time based disablement device comparing the code received from the user with codes stored in memory; and if there is a match, storing an indication in the time-based disablement device that the code has been entered, thereby allowing the user to operate the equipment associated with the time-based disablement device until the date and/or time associated with a code which has not been entered has occurred. In addition, the method can include the steps of: determining whether a date and/or time has occurred; if the date and/or time has occurred, determining whether a code associated with the date and/or time has been input into the time-based equipment disablement device; disabling the equipment if the code has not been previously entered; and allowing the equipment to operate if the code has been previously entered. Further, the disablement device can include a plurality of lights, e.g., light emitting diodes, to indicate if the end of a payment period is upcoming. For example, a green light would indicate that no payment is due, a yellow light would indicate that a payment is due shortly, and a red light would indicate that a payment is due immediately or the equipment will be disabled. Further, the lights can blink at an increasing frequency the closer in time it is to a payment due deadline. In addition to the use of lights to indicate whether a payment is upcoming or due, an audible beep or other sound can be used to indicate such. For example, a single beep can be used to indicate that a payment is upcoming and a constant beep can indicate that a payment is passed due. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described in connection with particular types of vehicle disablement devices, it will be recognized that the present invention is equally applicable to any type of vehicle disablement devices. Further, although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described in connection with a vehicle disablement device, it will be recognized that the present invention is equally applicable to any type of disablement device. Additionally, although exemplary embodiments of the present invention were described in connection with loan payments, the present invention is equally applicable to any other type of financing arrangements including leases and the like. Moreover, although it has been described that the vehicle disablement device detects the tampering and sends a signal to the tamper disabler, another device can be used to perform the detecting and sending. In addition, the tamper disabler can perform the detecting, thereby obviating the sending step. Although the present invention has been described in considerable detail with clear and concise language and with reference to certain exemplary embodiments thereof including the best mode anticipated by the inventors, other versions are possible. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the invention should not be limited by the description of the exemplary embodiments contained therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is related to systems and methods for disabling equipment in response to the failure of a user to perform a specific task. More particulary, the present invention is related to systems and methods for preventing tampering with systems which disable a vehicle in response to the failure of a user to enter a code that corresponds with a stored code in the vehicle. Typically, monthly payments to utility companies are made with very high reliability. This is partly due to the threat of service cut-off. For example, failure to pay a telephone bill will result in loss of telephone services. Thus, telephone bills are paid regularly because failure to do so has immediate and tangible results. Monthly payments on an automobile loan, for example, are not likely to be paid as regularly. Although an automobile may be repossessed, the process is expensive and complex. Thus, the threat of repossession is less immediate than telephone service cut-off. To encourage reliable loan re-payments, it is desirable to have a “service” cut-off for equipment subject to the loan, such as an automobile. Conventional systems to encourage reliable loan re-payments interrupt the ignition system of an automobile on a regular, timed interval. To re-enable the automobile, a user is required to return to a payment center, make a payment, and have an agent reset the interrupt mechanism for a renewed timed interval. The system can only be reset by an authorized agent as it requires a key held in escrow at the payment center. While such a system is effective in encouraging users to repay their loans in a timely fashion, it has extreme overhead considerations. For example, the system requires a user to travel to the payment center each payment period of the loan in order to re-enable the automobile. In addition, a user must arrive at the payment center during its customer service hours. Still further, a user may have to wait to receive the attention of the first available agent at the payment center. One solution to these problems is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,195,648, entitled “Loan Repay Enforcement System” issued on Feb. 27, 2001 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/397,132, entitled “Time Based Disablement of Equipment” filed on Sep. 16, 1999, both of which are incorporated in their entirety herein by reference. This patent and application describe systems and methods for disabling of equipment if a payment is not timely made. Specifically, a control module associated with the equipment stores a plurality of codes. In order to prevent disablement of the equipment, a code which corresponds to one of the stored plurality of codes must be entered prior to the expiration of a payment period. In order to receive a code, timely payment must be received and logged in a payment center. If a vehicle disablement device is tampered with or removed, it may be possible to continue to operate the vehicle without having made a proper payment. If it is possible to operate the vehicle without having made a proper payment, the intention of the vehicle disablement device has been overcome. Accordingly, it would be desirable to provide techniques which, in the case that a disablement device is tampered with or removed, the vehicle is still prevented from operating. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>The above-identified and other deficiencies of prior methods and systems for preventing tampering with a vehicle disablement device. The vehicle disablement device detects whether it has been tampered with. If the vehicle disablement device determines that it has been tampered with, the vehicle disablement device sends a signal to a tamper disabler. The tamper disabler is then able to disable the vehicle in the same manner in which the vehicle disablement device disables the vehicle. Accordingly, the vehicle may be disabled even when the vehicle disablement device is tampered with. In accordance with the present invention, a vehicle disablement device determines whether a date has passed. If the date has passed then the vehicle disablement device determines whether a code which corresponds to the date has been entered into the device. If the code has been entered into the device or if the date has not passed then it is determined whether the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with. If the vehicle disablement device has been tampered with, then a signal is sent to a tamper disabler to disable a critical system of the vehicle. The vehicle disablement device can communicate through a hard-wire connection, or a wireless connection. Using the tampering detector of the present invention, prevents operation of a vehicle when a vehicle disablement device, which is intended to ensure payment for the vehicle, is tampered with. | 20050112 | 20080617 | 20050623 | 62466.0 | 1 | GOINS, DAVETTA WOODS | TAMPERING DETECTOR AND SYSTEM DISABLER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,601 | ACCEPTED | Cash dispensing ATM system with multiple entity interface | An automated banking machine (12) is operative to conduct transactions in response to HTML documents and TCP/IP messages exchanged with a local computer system (14) through an intranet (16), as well as in response to messages exchanged with foreign servers (20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 96) in a wide area network (18). The banking machine includes a computer (34) having an HTML document handling portion (76, 80, 82) including one or more browsers. The HTML document handling portion is operative to communicate through a proxy server (88), with a home HTTP server (90) in the intranet or the foreign servers in the wide area network. The computer further includes a device application portion (84) which interfaces with the HTML document handling portion and dispatches messages to operate devices (36) in the automated banking machine. The devices include a sheet dispenser mechanism (42) which dispenses currency as well as other transaction function devices. The device application portion communicates with a device interfacing software portion (64) in the banking machine through a device server (92) in the intranet. The device server maintains local control over the devices in the banking machine including the sheet dispenser. The banking machine operates to read indicia on the user's card corresponding to a network address. The computer is operative to connect the banking machine to the home or foreign server corresponding to the network address, which connected server operates the banking machine to conduct transactions by the user. The customer is enabled to operate the banking machine using a familiar interface. The machine may also connect to other applications to provide the customer with promotional material or additional transaction options. | 1. a method of operating a cash dispensing automated banking machine comprising the steps of: a) causing through operation of at least one processor of an automated banking machine which includes a cash dispenser, a card reader of the machine to read data from a card which corresponds to an entity with which a customer operating the machine has an account; b) providing through operation of the at least one processor at least one visual output through a display device on the automated banking machine, which at least one visual output uniquely corresponds to the entity with which the customer has the account. 2-27. (canceled) 28. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: c) prior to (b) accessing at least one document at a URL address, wherein the URL address is determined responsive to the data read in step (a). wherein step (b) includes providing the at least one visual output through operation of a browser operating in the at least one processor responsive to the at least one document accessed in (c) 29. The method according to claim 28 comprising: d) causing, through operation of the browser and the at least one processor, generation of a plurality of visual screens associated with a cash dispense transaction, which visual screens are output through the display device, wherein at least one of the visual screens includes the at least one visual output provided in (b); and e) causing through operating of the at least one processor, the cash dispenser to dispense cash. 30. An article bearing instructions executable by at least one processor in an automated banking machine, which instructions are operative to cause the automated banking machine to carry out the method steps recited in claim 1. 31. A method of operating a cash dispensing automated banking machine comprising: a) reading card indicia on a card presented by a customer to the automated banking machine through operation of at least one reader of the machine, the card indicia including entity data corresponding to an entity with which the customer has an account, and wherein the automated banking machine includes at least one computer and a cash dispenser; b) causing, through operation of the at least one computer, network address data to be resolved responsive to the entity data and data stored in a data store in operative connection with the at least one processor; c) operating browser software in the at least one computer of the automated banking machine responsive to the resolved network address data, to access at least one document at least one network address in a network, wherein the network address accessed corresponds to an address of a server adapted to deliver the at least one document, wherein the at least one document corresponds to the entity with which the customer has the account; d) causing, through operation of the at least one computer, a plurality of visual screens associated with a banking transaction to be output through a display device of the machine, including: causing, through operation of the browser software responsive to the at least one document, at least one visual output to be included in at least one of the screens, which visual output is uniquely associated with the entity with which the customer has the account. 32. The method according to claim 31 and further comprising: e) providing a plurality of servers, each server being associated with one of a plurality of entities with which customers operating the automated banking machine have accounts, each server being in operative connection with the at least one network and having a corresponding network address, each server being adapted to deliver at least one document corresponding to the entity with which it is associated; repeating steps (a) through (d) for each card presented by a customer at the automated banking machine, whereby each customer card is operative to cause the browser software to cause the at least one computer to communicate with a server including the at least one document corresponding to the entity with which the respective customer has their account. 33. The method according to claim 31, wherein in (d) the banking transaction corresponds to a cash dispense transaction, and further comprising: e) causing through operation of the at least one computer, the cash dispenser to dispense cash. 34. An article bearing instructions executable by at least one computer in an automated banking machine operative to cause the automated banking machine to carry out the method steps recited in claim 31. 35. A cash dispensing automated banking machine system comprising: a plurality of institution servers, each institution server associated with one of a plurality of financial institutions, wherein each institution server has at least one unique network address, and wherein each institution server is operative to deliver at least one document associated with the respective institution; at least one network in operative connection with each of the plurality of institution servers; at least one automated banking machine, wherein the at least one banking machine includes at least one computer having browser software operating therein, a card reader, a display device, and a cash dispenser in operative connection with the at least one computer; wherein the automated banking machine is operative responsive to reading card indicia on a card read through operation of the card reading device, to cause the browser software to cause the at least one computer to communicate through the at least one network with a network address of an institution server corresponding to the card indicia, wherein the at least one computer is operative responsive to the browser software to process at least one document accessed through the institution server, and to cause a visual output responsive to the document to be provided through the display device of the automated banking machine. 36. The system according to claim 35, wherein the at least one computer is operative to cause a plurality of visual screens to be output through the display device of the machine which are associated with a banking transaction, wherein at least one of the visual screens includes the visual output. 37. The system according to claim 36, wherein the automated banking machine includes an input device, wherein the at least one visual output is associated with at least one input capable of being input through the input device, wherein the at least one computer is operative responsive to the at least one input received through the input device to cause the cash dispenser to dispense cash. 38. The system according to claim 35 wherein the card indicia includes a BIN number, and wherein the automated banking machine is operative to resolve the network address responsive to the BIN number. | TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to automated banking machines. Specifically this invention relates to an automated banking machine apparatus and system that is capable of use in a wide area network, which provides a user with a familiar interface from their home institution at banking machines operated by other institutions, and which provides greater options for machine outputs. BACKGROUND ART Automated banking machines are well known. A common type of automated banking machine used by consumers is an automated teller machine (“ATM”). ATMs enable customers to carry out banking transactions. Common banking transactions that may be carried out with ATMs include the dispensing of cash, the receipt of deposits, the transfer of funds between accounts, the payment of bills and account balance inquiries. The type of banking transactions a customer can carry out are determined by capabilities of the particular banking machine and the programming of the institution operating the machine. Other types of automated banking machines may allow customers to charge against accounts or to transfer funds. Other types of automated banking machines may print or dispense items of value such as coupons, tickets, wagering slips, vouchers, checks, food stamps, money orders, scrip or travelers checks. For purposes of this disclosure an automated banking machine or automated transaction machine shall encompass any device which carries out transactions including transfers of value. Currently ATMs are operated in proprietary communications networks. These networks interconnect ATMs operated by financial institutions and other entities. The interconnection of the networks often enables a user to use a banking machine operated by another institution if the foreign institution's banking machine is interconnected with the network that includes the user's institution. However when the customer operates the foreign institution's machine the customer must operate the machine using the customer interface that has been established by the foreign institution for its banking machines. In addition the user is limited to the transaction options provided by the foreign institution. A customer may encounter difficulties when using a foreign institution's machine. Problems may occur because the user is not familiar with the type of machine operated by the foreign institution. Confusion may result because the customer does not know which buttons or other mechanisms to actuate to accomplish the desired transactions. The transaction flow for a customer at a foreign institution machine may be significantly different from machines operated by the user's home institution. This may be particularly a problem when the user is from another country and is not familiar with the type of banking machine or the language of the interface provided by the foreign institution. Likewise, the documents which are printed by printers in an automated banking machine are generally limited to a limited group of defined formats in a single language. A foreign institution may also provide different types of transactions than the user is familiar with at their home institution. For example the user's home institution may enable the transfer of funds between accounts through their automated banking machines, to enable the user to maintain funds in higher interest bearing accounts until they are needed. If the foreign institution does not provide this capability, the user will be unable to do this when operating the foreign machine. The inability of a user at a foreign machine to conduct the transactions that they are accustomed to may present problems. The networks that operate automated teller machines and other types of automated banking machines generally operate proprietary networks to which access is restricted. This is necessary to prevent fraud or tampering with the network or user's accounts. Proprietary networks are also generally used for the transmission of credit card messages and other financial transaction messages. Access to such credit card processing systems is also restricted primarily for purposes of maintaining security. Communication over wide area networks enables messages to be communicated between distant locations. The best known wide area network is the Internet which can be used to provide communication between computers throughout the world. The Internet has not been as widely used for financial transaction messages because it is not a secure system. Messages intended for receipt at a particular computer address may be intercepted at other addresses without detection. Because the messages may be intercepted at locations that are distant in the world from the intended recipient, there is potential for fraud and corruption. Companies are beginning to provide approaches for more secure transmission of messages on the Internet. Encryption techniques are also being applied to Internet messages. However the openness of the Internet has limited its usefulness for purposes of financial messages, particularly financial messages associated with the operation of automated banking machines. Messages in wide area networks may be communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol (“TCP/IP”). U.S. Pat. No. 5,706,422 shows an example of a system in which financial information stored in databases is accessed through a private wide area network using TCP/IP messages. The messages transmitted in such networks which use TCP/IP may include “documents” (also called “pages”). Such documents are produced in Hypertext Markup Language (“HTML”) which reference to mark up language herein being to a type of programming language used to produce documents with commands or “tags” therein. The tags are codes which define features and/or operations of the document such as fonts, layout, imbedded graphics and hypertext links. Mark up language documents such as HTML documents are processed or read through use of a computer program referred to as a “browser”. The tags tell the browser how to process and control what is seen on a screen and/or is heard on speakers connected to the computer running the browser when the document is processed. HTML documents may be transmitted over a network through the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (“HTTP”). The term “Hypertext” is a reference to the ability to embed links into the text of a document that allow communication to other documents which can be accessed in the network. Thus there exists a need for an automated banking machine and system that can be used in a wide area network such as the Internet while providing a high level of security. There further exists a need for an automated banking machine and system which provides a user with the familiar interface and transaction options of their home institution when operating foreign institution machines. There further exists a need for a machine which may provide more transaction options and types of promotional and printed materials to users. DISCLOSURE OF INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine at which a user may conduct transactions. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that may be operated through connection to a wide area network. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine and system that provides a user with a familiar interface and transaction options of their home institution at machines operated by foreign institutions. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that communicates using HTML documents and TCP/IP messages. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that enables the connection of the banking machine to a user's home institution through mark up language documents and TCP/IP messages generated responsive to indicia on a card input by a user. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine and system that accomplishes transactions over a wide area network while maintaining a high level of security. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine and system that controls connection of the banking machine to foreign addresses through a proxy server. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that limits the operation of devices in the machine through a local device server. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine and system that is operable through connection to the Internet. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that may be used to provide a user with more types of messages including messages targeted to particular users. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine which is capable of providing users with a wider variety of printed documents. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine which provides additional options for identifying authorized users. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine that can be used in connection with existing transaction systems while providing enhanced functionality. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine which provides enhanced diagnostic and service capabilities. It is a further object of the present invention to provide an automated banking machine which performs transactions at a rapid pace. It is a further object of the present invention to provide improved systems in which automated banking machines are used. It is a further object of the present invention to provide improved methods of operation for automated banking machines and systems. Further objects of the present invention will be made apparent in the following Best Modes for Carrying Out Invention and the appended Claims. The foregoing objects are accomplished in an exemplary embodiment of the invention by an automated banking machine that includes output devices such as a display screen, and input devices such as a touch screen and/or a keyboard. The banking machine further includes devices such as a dispenser mechanism for sheets of currency, a printer mechanism, a card reader/writer, a depository mechanism and other transaction function devices that are used by the machine in carrying out banking transactions. The banking machine is in operative connection with at least one computer. The computer is in operative connection with the output devices and the input devices, as well as with the sheet dispenser mechanism, card reader and other physical transaction function devices in the banking machine. The computer includes software programs that are executable therein. The software includes a document handling portion for handling HTML or other documents. The document handling portion operates to send and receive HTML documents and HTTP messages. The HTML document handling portion is preferably in operative connection with the output device to display screens including hypertext link indicators. The document handling portion is also preferably in operative connection with the input device which enables user selection and the generation of response messages from the computer. The document handling portion preferably operates in connection with a JAVA software environment and has the capability of executing instructions in JAVA script transmitted with documents. The software in the computer of the exemplary embodiment further preferably includes a device application portion. The device application portion includes software that is operative to control the sheet dispenser and other devices. In the exemplary form of the invention the device application portion includes a plurality of JAVA applets for operating devices in the machine. The computer in the exemplary automated banking machine further includes a device interfacing software portion. The device interfacing software portion operates to receive messages from the device application portion and to cause the devices to operate through appropriate hardware interfaces. In one exemplary form of the automated banking machine, the document handling portion, device application portion and device interfacing software portion each reside on the same computer and communicate at different IP ports. The automated banking machine of the invention in one exemplary configuration communicates using TCP/IP messages in an intranet which includes a plurality of such machines. The intranet is in turn connected to at least one computer which is operated by a home institution. The home institution is the entity that operates the banking machines. The computer of the home institution preferably includes a home HTTP server, a proxy server and a device server. The proxy server communicates through the intranet with the document handling portion of the software in each of the banking machines. The proxy server is also connectable to a wide area network, such as the Internet, to which foreign servers are connected. The device server is operative to pass messages between the device application portion and the device interfacing software portion of the banking machines. The device server may include monitor software which monitors and selectively limits the use and operation of the devices in the banking machine. This provides a level of security. The automated banking machine and system of an exemplary embodiment is operative to place a user in connection with the institution where they have their accounts. This can be either the home institution that operates the banking machine where the user is present, or a foreign institution which is connected to the wide area network. To operate the banking machine a user provides inputs which correspond to an address, such as a URL address, through an address input device. The document handling portion operates to cause the banking machine to be connected to the server corresponding to that address. This may be accomplished in an exemplary embodiment by the user having indicia representative of the address on a card that is read by a card reader in the banking machine, or other input device which identifies the user or an institution or entity with which the user has accounts. The document handling portion is responsive to the address on the card or other input data to connect through the proxy server to the user's institution. If the user's home institution address corresponds to the home server, the banking machine operates responsive to messages from the home server. If however the user's input address corresponds to an address of a foreign server, the proxy server is operative to communicate through the wide area network with the foreign server at the customer's home institution. If the customer causes the machine to connect a server operated by a foreign institution, the documents sent from the foreign institution correspond to those normally provided by the foreign institution. As a result the customer is familiar with the interface produced by these documents and will be able to more readily operate the banking machine. The foreign server or home server operates the banking machine by sending documents that include instructions which enable operation of the devices in the banking machine. The instructions are transmitted from the document handling portion to the device application portion of the software, which operates the devices in response to the instructions. The instructions from the device application portion to the devices in the automated banking machine are passed through the device server of the home institution. This helps to maintain security. In addition, the proxy server may include screening software which limits the foreign servers which may connect to and operate the banking machine. This is referred to as a “fire wall.” Embodiments of the present invention also provide enhanced user interfaces and for the printing of a wide variety of documents with the banking machine. The invention also enables achieving enhanced functionality while utilizing existing transaction networks and automated transaction machines. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a network configuration including an exemplary embodiment of the automated banking machine apparatus and system of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the exemplary embodiment of an automated banking machine of the present invention. FIGS. 3 through 24 show schematic views of the automated banking machine, an intranet connecting the banking machine to a computer system of a home bank and a wide area network connecting the computer system of the home bank to a foreign bank. FIGS. 3 through 18 schematically represent steps in a transaction carried out at the banking machine with the computer system of the home bank. FIGS. 19 through 24 schematically represent steps in a transaction carried out at the banking machine with the computer system of the foreign bank. FIG. 25 is a schematic view of a network configuration including an alternative embodiment of the automated banking machine of the present invention. FIG. 26 is a schematic view of frames in the HTML document handling portion of the alternative embodiment of the automated banking machine shown in FIG. 25. FIG. 27 is a schematic view of a customer interface of an automated banking machine and the function keys and keypad keys included in the interface. FIGS. 28-30 schematically represent exemplary steps in converting function key and keypad key inputs to keyboard stream and mouse stream inputs. FIG. 31 schematically represents exemplary steps in printing documents with the automated banking machine. FIG. 32 is a screen output representing combined outputs from five browsers operated in an automated banking machine. FIG. 33 is a screen output representing outputs from three browsers operating in an automated banking machine. FIG. 34 is a screen output representing outputs from nine browsers operating in an automated banking machine. FIG. 35 is a screen output representing outputs from two browsers operating in an automated banking machine. BEST MODES FOR CARRYING OUT INVENTION Referring now to the drawings and particularly to FIG. 1, there is shown therein a network configuration schematically indicated 10, which includes the automated banking machine apparatus and system of one exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Network 10 includes a plurality of automated banking machines 12 which in the exemplary system are ATMs. ATMs 12 are connected to a computer system of a home bank schematically indicated 14. Home bank computer system 14 is the computer system that is operated by the bank or other institution which has primary responsibility for the ATMs 12. Home bank computer system 14 is connected to the ATMs 12 through an intranet 16. Intranet 16 is preferably a local or proprietary network that provides communication between the computer system 14 and the banking machines 12 using messages in the transmission control protocol/internet protocol (“TCP/IP”) format. The messages that are communicated through the intranet 16 in the exemplary embodiment are preferably TCP/IP messages and hypertext mark up language (“HTML”) documents. In one exemplary embodiment of the invention the HTML documents sent through intranet 16 include embedded object oriented programming instructions, preferably in the JAVA® format which has been developed by Sun Microsystems. The messages sent through intranet 16 may be sent in an encrypted or unencrypted form depending on the nature of the system and the security needs of the home bank. It should be understood that embodiments of the invention may process other forms of documents which include tags or instructions therein. For example a form of “extended” HTML (“XML”) has recently been developed which may be used in embodiments of the invention. For purposes of the invention all such forms of languages and variants which include documents, which documents include instructions therein shall be referred to as mark up language documents. Likewise, while JAVA® is used in the described embodiment, other programming languages may be used. For example, Active-X™ developed by Microsoft Corporation or other languages may be used in other embodiments. Further it should be understood that the instructions included in documents may be operative to cause a computer to access other documents, records or files at other addresses to obtain a program to carry out an operation. Home bank computer system 14 is also connectable as shown to a wide area network 18. In some embodiments of the invention the wide area network 18 is the Internet. In other embodiments of the invention, other wide area networks may be used. The wide area network preferably communicates messages in TCP/IP between numerous computer systems connected to the wide area network. These foreign computer systems are schematically represented by servers 20, 22, 24, 26 and 28. It should be understood that servers 20 through 28 may be operated by or connected to other financial institutions throughout the world. Servers 20 through 28 preferably operate by communicating mark up language documents and other HTTP messages. FIG. 2 shows a schematic view of the ATM 12 used in connection with one exemplary embodiment of the invention. ATM 12 includes a touch screen 30. Touch screen 30 includes a display screen which serves as an output device for communication with a user of the machine. Touch screen 30, because it is a touch screen, also serves as an input device for receiving input instructions from a user. Touch screen 30 is connected through an interface 32 to at least one computer 34 which is preferably housed within the machine. Alternative embodiments of the invention may include other types and/or additional output devices such as audio speakers. Computer 34 is also in connection with a plurality of transaction function devices 36 which are included in ATM 12. Devices 36 include for example, a reader such as a card reader/writer mechanism 38 and a keyboard 40. Devices 36 further include a sheet dispenser mechanism 42 which is operative to dispense sheets, which in some preferred forms of the invention are currency or bank notes. Devices 36 also include a depository 44 for accepting deposits into a secure location in the machine. Deposits in embodiments of the invention may include sheets such as notes and checks, and/or items of value housed in containers such as deposit envelopes. A receipt printer 46 for providing transaction receipts to customers is also included among devices 36. A journal printer 48 is also included among the devices for keeping a hard copy record of transaction information. In other embodiments other or additional transaction function devices which carry out other transaction functions may be used. Other embodiments may include fewer transaction function devices. It should be further understood that while the described embodiment of the invention is an automated banking machine, the principles of the invention may be employed in many types of transaction machines that do not necessarily carry out banking transactions. Each of the devices is operatively connected to an internal control bus 50 within the banking machine 12. The control bus 50 outputs the internal messages to the particular devices. Each device has an appropriate hardware interface which enables the particular device to operate to carry out its respective function in response to the messages transmitted to it on control bus 50. Card reader/writer 38 has a hardware interface schematically shown as 52. Hardware interfaces 54, 56, 58, 60 and 62 are respectively operative to connect keyboard 40, sheet dispenser mechanism 42, depository mechanism 44, receipt printer mechanism 46 and journal printer mechanism 48 to the control bus 50. Computer 34 has several software programs that are executable therein. In the exemplary embodiment of the invention these software programs include a device interfacing software portion generally indicated 64. Device interfacing software portion 64 preferably includes a software device interface 66 that causes the computer to communicate electronic messages through the control bus 50. The device interface software portion 64 also preferably includes a device manager 68. The device manager is preferably operative to manage the various devices 36 and to control their various states so as to be assured that they properly operate in sequence. The device manager is also preferably operative to communicate with software device objects so as to enable operation of the devices responsive to at least one object oriented program 70. Device interfacing software portion 64 also includes the object oriented program portion 70, which in one exemplary embodiment is an application written in the JAVA language. Program 70 works in conjunction with the device manager to receive messages which cause the devices to operate, and to transmit device operation messages indicative of a manner in which devices are operating and/or are receiving input data. The device interfacing software portion 64 in the described embodiment operates on computer 34 and communicates through a physical TCP/IP connection 72 with the intranet 16. The physical connection may be analog dial-up, serial port, ISDN connection or other suitable connection. In the configuration of the system as shown, device interfacing software portion 64 communicates at the IP address of computer 34 and at an IP port or socket indicated 74 that is different from the other software applications. In other embodiments of the invention, device interfacing software portion 64 may operate in a different computer than the other software applications. It should further be understood that although in the exemplary embodiment of the invention the device interfacing portion 64 is software, in other embodiments of the invention all or portions of the instruction steps executed by software portion 64 may be resident in firmware or in other program media in connection with one or more computers, which are operative to communicate with devices 36. For purposes of the invention all such forms of executable instructions shall be referred to as software. Other software also operates in computer 34. This software includes document handling software which includes a browser, schematically indicated 76. In one exemplary embodiment of the invention the document handling software includes a Netscape Navigator® browser provided by Netscape Communications. However in other embodiments other document handling and communicating software and browser software, such as Hot JAVA® by Sun Microsystems or Internet Explorer™ from Microsoft, may be used. Browsers used in embodiments of the invention may be operative to process documents and cause a computer to produce outputs that can be used to produce visible outputs on a screen, as well as other types of signals or messages. In the exemplary embodiment browser 76 communicates in computer 34 at an IP port indicated by 78. Browser 76 is in operative connection with JAVA environment software 80 which enables computer 34 to run JAVA language programs. JAVA language programs have the advantage that they may operate the same on a variety of hardware platforms without modification. This “write once/run anywhere” capability makes the JAVA environment well-suited for the described embodiment of the invention. However other embodiments may use different types of software programs. The JAVA environment software 80 enables computer 34 to execute instructions in JAVA script, schematically indicated 82. The instructions that are executed by the computer in JAVA script are preferably embedded JAVA script commands that are included in HTML documents which are received through the browser 76. In this exemplary embodiment the browser 76 in connection with the JAVA environment software 80 which executes instructions in the embedded JAVA script 82, serve as an HTML document handling software portion for transmitting and receiving HTML documents and TCP/IP messages through the IP port indicated by 78. In other embodiments other browsers and/or software may be used for handling HTML documents. Computer 34 also has software executable therein having a device application portion 84. The device application portion 84 contains executable instructions related to operation of the devices 36. In the exemplary embodiment of the invention, the device application portion includes a plurality of JAVA applets. In the described embodiment the applets are also preferably programs operable to control and keep track of the status of the devices with which they are associated. Certain applets are also preferably operable to configure the browser to communicate messages. Certain applets manage security and authenticate entities that use the ATM. In the described form of the invention, JAVA applets are associated with functions such as enabling the card reader mechanism, notifying the browser when a user's card data has been entered, operating the receipt printer mechanism, operating the journal printer mechanism, enabling the customer keyboard and receiving data input through the keyboard, operating the sheet dispenser mechanism, operating the depository, navigating to document addresses, timing device functions, verifying digital signatures, handling encryption of messages, controlling the mix of bills dispensed from multiple sheet dispenser mechanisms, calculating foreign exchange, and ending a transaction and instructing the browser to return to communication with the home server. Of course in other embodiments, other applets may be used to control devices and use data to carry out various desired functions with the machine. The device application portion 84 communicates in the computer 34 at an IP port indicated 86. In the described embodiment of the invention, the device application portion 84 of the software does not communicate its messages directly to the device interfacing software portion 64. As later explained, this is one approach to providing heightened security. However it should be understood that embodiments of the invention may provide for the device application portion 84 to directly communicate device operation messages to the device program 70. This may be done either internally using TCP/IP, by delivery of messages in a conventional manner through a queue established in the operating system of the computer that is associated with the software that interfaces with the devices, or by direct call to this software. From the foregoing discussion it will also be appreciated that certain applets in the device application 84 may correspond to devices which are not present in all automated teller machines. For example an automated teller machine that operates only as a cash dispenser does not include a depository mechanism like depository 44. To accommodate the situation where a user requests a transaction that is not physically possible with the ATM 12, the device interfacing software portion 64 may be programmed to provide an appropriate response message to indicate that the function is not available. Alternatively, the device interfacing software portion may include a function which checks for the presence or absence of each type of physical device within the ATM. Information indicative of the devices present in the ATM may be included as part of the messages generated by the ATM. For example, information indicative of the devices which are operative in the ATM may be included as a portion or several parts of the URL addresses to which messages are directed by the ATM. In this way, the URL in the server to which the ATM connects may be configured for providing only documents which correspond to the types of transactions that the ATM is capable of performing. As a result the browser avoids displaying documents which include references to transaction types that the machine is not capable of performing. Thus for example, a machine may avoid producing a display in response to a document which includes a reference to a deposit transaction if the machine does not include a depository. Alternatively the machine may include in memory, data representative of the functional devices included in the machine. This may include for example data representative of a plurality of devices in the machine and the configurations of such devices, or alternatively, a designator such as a machine number sufficient to identify the capabilities of the machine. The device data indicative of the functional devices in the machine is communicated to a server and the server is operative to deliver the appropriate documents for the devices present in the machine. This may be done based on the data corresponding to the device data from the machine or may be resolved from a memory which holds data representative of the functional devices in a machine associated with a particular designator. Documents selectively delivered by the server to the browser of the machine will include the appropriate references to the functional devices present in the machine. In alternative embodiments messages from the machine may indicate the type of transaction being requested or other information which corresponds to devices or transaction capabilities available at the particular machine where a transaction is requested by a customer. Documents accessed may be static documents or may be generated at run time from sub-documents or other data, to provide the appropriate outputs and instructions to the output devices of the transaction machine. FIG. 3 shows the ATM 12 in communication through the intranet 16 with the home bank computer system 14. Computer system 14 includes a proxy server 88. System 14 further includes a home HTTP server 90. Computer system 14 further includes a device server 92. The proxy server, home HTTP server and device server may be included in a single computer as shown, or in other embodiments may be separate computers. Additional servers may be operative in other embodiments. The home HTTP server 90 is preferably in communication with a data store and is in electronic communication with a back office computer system, schematically indicated 94. Back office computer system 94 is operative to keep track of debiting or crediting customers' accounts when they conduct transactions at the automated banking machines. In addition back office 94 is also preferably operative to track transactions for purposes of accomplishing settlements with other institutions who are participants in the system and whose customers conduct transactions at the ATMs 12. As later explained, proxy server 88 is also operative in the described embodiment to communicate through the wide area network 18 with foreign servers such as foreign server 96. Foreign server 96 is an example of a server operated by an institution or entity other than the institution which operates computer system 14. It should be understood that while foreign server 96 is indicated as operated by a “foreign” institution, this is not necessarily indicative that the institution is located in another country from the institution that operates computer system 14. However, it is possible that foreign server 96 could be located in such a foreign country, including a country in which the language spoken is different from that generally used in the country where ATM 12 is located. The conduct of transactions using the ATM 12 is now explained with reference to FIGS. 3-24. It should be understood that the following described transaction flows are merely examples of the operation of the apparatus and system, and the apparatus and system may be configured and operated in numerous ways to carry out transactions. At the start of an exemplary transaction, as schematically represented in FIG. 3, the browser 76 communicates through the intranet 16 with the proxy server 88. The communication is established preferably in a manner so that HTML documents intended to attract customers to the ATM 12 are processed and produce outputs displayed on the touch screen 30. This is referred to as the “attract mode.” These HTML documents which are processed in the browser to produce the outputs in the form of screens on the touch screen 30 (and/or outputs through other output devices included in the machine) may originate from home HTTP server 90 which is operative to deliver the HTML documents to the proxy server. The home HTTP server sends the messages addressed to the IP port associated with browser 76, so as to cause their display at the proper ATM machine. It should be understood that while in this example, home server 90 is described as communicating with the ATMs through the proxy server 88, the server 90 may in other systems encompassed by the invention communicate directly with the ATMs. A fundamental advantage of the system is that home HTTP server 90 may deliver documents selectively to the ATMs 12 connected to the intranet 16. These documents may include messages or material tailored to the particular location in which an ATM 12 is located. Examples of particularly tailored screens may include bilingual messages in certain neighborhoods or information concerning currency exchange at various ports of entry. The material or messages could include advertising for various products or services or other material targeted to particular machine locations. The JAVA applets and JAVA script are loaded from a central location providing selective software distribution in the ATMs which may also be used to tailor the ATM to its environment by causing it to access documents which include material intended to be useful in that location, and which is not provided in documents delivered to at least some other machines in the system. Systems of the present invention may be configured to have selected machines access HTML documents at different addresses, so that the particular documents accessed include the material targeted to users of the particular machine. Alternatively, a machine may communicate machine data indicative of its identity and/or location to a server. From the machine data, and data stored in a data store in connection with the server, the server may operate to deliver the documents including the targeted material. This may be accomplished by assembling subdocuments, or otherwise, to generate the documents that will be delivered to the browser of the particular machine. In addition it should be understood that while in the embodiment shown the HTML documents are accessed through a server of an institution associated with the machine, the documents used for the attract mode may be accessed from other servers operated by other entities. The touch screen 30 in this exemplary transaction sequence displays a screen which includes an icon which indicates in one or more languages that to commence a transaction a user should touch the screen. If a user touches the screen in the area of the icon an input signal is generated. The input signal or HTTP message is transmitted through the browser 76 to the home address of the home HTTP server 90 to which the ATM 12 is currently in communication. The message generated back to the home HTTP server is represented by the arrows directed from the browser 76 to the intranet 16, from the intranet 16 to the proxy server 88, and from the proxy server to the HTTP server 90 in FIG. 3. In response to the home HTTP server 90 receiving the message indicating that a customer has touched the icon on the screen, the home server is operative responsive to the address accessed to send a message through the proxy server 88 (or in other embodiments directly) to the browser 76. This message preferably includes an HTML document which when processed through the browser produces a screen instructing the customer to insert their card into the card reader mechanism 38. The HTML document flow which is represented graphically in FIG. 4, preferably also includes embedded JAVA script or other instructions which operate in the JAVA environment to communicate a message to the JAVA applet responsible for enabling the card reader in the device application portion 84. In one exemplary embodiment the instructions provide a pointer or tag to the applet which executes responsive to receipt of the document instructions. Of course in other embodiments other software and approaches may be used. As schematically represented in FIG. 5, in response to the embedded JAVA script activating the JAVA applet associated with the enable card reader function, the JAVA applet in the device application portion 84 communicates with the device server 92. The device server 92 includes a device server program 98 which in the exemplary embodiment is a JAVA program that enables communication with the JAVA applets and the device server application 100. The device server 92 further preferably includes a monitor software application 102 which is operative to monitor device operation instructions. The monitor software minimizes the risk of fraud or abuse in a manner later explained. Returning to the sample transaction, as represented in FIG. 5, in response to receiving the enable card reader message from the device application portion 84, the device server 92 is operative to generate a message through the intranet 16 to the device interfacing software portion 64 of the ATM 12. This message which comprises an HTTP record including instructions for operating the card reader, is directed to the IP port indicated 74 where the device interfacing software portion 64 communicates. In response to receiving this message, the software portion 64 is operative to send a message or messages on the control bus 50 which enables card reader mechanism 34. Continuing with the exemplary transaction, as represented in FIG. 6, the input of the card by the customer to the card reader 34 is operative to cause the card data to be read and the device interfacing program portion 64 to send a message to the device server 92 indicating the card data has been read. This message is transmitted by the device server through the intranet 16 to the device application portion 84. The device application portion then sends a message to the device server requesting the card data. The device server 92 transmits a message with instructions to deliver the card data from the device interfacing software portion 64 which responds with a message sending the card data through the intranet to the device server. The device server, if there is no basis for stopping the transaction, transmits an HTTP record including card data back through the intranet 16 to the device application portion 84. In one exemplary embodiment of the invention, the card input by a user or customer includes indicia which corresponds to an address associated with the user in the network. In such an embodiment the indicia corresponds to a uniform resource locator (“URL”) address which provides information on the computer where the user information resides, as well as a directory or subdirectory which includes the user information and the name of the document or resource that includes the user information. The URL address may be encoded on a customer's card. The address may be encoded on track 3 of a magnetic stripe, in other locations within the magnetic stripe data or through encoding other readable indicia on the card. Alternatively, if the customer's card is a “smart” card which includes semiconductor storage thereon, the URL address associated with the customer may be included as part of the stored data on the integrated circuit chip on the customer's card. Alternatively, a URL could be derived from other data on the card by accessing a database in which address data is correlated with other data read from the card. For example, conventionally encoded magnetic stripe cards include as part of the encoded account information identifying indicia which indicates the institution or entity with which the customer's account is associated. For example, in the use of debit cards the card data includes a “bank identification number” (BIN). Exemplary embodiments of the invention may include in operative connection with the computer, a data store which includes data corresponding to BIN number or other entity data identifying associated network address data. The machine may operate to resolve a network address for the customer's “home” institution in response to the identifying data. The machine may use the resolved address information from the card data, access the server operated by the entity with which the user has an account relationship. As user later explained, this feature can be used to present a customer with HTML documents or other type documents which provide interface screens and transaction flows from their familiar home institution or entity, even though the machine they are operating is not controlled by that entity. As can be appreciated from the following disclosure, the entity owning the banking machine may be a totally independent entity from the entity with which the customers have accounts. Nonetheless the customer is provided with interface outputs which suggests that the machine is one operated by “their” particular bank or entity with whom they have an account relationship. The customer may be charged a transaction fee for the convenience of using the banking machine. In exemplary embodiments, at least a portion of this fee will be shared between the customer's institution and the entity operating the banking machine which provides this capability. The data necessary to derive the address for accessing documents associated with a customer could also be derived from inputs to readers or other input devices other than or in addition to card data, including for example biometric data which is input by a customer through a biometric reading device. Such biometric data may include for example, data corresponding to one or more fingerprints, data from the user's appearance such as face or iris scan, inputs from a user's voice, including voice prints or spoken passwords, or combinations thereof. For example and without limitation, data input by a customer such as through a card input to a card reader may correspond to or otherwise be useable to determine an address for accessing an HTTP record, which may be a file or document which includes information which can be used for verifying the identity of a user. This record could include data corresponding to a PIN number. The information may include biometric data corresponding to the authorized user of the card. The browser may access the record and use the contents of the record such as data and/or instructions to verify that the indicia corresponding to biometric data in the record corresponds to the biometric data of the user entering the card. Alternatively, input data representative of appearance, voice, other features (or combinations thereof) or other input data, may be used to generate one or more addresses which correspond to a user, and the content of the record at the accessed address used to verify that the user at the machine corresponds to the user associated with the record. Numerous approaches within the scope of the invention may be used. The information in the record corresponding to a user may likewise be used to authorize certain functional devices on the machine to operate for the user while other devices may not. For example, a user who is overdrawn may have information in the record accessed that prevents them from actuating the cash dispenser, while users who are not overdrawn may include information which enables such operation. Alternatively, the absence of information in a corresponding record may enable operation, while the inclusion of information selectively limits the operation of devices. Alternatively or in addition, in embodiments of the invention the information which is useable to determine the identity of the customer and/or their accounts may be usable by a computer in connection with the machine to generate documents such as XML documents. Such documents may be used to generate outputs from the machine presented to the customer. Such documents may alternatively or additionally include information corresponding to one or more network addresses. Such network addresses may be used to access documents appropriate for the particular customer or their transaction. Returning to an exemplary transaction, the card data from a successfully read card is delivered responsive to the programming of the device application portion 84 to a JAVA applet associated with notifying that the card data has been entered. In response, the JAVA applet operates to generate JAVA script which configures the browser with the URL address corresponding to the data read from the card. The JAVA applet is also preferably operative to open a record schematically indicated 104 concerning the transaction, which includes the user's network address, the time and other card data. This record in the exemplary embodiment may be stored in memory as data in an object in software. The object is preferably used to accumulate data as the transaction proceeds. The data stored in the transaction data object preferably includes data input through input devices by the user as well as data representative of operations carried out by transaction function devices. The record or transaction data object provides persistence through what may be several different transaction steps executed by the customer. The ability to use and share the data in a number of different operations avoids the need to derive it or obtain it from a customer more than once in the course of a user session involving a number of transaction steps. The use of a transaction data object enables applets to run largely independently, obtaining needed data from the transaction object. The transaction data object can be instantiated or accessed from various documents. Its content can also be instantiated and used to populate forms presented in HTML documents. The record or data object may also be used to produce an appropriate record at the end of the transaction session. This record may be stored, collected into a batch or delivered to selected addresses in a local or wide area network. In alternate forms of the invention the customer's card or other article presented by the customer to the banking machine may include additional personal data concerning the customer. Such personal data may include demographic and/or marketing preference data related to the customer. This personal data may also be read by the card reader and stored in the transaction data object or other suitable storage. Such data may be used by the system to make targeted marketing presentations and/or to present other material specifically for the particular customer. The inclusion of personal data on the customer's card enables the customer to exercise greater control over their personal data that is made available to the machine and to third parties who make marketing presentations to the customer. Such an approach may be used as an alternative or as an adjunct to systems that utilize a central repository of customer personal information. The approach of allowing the customer to control what information about them is made available to others may be more acceptable to customers from a privacy protection standpoint. As schematically represented in FIG. 7, in the exemplary transaction in response to the browser 76 receiving the URL network address data, the browser is operative to transmit a message through the intranet 16 to the proxy server 88. For purposes of this example, the network address associated with the card data is that of a customer associated with the home bank which operates system 14. As a result, the customer's address will cause the message to be directed from the proxy server 88 to the home HTTP server 90 and to access the address corresponding thereto. Alternatively, in other systems the connection may be made directly with server 90 without the intervening proxy server 88. As previously discussed, the network address may also include portions indicative of data representative of the devices which are operative in the ATM. In the exemplary transaction in response to receiving the message, home HTTP server 90 finds the data corresponding to the customer's address data (or other data) in its associated memory and delivers to the browser at its IP port one or more HTML documents. These HTML documents may include a screen acknowledging the particular customer by name as well as the name of the banking institution or other entity which operates the home bank computer system 14. In addition, the HTML document preferably includes embedded JAVA script which has a digital signature or a means to obtain a digital signature associated with the home HTTP server 90. The script instruction included in the document in certain embodiments causes the device application portion to access an HTTP address on a server, which in the described embodiment is server 90. The HTTP address corresponds to an HTTP record which includes at least one instruction and preferably includes a program such as a JAVA applet or Active-X file. The instruction is used to operate the appropriate transaction function device. The HTTP record preferably includes data representative of a signature, such as a digital signature. This digital signature is received responsive to the JAVA script 82 and processed in the device application portion 84. A JAVA applet processes the digital signature to authenticate it, and if it is an acceptable signature authorizes operation of the banking machine. In certain embodiments the applet may compare the signature to signature data stored in memory for a predetermined relationship, such as a match. Of course other approaches of verifying the authority of servers, documents or instructions to operate the machine or particular devices therein may be used in embodiments of the invention. After the applet verifies that HTTP server 90 or other accessed HTTP record has sent a proper digital signature, or other authorization, the transaction will be allowed to continue. If for some reason a proper digital signature has not been sent, the JAVA applet will stop the transaction and return banking machine 12 back to the condition prior to the start of the transaction by connecting the ATM to the address associated with the attract mode in home server 90. The use of signed instructions may be used to assure that the various transaction function devices are only operated in response to appropriate messages. The use of signed instructions may be particularly appropriate for instructions that run the sheet dispenser or otherwise provide value to the user of the machine. For purposes of this example it will be assumed that the digital signature received is a proper signature, in which case a message is returned from the browser 76 to home server 90 indicating that the transaction may proceed. As shown in FIG. 8, in this exemplary transaction the HTTP home server 90 then operates to deliver at least one HTML document to the browser 76. This document includes instructions which when processed produce a visible page or screen which instructs the customer to enter their personal identification number or PIN. This HTML document preferably includes embedded JAVA instructions or other instructions which operate to cause the device application portion 84 enable the keyboard 40 of the ATM so the machine may receive the PIN number. Such a message is schematically shown in FIG. 8 with the JAVA script 82 signaling the JAVA applet responsible for the keyboard that it has been requested to enable the keyboard. In response the JAVA applet in the device application portion 84 sends a message through the intranet 16 to the device server 92. The device server 92 sends a message through the intranet to the device interfacing software portion 64 in the ATM. The instructions in this message cause the device software to enable keyboard 40. The JAVA applet responsible for enabling the keyboard is also preferably operative to update the transaction record 104 to indicate that the PIN was requested. As shown in FIG. 9, the PIN entered through the keyboard 40 is transmitted in a message from the device interfacing software portion 64 to the device server 92. The device server 92 returns a message to the responsible JAVA applet in the device application portion. The JAVA applet then operates to send a message back through the HTML document handling portion and the browser 76 to the HTTP address of home server 90. This message includes data representative of the PIN input by the customer. In some embodiments it is not desirable to display the customer's PIN on the screen. In such embodiments the keyboard applet may be operative to display a default character on the screen such as a “*” symbol or other symbol in lieu of the PIN digits. Further as later discussed it may be desirable to avoid transmission of PIN or other data through the browser, in which case PIN data may be handled as a separate HTTP message or in other manner to reduce the risk of detection. The software operating in connection with HTTP server 90 is then operative to either verify the PIN itself or to verify the customer's PIN number and account number by sending it to the back office 94 and waiting for a response. Alternatively, customer PIN verification may be carried out in the ATM through an appropriate applet. This can be done in situations where data on a customer's card, such as an account number, or portions thereof can be correlated to the customer's PIN number through an algorithm. The embedded JAVA script in the HTML messages may include or point to an address to obtain the data and/or instructions which the applet may use to perform this verification function, including certain encryption key data. This may include user information in the HTML document or other record data that was accessed in response to the user's card data. The BIN number read from the customer's card may alternatively be used as an indicator of the approach to be used in verifying PIN data. As shown schematically in FIG. 9, the transaction data object 104 is also appropriately updated by the applet to indicate the entry of the customer's PIN. In alternative embodiments the machine may include a biometric reader device or other reader type input device to accept data from a user. The user may input data through such a device which may be used in lieu of, or in addition to, PIN data to verify that the user is an authorized user. This may be done for example by comparing the user data input to information corresponding to the authorized user of the card included in a record or a document which has an HTTP address and is accessed by a browser or by an HTTP client application through an HTTP server in response to card data. Alternatively input data may be used to generate addresses for documents or records which are accessed by the browser or client, and which records or documents contain information that is used to verify the user's identity. For example, data concerning users may be stored in a data store in connection with an HTTP server, which delivers data from a record responsive to the user data, which data is used to verify the user's identity. It should be noted that the page or screen which requests the customer to enter their PIN is shown generated from the home HTTP server 90. This is preferably a screen that is associated with the particular URL address associated with the customer. This will be the interface of the customer's home bank and will be familiar to the customer. Alternatively, the customer address may access what may be essentially the customer's personal “home page” with the institution that operates computer system 14. As such, it is not only something the user is familiar with, but is ideally tailored to the user's particular transaction needs. Alternatively, the document(s) or record(s) which contain the customer data may be used to generate the addresses for other documents. The information may also be used by the computer to dynamically generate a document for the particular customer in the particular circumstances. This approach may be useful to reduce the effort associated with developing in advance a personal visual page or document for each customer. Approaches for accomplishing this may involve including various types or categories of user information in the document(s) or record(s) that pertain to a particular customer. This may include information such as gender, related persons, account types, permitted transactions, customer preferences, customer interests, account balances, previous offers declined or accepted and other information. This customer information can be used by an appropriate applet among applets 86 to address and/or generate an appropriate document for the browser to access based on the customer “profile”. In addition, the profile applet may take into consideration the transaction devices present in the particular machine, information on which is stored in a data store in the machine or elsewhere in the system, as well as other factors such as the day of the week and time of day based on a system clock. In this way the machine determines the appropriate document to access or generate for the particular customer under the particular circumstances. As previously discussed some personal data may be obtained from information encoded on the customer's card. The logic used in the profile applet may act to cause documents to be built or accessed for the customer which include transaction options based on the customer information, information about the terminal and other factors. The profile applet may operate to offer transaction options or information selectively based on the customer information. For example, the operator of the machine may offer incentives, premiums, additional transaction options or advertising information selectively to customers. Certain types of customers of the institution operating the machine may receive screen outputs with options that encourage them to do more business or different types of business with the institution. Likewise, customers that are identified as customers of foreign institutions may be provided with incentives to do business with the institution operating the machine. The profile applet may operate to cause the computer to access other documents in other servers, such as stock market data, and selectively provide it to customers. It should be understood that the profile applet may operate to determine an address or generate documents to produce initial display screens of a transaction sequence. The profile applet may also operate to provide information or access or produce documents which generate visual outputs to the customer at other points in a transaction or between transactions. This may further be used in systems in which the operator of the machine is able to sell paid advertising to third parties and then access the HTTP records such as HTML files corresponding to those third parties' products or services. Such accessing may be done based on a periodic or other basis, but may be done effectively by selecting the HTTP record to access in response to the profile of the particular customer. As later described, advertising documents may be accessed from advertising servers connected to the network. Advertising materials may be delivered to customers from the machine at various times during transactions, such as between steps controlled by documents from the server operated by the customer's institution. Advertising materials may be displayed when transaction function devices, such as a sheet dispenser are operated. The operator of the machine and/or a system in which the machine is connected, may also require payment from advertisers for presenting the advertising materials. The continuation of the transaction flow from the point represented in FIG. 9 for this exemplary transaction by a customer of the institution that operates computer network 14, is schematically represented in FIG. 10. The home HTTP server 90 is operative in response to the customer inputting the correct PIN to send HTML documents to the HTML document handling portion of the software in the computer which operates the ATM. These messages may include information and instructions used to generate screens which prompt the customer to select a transaction. For purposes of this example, it will be assumed that the customer inputs at the touch screen 30 a selection which corresponds to the dispense of cash, which is a common transaction at an automated banking machine. The selection of the customer through the input device of the touch screen is communicated back through the HTML document handling portion which communicates an HTTP message to the home HTTP server 90. Server 90 then responds by sending another HTML document to the banking machine which prompts the customer to select an amount. Again the customer may input a selection on the touch screen which indicates the amount of cash requested by the customer. This HTTP message passes through the HTML document handling portion and the browser 76 to the home server 90. In response to the receipt of amount data from the customer, the home server 90 is preferably operative to communicate electronically with the back office 94 to verify that the customer has the amount requested in their account. This may be accomplished through a Common Gateway Interface (CGI) 106 which is in operative connection with the home server 90. For purposes of this transaction it will be assumed that the back office 94 indicates that the money is available in the customer's account and sends a message through the CGI 106 to the home server 90 indicating that it may proceed. As schematically represented in FIG. 11, the home server 90 then operates to send a document back to the HTML document handling portion in the ATM software. This message when processed by the browser preferably will cause information to be displayed on the screen which advises the customer that the transaction is being processed. In addition the HTML document returned preferably includes JAVA script which includes embedded instructions which are executed and communicated to a JAVA applet associated with the operation of the sheet dispensing mechanism 42. The document returned from the home server 90 may include advertising or other information instead of or in addition to the customer message. The document returned may also include an instruction which causes the machine to access or generate another document. These instructions may invoke methods in the profile applet which depend on the properties associated with the customer, the machine, the current time and/or other circumstances. This enables accessing documents that provide promotional messages such as advertising or other information to the customer while the customer is waiting for the sheet dispenser or other transaction function device in the machine to operate. It should be understood that these documents may be accessed from servers connected to the system anywhere, including servers connected to the Internet. This makes it possible to selectively present a wide range of materials to customers. It also enables operators of ATMs and other transaction machines to present advertising to customers, on a broad basis, or targeted to categories of customers or even targeted to individual customers on a segment of one basis. This could be advertising of the machine operator such as a bank, or advertising pertaining to virtually any type of goods or services. The advertising may also be selectively presented based on the particular transaction device being operated, the amount of funds involved or other parameters. The documents may also enable the presentation of video and sound to the customer which may enhance the effectiveness of promotions. Access to advertising documents may be tracked and payments made to the customer's institution, the operator of the system and/or the owner of the machine, by the entity associated with the advertising materials presented to the customers. In the exemplary embodiment, the message to the JAVA applet in the device application portion 84 of the software to enable operation of the sheet dispenser results in generation of a message to the device server 92. The message to the device server 92 to dispense cash is preferably analyzed by the monitor software 102 to check to see if the message is appropriate. For example the monitor software 102 is preferably operative to assure that the amount of cash being requested does not exceed a preset amount. It can also optionally check to verify that the amount provided to this customer within a prior period has not exceeded an amount. This may be done by the device server sending a message to the back office which includes the card data or other data it has previously received from or resolved concerning this customer. This message may pass through server 90 and its associated CGI, or other connection. Assuming that the dispense instruction is not prevented by a message from the back office or the monitor software, the device server 92 is operative to send a dispense message to the device interfacing software portion 64 in the ATM. The software portion 64 is thereafter operative responsive to the message to operate the sheet dispensing mechanism 42 to dispense the amount of cash requested by the customer. The monitor software 102 preferably performs additional functions in the device server. For example, government regulations or good business practice may require limiting the size and amounts of deposits which may be made into an ATM. This may be advisable to prevent “money laundering” or other suspicious activities. The monitor software preferably operates to limit the amount of any single deposit to below a set limit. It may further operate by communicating with the home bank back office system 94 to prevent a series of deposits within a preset time from exceeding a certain limit. The monitor software may also work in connection with the proxy server to limit certain transactions that may be carried on at the banking machine responsive to instructions from foreign servers as later discussed. It should be noted that in this exemplary embodiment of the invention, the JAVA applet which is operative to send the message which causes cash to be dispensed, works in connection with another applet which controls the mix of bills dispensed to a customer. Many automated teller machines have the ability to dispense two or more denominations of currency bills. It is desirable to control the mix of bills dispensed to a customer to suit that which is available in the machine and to avoid running out of one denomination of bills before the other. The bill mix applet is preferably operable to control the bill mix in accordance with the desires of the institution operating the ATM machine as well as is in accordance with the ATM machine's capabilities. Alternatively, a JAVA applet for controlling bill mix may reside in device program 70 in device interfacing software portion 64. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the particular JAVA applets and/or configuration data in the machine may be selectively loaded from the home server 90 at machine start up or at other times. Because the applets and configuration data may be selectively delivered to particular machines, the machines may be tailored specifically to the particular currency dispensing and other capabilities of the ATM. For example, the ATM may be configured so that certain applets or groups of applets must be present to enable the machine to operate. One approach to loading such data or programs is to provide address values in the terminal software to indicate where the needed instructions to acquire the applets or data may be obtained. If the applets or groups of applets are not already present in memory of the ATM terminal at start up, the software is operative to access the system addresses for the documents which contain the required records or instructions which will cause the machine to load the required records. A browser may be used to access the addresses, and the software loads data corresponding to the instructions from the accessed documents into a memory in the ATM terminal so that the terminal has the required applets and data. Such document addresses may be accessible through the home server 90. Alternatively the addresses may be on a separate development server connected to the intranet 16. In this way each transaction machine is able to load the applets and data which include the operative code needed to operate the transaction devices in the machine. Alternatively, the documents may be provided through a development server or other server that is accessible to the machine through a wide area network. The documents may be provided on the development server to provide the machine with instructions on how to acquire the operating code to carry out a wide variety of functions. The instructions may direct the machine to acquire the necessary data and code from addresses accessible through HTTP servers by an HTTP client in the machine. The data and code can be acquired responsive to instructions in one or several documents. The machine may also require that the applets loaded in this manner be signed applets including digital signatures or other authenticating features to achieve operation of certain devices in the machines. Alternatively, embodiments of the invention may acquire the necessary applets and data from a remote data store. The data store preferably includes the data and/or programs that enable the machine to operate as desired, or have instructions on where the machine may acquire the necessary instructions and data for operation. The data may be accessible from a database server. The transaction machine addresses a query to the database server. The query includes or is accompanied by indicia from the machine which identifies the machine. This may be the particular machine such as a machine number, and/or may include indicia representative of the type or functional device capabilities of the machine. The data store preferably includes records which have the data or programs that are to be transmitted to the machine. In response to the query to the server, the server retrieves records from the data store and responsive thereto delivers one or more messages to the HTTP client in the transaction machine. The message(s) includes the configuration data or applets to enable the machine to operate in the manner desired or may include instructions which indicate how the machine is to acquire such programs from servers connected in the system. In the example shown the configuration server and data store may operate on the same computer as home bank server 90. In other embodiments the database server may reside elsewhere in the networks to which the machine is operatively connected. An advantage of the machines and systems which employ such features is the flexibility to change the operation and customer interface of the machine to respond to changing conditions. This may include a change in a transaction function device. Conditions may change so that certain transactions are limited or are not available. For example, a machine may normally accept deposits but its depository is full. In that situation the machine may change the documents it accesses to present messages to users through its output devices so that the deposit option is no longer offered. This can be accomplished by the applets and data loaded into the machine initially, which provide for instructions when such event is sensed. Alternatively, the machine programming may be modified by loading new applets and/or data from an HTTP server responsive to its then current status. This may be done responsive to a query to a database server which includes or is accompanied by data representative of the changed conditions or capabilities of the machine. In response the server delivers the applet(s), data and/or instructions which will operate the machine in the modified mode. This approach eliminates the situation with conventional transaction machines where the static interface presentation on output devices offers a transaction option to a customer. Sometimes, after the customer has made the selection an indication is given that the selected transaction option is not available. The approach described herein may be used with numerous transaction options and variations of transactions. The transaction options can be readily changed from the database server on a machine by machine basis or even a customer by customer basis as previously discussed, based on the desires of the entity operating the transaction machine. The discussion of the exemplary transaction will now be continued from the point schematically represented in FIG. 11. In response to the cash dispenser 42 dispensing the requested amount of cash, device interfacing software program 64 preferably operates to send a dispense operation message confirming the dispense back to the JAVA applet responsible for the dispense in the device application program 84. As represented in FIG. 12, the particular applet is operative to update the transaction record 104 to indicate the dispense of currency to the customer in the particular amount. The embedded JAVA script instructions which were operative to cause the dispense of currency to the customer, also preferably include instructions to send a confirming message back to the home server 90 that the dispense is complete. The receipt of the dispense operation message indicating the cash was dispensed causes the JAVA applet to configure the HTML document handling portion to send a device response message back to the home server. The home server then is preferably operated in accordance with its programming to indicate to the back office 94 that the customer received the amount of funds dispensed. This amount is deducted from the customer's account in the records maintained by the back office system. Generally during a transaction it is common to ask the customer if they wish to have a receipt for the transaction. This may be done at various times during the transaction flow. In the present example, after the cash has been dispensed the customer operating the machine is sent such a message as reflected in FIG. 13. The home server 90 is operative to send an HTML document which when processed by the browser produces a screen asking the customer if they would like a receipt. This message is displayed as part of a page on the touch screen 30 responsive to receipt of the message through the browser 76. Alternatively the document may be generated by the machine. In response to the customer indicating that they either do or do not want a receipt, a message is returned to the home server. Again it should be understood that the screens displayed to the customer are preferably those that the customer is accustomed to from his or her home institution, and may be a part of his or her unique home page. Assuming that the customer wishes to receive a transaction receipt, the home server 90 in the exemplary embodiment operates as shown in FIG. 14 to send a document back to the ATM with embedded JAVA script indicating that a transaction receipt is to be printed. These instructions in JAVA script are communicated to the device application portion 84 which sends a TCP/IP message through the intranet to the device server 92. The device server 92 in turn communicates a message with instructions to the device interfacing software portion 64 in the ATM. In response to receiving the message, software portion 64 is operative to cause the printer 46 to print the customer's transaction receipt. The JAVA applet responsible for enabling the printer is also preferably operative to update the transaction data object or record 104. As later discussed, the applet which controls the printing of the receipt may obtain the data used in printing the receipt from the transaction data object. It should be understood that even if the customer does not wish to have a receipt it may be desirable to print a record of the transaction in hard copy through the journal printer 48. This may be accomplished in response to imbedded instructions which are part of the same document from the home server 90 which causes the transaction receipt for the customer to be printed, or may be part of a separate document which indicates that the customer has declined the option to receive a transaction receipt. Alternatively, the journal printer may be actuated responsive to other applets such as the applet which causes the dispense of cash, or in another manner chosen by the operator of the ATM. Alternatively or in addition, an electronic record of the information concerning the transaction may be stored in a data store. Such information may later be recovered remotely from the machine, from other system addresses. As will be appreciated from the foregoing description, the operation of the exemplary embodiment of the ATM is inherently flexible and programmable to meet the needs of the system operator. As shown in FIG. 15 upon completion of the printing of the transaction receipt, the software portion 64 is preferably operative to send a device operation message to the device server 92 which is indicative that the requested device function was carried out successfully. The device server 92 is operative to send a corresponding device operation message to the device application portion 84, and in the exemplary embodiment to the particular JAVA applet responsible for the printing of the receipt. The JAVA applet in turn configures the HTML document handling portion to generate a message back to the home server in the form of a device response message to indicate that the receipt was printed for the customer. Having received cash and a receipt, the customer is then prompted by a display screen generated from an HTML document from the home server 90, to indicate whether they wish to conduct another transaction. The visual page or screen prompting the customer in this regard is displayed on the touch screen 30. For purposes of this example it will be assumed that the customer does not want another transaction and a message to that effect is returned through the HTML document handling portion back to the home server 90. As shown schematically in FIG. 17 in response to receiving a message that the customer is done, the home server 90 is operative to send a “go home” message to the ATM. This message preferably includes an HTML document which when processed by the browser produces a screen display thanking the customer. This message also preferably includes embedded JAVA script which calls the JAVA applet which eventually returns the HTML document handling portion of the ATM back into connection with the URL address on the home server 90 or other network address which provides the documents that are used to output the messages for the so called “attract mode”. It should be remembered that the script or instructions included in documents used in some embodiments may operate to cause a message to be sent from the document handling portion to an address on the home server which causes a corresponding HTTP record including the instructions comprising the desired applet to load. As schematically indicated in FIG. 18, the “go home” command applet is operative to configure the browser 76. After the HTML document handling portion is configured by the JAVA applet to return home, the JAVA applet may be configured to deliver to home server 90 information from the transaction record 104 concerning the transaction that was just completed. Because the exemplary transaction was with a customer of the institution that operates the computer system 14, all the data concerning that transaction should already be recorded in the back office 94. However it will be appreciated that this will not be the case if the transaction was conducted in response to messages from a server operated by a different institution. Also this may not be the case with certain types of transactions such as some credit card transactions, where an authorization is provided during the transactions, and at a later time transaction details are sent for purposes of settlement. Thus, all or a portion of the information from the transaction record 104 may be delivered in response to a “go home” command to the home server 90 and through the CGI to the back office system 94 where it can be identified as duplicate information and discarded. This may be done using remote method invocation (RMI) to pass or deliver the object to server 90 and then transmitting the data through messages from the server to the back office, or through messages or other techniques. Of course in other embodiments transaction information may be stored in a database for extended periods rather than being returned after each transaction. Alternatively the ATM 12 of the present invention may include applets which are operable to deliver transaction record information to addresses other than that of the home server, if that is desired by the operator of system 14. The computer may be configured through an appropriate applet or other instructions to deliver the stored transaction record data to selected network addresses in the system. Such record data may be delivered in encrypted form as appropriate for the particular system. Such record data may be delivered through the document handling portion of the banking machine. In alternative embodiments such data may be delivered through a separate server component operating in a computer associated with an automated banking machine. By accessing this record data the machine operator or other settlement authority may recover record data relating to transactions. Such data may also be used for recovering data that is used for determining the number and types of transactions conducted at the machine involving other institutions and/or transaction fees associated therewith. Such information may also include information on advertising materials presented to customers. Such information may be processed and used as the basis for sharing transaction fees or receiving payment from advertising entities. The operation of an exemplary computer system when a “foreign” user uses the ATM 12 is graphically represented with regard to FIGS. 19 through 24. A transaction with a foreign user who is not a customer of the institution that operates ATM 12 and computer system 14, will be operated under the control of the home server 90 and will proceed in the manner of the prior example through the point where the customer inputs their card. The customer inputs a card having indicia corresponding to a network address that does not correspond to the home server 90. The HTML document handling portion is operative to configure a message addressed to access a URL address that corresponds to the indicia on the customer's card or other address responsive to such indicia. For example, the network address may be based on the BIN number encoded on a customer's card. The BIN number can be correlated with an entry in a Financial Institution Table (FIT) or similar cross reference for determining network address data and/or other parameters. This message is delivered to the proxy server 88 which in turn passes the message to the wide area network 18. From the wide area network the message proceeds to the foreign server corresponding to the customer's URL address. For purposes of this example the foreign server corresponds to server 96 which is connected to the Internet. In the exemplary embodiment of the invention proxy server 88 includes screening software graphically indicated 107. Screening software is preferably operable to check addresses to which messages are being directed by the ATM and to selectively prevent the sending of messages to particular addresses. This serves as a “fire wall” and is desirable for purposes of preventing fraud in the system. As shown in FIG. 20, the foreign server 96 is preferably operable to communicate HTTP messages, including HTML documents, to the ATM 12 back through the wide area network 18. This may be done using a secure socket connection (“SSC”) so as to minimize the risk of interception of the messages. Of course other techniques, including message encryption techniques may be used to minimize the risk of interception of the messages. As schematically represented in FIG. 20 the response document from foreign server 96 preferably includes embedded JAVA script is representative of or corresponds to a digital signature which identifies the foreign server 96. This may be accomplished by loading an HTTP record including a signed applet, as previously discussed; An applet in application portion 84 in the ATM preferably operates to verify the digital signature in the manner described in the prior example, and sends a message indicating that the transaction has been authorized. The digital identity of the foreign institution will be stored in memory in the ATM for example in the transaction record data, and eventually is recorded in the back office 94. It should be noted that the HTML documents from the foreign server 96 include instructions so that when they are processed by the browser, the visual pages or screens of the foreign institution which the foreign customer is accustomed to seeing are output. These pages may correspond to a foreign user's “home page” which are tailored specifically to the needs of the particular user. FIG. 21 shows a schematic example of a document accessed through the foreign server 96 and delivered to the ATM 12. The document from the foreign server may include embedded JAVA script which enables operation of the JAVA applets in the manner previously discussed to operate the devices 36 in the ATM. As shown in FIG. 21 the TCP/IP messages to the devices from the JAVA applets pass from the device application portion 84 to the device server 92, and the instructions therefrom are passed to the device interfacing software portion 64 in the ATM. Device operation messages take a reverse path. As these messages pass through the device server 92, monitor software 102 monitors them to minimize the risk of fraud or abuse. As indicated in FIG. 21, the documents from the foreign server 96 may be operative to output through the touch screen 30 a request for the customer to input their PIN. The embedded JAVA script instructions would, as in the sample transaction previously discussed, include instructions that enable the keyboard 40 to accept the customer's PIN. As in the prior example, a transaction record 104 which includes a shared data object concerning this transaction would be opened by the device application software portion. As previously discussed, provisions may be made to prevent the passage of PIN data through the browser if desired. FIG. 22 indicates the return of the device operation message and PIN data to the JAVA applet, which in turn transmits the data back to the foreign server 96 through the wide area network 18 using the secure socket connection. From this point the transaction proceeds generally as previously described, except that the foreign server 96 sends the HTTP records, including HTML documents, and receives the messages from the document handling portion of the ATM. The foreign server 96 includes the JAVA application software necessary to include the embedded JAVA script in the documents that are sent to the ATM to operate the devices 36 in the machine. As the foreign server 96 operates the machine, the monitor software 102 in the device server 92 is operative to monitor the messages in the manner previously discussed. Such monitoring would for example, operate to prevent the dispense of unduly large amounts of currency out of the machine. The monitoring software may also operate to restrict certain foreign institutions to a subset of the transaction machine devices or capabilities. This is done based on data stored in memory which limits the devices or activities that can be carried out from documents at certain addresses. This may be achieved for example through the use of code plug-ins which implement a class of the transaction objects which limits the operations that can be performed. For example, the operations which enable connection to the foreign server may instantiate the objects which provide specified limited capabilities for messages received from the foreign server. This may for example limit the amount of money dispensed, prevent operation of a check acceptance device, limit the dispense to printed documents such as tickets, prevent operation of the cash dispenser or limit use of the machine in other appropriate ways. This may be done based on the addresses or portions of addresses for documents. If the capabilities of the machine exposed to the foreign customer are limited, the foreign customer may be provided with a visual interface from the foreign bank based on the transactions the machine can perform and that the owner of the machine will allow. As a result the documents accessed at the foreign bank server may be a variation of what the customer would be provided at a machine operated by the foreign bank. This could be based on documents specifically developed for operating foreign machines, or could be a variant of the usual foreign bank interface with visual indications that certain transactions are not available. In some instances the interface may indicate that some transactions are available with an associated service charge. The ATM of the described embodiment may enhance security by limiting the addresses that the browser may access. This may be done by maintaining a list in the memory of the machine. This list may be maintained in HTTP record(s) (including documents) accessible through the home bank's intranet. The machine may access the record periodically and update the memory data. This record may itself require a digital signature corresponding to a signature in the terminal memory before the data will be loaded into terminal memory. This information may also include the instructions and information for the ATM to verify that the messages it receives by accessing documents on the foreign server are genuine. This may include digital signatures which when transferred using public key or private key encryption techniques verify the messages as genuine. The machine checks to be sure the signature in the records accessed from the foreign server corresponds to the digital signature for that address stored in memory, and enables operation of transaction devices, such as the cash dispenser, only when such correspondence is present. Of course various approaches to verifying and encrypting messages may be used in various embodiments. As used herein signatures or signed records encompass any indicia which is included in or is derivable from a record which is indicative that it is authorized. As can also be appreciated from the foregoing disclosure, the foreign server 96 may communicate to the user with outputs through the touch screen in a language that is different from that normally used by the customers of the institution that operates the computer system 14. As a result the HTML documents may cause the display of requests to dispense currency of a type or in an amount which is not included in the ATM. To accommodate this situation an applet may be included in the device application portion 84 to deal with requests for foreign currency. The foreign currency applet causes the ATM to send a message back to its home server for purposes of calculating a closest amount which may be provided to the customer in the available currency in the ATM which corresponds to what the customer requested. As will be appreciated, this applet will be operative to call the particular function address within the home server 90 that is capable of providing this function. When the dispense is made the applet is also operative to indicate to server 96 that the amount dispensed differs somewhat from the amount the customer requested. Of course in other embodiments, other approaches may be used. Alternatively an applet in the machine may generate visual displays that show equivalents in local currency when foreign currency amounts are displayed or processed. This may include presenting both amounts on visual displays presented to a user. Alternatively additional browsers operating in the bank machine as later discussed may produce visual outputs that advise the user of information such as exchange rates or other information pertinent to the customer's transaction. As represented in FIG. 23, when the foreign customer has completed their transactions as indicated through the touch screen 30, the foreign server 96 is operative to send the “go home” message back to the ATM. The receipt of this message is operative in the manner previously described to cause the device application portion 84 to operate responsive to the embedded JAVA script instructions to configure the HTML document handling portion to cause the browser 76 to reestablish communication with the home server 90, or other designated document address. As indicated in FIG. 24 the applet in the device application portion 84 which processes the “go home” message is preferably operative to reconnect to the home server 90 as well as to send the transaction record information in record 104. This transaction record information which in an exemplary embodiment is packaged in a data object, includes the customer name, the foreign institution name, digital identifier, amount information concerning amounts dispensed, transferred or deposited, and all other pertinent transaction data. The transaction data is used by applets in performing transaction steps in which any portion of the data is required. At the completion of the customer's activity at the machine an applet provides a transaction data message which includes at least a portion of the collected data. This data is communicated from server 90 through the CGI 106 to the home bank's back office 94. This information is stored in the back office for later use for purposes of settlement with the foreign bank operating the foreign server 96. Alternatively or in addition, transaction data may be recorded in the terminal in memory such as in an electronic journal as well as in hard copy on a journal printer. Transaction data may be stored for downloading in a batch or by passing objects including data from many transactions. Objects can be instantiated from a remote server such as by remote method invocation. Batch data may be communicated at times and to addresses as may be stored in memory in the terminal configuration data. An advantage of embodiments of the invention is that transaction data may be delivered to addresses in a local area network or in a wide area network such as the Internet. This facilitates conducting wide varieties of transactions and enables directing messages related to tracking use (such as for electronic purse type smart cards) or for settlement of various transaction types to a selected system address. It will be appreciated that the described embodiment of the automated banking machine and system of the present invention provides the advantage that when the machine is connected to a wide area network such as the Internet, customers are able to carry out their banking transactions virtually anywhere in the world. Further, despite the broad capabilities of the system, because the machine may be monitored locally, both in terms of connection and activity, the risk of fraud is minimized. Embodiments of the invention may include a further feature to facilitate access to documents in the network to which the machine is connected. This feature is operative to determine if an HTTP record such as an HTML document or other item is accessible at an address for downloading before the computer will attempt to access the record. This avoids transaction time outs that might otherwise occur as a result of inability to access a record due to the server through which the record is normally accessed being down. Other embodiments may consider both the size of the record and the transfer rate and determine that a transfer speed for the record is not sufficiently rapid, so that an alternative record should be transferred. In one embodiment this feature is achieved through use of a separate program or applet which checks to see if a server that the computer will subsequently want to access is alive. The applet operates responsive to receiving an address or portion thereof, to which a connection will be made. The applet operates to make a socket connection to the address and loads a small but sufficient amount of the record or otherwise operates to determine that the server through which the record must be accessed is alive. In response to the applet verifying the operation of the remote server, or otherwise determining that conditions indicative that the record may be accessed or loaded, the computer then operates so that the browser or similar software component is enabled to navigate to the address at the appropriate time in the transaction sequence. If the applet is unable to detect that the remote server is alive, or determines that it does not appear the record may be successfully accessed or loaded, steps may be taken to access alternative addresses, generate another output or to discontinue the transaction. Alternative addresses to access may be based on data stored in the memory of the terminal or may be obtained by accessing documents either locally or remotely which include data from which alternative addresses may be obtained or derived. Alternative addresses are similarly checked to make a determination that the records can be accessed before attempts are made to access the alternative records. This approach avoids delays in carrying out transactions. Alternative embodiments may employ other approaches to determine if desired HTTP records such as HTML documents may be successfully accessed and/or downloaded adequately before the browser providing the customer interface attempts to access the document. Such embodiments may consider in determining whether the document can be successfully accessed, the transfer speed or other conditions related to system operation or document content. For example, the applet which tests to determine that the HTTP record can be accessed, or a further applet, may determine the transfer rate at which the record can be transferred to the computer. The rate at which the data can be transferred may be compared to data stored in memory, and if the rate is slower than the data representative of the desired stored rate an alternative record is accessed. This may be for example an HTML document stored or generated locally in the machine. Other embodiments may include programs which consider the size of the HTTP record and the transfer rate in determining a transfer speed. Such programs then determine if the record can be transferred fast enough to suit the parameters established in the configuration in memory, and if not, alternative addresses are accessed. Such alternative records may be similarly tested for transfer speed before being transferred. Programs may also consider other factors in deciding to access a particular address, such factors may include for example day and time information, or information from sensors such as sensors in a floor or video imaging systems indicating that other persons are waiting to use the machine. In this way access to documents that have extensive outputs which may tend to prolong transactions can be avoided even when records can be loaded at an adequate speed. In alternative embodiments of the invention multiple browsers may be operated in the computer(s) of the ATM for purposes of processing instructions in documents. Some browsers may operate to process instructions and may not provide outputs that may be perceived by users of the machine. Such browsers may be operated to provide instructions that are used for operating transaction function devices. For example, a browser which does not produce an output which is visible on a display, may process documents which produce outputs that are operative to cause a printer to produce printed documents. Other embodiments may operate multiple browsers which provide outputs which can be perceived by customers operating the machine. For example, multiple browsers which are each capable of providing visual (and/or audio) outputs may be operated in respective servers in the machine simultaneously to process documents and provide simultaneous outputs to the user. Such browsers may also process instructions for operating transaction function devices. This may provide the capability for a machine to conduct simultaneous transaction types. In an exemplary embodiment an ATM has operating therein five (5) visible browsers. Each of these browsers is capable of providing a visible output on the screen of the ATM. FIG. 32 shows an exemplary output screen 196 in which each of the browsers produces a visible output. The main browser output 198 is shown centered on the screen. The main browser output 198 is flanked vertically by a top browser output 200 and a bottom browser output 202. The main browser output is flanked horizontally by a left browser output 204 and a right browser output 206. Each of these browsers are capable of processing documents and communicating with network addresses in the manner previously discussed. Some or all of the browsers may also be operative to pass instructions so as to control transaction function devices in the machine. Alternatively, some browsers may be used primarily to provide outputs to the customer and may not be configured to utilize instructions in accessed documents to operate certain devices in the machine. In the exemplary embodiment, all five (5) browsers are operated although they may not all provide visible outputs. Initially only the output 198 from the main browser is made visible. The other browsers are made visible using a “show” method which identifies the browser output size. This is done in response to show and size instructions included in documents such as HTML documents. Such instructions are preferably included in documents accessed by the main browser, but may be in documents accessed by other browsers. In the exemplary embodiment browser size is defined by a single thickness indicator. In the case of the “top” and “bottom” browsers, thickness refers to a vertical dimension from the adjacent top or bottom edge of the display, respectively. In the case of the “left” and “right” browsers, the thickness is a horizontal thickness from the respective adjacent edge of the screen. In the exemplary embodiment the output of the main browser is resited automatically to fill the remaining visible space on the screen not occupied by the outputs of the other browsers. In this embodiment the top and bottom browsers when activated occupy the entire width of the screen, while the left and right browsers occupy the space between the top and bottom browser outputs if visible. Other approaches may be used in alternative embodiments. The use of multiple visible browsers provides the capabilities of providing multiple simultaneous visible outputs based on different documents accessed at different network addresses. This also enables the development of applications providing a series of documents that enable making outputs produced from documents visible at various selected points in a transaction sequence. Such capabilities may be particularly useful in presenting advertising or promotional materials to customers during a transaction. Such capabilities may also be useful for displaying messages in multiple languages for operating the machine. Such capabilities may also be useful in presenting exchange rate information in transactions involving a cardholder from a different country or in conducting currency exchange transactions. The outputs of multiple browsers might also be useful in displaying to the customer documents generated for the customer or documents including information of particular interest to the customer such as the current status of particular stocks or investment opportunities. FIGS. 33 through 35 show examples of screens generated in the exemplary embodiment when certain different browsers are used to produce visible outputs on a screen. FIG. 33 shows a screen 208 in which the left browser output 204 and the top browser output 200 are visible with the main browser output. FIG. 34 shows a screen 210 in which the top browser output 200 and the bottom browser output 202 are visible with the main browser output 198. FIG. 35 shows a screen 212 which the right browser output 206 and the main browser output 198 are visible. It should be understood that many variations of screens are possible and that such screens may include configurations in which the main browser output is not visible. As can be appreciated, the operation of multiple browsers in the machine enables carrying out simultaneous transactions. For example, a user may be provided with the opportunity to acquire goods or services through documents processed by one of the browsers while a banking transaction is in progress. Such a browser may work in connection with the other components or the machine as previously discussed, to enable operation of and to receive inputs through various transaction function devices. Such inputs may include inputs accepting or declining offers to purchase goods or services. The transaction data object may also be invoked by the applications operating the other browsers to make such offers. This enables delivery of account data associated with the user which was previously obtained in connection with a banking transaction. This also enables the customer to conveniently elect to pay using the account currently involved in a transaction. Each browser may also develop its own transaction data object or records to use for purposes of accomplishing settlement, as well as for storing data concerning what occurred during a transaction. While the exemplary embodiment of the invention has been described in connection with using multiple browsers to display information in the course of a banking transaction and to enable multiple transactions to be ongoing simultaneously, it should be understood that the use of multiple browsers providing visible and non visible outputs may be used for numerous and varied purposes that are within the scope of the present invention. While the described embodiment of the automated banking machine and system of the present invention is shown with regard to a particular type of machine that is made specifically for connectibility to local or wide area networks, conventional automated banking machines may also be adapted to include such capability. Specifically the document handling portion and device application portion may be included with other conventional software which operates within one or more computers in operative connection with an automated banking machine. This enables such ATMs to operate either in the conventional proprietary network or as part of a wide area network. In addition, automated banking machines may be configured to operate their devices through the device interfacing software portion of the invention or through a different software interface when operating in a conventional network. Such machines may switch to requiring device messages to be passed through a device server when operating under the control of a server within the wide area network to maintain security within the system. In this way a single ATM could operate in proprietary networks in the manner of current ATMs as well as in the network configuration of the system of the invention. Alternative embodiments of the invention operate to communicate transaction messages used in a proprietary ATM network. This may be accomplished by using an interface such as a CGI in connection with either the document handling portion of the ATM or the HTTP home server or other server. The CGI operates in connection with a message conversion program and database to cull the necessary data from the documents and response messages and generate the defined transaction request messages appropriate for the proprietary transaction network. Likewise, the message conversion program and CGI operate to receive function command messages from the proprietary network and convert them and generate appropriate documents and/or TCP/IP messages for use by the ATM. Because these proprietary network formats are defined and the data necessary to produce and interpret the messages are known, the use of the ATM 12 directly in a conventional proprietary ATM network is achieved. Conventional ATM transaction messages are defined layout messages that do not include documents such as mark up language document or HTTP messages. An example of known conventional messages used to operate ATMs are Diebold 91X messages, NCR PAS messages and IBM 473X messages. Such messages generally involve transmission of a request message from an ATM in a defined layout including customer input data (account/pin) and an indication of the type and amount of transaction requested. The request message is received by an ATM host computer which sends back a response message with a defined layout which includes an indication whether the transaction is authorized. The ATM then returns another message to the host computer indicating whether the machine was able to carry out the transaction. The messages used in such conventional proprietary networks generally occupy relatively little bandwidth. In connecting the ATM of the invention to such a network, a server is provided. The server is in operative connection with a memory which includes a relational database or other data store which holds the message conversion and document creation data. In one configuration, the server is connected to the document handling portion through a network, or may reside on the computer of the ATM. The server produces the documents which the browser accesses and which include the transaction device instructions. The server (or a connected server) communicates the conventional messages with the host. One server may provide an interface for several ATMs connected to it in a LAN, or alternatively, each ATM may have its own server operating therein. The ability of ATM 12 to communicate in a proprietary network also enables operation of the ATM in a manner in which the interface is generated by a user's home institution in the manner previously described, but in which transactions are authorized through messages directed through a proprietary ATM network. This achieves the security of using the proprietary network while providing the customer with the advantages of the familiar home bank interface and/or “personal home page” interface. In such a configuration the ATM transaction function devices may be operated in a conventional manner in response to conventional ATM transaction messages such as Diebold 91X messages, NCR PAS messages or IBM 473X messages, in the proprietary network. The customer output devices, such as the display (and speakers if provided) communicate outputs responsive to documents processed through a browser connected to a local or wide area network. The browser accesses documents to prompt a customer through operation of a transaction, but the documents do not include instructions which enable operation of devices such as the cash dispenser absent authorization from the proprietary network. In one configuration the browser may be operated by the computer in response to the status of devices in the machine, as the devices are operated in response to conventional ATM messages. In this manner the browser may be navigated to selected addresses, including addresses which are associated with the customer based on customer input data. However, as the documents received by the browser will not independently operate the transaction function devices, there is less need for security measures in accessing documents. As a result, the customer may still operate the machine in response to a familiar and unique interface, and marketing information such as advertising or other material may be presented in the transaction sequence using the techniques previously discussed. In other embodiments machines may perform some device functions based on conventional messages, while others may be performed in response to instructions in HTML documents or other HTTP messages. For example HTML documents may provide considerable data for use by printers or other output devices. Some embodiments may access documents with instructions, but may ignore some and act in response to others. The approach may be selected by the systems operator by configuring the software based on their requirements. It should be understood that embodiments of the invention may also provide for the generation of the appropriate documents which are processed by the document handling software. Such documents may be dynamically generated responsive to information delivered through messages from the ATM that include instructions and data which are indicative of customer or transaction related information. This enables messages to and from the ATM to be communicated with a much more limited number of network addresses. The dynamic generation of various documents such as XML documents may be accomplished by one or more computers based on data stored in one or more data stores. A plurality of documents may be generated corresponding to a number of entities from a single server. Such documents may be tailored to the transaction options or promotional information provided by each such entity. The documents may include the graphics, icons, prompts, trademarks and other visible features and/or embedded instructions corresponding to non-visible outputs as appropriate for the corresponding entity. In this way documents corresponding to a plurality of banks, service providers, advertisers and other entities may be generated by one or more computers and delivered through one or more servers as appropriate responsive to the information in messages form the ATM and information stored in one or more data stores operatively connected to the computers. A further advantage of a system configuration of the exemplary embodiment is that it has enhanced flexibility for communicating messages associated with the ATM. The device manager 68 preferably generates status messages associated with the status of devices 36. These status messages may commonly represent information about conditions which exist at the devices. Such messages may indicate that supplies of paper for printers or currency, are low or are depleted. Other messages may indicate that devices are not functioning properly. Often such messages indicate that the ATM requires servicing. All such types of messages are referred to herein interchangeably as either status or fault messages. The device interfacing software portion 64 in the exemplary embodiment communicates through the intranet 16 using TCP/IP messages. While the messages associated with exemplary transactions previously described are directed to the device server 92, the software portion 64 may include a server and be configured to address fault and status messages to other addresses in the intranet or the Internet. For example, such fault or status messages may be directed to a software application which delivers messages to a service provider. Further, fault messages may be selectively directed based on the nature of the fault indicated. For example, fault messages indicative of a need to replenish currency or supplies may be directed to an address in the intranet associated with an entity who has responsibility for replenishing supplies. Alternatively, fault messages which indicate a need for other types of servicing may be directed to an address associated with an entity who can provide the type of servicing required. Alternatively, the selective dispatching of fault messages to addresses in the intranet 16 may be accomplished by appropriately configuring device server 92. In addition, either software portion 64 or device server 92 may direct fault messages from the ATMs to a fault handling system such as to a computer operating Event Management System™ software available from Diebold, Incorporated. Such software is operative to resolve the nature of the fault condition and to notify appropriate personnel of the corrective action to be taken. The ATM 12 may further include a software function to assist in diagnosing problems and providing remedial service. As graphically represented in FIG. 2, alternative embodiments of the ATM 12 may include a mini-HTTP server 109 which is in communication with the device interfacing software portion 64. Server 109 is configured to receive device status messages and to produce HTTP records including documents in response thereto, which provide data representative of device status to a diagnostic device 110 such as a hand held computer terminal. Server 109 includes a CGI for interfacing with the device software so that a technician may access the information in the records accessible at the HTTP addresses related to status messages, and input test and corrective instructions through diagnostic device 110. The HTTP records and/or documents generated by server 109 may preferably include graphic and/or audio instructions indicative of conditions such as problems, as well as corrective action data and repair instructions. In alternative versions of the invention the functions of the mini-HTTP server 109 may reside in device server 92. This may be particularly appropriate where the function of the device server resides on the computer in the ATM. Regardless of where the function resides the use of the visual and audio output components generated from processing documents associated with maintenance and diagnostic messages, facilitates servicing of the ATM. The records or documents delivered through the mini-HTTP server may include instructions that correspond to the status or fault conditions. Such records or documents may be accessed locally as previously discussed, or may be accessed remotely. A technician using a hand held computer which includes a browser or other software operative to access the HTTP records may access the documents locally for purposes of maintenance, diagnosis and servicing. In some situations the customer interface and browser associated therewith may be used to access the mini-HTTP server, or a separate browser, display and input devices on the machine and intended for use servicing activity may be used. Alternatively, the fault and status messages may be monitored from terminals at locations anywhere that are connected in the network. The mini-HTTP server handling status and fault messages may also be configured to send an e-mail or other message to a selected network address or a group of addresses whenever a particular condition or group of conditions exist. A further useful aspect of the exemplary embodiment is that HTTP messages may also be sent to the mini-HTTP server to attempt to correct problems. Such messages may include instructions that are operative to cause the running of diagnostic tests and the delivery of messages indicating results. It may also include messages which cause devices to operate to test or attempt to clear jams and other malfunctions. This can often be done from remote locations. Of course, when there is a significant risk of unauthorized access to the server handling fault or status messages, appropriate security measures such as the type previously discussed, should be taken. The HTTP records which indicate the status of the transaction function devices may have different forms depending on the software configuration and the needs of the system operator. In some embodiments the device status information for one or more devices may be represented by indicia contained within a data object. The data object may be transferred to other connected computers to provide the status data. The transfer of the data object may be accomplished by remote method invocation (RMI) for example. The data in the transferred data object may then be used to generate message and/or outputs desired by the system operator. This technique may be particularly useful when the operator wishes to connect the machine to an existing monitoring system and indicia included in the data object can be used to generate outputs or messages indicative of device status that can be processed by the existing system. Plug-ins may further be used to achieve communication between existing monitoring systems and transaction machines which have different types of status conditions or different types of message formats. This includes machines which have different types of transaction function devices and capabilities. The technique of transferring a data object may also be used to conduct testing or modification of transaction function devices. For example, indicia in the data object may be modified by a servicer and the object passed back to the machine. The software in the machine may cause the transaction function devices to operate or change conditions or programming in response to the modified data object. This may include for example clearing a fault indication or causing a device to operate to clear a jam or to conduct a test. The results of such activity may be reflected in modified indicia in the data object which may then be transferred to the computer in the diagnostic terminal. Of course, the approaches discussed herein are exemplary and other approaches will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the description herein. FIG. 25 shows a schematic view of a network configuration for an alternative embodiment of the automated banking machine of the present invention. The embodiment shown in FIG. 25 includes an automated banking machine specifically adapted for operating in connection with conventional automated banking machine systems such as systems which operate using Diebold 91X ATM message formats or other non-HTTP conventional format. A host computer 120 in this exemplary embodiment is a conventional ATM host which communicates using such messages. The host communicates with an interface server schematically indicated 122. Interface server 122 operates in the manner previously discussed and is in operative connection with a memory that includes the information necessary to convert HTTP messages that pertain to a transaction request to a 91X request message or other conventional message, which can be handled by host computer 120. Likewise interface server 122 and the instructions and data stored in memory are operative to convert a conventional 91X command message or other conventional command message from the host 120 into HTTP messages which can be used by the automated banking machine to carry out the command. Similarly interface server 122 is operative to receive the HTTP messages which correspond to the response of the automated banking machine to the commands and to produce a 91X response message or other conventional response message to the host. In accomplishing these functions the interface server communicates with an interface client 124 which in the preferred embodiment is a COMM plug in which operates on the banking machine terminal under a Windows NT® operating environment. Interface server 122 also includes a command/status gateway 126. The command/status gateway is operative to receive command and status messages from the software portions handling the functional devices within the machine. The messages concerning the devices are used in producing transaction messages to send back to host 120. In addition, the command status gateway portion also produces status messages indicative of the status of devices which may also be communicated to the host. The interface server 122, command status gateway portion 126 and interface client 124 may reside in software on the automated banking machine terminal. In this configuration the terminal appears to the host computer to be a conventional machine. Alternatively interface server 122 and command status gateway portion 126 may reside on a separate server, while the interface client portion 124 may reside on the terminal. This enables the interface server 122 to handle a number of automated banking machines by connecting the machines to the interface server through a network. The alternative configuration of the automated banking machine system shown in FIG. 25 is particularly adapted for use in connection with existing ATM system. The machine includes a computer with a document handling portion 128 which includes one or more visible or non-visible browsers which operate in the manner of the embodiments previously described. The document handling portion is alternatively referred to as a browser herein for purposes of simplicity. The document handling portion operates in connection with a network 130 to access HTTP records in the form of documents through servers 132, 134 and 136. For purposes of this example server 132 will be considered the server of the home bank which operates the automated banking machine. The browser portion 128 is enabled to access documents of its home bank for purposes of obtaining content and instructions for purposes of outputting information to customers as well as for operating devices on the machine. Servers 134 and 136 are representative of other servers which the automated banking machine may be instructed to access for purposes of downloading documents which include information or instructions. Often such documents from non-home bank servers will include information which is to be presented to customers such as advertising, promotional material, stock quotations or other types of information. It should be understood that the servers 134 and 136 may be directly connected to network 130 or may be accessed through other networks and servers. In some embodiments such servers may be accessed through the Internet for purposes of providing documents to the automated banking machine. Document handling portion 128 in this exemplary embodiment includes a terminal theater software portion schematically indicated 138. Terminal theater portion 138 is schematically shown in greater detail in FIG. 26. Terminal theater portion 138 includes a back stage frame 140 and a theater frame 142. The back stage frame 140 although it resides in the browser, is not visible on the screen of the automated banking machine. The theater frame 142 is a visible frame and controls what is shown to the customer. As schematically represented in FIG. 25 the HTML document handling portion also includes a terminal director portion 144. The terminal director portion includes directors which are related instances of applets which are used in carrying out particular types of transactions. The terminal directors generally correspond to the operation of the JAVA applets in the previously described embodiment. The automated banking machine of the exemplary alternative embodiment further includes a transaction services application (TSA) schematically indicated 146. The transaction services application provides security, terminal condition, terminal authorization and key management services within the automated banking machine. The transaction services application includes a function for communicating HTTP messages with the interface server 122. The transaction services application may also communicate through a network such as network 130 in a manner later explained. The transaction services application also provides a server function which enables the transaction services application to carry out the functions of the device server 92 in the previously described embodiment. The automated banking machine of the alternative embodiment further includes JAVA common device interfaces schematically indicated 148. The JAVA common device interfaces in the exemplary embodiment are related instances of applets which control and coordinate the operation of the functional devices 150 of the machines which perform transaction functions. The functional devices may include devices of the types described in connection with the previous embodiment or other types of devices which operate to carry out a function related to a transaction. The JAVA common device interfaces 148 communicate with the functional devices through common device interfaces schematically represented 152. The common device interfaces (CDIs) provide an interface that controls the electromechanical modules in the functional devices included in the automated banking machine. The common device interfaces are schematically shown in connection with a diagnostic server 154. The diagnostic server operates in a manner similar to server 109 of the previously described embodiment. The diagnostic server 154 is useful in diagnosing status and in correcting problems with the devices in the automated banking machine. Referring again to FIG. 26 the backstage frame 140 within the terminal theater portion 138 is a component called the backstage applet 156. The backstage applet 156 is preferably a relatively thin component. Instructions referred to as script included in documents accessed by the browser selectively cause the backstage applet to notify a terminal director when an action is to take place in response to the instructions included in the accessed document. The backstage applet also operates to request that a new document be accessed. The backstage applet also provides access to the shared transaction data object previously discussed which holds transaction data. The theater frame 142 controls the user interface as seen by the user of the automated banking machine terminal. Client HTML schematically represented 158 in the theater frame 142 defines the identifying indicia associated with events sent to a director manager through the backstage applet and provides an interface to the director manager's public methods. The director manager schematically indicated 160 in FIG. 26, has a class which resides in the transaction services application (TSA) 146 as shown. The director manager class residing in the TSA process is operative to load the terminal directors 144 to the document handling portion. The director manager also includes a backstage applet class that resides in the backstage frame 140. The backstage applet class of the director manager provides an interface for the client HTML to make requests on the director manager. Instructions in documents can pass events through the backstage applet 156 to the director manager. Such events include a request to authorize a transaction. Such requests may also include indications that the customer has completed a transaction or that a document loaded by the browser includes instructions requesting that the session be terminated. Other events which can be passed through the director manager include print events. Other events in this exemplary embodiment which can be passed through the backstage applet to the director manager include an indication that an entry was canceled, or other defined user events. In response to receiving events the director manager of the embodiment shown responds to instructions in documents accessed by the browser to perform functions which include changing the content of the theater frame 142. The director manager responsive to such instructions, also changes the active terminal director class. The director manager also caches terminal director classes for later use or loads terminal director classes and documents from a list of available servers. The director manager also provides access to the shared transaction data object holding transaction data for a particular transaction. The director manager also sends terminal theater events to the backstage control class of the current terminal director and provides a screen timeout timer. Of course in other embodiments the terminal director may carry out other functions. In operation of the alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 25 the terminal directors 144 in the transaction services application 146 enables selectively accessing documents with the document handling portion 128. The documents accessed may include instructions which are used to operate the automated banking machine and the functional devices thereon. The transaction services application 146 is further operative to communicate the HTTP messages which are passed to the interface server 122 and which are used to generate conventional ATM messages which can be handled by the host 120. The dispensing of currency and other transfers of value are carried out in response to approval from the host 120, while the interface and other functions are controlled through instructions in documents accessed through the browser. In an exemplary embodiment the ATM or other transaction machine communicates with the conventional ATM host by passing the transaction data object between the computer in the ATM and the interface server. This transfer is preferably accomplished by the remote message invocation (RMI) feature of software such as JAVA. Of course other methods for transferring the data object file using HTTP may be used. As previously discussed, the transaction data object holds transaction data and perhaps other data pertinent to the customer or the transaction. The machine acquires data pertinent to the transaction such as account data from a card, a customer's PIN number, requested transaction(s) and amount(s), and includes this data among the transaction data. Once the data needed to generate a conventional ATM transaction message is represented in the transaction data, the data object is transferred to the interface server. The interface server is in operative connection with a database 123 or other item holding conversion data as schematically indicated. The conversion data is used by the software associated with the server to generate a conventional ATM transaction request message to the host 120. The conventional message may be formatted as a conventional 91 X message or other type of conventional non-HTTP transaction message. After processing the host 120 responds with a conventional response message. The components of the response message are received at the server and processed responsive to the conversion data to produce modified transaction data in the data object. This modified transaction data preferably includes data indicative of whether the requested transaction is authorized or denied, as well as other data. For example, if the transaction is denied it may include data which is indicative of the reason for the denial. The transaction data object with the modified transaction data is then transferred to the computer operating the ATM by RMI or other transfer method. The transaction services application 146 operating in software receives the data object and operates the transaction function devices responsive to the modified transaction data. The transaction data object has the transaction data therein further modified by the inclusion of information concerning operation of the devices. After the devices have operated, the transaction data object with the further modified transaction data is passed back to the interface server 122. The modified transaction data is then used to generate a message to the ATM host. The message to the host includes data corresponding to the modified transaction data. Usually this message is a conventional non-HTTP completion message indicating whether the transaction was successfully carried out by the transaction function devices. The format of the non-HTTP conventional transaction messages may be readily changed in the described embodiment. This can be achieved through the use of plug-ins. The plug-ins are operative to put data into, and to extract data from, the transaction data object. The plug-ins achieve conversion between the transaction data and desired conventional non-HTTP messages. The use of plug-ins enables more readily using the ATM of the described embodiment in connection with varied types of conventional transaction networks. Transaction data in the transaction data object is also preferably operative to have the computer operate the browser or multiple browsers, to access selected documents. This may be done to indicate that the transaction is authorized or denied, as well as to access specific documents responsive to components of the message. For example, customers of banks other than the one operating the ATM may be given certain promotions not presented to the bank's existing customers. The transaction data indicative of why a transaction is denied can be used to access documents which provide an explanation, or can encourage the customer to take other action, such as to take a cash advance on a credit card or to apply for a loan. The system schematically shown in FIG. 25 is an example of an automated banking machine system that achieves the wide variety of interface options available through the use of an HTML interface while preserving compatibility with existing banking machine systems and the security techniques associated therewith. Of course in other embodiments alternative approaches and configurations may be used. A further advantage incorporated into the system schematically represented in FIG. 25 is the ability to operate the software components of the described embodiment of the present invention in existing automated banking machines. As will be appreciated, the handling of HTML or other types of documents in conventional computers requires inputs through a QWERTY type keyboard as well as mouse clicks in locations corresponding to icons or other features on documents to successfully navigate and use such documents. Conventional automated banking machines generally do not include a mouse or full keyboard. Rather, conventional automated banking machines generally include an alphanumeric keypad similar to that used on telephones, as well as function keys. Embodiments of the present invention enable the operation of the system with terminals which have such interfaces operate in a manner which attains benefits of the invention. FIG. 27 shows an example of a conventional automated banking machine interface 162. Interface 162 includes an output device which includes a screen 164. Screen 164 may be a CRT, LCD or other conventional display screen. In the embodiment shown screen 164 is not a touch screen as in the previously described embodiment. A plurality of function keys 166 are disposed at locations adjacent to the screen 164. A keypad 168 is also included in the interface 162. Keypad 168 includes alphanumeric keys as well as certain other dedicated keys such as “cancel”, “correct” and “ok”. Other keys on the keypad are generally blank but in some instances may be used. In the operation of a conventional automated banking machine, screen data which is generated from information stored in the terminal memory produces defined transaction screens which are presented graphically on the screen 164. The screens appear in a sequence in response to the transaction function selected by the customer. Conventional screens also generally include text or graphics representative of selections that can be made by a customer. These text or graphic options generally include lines or other indicia which extend to the edges of the screen adjacent to one of the function keys 166. A user is enabled to select the options by pressing the function key which is pointed to by the selection. Likewise in the operation of the automated banking machine a user is enabled to input the alphanumeric characters which comprise the PIN number as well as numeric amount information and other instructions by pressing the keys in the keypad 168. In an exemplary embodiment of the present invention the software operated in the automated banking machine operates to convert standard ATM key inputs to operating system events such as a mouse click in a desired location or an input from a QWERTY type keyboard. The software components which enable carrying out this function are shown in FIG. 28-30. These functions include a keypad applet 170. The keypad applet 170 in the described embodiment is included among the applets in the terminal directors 144. The keypad applet 170 supports a subset of the keyboard common device interface (CDI) functionality. The keypad applet 170 coordinates with a keyboard command server which operates in the transaction services application 146. The server in the transaction services application communicates with the common device interface for the keypad and function keys, schematically indicated 172. The key CDI in the preferred embodiment is a JAVA program which is referred to as a wrapper for the common device interface associated with the function keys and the keypad. The software further includes a keyboard mapper program schematically indicated 174. The keyboard mapper in the exemplary embodiment is in connection with a database 176 which stores a plurality of map sets. In the exemplary embodiment the keyboard mapper is an extension of the keyboard class of objects used for operating the keyboard. The keyboard mapper operates to store sets of keymaps in the database 176. This is accomplished by reading information in a configuration database for the ATM to obtain the keymaps that are operated in the particular machine. During operation, the keyboard mapper selects one of the keymaps as the current set. This is done in response to the keypad applet and is based on instructions in HTTP records which are selectively accessed. The keyboard mapper may select keymaps responsive to instructions in documents processed through the browser. The keyboard mapper is also operative to enable the keypad and function keys appropriate for the particular mapset selected. The keyboard mapper is further operative responsive to the selected mapset to translate a keypad input signal or a function key input signal into a respective keyboard or mouse input signal which is then delivered to the keyboard input stream or the mouse input stream of the operating system of the computer in which the software operates. In the exemplary embodiment the mapsets are each comprised of hash tables. Keymap objects are stored as values in the hash tables such that each object includes the values and operations necessary to convert any appropriate ATM key event to an operating system input event. As can be appreciated in the case of function keys adjacent to the ATM screen it may be desirable to provide a mouse input to the mouse input stream that corresponds to a particular coordinate location for the mouse input. This is provided by the keyboard mapper using the selected keymap set. The various keymap sets enable the different function keys to provide different types of inputs to the computer operating system responsive to the document processed by the browser to produce the output displayed to the user. Further the keyboard mapper causes the pressing of a selected key to produce an input corresponding to a mouse click at a selected x,y coordinate position on the screen. It should be understood that either keypad keys or function keys can be used to produce mouse inputs. Likewise function key inputs may be converted to keyboard inputs. In some embodiments however it will be desirable to disable the mouse indicator on the screen such that the user does not notice a usual mouse icon. Such disabling may include in some embodiments reducing the size of the mouse icon such that it is so small that it cannot be readily seen by a user of the machine. During portions of some transactions it may be unnecessary for the user to press any keys. In such situations some preferred embodiments of the invention operate to disable the keypad keys and/or function keys. Because resources of the computer are used in polling such keys for inputs, the cessation of such polling during appropriate times enables the computer resources to be devoted to carrying out other functions. This will increase the speed at which other activities may be carried out. This may be accomplished in some embodiments by the keypad applet operating to remove the key devices from a poll list. FIGS. 28-30 include schematic depictions of examples of the operation of the keyboard mapper and the keypad applet. FIG. 29 shows an example of an input to the keypad 168. In this example the keypad applet 170 generally in response to instructions in an HTTP record such as an HTML document or other events, transmits and enables events to the transaction services application 146. In response a mapset is selected from the database 176 corresponding to the particular map name. The keyboard command server is further operative to enable the appropriate keys of the ATM. In this example, in response the customer pressing the “OK” key on the keypad the CDI generates an appropriate signal to the transaction services application. As will be noted from FIG. 27 a “OK” key is referred to by convention as the “J” key of the ATM interface. The transaction services application transmits the signal generated from the pressing of the “J” key by the customer to the keyboard mapper 174. In response to receiving the signal, the keyboard mapper operates to resolve the object in the mapset corresponding to the map name which will convert the function key input signal to a keyboard input signal which is recognized by the operating system. By calling the selected object from the mapset, a keyboard input signal is produced and delivered into the keyboard stream of the computer. This is represented by keyboard stream 178. In the embodiment shown the keyboard stream is an input to the Windows NT® operating system. The keypad applet 170 operates to sense the input through its corresponding key listener. Applet 170 is also operative to receive the event and may operate to display an icon or other graphic corresponding to what the customer has input. FIG. 28 shows operation of the keyboard mapper in situations where the transaction services application operates to prevent transmitting the data input by the customer to the applet 170. This may be desirable for example, in situations where the input by the customer is the customer's PIN or other data which is not to be displayed. In these circumstances the transaction services application 146 operates to hold the data input by the customer and to send only a signal representative of a holding character, in this case a “*” symbol back to the browser. This is done selectively in response to the instructions contained in documents accessed by the browser or in other HTTP records accessed by the computer which indicates that the input by the customer corresponds to their PIN or other data which is not to be sent to the browser. In the example shown in FIG. 28 only the holding character is passed through the keyboard mapper to the browser. In situations where the HTTP record accessed invokes methods in which numerical values are to be sent to the browser and/or displayed on the screen (such as the amount of a withdrawal transaction) the signal sent by the transaction services application to the browser is indicative of the numerical value associated with the key pressed. FIG. 30 is a further example of the operation of the keyboard mapper in this case the input corresponds to a function key 166. In this case the input is caused by pressing the function key “A” which is shown adjacent to the upper right hand corner of the screen as shown in FIG. 27. The signal generated in response to pressing the function key is passed to the keyboard mapper which in response to the data obtained from the data store 176 outputs a mouse input corresponding to a mouse click. The mouse input includes data representative of the x and y coordinates on the screen where the mouse click is to be provided. This mouse input signal is passed to the mouse stream input schematically represented 180. As will be appreciated, to enable the automated banking machine which processes documents to operate using a conventional ATM interface the mouse input will generally include coordinate locations which correspond to a location on the screen adjacent to the particular function key. This is because the icon, line, text or other indicia which the customer is selecting by pressing the key will preferably appear or extend on the screen adjacent to the key. In this way the customer is aware through the visual presentation what key to press to make a corresponding selection. A number of function keys adjacent to the screen may be operative at any one time. The customer may make selections by pressing a function key at one location and then a function key at another location disposed from the first location. This will result in signals being sent to the mouse stream corresponding to mouse clicks at coordinates on the screen adjacent to the function buttons pressed by the customer. During transactions various combinations of function and keypad keys may be operative and mapped to various keyboard and mouse inputs as determined by the selected mapsets. In addition developers may develop special mapsets corresponding to the particular graphics in documents which are displayed. In the foregoing manner keypad inputs to a conventional ATM or other automated banking machine keypad can be translated into conventional keyboard or mouse inputs which can be identified and processed in a conventional keyboard input stream or mouse input stream to a computer. Likewise function keys may be translated into mouse inputs at selected locations and delivered into the mouse input stream for processing by the computer or may be converted into keyboard inputs and delivered to the keyboard input stream. A further advantage of the described terminal configuration is that keys may be selectively disabled except when they are needed. This may reduce instances of attempts to improperly access the machine by pressing keys on the keyboard. Further as previously discussed steps may also be taken to disable keys when they are not needed to increase transaction processing speeds. A further advantage of embodiments of the present invention is the ability of the automated banking machine to provide printed documents based on instructions in HTML or other types of documents. Such printed items may include tickets, travelers checks, money orders, bank checks, scrip or other types of documents. The ability of embodiments to access and process documents enables the printing of graphics and other indicia which can produce printed documents having selected appearance features and selected ornamental designs. This can reduce the need to utilize preprinted forms and also enables the printing of a greater variety of printed formats. Further the configuration of some embodiments of the machine enable printing only selected portions of transaction information for record keeping purposes within the machine while providing versions including enhanced graphics or other attractive features to customers. FIG. 31 is a schematic representation of the operation of the system in printing forms using a printer in an automated transaction machine. The exemplary form of the invention uses the WIN32 printer services which operate under Windows NT® 4.0. In the exemplary transaction shown, the director manager class 180 operating in the terminal theater portion 138 initiates a print receipt transaction by requesting a printer director 182 to print a receipt. The printer director in the exemplary embodiment is a collection of instances of related JAVA beans which operate to carry out printing activities, and is one of the directors among the terminal directors 144. The printer director includes a print class which is schematically shown separately which is operative to invoke a print URL method. The printer class in the exemplary embodiment includes access to the shared transaction data object which includes the customer specific information concerning the transaction that includes indicia representative of information to be printed. In the case of an automated banking machine this may include for example indicia representative information which is read from a customer's card input to the machine and read by a card reader. This would include for example the customer's name and account number. The other transaction information may include the types of transactions conducted such as a deposit, withdrawal or inquiry as well as the amount involved in each respective transaction. The transaction services application 146 receives the print request and passes the URL string to the WIN printer object 184 by the print URL method. The URL address in an exemplary embodiment is the address of an HTTP record such as an HTML document that will be used to format the document to be printed, in this case a receipt. This HTML document contains the embedded JAVA script that processes transaction data from the transaction data object. The URL address of the document may be on a local machine or may be retrieved from another server such as through a network schematically indicated 186. Network 186 may be a local area network or a wide area network depending on the configuration of the machine. The WIN printer object 184 next navigates to the address of the document to be accessed. This is done in one preferred embodiment using Microsoft's C Web Browser2 ActiveX control. When the HTML document has been loaded the ActiveX control automatically begins processing the content of the accessed document. The transaction services application 146 invokes the print URL method of the WIN printer object 184. The WIN printer object uses the ActiveX control to print the current HTML document. This printing is processed by the Windows NT® print spool and graphics components. The JAVA CDI receives an event from the print monitor component 192 that indicates the completion of print spooling. This indicates that a file is now available to be read and sent to the common device interface (CDI) 188 of the receipt printer. Next a printer object 190 invokes a read data function in the print monitor 192 to determine the location and size of the print data file. The print object 190 sends the data or the path name of the data file to the printer CDI 188. The printer CDI 188 then passes the print data to the printer hardware. This results in printing of the receipt. Once the receipt is printed the applet from the printer director 182 issues a request to deliver the printed receipt. The delivery request is passed through the transaction services application 146 to the printer object 190. The printer object 190 invokes the delivery method on the printer CDI 188 to cause the receipt to be delivered to the user of the machine. The operation of the software components enables selectively accessing document formats as well as using instructions contained in the documents to include transaction data within the printed documents. This enables producing documents of varied types. In addition it enables providing printing different types of documents for different customers. This may be desirable when providing marketing information, coupons or similar indicia on transaction receipts. This approach further simplifies providing printed formats in various languages by developing HTML documents which provide printed forms in different languages. As can be appreciated numerous types of form documents may be established which include instructions which instantiate and/or process certain data in the transaction data object to produce printed forms. In addition the methods of the present invention may be used for providing marketing to customers by profile or types of customer categories, as well as on a segment of one basis. While the printing method previously described is discussed in connection with delivering transaction receipts, similar methods may be invoked for the printing of statements for customers as well as for printing a transaction journal within the automated banking machine. Further by accessing selected documents controlling the format of printing the information, journal records may be provided with consolidated information in a manner which enables conserving journal paper within the machine by not printing promotional or other types of information that is provided on customer documents. The printing method of the exemplary form of the present invention also enables printing various types of optical indicia such as bar code or other types of machine readable indicia which can be used for printing coupons, checks or similar articles. Such coding may facilitate tracking the use of such items by customers for purposes of evaluating the effectiveness of various marketing efforts. In addition machine readable indicia may be used for printing on items such as deposit envelopes and/or in transaction journals. Such printing may facilitate reading such items by machine to verify the contents of deposits. The printing capabilities achieved through the methods of the present invention also enables the printing of selected graphical materials. This may include for example materials which include imbedded digital signatures which can be used to verify the genuineness of the items printed. This may be particularly useful for example in situations where the transaction machine is used to print scrip, travelers checks, betting slips or other items having independent value. In addition printed documents in full color may be produced by including a color printer in the transaction machine. The principles associated with printing forms from the automated banking machine are also applicable to the development of other electronic and hard copy forms. As previously discussed, in embodiments of the invention the transaction data may be delivered to the home bank as an HTML document or other HTTP message. Such documents may include instructions which when processed by a browser, operate to extract or manipulate the data therein so it may be further processed and/or stored in a different format. Such processing may include for example, the conversion of the data in the document to a non-HTTP format such as a Diebold 91X, NCR PAS or IBM 473X format. In some circumstances customers at the automated banking machine may be presented with promotional offers or offers to purchase goods or services. These offers may come from vendor entities not associated with the institution with which the customer has their account. Such offers to be accepted may require the customer to provide information to the vendor. Such information may commonly include data accumulated in the transaction record or transaction data object. For example, the vendor of the goods or services will often need the customer name and account number data for charging for the goods or services. As previously discussed, the transaction data object may also hold personal data about the customer that is stored on the customer's card or other article and read by a reader in the machine. In exemplary embodiments, the vendors of such goods or services may have applications accessible on a server. These applications may include documents which have instructions therein for instantiating and/or processing the information in the transaction data object to provide the information the vendor needs to consummate the transaction. This may be accomplished by navigating one of the visible or non-visible browsers in the banking machine to the network address at which the vendor document(s) are accessible in response to input of instructions by the customer that they wish to accept an offer or conduct such a transaction. In exemplary embodiments, a vendor form may be viewed on the display and printed by the customer at the automated banking machine. If there is a need for further information from the customer or for the customer to make selections, the vendor application comprised of HTML, other type mark up language or other documents may elicit such information through the customer interface of the banking machine. The vendor application may also have the customer acknowledge limitations of disclaimers related to the goods or services being offered. The printing capabilities of the exemplary embodiment further enables providing a customer with a printed version of a computer generated form or contract reflecting information concerning the transaction and terms associated therewith. Further any special provisions such as a printed notice that the customer has a right to rescind the transaction for a period of time and the steps the customer must take to rescind may be provided in printed hard copy format. In alternative embodiments the offers or transactions provided through the automated banking machine by vendors of goods or services may utilize the same or at least some of the documents comprising an application which is used to conduct transactions electronically when the customer is not operating an automated banking machine. For example, similar form type documents may have data therein populated through a user's home computer when the transaction is conducted away from an automated banking machine. When the transaction is conducted at a banking machine the information in the transaction data object or other transaction record is used to provide the necessary data. This capability provides opportunities for vendors to develop applications that can be used over the Internet for home PCs as well as for customers who use automated banking machines. Such capabilities further enable vendors and banking institutions to develop applications such as home banking applications, applications for making purchases and bill payment applications that can be utilized from both home PCs and automated banking machines. Because automated banking machines have access to data which is stored in a bank office, database personal data stored on a card or accessible from another data store, the system of the invention may be configured so that additional information may be included in the transaction data object without the need for input by a customer at the banking machine. This enables processing transactions at the banking machine more quickly than may be possible on the customer's home PC. Further utilizing the banking machine for conducting transactions enables the customer to conduct the transactions utilizing the security associated with the banking machine system. The use of automated banking machines to conduct transactions that could be carried out through a home PC has an advantage in that it includes the capability of providing the customer with hard copy receipt forms documenting transactions conducted. The use of the banking machine may also provide customers with greater confidence that transactions have been recorded as the bank may also maintain information which documents the transaction even through the transaction is between the customer and a third party. Banking machines may also provide receipt forms that are deliberately made more difficult to counterfeit or which have capabilities of being verified as genuine. The use of image recording systems in connection with banking machines also may be used to verify that a transaction was conducted by an authorized person. Such features also enable the institution having the customer's account to offer promotions such as premiums, extended warranties or prizes for conducting transactions with the involvement of the institution. Numerous advantages within the scope of the present invention may also be achieved. Computer software used in operating the automated transaction machines of the present invention and connected computers may be loaded from articles of various types into the respective computers. Such computer software may be included on and loaded from one or more articles such as diskettes or compact disks. Such software may also be included on articles such as hard disk drives, tapes or read only memory devices. Other articles which include data representative of the instructions for operating computers in the manner described herein are suitable for use in achieving operation of transaction machines and systems in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. The exemplary embodiments of the automated banking machines and systems described herein have been described with reference to particular software components and features. Other embodiments of the invention may include other or different software components which provide similar functionality. Thus the new automated banking machine and system of the present invention achieves the above stated objectives, eliminates difficulties encountered in the use of prior devices and systems, solves problems and attains the desirable results described herein. In the foregoing description certain terms have been used for brevity, clarity and understanding. However no unnecessary limitations are to be implied therefrom because such terms are for descriptive purposes and are intended to be broadly construed. Moreover the descriptions and illustrations herein are by way of examples and the invention is not limited to the details shown and described. In the following claims any feature described as a means for performing a function shall be construed as encompassing any means known to those having skill in the art to be capable of performing the recited function and shall not be deemed limited to the particular means shown in the foregoing description or mere equivalents thereof. Having described the features, discoveries and principles of the invention, the manner in which it is constructed and operated and the advantages and useful results attained; the new and useful structures, devices, elements, arrangements, parts, combinations, systems, equipment, operations, methods, processes and relationships are set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Automated banking machines are well known. A common type of automated banking machine used by consumers is an automated teller machine (“ATM”). ATMs enable customers to carry out banking transactions. Common banking transactions that may be carried out with ATMs include the dispensing of cash, the receipt of deposits, the transfer of funds between accounts, the payment of bills and account balance inquiries. The type of banking transactions a customer can carry out are determined by capabilities of the particular banking machine and the programming of the institution operating the machine. Other types of automated banking machines may allow customers to charge against accounts or to transfer funds. Other types of automated banking machines may print or dispense items of value such as coupons, tickets, wagering slips, vouchers, checks, food stamps, money orders, scrip or travelers checks. For purposes of this disclosure an automated banking machine or automated transaction machine shall encompass any device which carries out transactions including transfers of value. Currently ATMs are operated in proprietary communications networks. These networks interconnect ATMs operated by financial institutions and other entities. The interconnection of the networks often enables a user to use a banking machine operated by another institution if the foreign institution's banking machine is interconnected with the network that includes the user's institution. However when the customer operates the foreign institution's machine the customer must operate the machine using the customer interface that has been established by the foreign institution for its banking machines. In addition the user is limited to the transaction options provided by the foreign institution. A customer may encounter difficulties when using a foreign institution's machine. Problems may occur because the user is not familiar with the type of machine operated by the foreign institution. Confusion may result because the customer does not know which buttons or other mechanisms to actuate to accomplish the desired transactions. The transaction flow for a customer at a foreign institution machine may be significantly different from machines operated by the user's home institution. This may be particularly a problem when the user is from another country and is not familiar with the type of banking machine or the language of the interface provided by the foreign institution. Likewise, the documents which are printed by printers in an automated banking machine are generally limited to a limited group of defined formats in a single language. A foreign institution may also provide different types of transactions than the user is familiar with at their home institution. For example the user's home institution may enable the transfer of funds between accounts through their automated banking machines, to enable the user to maintain funds in higher interest bearing accounts until they are needed. If the foreign institution does not provide this capability, the user will be unable to do this when operating the foreign machine. The inability of a user at a foreign machine to conduct the transactions that they are accustomed to may present problems. The networks that operate automated teller machines and other types of automated banking machines generally operate proprietary networks to which access is restricted. This is necessary to prevent fraud or tampering with the network or user's accounts. Proprietary networks are also generally used for the transmission of credit card messages and other financial transaction messages. Access to such credit card processing systems is also restricted primarily for purposes of maintaining security. Communication over wide area networks enables messages to be communicated between distant locations. The best known wide area network is the Internet which can be used to provide communication between computers throughout the world. The Internet has not been as widely used for financial transaction messages because it is not a secure system. Messages intended for receipt at a particular computer address may be intercepted at other addresses without detection. Because the messages may be intercepted at locations that are distant in the world from the intended recipient, there is potential for fraud and corruption. Companies are beginning to provide approaches for more secure transmission of messages on the Internet. Encryption techniques are also being applied to Internet messages. However the openness of the Internet has limited its usefulness for purposes of financial messages, particularly financial messages associated with the operation of automated banking machines. Messages in wide area networks may be communicated using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol (“TCP/IP”). U.S. Pat. No. 5,706,422 shows an example of a system in which financial information stored in databases is accessed through a private wide area network using TCP/IP messages. The messages transmitted in such networks which use TCP/IP may include “documents” (also called “pages”). Such documents are produced in Hypertext Markup Language (“HTML”) which reference to mark up language herein being to a type of programming language used to produce documents with commands or “tags” therein. The tags are codes which define features and/or operations of the document such as fonts, layout, imbedded graphics and hypertext links. Mark up language documents such as HTML documents are processed or read through use of a computer program referred to as a “browser”. The tags tell the browser how to process and control what is seen on a screen and/or is heard on speakers connected to the computer running the browser when the document is processed. HTML documents may be transmitted over a network through the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (“HTTP”). The term “Hypertext” is a reference to the ability to embed links into the text of a document that allow communication to other documents which can be accessed in the network. Thus there exists a need for an automated banking machine and system that can be used in a wide area network such as the Internet while providing a high level of security. There further exists a need for an automated banking machine and system which provides a user with the familiar interface and transaction options of their home institution when operating foreign institution machines. There further exists a need for a machine which may provide more transaction options and types of promotional and printed materials to users. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a network configuration including an exemplary embodiment of the automated banking machine apparatus and system of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of the exemplary embodiment of an automated banking machine of the present invention. FIGS. 3 through 24 show schematic views of the automated banking machine, an intranet connecting the banking machine to a computer system of a home bank and a wide area network connecting the computer system of the home bank to a foreign bank. FIGS. 3 through 18 schematically represent steps in a transaction carried out at the banking machine with the computer system of the home bank. FIGS. 19 through 24 schematically represent steps in a transaction carried out at the banking machine with the computer system of the foreign bank. FIG. 25 is a schematic view of a network configuration including an alternative embodiment of the automated banking machine of the present invention. FIG. 26 is a schematic view of frames in the HTML document handling portion of the alternative embodiment of the automated banking machine shown in FIG. 25 . FIG. 27 is a schematic view of a customer interface of an automated banking machine and the function keys and keypad keys included in the interface. FIGS. 28-30 schematically represent exemplary steps in converting function key and keypad key inputs to keyboard stream and mouse stream inputs. FIG. 31 schematically represents exemplary steps in printing documents with the automated banking machine. FIG. 32 is a screen output representing combined outputs from five browsers operated in an automated banking machine. FIG. 33 is a screen output representing outputs from three browsers operating in an automated banking machine. FIG. 34 is a screen output representing outputs from nine browsers operating in an automated banking machine. FIG. 35 is a screen output representing outputs from two browsers operating in an automated banking machine. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050112 | 20100126 | 20050602 | 99307.0 | 0 | CAMPEN, KELLY SCAGGS | CASH DISPENSING ATM SYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE ENTITY INTERFACE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,658 | ACCEPTED | Automatic clothes dryer | An automatic clothes dryer comprises a cabinet in which is rotatably mounted a drum that defines a drying chamber and a motor for rotating the drum. A variable speed blower is mounted within the interior space and is fluidly coupled to the drying chamber for moving air through the drying chamber at varying flow rates to improve the drying of the clothes. | 1. A method for controlling the operation of an automatic clothes dryer according to a drying cycle comprising a drying chamber for receiving articles of clothing, and an air flow system comprising a motor and a blower driven by the motor for forcing air through the drying chamber, the method comprising: estimating the air flow through the air flow system; comparing the estimated air flow to a desired air flow; and adjusting the motor speed in response to the comparison such that the air flow through the air flow system approaches the desired air flow. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the adjusting of the motor speed comprises setting a controlled motor speed for the motor speed and operating the motor at the controlled motor speed. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the adjusting of the motor speed further comprises determining a current motor speed and comparing the controlled motor speed to the current motor speed. 4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the current motor speed is estimated based on an operating parameter of the motor. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the comparing of the estimated air flow to the desired air flow comprises determining an error value based on the difference between the estimated air flow and the desired air flow. 6. The method according to claim 5, and further comprising comparing the error value to a predetermined deviation value. 7. The method according to claim 6, and further comprising adjusting the motor speed if the error value is greater than the deviation value. 8. The method according to claim 7, and further comprising limiting the adjustment of the motor speed within a predetermined range. 9. (canceled) 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the estimating of the air flow comprises sensing an operational characteristic of the blower motor in the air flow system. 11. The method according to claim 10, wherein the sensed operational characteristic comprises at least one of motor speed, air temperature, motor current, and motor torque. 12. The method according to claim 1, wherein the adjusting of the motor speed comprises adjusting the motor speed to maintain the air flow at a constant desired air flow. 13. The method according to claim 1, wherein the adjusting of the motor speed comprises at least one of increasing and decreasing the motor speed. 14. The method according to claim 1, wherein the adjusting of the motor speed comprises altering the desired air flow during the drying cycle and adjusting the motor speed to obtain the altered desired air flow. 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the altering of the desired air flow is done in response to the air temperature in the air flow system. 16. The method according to claim 14, wherein the altering of the desired air flow is done in response to dryness of a clothes load in the dryer. 17. The method according to claim 14, wherein the altering of the desired air flow is done in response to the mass of the clothes load in the dryer. 18. The method according to claim 14, wherein the altering of the desired air flow is done in response to the volume of the clothes load in the dryer. 19. (canceled) 20. (canceled) 21. (canceled) 22. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 27, wherein the variable speed motor is one of a continuously variable motor and a discretely variable motor. 23. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 22, wherein the variable speed motor is directly coupled to the blower. 24. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 23, wherein the variable speed motor has a rotating shaft and the blower is coupled to the shaft. 25. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 24, wherein the blower is a centrifugal blower. 26. A method for controlling the operation of an automatic clothes dryer according to a drying cycle comprising a drying chamber for receiving articles of clothing, and an air flow system comprising a motor and a blower driven by the motor for forcing air through the drying chamber, the method comprising: estimating the air flow through the air flow system based on at least one of the motor speed, air temperature, motor current, and motor torque; comparing the estimated air flow to a desired air flow; and adjusting the motor speed in response to the comparison such that the air flow through the air flow system approaches the desired air flow. 27. An automatic clothes dryer, comprising: a cabinet defining an interior space; a drum rotatably mounted within the interior space and defining a drying chamber; a blower fluidly coupled to the drying chamber for moving ambient air into and exhausting air from the drying chamber; a variable speed motor operatively coupled to the blower for adjusting air flow from the blower; and a controller operatively coupled to the variable speed motor for adjusting the speed of the variable speed motor in response to estimating the air flow through the drying chamber and comparing the estimated air flow to a desired air flow. 28. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 27, wherein the controller estimates the air flow based on sensing an operational characteristic of the variable speed motor. 29. The automatic clothes dryer according to claim 28, wherein the sensed operational characteristic comprises at least one of motor speed, air temperature, motor current, and motor torque. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to automatic clothes dryers. In one aspect, the invention relates to a blower assembly for an automatic clothes dryer utilizing a variable-speed blower motor. In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for adjusting the air flow rate through an automatic clothes dryer drum. 2. Description of the Related Art Automatic clothes dryers are well known, and typically comprise a cabinet enclosing a horizontally rotating drum for holding items to be dried and accessible through an access door at the front of the cabinet. The drum is rotated by a first belt which is driven by a motor. The motor also drives a blower or fan directly by a shaft connection or by a second belt; the blower delivers dry, heated or unheated air to the drum for drying the items, and exhausts humid air from the drum to a discharge location exterior of the cabinet. The motor and blower assembly are typically mounted in a lower portion of the cabinet beneath or to the side of the drum. The belts are driven by pulleys attached to a rotating shaft of the motor, generally at opposite ends of the motor. The motor typically rotates at a preselected angular velocity based to achieve a prescribed operational angular velocity for the dryer drum. The angular velocity of the blower is thus linked to the angular velocity of the dryer drum. The angular velocity of the drum is generally maintained constant in order to impart a desired tumbling action to the dryer load, so that the angular velocity of the blower cannot be adjusted during the drying cycle. In other words, the speed of the motor is fixed, which means the blower speed is also fixed. As such, the air flow rate through the drum cannot be varied in response to changes in conditions within the drum such as: load size, type of garment being dried, and initial moisture content of the load; or to user imposed conditions such as pre-selected dryer cycle settings or differences in consumer exhaust vent conditions. Currently, only the heat and cycle time can be varied in response to a change in the conditions. The ability to alter the air flow rate independently of the angular velocity of the drum would provide for additional control over the drying cycle, without negatively impacting clothes load tumbling, which is highly desirable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A method for controlling the operation of an automatic clothes dryer according to a drying cycle comprising a drying chamber for receiving articles of clothing, and an air flow system comprising a motor and a blower driven by the motor for forcing air through the drying chamber. The method comprises determining the air flow through the air flow system, comparing the determined air flow to a desired air flow, and adjusting the motor speed such that the air flow through the air flow system approaches the desired air flow. Adjusting of the motor speed comprises setting a controlled motor speed for the motor speed and operating the motor at the controlled motor speed. The adjusting of the motor speed further comprises determining a current motor speed and comparing the controlled motor speed to the current motor speed. The current motor speed is estimated based on an operating parameter of the motor. The comparing of the determined air flow to the desired air flow comprises determining an error value based on the difference between the determined air flow and the desired air flow. The method further comprises comparing the error value to a predetermined deviation value, and adjusting the motor speed if the error value is greater than the deviation value. The method further comprises limiting the adjustment of the motor speed within a predetermined range. The determining of the determined air flow comprises estimating the air flow based on at least one of the motor speed, air temperature, and motor torque. The determining of the air flow comprises sensing an operational characteristic of a blower motor in the air flow system. The sensed operational characteristic comprises at least one of motor speed, air temperature, and motor torque. The adjusting of the motor speed comprises adjusting the motor speed to maintain the air flow at a constant desired air flow. The adjusting of the motor speed comprises at least one of increasing and decreasing the motor speed, and altering the desired air flow during the drying cycle and adjusting the motor speed to obtain the altered desired air flow. The altering of the desired air flow during the drying cycle comprises setting a desired air flow for at least one of the following steps of the drying cycle: warm-up, constant-rate drying, falling-rate drying, and cool down. The adjusting of the desired air flow is done in response to the temperature of the air in the air flow system, the dryness of a clothes load in the dryer, the mass of the clothes, and the volume of the clothes load in the dryer. In another embodiment, an automatic clothes dryer comprises a cabinet defining an interior space, a drum rotatably mounted within the interior space and defining a drying chamber, a blower fluidly coupled to the drying chamber for moving ambient air into and exhausting air from the drying chamber, a variable speed motor operably coupled to the blower for adjusting air flow from the blower, a motor speed determiner that outputs a signal representative of the motor speed, and a controller operably coupled to the variable speed motor and the motor speed determiner to adjust the speed of the variable speed motor in response to a signal from the motor speed determiner to adjust the speed of the motor to maintain the air flow at a predetermined set point. The motor speed determiner can comprise a sensor coupled to the motor to sense a characteristic of the motor that is representative of the motor speed. The sensors can comprise at least one of a current sensor, or torque sensor, or equivalent sensorless processing means. The automatic clothes dryer can further comprise an exhaust temperature sensor coupled to the controller. The variable speed motor can comprise one of a continuously variable motor and a discretely variable motor. The variable speed motor can be directly coupled to the blower. The variable speed motor can have a rotating shaft and the blower impeller can be coaxially coupled. The blower can be a centrifugal blower. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an automatic clothes dryer comprising a cabinet enclosing a rotating drum and a blower assembly utilizing a variable-speed blower motor according to the invention. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the automatic clothes dryer illustrated in FIG. 1 with portions removed for clarity, illustrating the blower assembly. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the blower assembly illustrated in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a flow diagram illustrating a process steps for controlling the operation of the variable-speed blower motor. FIG. 5 is a graphical representation of flow characteristics for three different conditions of air flow resistance through an automatic clothes dryer utilizing the variable-speed blower motor according to the invention. DESCRIPTION OF AN EMBODIMENT OF THE INVENTION Referring to the Figures, and in particular to FIG. 1, an embodiment of an automatic clothes dryer 10 according to the invention is illustrated comprising a cabinet 12 enclosing a control panel 14 for controlling the operation of the dryer 10, a door 16 hingedly attached to a front wall 20, a rear wall 24, and a pair of side walls 22 supporting a top wall 18. The clothes dryer 10 described herein shares many features of a well-known automatic clothes dryer, and will not be described in detail except as necessary for a complete understanding of the invention. FIG. 2 illustrates the dryer 10 with the cabinet 12 removed to disclose the interior of the dryer 10, which comprises a rotating drum 30 rotatably suspended in a well-known manner between a front drum panel 50 and a rear drum panel 52. The front drum panel 50 is provided with an opening for access to the interior of the drum 30 which defines a drying chamber 40. The cabinet 12 also encloses a drum motor assembly 32 adapted in a well-known manner for rotating the drum 30 via a drum belt 34, and a blower assembly 60, which is partially visible beneath the drum 30. The blower assembly 60 is more clearly illustrated in FIG. 3, when the drum is removed. The blower assembly 60 comprises a blower motor 62, a blower 64, and a blower motor controller 66. The blower 64 comprises a centrifugal blower comprising a rotating impeller (not shown) enclosed in a housing which is configured to draw in air coaxially and exhaust the air tangentially in a direction orthogonal to the direction of air flow through the impeller. Thus, air is drawn into the blower 64 through a blower inlet 68, as illustrated by the solid line flow vectors, and passes tangentially through the blower housing under the influence of the impeller, as illustrated by the dotted line flow vectors, to exit a blower outlet 70. The impeller is driven by the blower motor 62, which is illustrated in FIG. 3 as coaxial with the impeller. Preferably, the rotating shaft of the blower motor 62 also comprises the rotating shaft of the impeller so that the blower motor 62 and the impeller constitute a direct-drive unit. The blower motor 62 is a variable speed motor capable of rotation within a preselected range of angular velocities, based for example on controlled variations in voltage or current. The motor 62 can be continuously variable or discretely variable, i.e. operable at one of a preselected number of differing speeds. Preferably, the blower motor 62 is a well-known brushless permanent magnet (BPM) motor, and is provided with one of the many well known methods for evaluating the angular velocity of the motor and the torque developed by the motor. Such methods include monitoring the motor voltage, motor current, variations in motor voltage or current, or other operational characteristics. These methods are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art and are not germane to the invention. The blower motor 62 is operably interconnected, such as through well-known electrical connections, with the blower motor controller 66, including a power supply connection. FIG. 4 is a schematic illustrating a controller 100 located in the blower motor controller 66 to control air flow delivered by the blower assembly 60. In effect, the controller 100 performs a logic routine which controls the blower motor 62 to produce a desired air flow based upon motor speed, motor torque, and blower exhaust temperature. Control of the blower motor 62 involves processing in both a dryer control unit (DCU) 102 and a motor control unit (MCU) 104. Both units 102, 104 can be physically located together at any suitable located in the dryer, such as in the blower motor controller 66 as illustrated. Alternatively, the dryer control unit 102 can be located remotely from the blower motor controller 66, which would contain only the motor control unit 104. The location of the units is not germane to the invention. In either configuration, the dryer control unit 102 and the motor control unit 104 bi-directionally communicate through a communication interface 106 in a well-known master-slave configuration. The dryer control unit 102 comprises the master unit, and the motor control unit 104 comprises the slave unit. The units 102 and 104 can be either hardware, software or a combination of both. The controller 100 establishes an actual air flow delivered by the blower assembly 60 to the drying chamber 40 by adjusting the speed of the blower motor 62, which is accomplished by evaluating torque and speed information for the blower motor 62, and air temperature information from the blower outlet 70, and utilizing the information in an algorithm to compare an estimated air flow value with a preselected air flow set-point. If the absolute value of the difference between the estimated air flow value and the preselected set-point is less than or equal to a preselected deviation value, no adjustment to the speed of the blower motor 62 is made. If the estimated air flow value differs from the preselected set-point more than the preselected deviation value, the motor speed is adjusted, and the comparison is repeated. The process is repeated until the difference in estimated and preselected speeds is less than or equal to the deviation value. The controller 100 evaluates a desired flow input (Fd) 110, which is preferably a predetermined value pre-programmed into the dryer control unit 102, and can take different values during a preselected drying cycle. It is anticipated that the desired flow input value will be established for a specific dryer configuration and a preselected drying cycle (e.g., normal cycle, low heat cycle, delicate fabrics cycle, etc.) based upon empirical data developed for each dryer configuration. The desired flow input 110 is compared with an estimated flow input (Fe) 114 in a flow comparison step 112. The difference between the desired flow input 110 and the estimated flow input 114 is termed an “error” and comprises an error input 116 for an error magnitude logic step 118. In the error magnitude logic step 118, the absolute value of the error input 116 is compared with a preselected deviation value. The deviation value reflects an acceptable variation between the desired flow input 110 and the estimated flow input 114 which requires no correction in blower system performance. If the absolute value of the error input 116 is less than the deviation value, a negative input signal 120 is generated and the desired speed (Sd) of the blower motor 62 is equated with a controlled speed (Sc) value in a speed select step 124. In other words, no change in blower motor speed is effected. If, however, the absolute value of the air input 116 is greater than the deviation value, an affirmative input signal 122 is generated and the desired speed (Sd) of the blower motor 62 is modified in a flow adjustment step 130. Depending upon the results from the error magnitude logic step 118, the desired speed (Sd) value from the speed select step 124 comprises a speed limit input 126 to a speed limit logic step 134. Alternatively, the desired speed (Sd) value from the flow adjustment step 130 comprises a speed limit input 132 to the speed limit logic step 134. In the speed limit logic step 134, the desired speed (Sd) value is compared with preselected maximum and minimum speed limits for the blower motor 62. As a practical matter, the variable speed motor 62 may be limited to operation between an upper speed limit and a lower speed limit. Thus, the controller 100 must be configured so that speeds outside this range are not called for. As an example, the speed limit logic step 134 may be configured with a minimum motor speed of, say for illustrative purposes, 1000 rpm and a maximum motor speed of 2600 rpm. If the desired speed (Sd) value is less than 1000 rpm, the controlled speed (Sc) is set at 1000 rpm. If the desired speed (Sd) value is greater than 2600 rpm, the controlled speed (Sc) is set at 2600 rpm. Desired speeds (Sd) intermediate these two limits are established as the controlled speed (Sc). The controlled speed (Sc) becomes a controlled speed input 136 for a speed comparison step 138. In the speed comparison step 138, the controlled speed (Sc) is compared with an estimated blower motor speed input 140. During the logic routine performed by the controller 100, the blower motor 62 is operating at an actual speed (Sa) which is an input 144 to the blower assembly 60. However, the actual speed (Sa) is not measured. An electrical signal 146 indicative of the actual speed (Sa) is input to an algorithm as part of a speed estimation step 150, which establishes an estimated speed (Se). The estimated speed (Se) is used instead of the actual speed (Sa). For purposes of the invention, the estimated speed is sufficient and more cost effect than determining the actual speed. Similarly, an electrical signal 148 indicative of the actual motor torque (Ta), which is also not measured, is input to an algorithm as part of a motor torque estimation step 158, which establishes an estimated motor torque (Te). Motor torque is indicative of the dryer load and the flow resistance. The estimated motor torque (Te) is used to establish the estimated flow Fe for the flow comparison step 112, and is used instead of the actual motor torque (Ta). For purposes of the invention, the estimated motor torque is sufficient and more cost effective than determining the actual motor torque. The estimated speed (Se) is input 140 to the speed comparison step 138 for comparison with the controlled speed (Sc). The deviation between the estimated speed (Se) and the controlled speed (Sc) is a speed deviation input 152 to a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller 154. The PID controller 154 sends an adjustment signal 156 to the blower motor 62 for adjustment of the speed of the motor such that the controlled speed equals the estimated speed. The PID controller 154 maintains the motor 62 at the controlled speed. The estimated speed (Se) is also used as an estimated motor speed input 160 for a flow estimation step 164. The estimated torque (Te) is also used as an estimated motor torque input 162 for the flow estimation step 164. A temperature input 166 is generated by a sensor, such as a thermistor, in the blower outlet 70, which is used as a temperature input 168 for the flow estimation step 164. An algorithm is utilized in the flow estimation step 164 to establish the estimated flow input (Fe) 114 for the air flow comparison step 112. The disclosed controller 100 provides a continuous feedback loop control of the motor speed based on the actual flow of the air through the dryer. Adjustment of the blower motor speed results in an actual flow (Fa) generated by the blower assembly 60. It should be noted that the estimated speed Se and estimate torque Te can be determined by any suitable speed determiner or torque determiner. Traditional sensors can be used that sense the actual speed or torque. Estimators can also be used. For example, the speed and torque signals 146, 148 can be signals representing the current passing through the motor and the motor torque, respectively. These signals can be generated by the onboard control of the motor 62. For purposes of this invention, whether an actual sensor is used or an estimator is used is not material. Referring now to FIG. 5, the performance of the blower assembly 60 is illustrated for three conditions. The first condition 200 reflects a low resistance flow condition such as would occur with a small dryer load, a clean lint trap, and an unobstructed dryer vent enabling air to be readily exhausted from the dryer 10. The second condition 202 reflects a high resistance flow condition such as would occur with a large dryer load, a somewhat unobstructed lint trap, and a somewhat unobstructed dryer vent. The third condition 204 reflects a very high resistance flow condition such as would occur with a very large dryer load, a highly obstructed lint trap, and a highly obstructed dryer vent. In general, the first step in drying comprises quickly heating the drying chamber 40 to a selected initial drying temperature. Heating of the drying chamber is illustrated in FIG. 5 for the low resistance flow condition 200 by the drum heating flow 208. The drum heating flow 208 is preferably low in order to reduce the flow of heated air out of the drying chamber 40, thereby facilitating the heating of the drying chamber 40. The steps 206 and 208 form a warm-up portion of the drying cycle. At a time t=0, which corresponds to the initiation of a selected drying cycle, the controller 100 is provided with a desired flow Fd based upon the selected drying cycle, but has no data, such as dryer load or temperature, upon which to establish an estimated air flow value Fe. Thus, the blower motor 62 is initially operated at a pre-selected motor speed which is pre-programmed into the controller, but which may be different than the motor speed required for the desired flow Fd. The logic routine is performed to establish an estimated flow Fe, and adjust the motor speed to that required for the desired flow. For the low resistance condition 200, the flow at time t=0 is illustrated as high relative to the drum heating flow 208, corresponding to a relatively high motor speed. Thus, the motor speed is progressively reduced in order to adjust the flow to the drum heating flow 208. It is anticipated that this will occur over a relatively short period of time. After the drying chamber 40 has been warmed-up, flow from the blower assembly 60 is increased to an initial drying flow 210, during which the drying chamber 40 is maintained at a high temperature to quickly remove moisture from the load by operating the blower assembly 60 to deliver a relatively low flow to the drying chamber 40. Step 210 is a constant rate drying portion of the drying cycle as the rate of evaporation is relatively constant for the heat input. As the load dries, eventually there is less water to absorb the heat from the air and the rate of drying or evaporation falls, resulting in an increase in temperature of the drying chamber for the given heat input. To avoid overheating of the clothes, air flow from the blower assembly 60 is increased at step 212. Step 212 is the falling rate portion of the drying cycle. Ultimately, the clothes will reach the desired degree of drying. It is then beneficial to actively cool the heated clothes. This is accomplished in the cool down portion 214 where the air flow rate is further increased to more rapidly cool the clothes. In short, the controller 100 continuously controls the speed of the motor and thus the air flow based upon changes in the dryer load and temperature. Flow is also adjusted during the drying cycle in order to accommodate the reduction in flow through the drying chamber 40 that can occur when the drying load “fluffs up” and expands to fill the drying chamber 40, and while lint accumulates on the lint filter. For the second condition 202, the higher resistance to flow may mean that the initial pre-selected motor speed is too low to provide a desired drum heating flow for satisfactorily heating the drying chamber 40. Thus, at time t=0, the flow is illustrated as low relative to the drum heating flow 208, even though the motor may be operating at a relatively high motor speed. Thus, the air flow must be increased 216 in order to increase the flow to the desired drum heating flow 208. The motor speed is progressively increased by performance of the logic routine in the controller 100 in order to adjust the air flow up to the drum heating flow 208. It is anticipated that this will occur over a relatively short period of time. Assuming that the speed of the blower motor 62 can continue to be increased as called for by the logic routine, the remaining steps 210-214 in the drying cycle after the drum heating flow step 208 would be identical to the first condition 200 for the same selected drying cycle. However, it is possible that a high resistance flow condition exists which, in effect, will tax the output of the blower motor 62. For this very high resistance flow condition 204, the initial heating of the drying chamber 40 will be effected by an increase in output 218 from the blower assembly 60, similar to the increase in output 216 for the second condition 202. However, the resistance may be sufficiently high that the blower motor 62 is operating at its upper limit (i.e. the controlled speed Sc from the speed limit logic step 134 is limited by the preselected upper limit), so that the blower assembly 60 is operating at a maximum airflow and cannot provide any increased flow to the drying chamber 40. In this condition, a constant flow 220 is maintained. The flow conditions 200, 202, 204 described herein are illustrated as stepped conditions. Alternatively, the controller 100 can control the blower assembly 60 output to provide a continuous, rather than discrete, flow adjustment. Furthermore, the stepped changes from one flow to another can be ramped, rather than instantaneous, as illustrated in FIG. 5. The variable speed blower drive described herein provides several advantages over a prior art dryer having a single motor driving both the drum and the blower. Most significantly, the use of a separate variable speed blower drive enables the blower speed, and consequently air flow, to be selectively varied without affecting in an adverse way the tumbling characteristics of the drum. Dryer flow rates can be adjusted to a selected optimum set point based upon air flow factors such as load size, lint accumulation, exhaust vent length and construction, and the like. Noise can be minimized by rotating the blower motor at the minimum speed required for optimum performance in a specific cycle. Dryer cycles can be improved by minimizing cycling of the heating element. Dryer efficiency can be improved by utilizing an optimum flow rate for a selected drying cycle. Drying time can be reduced by reducing air flow to a minimum rate in order to shorten the time taken by the initial heating of the drying chamber and load. Peak clothing temperatures can be reduced by increasing air flow to a higher rate late in the drying cycle when the surface of the clothing is no longer saturated. While the invention has been specifically described in connection with certain specific embodiments thereof, it is to be understood that this is by way of illustration and not of limitation. Reasonable variation and modification are possible within the scope of the forgoing disclosure and drawings without departing from the spirit of the invention which is defined in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates generally to automatic clothes dryers. In one aspect, the invention relates to a blower assembly for an automatic clothes dryer utilizing a variable-speed blower motor. In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for adjusting the air flow rate through an automatic clothes dryer drum. 2. Description of the Related Art Automatic clothes dryers are well known, and typically comprise a cabinet enclosing a horizontally rotating drum for holding items to be dried and accessible through an access door at the front of the cabinet. The drum is rotated by a first belt which is driven by a motor. The motor also drives a blower or fan directly by a shaft connection or by a second belt; the blower delivers dry, heated or unheated air to the drum for drying the items, and exhausts humid air from the drum to a discharge location exterior of the cabinet. The motor and blower assembly are typically mounted in a lower portion of the cabinet beneath or to the side of the drum. The belts are driven by pulleys attached to a rotating shaft of the motor, generally at opposite ends of the motor. The motor typically rotates at a preselected angular velocity based to achieve a prescribed operational angular velocity for the dryer drum. The angular velocity of the blower is thus linked to the angular velocity of the dryer drum. The angular velocity of the drum is generally maintained constant in order to impart a desired tumbling action to the dryer load, so that the angular velocity of the blower cannot be adjusted during the drying cycle. In other words, the speed of the motor is fixed, which means the blower speed is also fixed. As such, the air flow rate through the drum cannot be varied in response to changes in conditions within the drum such as: load size, type of garment being dried, and initial moisture content of the load; or to user imposed conditions such as pre-selected dryer cycle settings or differences in consumer exhaust vent conditions. Currently, only the heat and cycle time can be varied in response to a change in the conditions. The ability to alter the air flow rate independently of the angular velocity of the drum would provide for additional control over the drying cycle, without negatively impacting clothes load tumbling, which is highly desirable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A method for controlling the operation of an automatic clothes dryer according to a drying cycle comprising a drying chamber for receiving articles of clothing, and an air flow system comprising a motor and a blower driven by the motor for forcing air through the drying chamber. The method comprises determining the air flow through the air flow system, comparing the determined air flow to a desired air flow, and adjusting the motor speed such that the air flow through the air flow system approaches the desired air flow. Adjusting of the motor speed comprises setting a controlled motor speed for the motor speed and operating the motor at the controlled motor speed. The adjusting of the motor speed further comprises determining a current motor speed and comparing the controlled motor speed to the current motor speed. The current motor speed is estimated based on an operating parameter of the motor. The comparing of the determined air flow to the desired air flow comprises determining an error value based on the difference between the determined air flow and the desired air flow. The method further comprises comparing the error value to a predetermined deviation value, and adjusting the motor speed if the error value is greater than the deviation value. The method further comprises limiting the adjustment of the motor speed within a predetermined range. The determining of the determined air flow comprises estimating the air flow based on at least one of the motor speed, air temperature, and motor torque. The determining of the air flow comprises sensing an operational characteristic of a blower motor in the air flow system. The sensed operational characteristic comprises at least one of motor speed, air temperature, and motor torque. The adjusting of the motor speed comprises adjusting the motor speed to maintain the air flow at a constant desired air flow. The adjusting of the motor speed comprises at least one of increasing and decreasing the motor speed, and altering the desired air flow during the drying cycle and adjusting the motor speed to obtain the altered desired air flow. The altering of the desired air flow during the drying cycle comprises setting a desired air flow for at least one of the following steps of the drying cycle: warm-up, constant-rate drying, falling-rate drying, and cool down. The adjusting of the desired air flow is done in response to the temperature of the air in the air flow system, the dryness of a clothes load in the dryer, the mass of the clothes, and the volume of the clothes load in the dryer. In another embodiment, an automatic clothes dryer comprises a cabinet defining an interior space, a drum rotatably mounted within the interior space and defining a drying chamber, a blower fluidly coupled to the drying chamber for moving ambient air into and exhausting air from the drying chamber, a variable speed motor operably coupled to the blower for adjusting air flow from the blower, a motor speed determiner that outputs a signal representative of the motor speed, and a controller operably coupled to the variable speed motor and the motor speed determiner to adjust the speed of the variable speed motor in response to a signal from the motor speed determiner to adjust the speed of the motor to maintain the air flow at a predetermined set point. The motor speed determiner can comprise a sensor coupled to the motor to sense a characteristic of the motor that is representative of the motor speed. The sensors can comprise at least one of a current sensor, or torque sensor, or equivalent sensorless processing means. The automatic clothes dryer can further comprise an exhaust temperature sensor coupled to the controller. The variable speed motor can comprise one of a continuously variable motor and a discretely variable motor. The variable speed motor can be directly coupled to the blower. The variable speed motor can have a rotating shaft and the blower impeller can be coaxially coupled. The blower can be a centrifugal blower. | 20050112 | 20090428 | 20060713 | 92682.0 | H02P546 | 0 | DINH, THAI T | AUTOMATIC CLOTHES DRYER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H02P | 2,005 |
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11,033,692 | ACCEPTED | New purine derivatives | The present invention relates to compounds of formula 1 or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, wherein one of R1 and R2 is methyl, ethyl or isopropyl, and the other is H; R3 and R4 are each independently H, branched or unbranched C1-C6 alkyl, or aryl, and wherein at least one of R3 and R4 is other than H; R5 is a branched or unbranched C1-C5 alkyl group or a C1-C6 cycloalkyl group, each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more OH groups; R6, R7, R8 and R9 are each independently H, halogen, NO2, OH, OMe, CN, NH2, COOH, CONH2, or SO2NH2. A further aspect of the invention relates to pharmaceutical compositions comprising compounds of formula 1, and the use of said compounds in treating proliferative disorders, viral disorders, CNS disorders, diabetes, stroke, alopecia or neurodegenerative disorders. | 1. A compound of formula 1: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein one of R1 and R2 is methyl, ethyl or isopropyl, and the other is H; R3 and R4 are each independently H, branched or unbranched C1-C6 alkyl, or aryl, and wherein at least one of R3 and R4 is other than H; R5 is a branched or unbranched C1-C5 alkyl group or a C1-C6 cycloalkyl, each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more OH groups; R6, R7, R8 and R9 are each independently H, halogen, NO2, OH, OMe, CN, NH2, COOH, CONH2, or SO2NH2. 2. A compound according to claim 1, wherein one of R1 and R2 is ethyl or isopropyl, and the other is H; 3. A compound according to claim 1, wherein R5 is isopropyl or cyclopentyl. 4. A compound according to claim 1, wherein R6, R7, R8 and R9 are all H. 5. A compound according to claim 1, wherein one of R1 and R2 is ethyl and the other is H. 6. A compound according to claim 1, wherein R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl or phenyl. 7. A compound according to claim 1, wherein R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, n-butyl, s-butyl or t-butyl. 8. A compound according to claim 7 wherein R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl or t-butyl. 9. A compound according to claim 1, selected from the following: (2S3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol; (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol; (3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol; and (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol. 10. A compound according to claim 1, which is (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol. 11. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound according to claim 1 or 9, admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, excipient or carrier, or a mixture thereof. 12. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 11, wherein pharmaceutical composition is effective for treating a proliferative disorder. 13. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 12, wherein said proliferative disorder is cancer or leaukemia. 14. A method of treating a proliferative disorder, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said proliferative disorder is treated. 15. A method according to claim 14, wherein said proliferative disorder is cancer or leukaemia. 16. A method according to claim 14, wherein the proliferative disorder is glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder. 17. A method of treating a viral disorder, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said viral disorder is treated. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein the viral disorder is selected from human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), and varicella zoster virus (VZV). 19. A method of treating a CNS disorder, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said CNS disorder is treated. 20. The method according to claim 19, wherein the CNS disorder is Alzheimer's disease or bipolar disorder. 21. A method of treating alopecia, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said alopecia is treated. 22. A method of treating stroke, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said stroke is treated. 23. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one PLK enzyme. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein the PLK enzyme is PLK1. 25. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one CDK enzyme. 26. The method according to claim 25, wherein the CDK enzyme is CDK1, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9. 27. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit aurora kinase. 28. A method of treating diabetes, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said diabetes is treated. 29. The method according to claim 28, wherein the diabetes is Type II diabetes. 30. The method according to claims 28, wherein the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit GSK. 31. The method according to claim 30, wherein the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit GSK3β. 32. A method of treating a neurodegenerative disorder, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim 1, such that said neurodegenerative disorder is treated. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein said neurodegenerative disorder is neuronal apoptosis. 34. A method for inhibiting a protein kinase, comprising contacting a protein kinase with a compound according to claim 1, such that a protein kinase is inhibited. 35. The method according to claim 34, wherein said protein kinase is a cyclin dependent kinase. 36. The method according to claim 35, wherein said cyclin dependent kinase is CDK1, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9. 37. The method according to claim 35, wherein said compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one CDK enzyme. 38. A method according to claim 37, wherein the CDK enzyme is CDK1, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9. 39. The method according to claim 14, wherein said compound is administered orally. 40. An assay for identifying further candidate compounds capable of inhibiting a cyclin dependent kinase, GSK or a PLK enzyme, comprising contacting a compound of claim 1 with a cyclin dependent kinase, GSK or a PLK enzyme in the presence of a known substrate of said cyclin dependent kinase, GSK or a PLK enzyme and detecting any change in the interaction between said cyclin dependent kinase, GSK or a PLK enzyme and said known substrate. 41. A process for preparing a compound of formula I as defined in claim 1, said process comprising reacting a compound of formula V with a compound of formula VI wherein R1-9 are as defined in claim 1 and X is Cl or F. 42. A process according to claim 41, wherein said compound of formula V is prepared by the following steps: (i) reacting a compound of formula II with a compound of formula III to form a compound of formula IV; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IV with an alkyl halide, R5—X′, to form a compound of formula V. 43. A process according to claim 41, wherein said compound of formula VI is prepared by the following steps: (i) oxidising a compound of formula VIII, wherein PG is a protecting group, to form a compound of formula IX; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IX to form a compound of formula X; (iii) removing protecting group PG from said compound of formula X; or (i) oxidising a compound of formula VIII, wherein PG is a protecting group, to form a compound of formula IX; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IX to form a compound of formula X; (iii) oxidising said compound of formula X to form a compound of formula XII; (iv) alkylating said compound of formula XII to form a compound of formula XIII; (v) removing protecting group PG from said compound of formula XIII. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of PCT/GB2003/003554, filed on Aug. 13, 2003, which claims priority to GB 0219054.4 filed on Aug. 15, 2002. The entire contents of both of these applications are hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates to new 2,6,9-substituted purine derivatives and their biological applications. In particular, the invention relates to purine derivatives having antiproliferative properties which are useful in the treatment of proliferative disorders such as cancer, leukemia, psoriasis and the like. BACKGROUND Initiation, progression, and completion of the mammalian cell cycle are regulated by various cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complexes, which are critical for cell growth. These complexes comprise at least a catalytic (the CDK itself) and a regulatory (cyclin) subunit. Some of the more important complexes for cell cycle regulation include cyclin A (CDK1—also known as cdc2, and CDK2), cyclin B1-B3 (CDK1), cyclin D1-D3 (CDK2, CDK4, CDK5, CDK6), cyclin E (CDK2). Each of these complexes is involved in a particular phase of the cell cycle. Not all members of the CDK family are involved exclusively in cell cycle control, however. Thus CDKs 7, 8, and 9 are implicated in the regulation of transcription, and CDK5 plays a role in neuronal and secretory cell function. The activity of CDKs is regulated post-translationally, by transitory associations with other proteins, and by alterations of their intracellular localisation. Tumour development is closely associated with genetic alteration and deregulation of CDKs and their regulators, suggesting that inhibitors of CDKs may be useful anti-cancer therapeutics. Indeed, early results suggest that transformed and normal cells differ in their requirement for e.g. cyclin A/CDK2 and that it may be possible to develop novel antineoplastic agents devoid of the general host toxicity observed with conventional cytotoxic and cytostatic drugs. While inhibition of cell cycle-related CDKs is clearly relevant in e.g. oncology applications, this may not be the case for the inhibition of RNA polymerase-regulating CDKs. On the other hand, inhibition of CDK9/cyclin T function was recently linked to prevention of HIV replication and the discovery of new CDK biology thus continues to open up new therapeutic indications for CDK inhibitors (Sausville, E. A. Trends Molec. Med. 2002, 8, S32-S37). The function of CDKs is to phosphorylate and thus activate or deactivate certain proteins, including e.g. retinoblastoma proteins, lamins, histone H1, and components of the mitotic spindle. The catalytic step mediated by CDKs involves a phospho-transfer reaction from ATP to the macromolecular enzyme substrate. Several groups of compounds (reviewed in e.g. Fischer, P. M. Curr. Opin. Drug Discovery Dev. 2001, 4, 623-634) have been found to possess anti-proliferative properties by virtue of CDK-specific ATP antagonism. WO 98/05335 (CV Therapeutics Inc) discloses 2,6,9-trisubstituted purine derivatives that are selective inhibitors of cell cycle kinases. Such compounds are useful in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type I diabetes, multiple sclerosis; treating cancer, cardiovascular disease, such as restenosis, host v graft disease, gout, polycystic kidney disease and other proliferative diseases whose pathogenesis involves abnormal cell proliferation. WO 99/07705 (The Regents of the University of California) discloses purine analogues that inhibit inter alia protein kinases, G-proteins and polymerases. More specifically, the invention relates to methods of using such purine analogues to treat cellular proliferative disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. WO 97/20842 (CNRS) also discloses purine derivatives displaying antiproliferative properties which are useful in treating cancer, psoriasis, and neurodegenerative disorders. The present invention seeks to provide new 2,6,9-substituted purine derivatives, particularly those having antiproliferative properties. STATEMENT OF INVENTION A first aspect of the invention relates to a compound of formula 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein one of R1 and R2 is methyl, ethyl or isopropyl, and the other is H; R3 and R4 are each independently H, branched or unbranched C1-C6 alkyl, or aryl, and wherein at least one of R3 and R4 is other than H; R5 is a branched or unbranched C1-C5 alkyl group or a C1-C6 cycloalkyl group, each of which may be optionally substituted with one or more OH groups; R6, R7, R8 and R9 are each independently H, halogen, NO2, OH, OMe, CN, NH2, COOH, CONH2, or SO2NH2. A second aspect of the invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of formula 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, diluent or excipient. A third aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 in the preparation of a medicament for treating one or more of the following disorders: a proliferative disorder; a viral disorder; a stroke; alopecia; a CNS disorder; a neurodegenerative disorder; and diabetes. A fourth aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 as an anti-mitotic agent. A fifth aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 for inhibiting a protein kinase. A sixth aspect of the invention relates to a method of treating a proliferative disease, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of formula 1. A seventh aspect of the invention relates the use of a compound of the invention in an assay for identifying further candidate compounds that influence the activity of one or more CDK enzymes. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As mentioned above, a first aspect of the invention relates to a compound of formula 1 as defined hereinbefore. It is known in the art that the main in vivo metabolic deactivation pathway of the experimental anti-proliferative CDK-inhibitory agent roscovitine (PCT Intl. Patent Appl. Publ. WO 97/20842; Wang, S., McClue, S. J., Ferguson, J. R., Hull, J. D., Stokes, S., Parsons, S., Westwood, R., and Fischer, P. M. Tetrahedron: Asymmetry 2001, 12, 2891-2894) comprises oxidation of the carbinol group to a carboxyl group and subsequent excretion of this metabolite [Nutley, B. P., Raynaud, F. I., Wilson, S. C., Fischer, P., McClue, S., Goddard, P. M., Jarman, M., Lane, D., and Workman, P. Clin. Cancer Res. 2000, 6 Suppl. (Proc. 11th AACR—NCI-EORTC Intl. Conf. #318)]. Authentic synthetic material identical with this metabolite, shows reduced biological activity in vitro. Thus, roscovitine and the carboxyl derivative inhibit CDK2/cyclin E activity with IC50 values of 0.08 and 0.24 μM, respectively. Similarly, the average anti-proliferative IC50 values in a representative panel of human transformed tumour cell lines for roscovitine and the carboxyl derivative were ca. 10 and >50 μM, respectively. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the invention seeks to provide new purine derivatives which exhibit improved resistance to metabolic deactivation. In one preferred embodiment of the invention, one of R1 and R2 is ethyl or isopropyl, and the other is H. In another preferred embodiment of the invention, R5 is isopropyl or cyclopentyl. In one preferred embodiment, R6, R7, R8 and R9 are all H. In one preferred embodiment, R1 or R2 is ethyl and the other is H. In one preferred embodiment, R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl or phenyl. Thus, in one preferred embodiment, R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, n-butyl, s-butyl, t-butyl or phenyl. In a more preferred embodiment, R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or butyl. Thus, in one preferred embodiment, R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, n-propyl, n-butyl, s-butyl or t-butyl. In an even more preferred embodiment, R3 and R4 are each independently H, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl or t-butyl. In one especially preferred embodiment, said compound of formula 1 is selected from the following: (2S3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol; (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol; (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol; (3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol; and (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol. In one particularly preferred embodiment, said compound of formula 1 is (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol. Pharmaceutical Compositions A second aspect of the invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of formula 1 admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, excipient or carrier, or a mixture thereof. Even though the compounds of the present invention (including their pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters and pharmaceutically acceptable solvates) can be administered alone, they will generally be administered in admixture with a pharmaceutical carrier, excipient or diluent, particularly for human therapy. The pharmaceutical compositions may be for human or animal usage in human and veterinary medicine. Examples of such suitable excipients for the various different forms of pharmaceutical compositions described herein may be found in the “Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients”, 2nd Edition, (1994), Edited by A Wade and PJ Weller. Acceptable carriers or diluents for therapeutic use are well known in the pharmaceutical art, and are described, for example, in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co. (A. R. Gennaro edit. 1985). Examples of suitable carriers include lactose, starch, glucose, methyl cellulose, magnesium stearate, mannitol, sorbitol and the like. Examples of suitable diluents include ethanol, glycerol and water. The choice of pharmaceutical carrier, excipient or diluent can be selected with regard to the intended route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice. The pharmaceutical compositions may comprise as, or in addition to, the carrier, excipient or diluent any suitable binder(s), lubricant(s), suspending agent(s), coating agent(s), solubilising agent(s). Examples of suitable binders include starch, gelatin, natural sugars such as glucose, anhydrous lactose, free-flow lactose, beta-lactose, corn sweeteners, natural and synthetic gums, such as acacia, tragacanth or sodium alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose and polyethylene glycol. Examples of suitable lubricants include sodium oleate, sodium stearate, magnesium stearate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride and the like. Preservatives, stabilizers, dyes and even flavoring agents may be provided in the pharmaceutical composition. Examples of preservatives include sodium benzoate, sorbic acid and esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Antioxidants and suspending agents may be also used. Salts/Esters The compounds of the present invention can be present as salts or esters, in particular pharmaceutically acceptable salts or esters. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the invention include suitable acid addition or base salts thereof. A review of suitable pharmaceutical salts may be found in Berge et al, J Pharm Sci, 66, 1-19 (1977). Salts are formed, for example with strong inorganic acids such as mineral acids, e.g. sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid or hydrohalic acids; with strong organic carboxylic acids, such as alkanecarboxylic acids of 1 to 4 carbon atoms which are unsubstituted or substituted (e.g., by halogen), such as acetic acid; with saturated or unsaturated dicarboxylic acids, for example oxalic, malonic, succinic, maleic, fumaric, phthalic or tetraphthalic; with hydroxycarboxylic acids, for example ascorbic, glycolic, lactic, malic, tartaric or citric acid; with aminoacids, for example aspartic or glutamic acid; with benzoic acid; or with organic sulfonic acids, such as (C1-C4)-alkyl- or aryl-sulfonic acids which are unsubstituted or substituted (for example, by a halogen) such as methane- or p-toluene sulfonic acid. Esters are formed either using organic acids or alcohols/hydroxides, depending on the functional group being esterified. Organic acids include carboxylic acids, such as alkanecarboxylic acids of 1 to 12 carbon atoms which are unsubstituted or substituted (e.g., by halogen), such as acetic acid; with saturated or unsaturated dicarboxylic acid, for example oxalic, malonic, succinic, maleic, fumaric, phthalic or tetraphthalic; with hydroxycarboxylic acids, for example ascorbic, glycolic, lactic, malic, tartaric or citric acid; with aminoacids, for example aspartic or glutamic acid; with benzoic acid; or with organic sulfonic acids, such as (C1-C4)-alkyl- or aryl-sulfonic acids which are unsubstituted or substituted (for example, by a halogen) such as methane- or p-toluene sulfonic acid. Suitable hydroxides include inorganic hydroxides, such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide. Alcohols include alkanealcohols of 1-12 carbon atoms which may be unsubstituted or substituted, e.g. by a halogen). Enantiomers/Tautomers In all aspects of the present invention previously discussed, the invention includes, where appropriate all enantiomers and tautomers of compounds of formula 1. The man skilled in the art will recognise compounds that possess an optical properties (one or more chiral carbon atoms) or tautomeric characteristics. The corresponding enantiomers and/or tautomers may be isolated/prepared by methods known in the art. Stereo and Geometric Isomers Some of the compounds of the invention may exist as stereoisomers and/or geometric isomers—e.g. they may possess one or more asymmetric and/or geometric centres and so may exist in two or more stereoisomeric and/or geometric forms. The present invention contemplates the use of all the individual stereoisomers and geometric isomers of those agents, and mixtures thereof. The terms used in the claims encompass these forms, provided said forms retain the appropriate functional activity (though not necessarily to the same degree). The present invention also includes all suitable isotopic variations of the agent or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. An isotopic variation of an agent of the present invention or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is defined as one in which at least one atom is replaced by an atom having the same atomic number but an atomic mass different from the atomic mass usually found in nature. Examples of isotopes that can be incorporated into the agent and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof include isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, fluorine and chlorine such as 2H, 3H, 13C, 14C, 15N, 17O, 18O, 31P, 32P, 35S, 18F and 36Cl respectively. Certain isotopic variations of the agent and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, for example, those in which a radioactive isotope such as 3H or 14C is incorporated, are useful in drug and/or substrate tissue distribution studies. Tritiated, i.e., 3H, and carbon-14, i.e., 14C, isotopes are particularly preferred for their ease of preparation and detectability. Further, substitution with isotopes such as deuterium, i.e., 2H, may afford certain therapeutic advantages resulting from greater metabolic stability, for example, increased in vivo half-life or reduced dosage requirements and hence may be preferred in some circumstances. Isotopic variations of the agent of the present invention and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof of this invention can generally be prepared by conventional procedures using appropriate isotopic variations of suitable reagents. Solvates The present invention also includes solvate forms of the compounds of the present invention. The terms used in the claims encompass these forms. Polymorphs The invention furthermore relates to compounds of the present invention in their various crystalline forms, polymorphic forms and (an)hydrous forms. It is well established within the pharmaceutical industry that chemical compounds may be isolated in any of such forms by slightly varying the method of purification and or isolation form the solvents used in the synthetic preparation of such compounds. Prodrugs The invention further includes compounds of the present invention in prodrug form. Such prodrugs are generally compounds of formula 1 wherein one or more appropriate groups have been modified such that the modification may be reversed upon administration to a human or mammalian subject. Such reversion is usually performed by an enzyme naturally present in such subject, though it is possible for a second agent to be administered together with such a prodrug in order to perform the reversion in vivo. Examples of such modifications include ester (for example, any of those described above), wherein the reversion may be carried out be an esterase etc. Other such systems will be well known to those skilled in the art. Administration The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be adapted for oral, rectal, vaginal, parenteral, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intraarterial, intrathecal, intrabronchial, subcutaneous, intradermal, intravenous, nasal, buccal or sublingual routes of administration. For oral administration, particular use is made of compressed tablets, pills, tablets, gellules, drops, and capsules. Preferably, these compositions contain from 1 to 250 mg and more preferably from 10-100 mg, of active ingredient per dose. Other forms of administration comprise solutions or emulsions which may be injected intravenously, intraarterially, intrathecally, subcutaneously, intradermally, intraperitoneally or intramuscularly, and which are prepared from sterile or sterilisable solutions. The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may also be in form of suppositories, pessaries, suspensions, emulsions, lotions, ointments, creams, gels, sprays, solutions or dusting powders. An alternative means of transdermal administration is by use of a skin patch. For example, the active ingredient can be incorporated into a cream consisting of an aqueous emulsion of polyethylene glycols or liquid paraffin. The active ingredient can also be incorporated, at a concentration of between 1 and 10% by weight, into an ointment consisting of a white wax or white soft paraffin base together with such stabilisers and preservatives as may be required. Injectable forms may contain between 10-1000 mg, preferably between 10-250 mg, of active ingredient per dose. Compositions may be formulated in unit dosage form, i.e., in the form of discrete portions containing a unit dose, or a multiple or sub-unit of a unit dose. Dosage A person of ordinary skill in the art can easily determine an appropriate dose of one of the instant compositions to administer to a subject without undue experimentation. Typically, a physician will determine the actual dosage which will be most suitable for an individual patient and it will depend on a variety of factors including the activity of the specific compound employed, the metabolic stability and length of action of that compound, the age, body weight, general health, sex, diet, mode and time of administration, rate of excretion, drug combination, the severity of the particular condition, and the individual undergoing therapy. The dosages disclosed herein are exemplary of the average case. There can of course be individual instances where higher or lower dosage ranges are merited, and such are within the scope of this invention. Depending upon the need, the agent may be administered at a dose of from 0.01 to 30 mg/kg body weight, such as from 0.1 to 10 mg/kg, more preferably from 0.1 to 1 mg/kg body weight. In an exemplary embodiment, one or more doses of 10 to 150 mg/day will be administered to the patient for the treatment of malignancy. Therapeutic Use The compounds of the present invention have been found to possess anti-proliferative activity and are therefore believed to be of use in the treatment of proliferative disorders, such as cancers, leukaemias or other disorders associated with uncontrolled cellular proliferation such as psoriasis and restenosis. As defined herein, an anti-proliferative effect within the scope of the present invention may be demonstrated by the ability to inhibit cell proliferation in an in vitro whole cell assay, for example using any of the cell lines A549, HeLa, HT-29, MCF7, Saos-2, CCRF-CEM, HL-60 and K-562, or by showing kinase inhibition in an appropriate assay. These assays, including methods for their performance, are described in more detail in the accompanying Examples. Using such assays it may be determined whether a compound is anti-proliferative in the context of the present invention. One preferred embodiment of the present invention therefore relates to the use of one or more compounds of the invention in the preparation of a medicament for treating a proliferative disorder. As used herein the phrase “preparation of a medicament” includes the use of a compound of the invention directly as the medicament in addition to its use in a screening programme for further therapeutic agents or in any stage of the manufacture of such a medicament. The term “proliferative disorder” is used herein in a broad sense to include any disorder that requires control of the cell cycle, for example cardiovascular disorders such as restenosis and cardiomyopathy, auto-immune disorders such as glomerulonephritis and rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders such as psoriasis, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antiparasitic disorders such as malaria, emphysema and alopecia. In these disorders, the compounds of the present invention may induce apoptosis or maintain stasis within the desired cells as required. Preferably, the proliferative disorder is a cancer or leukaemia. In another preferred embodiment, the proliferative disorder is psoriasis. The compounds of the invention may inhibit any of the steps or stages in the cell cycle, for example, formation of the nuclear envelope, exit from the quiescent phase of the cell cycle (G0), G1 progression, chromosome decondensation, nuclear envelope breakdown, START, initiation of DNA replication, progression of DNA replication, termination of DNA replication, centrosome duplication, G2 progression, activation of mitotic or meiotic functions, chromosome condensation, centrosome separation, microtubule nucleation, spindle formation and function, interactions with microtubule motor proteins, chromatid separation and segregation, inactivation of mitotic functions, formation of contractile ring, and cytokinesis functions. In particular, the compounds of the invention may influence certain gene functions such as chromatin binding, formation of replication complexes, replication licensing, phosphorylation or other secondary modification activity, proteolytic degradation, microtubule binding, actin binding, septin binding, microtubule organising centre nucleation activity and binding to components of cell cycle signalling pathways. A further aspect of the invention relates to a method of treating a proliferative disease, said method comprising administering to a mammal a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of formula 1. In a preferred embodiment of this aspect, the proliferative disorder is cancer or leukaemia. In an even more preferred embodiment of this aspect, the compound is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one CDK enzyme. Preferably, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one of CDK1, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9. More preferably, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one of CDK2 and/or CDK4. Even more preferably, the CDK enzyme is CDK2. In one preferred embodiment of this aspect, the compound is administered orally. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 as an anti-mitotic agent. Yet another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 for treating a neurodegenerative disorder. Preferably, the neurodegenerative disorder is neuronal apoptosis. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 as an antiviral agent. Thus, another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of the invention in the preparation of a medicament for treating a viral disorder, such as human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), and varicella zoster virus (VZV). In a more preferred embodiment of the invention, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit one or more of the host cell CDKs involved in viral replication, i.e. CDK2, CDK7, CDK8, and CDK9 [Wang D, De la Fuente C, Deng L, Wang L, Zilberman I, Eadie C, Healey M, Stein D, Denny T, Harrison L E, Meijer L, Kashanchi F. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 transcription by chemical cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. J. Virol. 2001; 75: 7266-7279]. As defined herein, an anti-viral effect within the scope of the present invention may be demonstrated by the ability to inhibit CDK2, CDK7, CDK8 or CDK9. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the invention relates to the use of one or more compounds of the invention in the treatment of a viral disorder which is CDK dependent or sensitive. CDK dependent disorders are associated with an above normal level of activity of one or more CDK enzymes. Such disorders preferably associated with an abnormal level of activity of CDK2, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9. A CDK sensitive disorder is a disorder in which an aberration in the CDK level is not the primary cause, but is downstream of the primary metabolic aberration. In such scenarios, CDK2, CDK7, CDK8 and/or CDK9 can be said to be part of the sensitive metabolic pathway and CDK inhibitors may therefore be active in treating such disorders. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically accetable salts thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for treating diabetes. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the diabetes is type II diabetes. GSK3 is one of several protein kinases that phosphorylate glycogen synthase (GS). The stimulation of glycogen synthesis by insulin in skeletal muscle results from the dephosphorylation and activation of GS. GSK3's action on GS thus results in the latter's deactivation and thus suppression of the conversion of glucose into glycogen in muscles. Type II diabetes (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus) is a multi-factorial disease. Hyperglycaemia is due to insulin resistance in the liver, muscles, and other tissues, coupled with impaired secretion of insulin. Skeletal muscle is the main site for insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, there it is either removed from circulation or converted to glycogen. Muscle glycogen deposition is the main determinant in glucose homeostasis and type II diabetics have defective muscle glycogen storage. There is evidence that an increase in GSK3 activity is important in type II diabetes [Chen, Y. H.; Hansen, L.; Chen, M. X.; Bjorbaek, C.; Vestergaard, H.; Hansen, T.; Cohen, P. T.; Pedersen, O. Diabetes, 1994, 43, 1234]. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that GSK3 is over-expressed in muscle cells of type II diabetics and that an inverse correlation exists between skeletal muscle GSK3 activity and insulin action [Nikoulina, S. E.; Ciaraldi, T. P.; Mudaliar, S.; Mohideen, P.; Carter, L.; Henry, R. R. Diabetes, 2000, 49, 263]. GSK3 inhibition is therefore of therapeutic significance in the treatment of diabetes, particularly type II, and diabetic neuropathy. It is notable that GSK3 is known to phosphorylate many substrates other than GS, and is thus involved in the regulation of multiple biochemical pathways. For example, GSK is highly expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems. Another aspect of the invention therefore relates to the use of compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for treating a CNS disorders, for example neurodegenerative disorders. Preferably, the CNS disorder is Alzheimer's disease. Tau is a GSK-3 substrate which has been implicated in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease. In healthy nerve cells, Tau co-assembles with tubulin into microtubules. However, in Alzheimer's disease, tau forms large tangles of filaments, which disrupt the microtubule structures in the nerve cell, thereby impairing the transport of nutrients as well as the transmission of neuronal messages. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that GSK3 inhibitors may be able to prevent and/or reverse the abnormal hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau that is an invariant feature of Alzheimer's disease and a number of other neurodegenerative diseases, such as progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration and Pick's disease. Mutations in the tau gene cause inherited forms of fronto-temporal dementia, further underscoring the relevance of tau protein dysfunction for the neurodegenerative process [Goedert, M. Curr. Opin. Gen. Dev., 2001, 11, 343]. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for treating bipolar disorder. Yet another aspect of the invention relates to the use of compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for treating a stroke. Reducing neuronal apoptosis is an important therapeutic goal in the context of head trauma, stroke, epilepsy, and motor neuron disease [Mattson, M. P. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol., 2000, 1, 120]. Therefore, GSK3 as a pro-apoptotic factor in neuronal cells makes this protein kinase an attractive therapeutic target for the design of inhibitory drugs to treat these diseases. Yet another aspect of the invention relates to the use of compounds of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, in the preparation of a medicament for treating alopecia. Hair growth is controlled by the Wnt signalling pathway, in particular Wnt-3. In tissue-culture model systems of the skin, the expression of non-degradable mutants of β-catenin leads to a dramatic increase in the population of putative stem cells, which have greater proliferative potential [Zhu, A. J.; Watt, F. M. Development, 1999, 126, 2285]. This population of stem cells expresses a higher level of non-cadherin-associated β-catenin [DasGupta, R.; Fuchs, E. Development, 1999, 126, 4557], which may contribute to their high proliferative potential. Moreover, transgenic mice overexpressing a truncated β-catenin in the skin undergo de novo hair-follicle morphogenesis, which normally is only established during embryogenesis. The ectopic application of GSK3 inhibitors may therefore be therapeutically useful in the treatment of baldness and in restoring hair growth following chemotherapy-induced alopecia. A further aspect of the invention relates to a method of treating a GSK3-dependent disorder, said method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, a compound according to the invention, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, as defined above in an amount sufficient to inhibit GSK3. Preferably, the compound of the invention, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit GSK3β. In one embodiment of the invention, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit at least one PLK enzyme. The polo-like kinases (PLKs) constitute a family of serine/threonine protein kinases. Mitotic Drosophila melanogaster mutants at the polo locus display spindle abnormalities [Sunkel et al., J. Cell Sci., 1988, 89, 25] and polo was found to encode a mitotic kinase [Llamazares et al., Genes Dev., 1991, 5, 2153]. In humans, there exist three closely related PLKs [Glover et al., Genes Dev., 1998, 12, 3777]. They contain a highly homologous amino-terminal catalytic kinase domain and their carboxyl termini contain two or three conserved regions, the polo boxes. The function of the polo boxes remains incompletely understood but they are implicated in the targeting of PLKs to subcellular compartments [Lee et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998, 95, 9301; Leung et al., Nat. Struct. Biol., 2002, 9, 719], mediation of interactions with other proteins [Kauselmann et al., EMBO J., 1999, 18, 5528], or may constitute part of an autoregulatory domain [Nigg, Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 1998, 10, 776]. Furthermore, the polo box-dependent PLK1 activity is required for proper metaphase/anaphase transition and cytokinesis [Yuan et al., Cancer Res., 2002, 62, 4186; Seong et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2002, 277, 32282]. Studies have shown that human PLKs regulate some fundamental aspects of mitosis [Lane et al., J. Cell. Biol., 1996, 135, 1701; Cogswell et al., Cell Growth Differ., 2000, 11, 615]. In particular, PLK1 activity is believed to be necessary for the functional maturation of centrosomes in late G2/early prophase and subsequent establishment of a bipolar spindle. Depletion of cellular PLK1 through the small interfering RNA (siRNA) technique has also confirmed that this protein is required for multiple mitotic processes and completion of cytokinesis [Liu et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2002, 99, 8672]. In a more preferred embodiment of the invention, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit PLK1. Of the three human PLKs, PLK1 is the best characterized; it regulates a number of cell division cycle effects, including the onset of mitosis [Toyoshima-Morimoto et al., Nature, 2001, 410, 215; Roshak et al., Cell. Signalling, 2000, 12, 405], DNA-damage checkpoint activation [Smits et al., Nat. Cell Biol., 2000, 2, 672; van Vugt et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276, 41656], regulation of the anaphase promoting complex [Sumara et al., Mol. Cell, 2002, 9, 515; Golan et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2002, 277, 15552; Kotani et al., Mol. Cell, 1998, 1, 371], phosphorylation of the proteasome [Feng et al., Cell Growth Differ., 2001, 12, 29], and centrosome duplication and maturation [Dai et al., Oncogene, 2002, 21, 6195]. Specifically, initiation of mitosis requires activation of M-phase promoting factor (MPF), the complex between the cyclin dependent kinase CDK1 and B-type cyclins [Nurse, Nature, 1990, 344, 503]. The latter accumulate during the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle and promote the inhibitory phosphorylation of the MPF complex by WEE1, MIK1, and MYT1 kinases. At the end of the G2 phase, corresponding dephosphorylation by the dual-specificity phosphatase CDC25C triggers the activation of MPF [Nigg, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol., 2001, 2, 21]. In interphase, cyclin B localizes to the cytoplasm [Hagting et al., EMBO J., 1998, 17, 4127], it then becomes phosphorylated during prophase and this event causes nuclear translocation [Hagting et al., Curr. Biol., 1999, 9, 680; Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem., 2001, 276, 3604]. The nuclear accumulation of active MPF during prophase is thought to be important for initiating M-phase events [Takizawa et al., Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 2000, 12, 658]. However, nuclear MPF is kept inactive by WEE1 unless counteracted by CDC25C. The phosphatase CDC25C itself, localized to the cytoplasm during interphase, accumulates in the nucleus in prophase [Seki et al., Mol. Biol. Cell, 1992, 3, 1373; Heald et al., Cell, 1993, 74, 463; Dalal et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 1999, 19, 4465]. The nuclear entry of both cyclin B [Toyoshima-Morimoto et al., Nature, 2001, 410, 215] and CDC25C [Toyoshima-Morimoto et al., EMBO Rep., 2002, 3, 341] are promoted through phosphorylation by PLK1 [Roshak et al., Cell. Signalling, 2000, 12, 405]. This kinase is an important regulator of M-phase initiation. In one particularly preferred embodiment, the compounds of the invention are ATP-antagonistic inhibitors of PLK1. In the present context ATP antagonism refers to the ability of an inhibitor compound to diminish or prevent PLK catalytic activity, i.e. phosphotransfer from ATP to a macromolecular PLK substrate, by virtue of reversibly or irreversibly binding at the enzyme's active site in such a manner as to impair or abolish ATP binding. In another preferred embodiment, the compound of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to inhibit PLK2 and/or PLK3. Mammalian PLK2 (also known as SNK) and PLK3 (also known as PRK and FNK) were originally shown to be immediate early gene products. PLK3 kinase activity appears to peak during late S and G2 phase. It is also activated during DNA damage checkpoint activation and severe oxidative stress. PLK3 also plays an important role in the regulation of microtubule dynamics and centrosome function in the cell and deregulated PLK3 expression results in cell cycle arrest and apoptosis [Wang et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 2002, 22, 3450]. PLK2 is the least well understood homologue of the three PLKs. Both PLK2 and PLK3 may have additional important post-mitotic functions [Kauselmann et al., EMBO J., 1999, 18, 5528]. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound of formula 1 for inhibiting a protein kinase. In a preferred embodiment of this aspect, the protein kinase is a cyclin dependent kinase. Preferably, the protein kinase is CDK1, CDK2, CDK3, CDK4, CDK6, CDK7, CDK8 or CDK9, even more preferably CDK2. A further aspect of the invention relates to a method of inhibiting a protein kinase, said method comprising contacting said protein kinase with a compound of formula 1. In a preferred embodiment of this aspect, the protein kinase is a cyclin dependent kinase, even more preferably CDK2. Assays Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a compound as defined hereinabove in an assay for identifying further candidate compounds that influence the activity of one or more CDK enzymes. Preferably, the assay is capable of identifying candidate compounds that are capable of inhibiting one or more CDK enzymes. More preferably, the assay is a competitive binding assay. Preferably, the candidate compound is generated by conventional SAR modification of a compound of the invention. As used herein, the term “conventional SAR modification” refers to standard methods known in the art for varying a given compound by way of chemical derivatisation. Thus, in one aspect, the identified compound may act as a model (for example, a template) for the development of other compounds. The compounds employed in such a test may be free in solution, affixed to a solid support, borne on a cell surface, or located intracellularly. The abolition of activity or the formation of binding complexes between the compound and the agent being tested may be measured. The assay of the present invention may be a screen, whereby a number of agents are tested. In one aspect, the assay method of the present invention is a high through-put screen. This invention also contemplates the use of competitive drug screening assays in which neutralising antibodies capable of binding a compound specifically compete with a test compound for binding to a compound. Another technique for screening provides for high throughput screening (HTS) of agents having suitable binding affinity to the substances and is based upon the method described in detail in WO 84/03564. It is expected that the assay methods of the present invention will be suitable for both small and large-scale screening of test compounds as well as in quantitative assays. Preferably, the competitive binding assay comprises contacting a compound of formula 1 with a CDK enzyme in the presence of a known substrate of said CDK enzyme and detecting any change in the interaction between said CDK enzyme and said known substrate. A sixth aspect of the invention provides a method of detecting the binding of a ligand to a CDK enzyme, said method comprising the steps of: (i) contacting a ligand with a CDK enzyme in the presence of a known substrate of said CDK enzyme; (ii) detecting any change in the interaction between said CDK enzyme and said known substrate; and wherein said ligand is a compound of formula 1. One aspect of the invention relates to a process comprising the steps of: (a) performing an assay method described hereinabove; (b) identifying one or more ligands capable of binding to a ligand binding domain; and (c) preparing a quantity of said one or more ligands. Another aspect of the invention provides a process comprising the steps of: (a) performing an assay method described hereinabove; (b) identifying one or more ligands capable of binding to a ligand binding domain; and (c) preparing a pharmaceutical composition comprising said one or more ligands. Another aspect of the invention provides a process comprising the steps of: (a) performing an assay method described hereinabove; (b) identifying one or more ligands capable of binding to a ligand binding domain; (c) modifying said one or more ligands capable of binding to a ligand binding domain; (d) performing the assay method described hereinabove; (e) optionally preparing a pharmaceutical composition comprising said one or more ligands. The invention also relates to a ligand identified by the method described hereinabove. Yet another aspect of the invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a ligand identified by the method described hereinabove. Another aspect of the invention relates to the use of a ligand identified by the method described hereinabove in the preparation of a pharmaceutical composition for use in the treatment of proliferative disorders. The above methods may be used to screen for a ligand useful as an inhibitor of one or more CDK enzymes. Process A further aspect of the invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of formula I as defined hereinabove, said process comprising reacting a compound of formula V with a compound of formula VI wherein R1-9 are as defined above and X is Cl or F. Preferably, said compound of formula V is prepared by the following steps: (i) reacting a compound of formula II with a compound of formula III to form a compound of formula IV; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IV with an alkyl halide, R5—X′, to form a compound of formula V. Preferably, the alkyl halide R5—X′ is an alkyl bromide. Preferably, said compound of formula VI is prepared by the following steps: (i) oxidising a compound of formula VIII, wherein PG is a protecting group, to form a compound of formula IX; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IX to form a compound of formula X; (iii) removing protecting group PG from said compound of formula X to form a compound of formula IX, which is equivalent to formula VI wherein one of R3 or R4 is H. Alternatively, said compound of formula VI is prepared by the following steps: (i) oxidising a compound of formula VIII, wherein PG is a protecting group, to form a compound of formula IX; (ii) alkylating said compound of formula IX to form a compound of formula X; (iii) oxidising said compound of formula X to form a compound of formula XI; (iv) alkylating said compound of formula XI to form a compound of formula XII; (v) removing protecting group PG from said compound of formula XIII to form a compound of formula VI. More preferably, the oxidation in steps (i) and (iii) of the above processes are achieved by means of a Swern oxidation. Preferably, the alkylation reaction of steps (ii) and (iv) of the above processes are achieved by treating the compound with an alkyllithium reagent in the presence of a copper bromide/dimethyl sulfide complex catalyst. Suitable protecting groups PG will be familiar to those skilled in the relevant art. By way of example, preferably protecting group PG is a trityl group. Further details of the preparation of compounds the present invention are outlined in the accompanying Examples under the heading “Synthesis”. The present invention is further described by way of the following examples. EXAMPLES In contrast to roscovitine, the compounds of the present invention contain modified purine C-2 substituents. In particular, the compounds of the invention contain C-2 substituents having a secondary or tertiary alcohol group rather than a primary alcohol group. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the presence of such modified C-2 substituents leads to a reduction in the metabolic alcohol-carboxyl conversion. In order to offset the reduction in aqueous solubility expected as a result of incorporating additional alkyl substituents into the C-2 substituent, the C-6 benzylamino group of roscovitine was replaced with a (pyridin-2-yl)-methylamino group. The accompanying examples demonstrate that this modification is tolerated in terms of biological activity (CDK2/cyclin E or A, CDK1/cyclin B inhibition and anti-proliferative effect on human tumour cell lines). Thus, the present invention demonstrates that modification of the purine C-2 and C-6 substituents of roscovitine affords novel compounds with enhanced therapeutic utility. Indeed, it has been shown that placement of one or two lower alkyl substituents at the carbinol C of the purine C-2 substituent present in roscovitine is not only tolerated in terms of retaining the desired biological activity (potency and selectivity of protein kinase inhibition; cytotoxicity), but in some cases provides more potent compounds. Moreover, the inclusion of a (pyridin-2-yl)-methylamino group in place of the benzylamino group ensures improved hydrophilicity and aqueous solubility profiles for the compounds of this invention compared to roscovitine (calculated n-octanol/water partition coefficients: 2.5<ClogP<3.8 compared to ClogP=3.7 for roscovitine). Furthermore, selected compounds exemplified herein have been shown to possess enhanced resistance to metabolic degradation using an appropriate in vitro model system. Synthesis The compounds of general structure 1 can be prepared by methods known in the art (reviewed in Fischer, P. M., and Lane, D. P. Curr. Med. Chem. 2001, 7, 1213-1245). A convenient synthetic route is shown in Scheme 1 below and starts with commercially available 2,6-dichloropurine (2, X=Cl) or 2-amino-6-chloropurine (2, X═NH2). In the latter case, the amino group is transformed to provide the particularly suitable 6-chloro-2-fluoro-purine starting material (2, X═F; Gray, N. S., Kwon, S., and Schultz, P. G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 38, 1161-1164.). Selective amination at the more reactive C-6 position with the appropriate pyridylmethylamine 3 then affords intermediate 4. This is alkylated at the N-9 position, e.g. by nucleophilic substitution using the appropriate alkyl halide R5—X. The product 5 is finally aminated with a hydroxyethylamine 6 at elevated temperature. Substituted amino alcohols 6 (R1 or R2H) can be synthesized from α-amino alcohols 7 (R1 or R2H) as shown in Scheme 2 below. Many of the latter are available commercially; alternatively, they can be prepared readily by reduction of the corresponding α-amino acids. The initial reaction in the synthetic methodology adopted was trityl protection of the amino function to afford intermediate 8 (R1 or R2H; Evans, P. A., Holmes, A. B., and Russell, K. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1, 1994, 3397-3409). This was submitted to Swern oxidation to the corresponding aldehyde 9 (R1 or R2H; Takayama, H., Ichikawa, T., Kuwajima, T., Kitajima, M., Seki, H., Aimi, N., and Nonato, M. G. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 8635-8639). Introduction of the substituent R3 (if R2H) or R4 (if R1H) was accomplished via chelation-controlled alkylation (Reetz, M. T., Roelfing, K., and Griebenow, N. Tetrahedron Lett. 1994, 35, 1969-1972) using the appropriate alkyllithium reagent and a copper bromide/dimethyl sulfide complex catalyst in diethyl ether. Depending on the substituent to be introduced, this procedure afforded intermediates 10 in diastereomeric excess (de) of 50-80%. Alternatively, achiral methods can be used, optionally followed by separation/resolution of the optical isomers. For production of amino alcohols where both R3 and R4 are other than H, intermediate 10 was subjected to another Swern oxidation reaction to the respective ketone 12, followed by introduction of the second substituent through alkylation. The final step in the synthesis for all the amino alcohols was removal of the trityl group using trifluoroacetic acid to afford 6 or 11. In those cases where amino alcohols contain two identical substituents at the carbinol C (6, R1 or R2H; R3═R4, not H), these can be obtained directly from a suitable corresponding α-amino acid ester, e.g. by double Grignard alkylation (Guenther, B. R., and Kirmse, W. Liebigs Ann. Chem. 1980, 518-532). Kinase Assays The compounds from the examples below were investigated for their CDK2/cyclin E, CDK1/cyclin B, CDK4/cyclin D1 and CDK7/cyclin H, ERK-2, and PKA inhibitory activity. His6-tagged recombinant human cyclin-dependent kinases CDK1/cyclin B1, CDK2/cyclin E, CDK4 and CDK7/cyclin H were expressed in sf9 cells using a baculovirus expression system. Recombinant cyclin D1 was expressed in E. coli. Proteins were purified by metal chelate affinity chromatography to greater than 90% homogeneity. Kinase assays were performed in 96-well plates using recombinant CDK/cyclins, recombinant active ERK-2 (Upstate Biotechnology), or cyclic AMP-dependent kinase (PKA) catalytic subunit (Calbiochem Cat. 539487). Assays were performed in assay buffer (25 mM α-glycerophosphate, 20 mM MOPS, 5 mM EGTA, 1 mM DTT, 1 mM Na3VO3, pH 7.4), into which were added 2-4 μg of active enzyme with appropriate substrates (purified histone H1 for CDK2, recombinant GST-retinoblastoma protein (residues 773-928) for CDK4, biotinyl-Ahx-(Tyr-Ser-Pro-Thr-Ser-Pro-Ser)4 peptide for CDK7, myelin basic protein for ERK-2, or peptide Kemptide (Fluka Biochemika Cat. 60645) for PKA). The reaction was initiated by addition of Mg/ATP mix (15 mM MgCl2+100 μM ATP with 30-50 kBq per well of [γ-32P]-ATP) and mixtures incubated for 10 min (CDK2/cyclin E, ERK-2, PKA) or 45 min (CDK4/cyclin D1, CDK7/cyclin H) as required, at 30° C. Reactions were stopped on ice, followed by filtration through p81 filterplates or GF/C filterplates (for CDK4) (Whatman Polyfiltronics, Kent, UK), except for CDK7 where, after stopping reaction on ice, 10 μL of 10 mg/mL avidin was added to each well and further incubated for 10 min followed by filtration as per CDK2 assay. After washing 3 times with 75 mM aq orthophosphoric acid, plates were dried, scintillant added and incorporated radioactivity measured in a scintillation counter (TopCount, Packard Instruments, Pangbourne, Berks, UK). Compounds for kinase assay were made up as 10 mM stocks in DMSO and diluted into 10% DMSO in assay buffer. Data was analysed using curve-fitting software (Graphpad Prism version 3.00 for Windows, GraphPad Software, San Diego Calif. USA) to determine IC50 values (concentration of test compound which inhibits kinase activity by 50%.). These values for the compounds of the present invention are shown in Table 1. MTT Cytotoxicity Assay The compounds from the examples below were subjected to a standard cellular proliferation assay using the following human tumour cell lines: A549, HeLa, HT-29, MCF7, Saos-2, CCRF-CEM, HL-60, and K-562. The cell lines were obtained from the ATCC (American Type Culture Collection, 10801 University Boulevard, Manessas, Va. 20110-2209, USA). Standard 72-h MTT (thiazolyl blue; 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assays were performed (Haselsberger, K.; Peterson, D. C.; Thomas, D. G.; Darling, J. L. Anti Cancer Drugs 1996, 7, 331-8; Loveland, B. E.; Johns, T. G.; Mackay, I. R.; Vaillant, F.; Wang, Z. X.; Hertzog, P. J. Biochemistry International 1992, 27, 501-10). In short: cells were seeded into 96-well plates according to doubling time and incubated overnight at 37° C. Test compounds were made up in DMSO and a 1/3 dilution series prepared in 100 μL cell media, added to cells (in triplicates) and incubated for 72 ho at 37° C. MTT was made up as a stock of 5 mg/mL in cell media and filter-sterilised. Media was removed from cells followed by a wash with 200 μL PBS. MTT solution was then added at 20 μL per well and incubated in the dark at 37° C. for 4 h. MTT solution was removed and cells again washed with 200 μL PBS. MTT dye was solubilised with 200 μL per well of DMSO with agitation. Absorbance was read at 540 nm and data analysed using curve-fitting software (GraphPad Prism version 3.00 for Windows, GraphPad Software, San Diego Calif. USA) to determine IC50 values (concentration of test compound which inhibits cell growth by 50%). These values for the compounds of the present invention are shown in Table 2. Comparative In Vitro Metabolism Assay Microsomal Incubations and Preparation of Samples for Analysis Microsomes were obtained from Totem Biologicals, Northampton, England. Microsomal protein (0.2 mg) and roscovitine or a test compound of this invention (final concentration 10 μM) were mixed in phosphate-buffered saline (100 μL) containing NADPH (20 mM), MgCl2 (10 mM), and EDTA (1.5 mM). Samples were incubated for 30 min and the reaction stopped by the addition of ice-cold methanol (300 μL) containing olomoucine (Vesely, J., Havlicek, L., Strnad, M., Blow, J. J., Donella-Deana, A., Pinna, L., Letham, D. S., Kato, J., Detivaud, L., Leclerc, S., Meijer, L. Eur. J. Biochem. 1994, 224, 771-786) as internal standard. Calibration curves were prepared at 0, 1, and 10 μM in microsomes pre-incubated for 30 min and these were also treated with methanol containing olomoucine. All samples were then centrifuged and the supernatants analysed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry The chromatography column was a Supelco LC-ABZ, 50×4.6 mm, 5 μm zwitterionic column (Supelco Inc., Supelco Park, Bellefonte, Pa., USA). Gradient eluants consisted of methanol (A) and 0.1% formic acid in water (B). The gradient started with 10:90 (A:B v/v) which was held isocratically for 0.5 min, followed by a linear increase to 90:10 (A:B v/v) over 6 min which was then held at these conditions for a further 4 min. The flow rate was 1 mL/min throughout. For LC-UV-MS samples were introduced using a Gilson 215 autosampler (Anachem Ltd., Bedfordshire, UK) attached to a Thermoseparations P4000 quaternary pump, column (as described above) and Thermoseparations UV1000 detector set to 254 nm (Thermoquest Ltd., Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, UK). Eluant from the detector passed, without splitting, into a Thermoquest LCQ ion trap mass spectrometer fitted with an electrospray source operated in positive mode. Mass spectrometer conditions were sheath gas 80, auxiliary gas 20 (both arbitrary units), capillary voltage 4 to 4.5 kV and heated capillary temperature 250 to 280° C. The mass range was 50-750. Scan time was controlled by the ion trap which was set to a maximum ion injection time of 200 ms or the time required to inject 2×108 ions; for each scan the system automatically used whichever time was reached first. Data Analysis To analyse the results selected ion traces of the MH+ ions of the test compound and internal standard were extracted and the area of the relevant peaks obtained. The peak area ration (test compound/internal standard) of the test incubation was then compared with the peak area ratios obtained fro the calibration curve of the test compound. From these values the concentration of test compound remaining after 30 min microsomal protein incubation was determined. Results for representative compounds of the present invention are summarized in Table 3, where compound metabolic stability is also compared with that of roscovitine in terms of metabolism (column A), in vitro CDK2 inhibition (column B), and in vitro cytotoxicity on tumour cell lines (column C). Comparative in vitro efficacy (column A×C) and cellular exposure (column A×C) are also shown. These results suggest that the compounds of the present invention will have improved in vivo efficacy compared to roscovitine. Calculated n-octanol/water partition coefficients (ClogP) are also included in Table 3. It can be seen that those compounds with improved cellular activity and metabolic stability also possess lower ClogP than roscovitine, suggesting improved aqueous solubility and thus ease of formulation for drug administration in vivo. (2R)-2-(6-Benzylamino-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-2-ylamino)-butyric acid Benzyl-(2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-amine (151 mg, 0.5 mmol) was dissolved in NMP (5 mL) and DBU (1.5 mL, 10 mmol). (R)-(−)-2-Aminobutyric acid (99% ee/GLC; 1.03 g, 10 mmol) was then added and the mixture was stirred under N2 at 160° C. for 1 h. After cooling, the mixture was diluted with citric acid (10% aq solution) and CH2Cl2 (25 mL each). The phases were separated and the organic fraction was extracted with brine (2×10 mL), dried over MgSO4, filtered, and evaporated. The residue was redissolved in MeCN and was fractionated by preparative RP-HPLC (Vydac 218TP1022, 9 mL/min, 22.5-32.5% MeCN in H2O containing 0.1% CF3COOH over 40 min). Appropriate fractions were pooled and lyophilised to afford the pure title compound (137 mg, 74.4%) as an amorphous off-white solid. Anal. RP-HPLC (Vydac 218TP54, 1 mL/min): tR=16.04 min (0-60% MeCN), 15.95 min (22.5-32.5% MeCN in H2O containing 0.1% CF3COOH over 20 min), purity: >98% (λ=214 nm). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 300 MHz) δ: 0.95 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 3H, CH2CH3); 1.51 (d, J=6.7 Hz, 6H, CH(CH3)2); 1.78 (m, J=7.3 Hz, 2H, CH2CH3); 4.27 (m, 1H, CHCH2); 4.64 (hept., J=6.7 Hz, 1H, CH(CH3)2); 4.69 (m, 2H, CH2Ph); 7.25-7.41 (m, 6H, ArH). DE-MALDI-TOF MS (α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid matrix): [M+H]+=369.41. FAB-MS: [M+H]+=369.2033 (C19H25N6O2 requires 369.2039). (R)-2-(Trityl-amino)-butan-1-ol To a stirred solution of (R)-(−)-2-aminobutan-1-ol (10 g, 1 eq, 112.18 mmol) in DCM (500 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added DIEA (30 mL, 1.54 eq, 172.22 mmol) followed by trityl chloride (35.4 mL, 1.13 eq, 126.98 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 48 h, when TLC (hexane:ether:MeOH; 55:40:5) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue precipitated from acetone (50 mL) with hexane (900 mL) with stirring, the precipitate was removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (1 L), filtered, and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 32 g (86%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.56 (t, 3H, J=7.41 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 1.10 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.22 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.38 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.72+3.00 (2×m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 4.28 (t, 1H, J=5.26 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2 OH), 7.14-7.49 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (S)-2-(Trityl-amino)-butan-1-ol To a stirred solution of (S)-(+)-2-aminobutan-1-ol (10 g, 1 eq, 112.18 mmol) in DCM (500 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added DIEA (30 mL, 1.54 eq, 172.22 mmol) followed by trityl chloride (35.4 mL, 1.13 eq, 126.98 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 48 h, when TLC (hexane:ether:MeOH; 55:40:5) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue precipitated from acetone (50 mL) with hexane (900 mL) with stirring, the precipitate was removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (1 L), filtered, and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 33 g (89%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.58 (t, 3H, J=7.26 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH CH2OH), 1.10 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.24 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.39 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 2.76 & 3.03 (2×m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH2OH), 4.32 (t, 1H, J=4.97 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH2OH), 7.15-7.52 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (R)-2-(Trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde To a stirred solution of DMSO (3.0 mL, 2.8 eq, 42.28 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −45° C., was added oxalyl chloride (2 M in DCM, 10.56 mL, 1.40 eq, 21.12 mmol), dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at −45° C. for 1 h, after which time a solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butan-1-ol (5 g, 1 eq, 15.08 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) was added dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 3 h, when TLC (hexane:ether; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added a solution of TEA (10.5 mL, 5 eq, 75.33 mmol) in DCM (30 mL), and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with more DCM (200 mL) and washed with water (250 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM (3×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in ether (30 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (50 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 2.59 g (52%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.77 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 1.34-1.61 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 2.92 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 3.62 (d, 1H, J=8.21 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 7.16-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph), 8.77 (d, 1H, J=3.00 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO). (S)-2-(Trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde To a stirred solution of DMSO (2.4 mL, 2.8 eq, 33.82 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −45° C., was added oxalyl chloride (2 M in DCM, 8.45 mL, 1.40 eq, 16.9 mmol), dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at −45° C. for 1 h, after which time a solution of (S)-2-(trityl-amino)-butan-1-ol (4 g, 1 eq, 12.07 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) was added dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 3 h, when TLC (hexane:ether; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added a solution of TEA (8.4 mL, 5 eq, 60.27 mmol) in DCM (30 mL), and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with more DCM (100 mL) and washed with water (250 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM (3×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in ether (30 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (50 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 3.64 g (91%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.77 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CHO), 1.37-1.59 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 2.93 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 3.62 (d, 1H, J=5.84 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO), 7.16-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph), 8.77 (d, 1H, J=3.00 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHO). (2S,3R)-3-(Trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (2.74 g, 2.2 eq, 13.33 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −70° C., was added methyllithium (1.6 M in Et2O, 16.6 mL, 4.4 eq, 26.56 mmol) dropwise, and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −70° C., to which was added a solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (2 g, 1 eq, 6.05 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 2 h, when TLC (hexane:ether; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether (2×200 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (80:20) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 1.91 g (91%). (80% de 2S,3R: 20% de 2R,3R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.47 & 0.55 (2×t, J=7.43 & 7.27 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 0.99-1.12 (m, 5H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 2.03 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.32-3.51 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 4.40 (d, 1H, J=3.79 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 7.14-7.51 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (2R,3S)-3-(Trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (2.74 g, 2.2 eq, 13.33 mmol) in ether (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −70° C., was added methyl lithium (1.6 M in ether, 15.13 mL, 4.0 eq, 24.21 mmol) dropwise and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −70° C., to which was added a solution of (S)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (2 g, 1 eq, 6.05 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 2 h and then at —55° C. for 4 h, when TLC (hexane:Et2O; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (2×200 nL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:Et2O (80:20) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 1.37 g (66%). (80% de 2R,3S: 20% de 2S,3S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0. 0.47 & 0.55 (2×t, J=7.50 & 7.26 Hz —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 0.99-1.12 (m, 5H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 2.01 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.22-3.43 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 4.41 (d, 1H, J=3.31 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 7.14-7.56 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4R)-4-(Trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1.5 g, 1 eq, 4.53 mmol) in Et2O (150 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added ethylmagnesium bromide (3 M in Et20, 1.51 mL, 1 eq, 4.53 mmol) dropwise. The solution was stirred at −78° C. for 2 h, then allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The mixture was recooled to 0° C., H2O (150 mL) added, and the organic phase separated. The aqueous phase was extracted with more Et2O (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 1.13 g (69%). (57% de 3S,4R: 43% de 3R,4R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.45 & 0.69 (t & m, 6H, J=7.43 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.12-1.29 (m, 4H, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.16 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.54 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.21-3.40 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 4.29+4.39 (2×d, 1H, J=4.42 & 5.37 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 7.15-7.52 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4S)-4-(Trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1.5 g, 1 eq, 4.53 mmol) in Et2O (150 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added ethylmagnesium bromide (3 M in Et20, 1.51 mL, 1 eq, 4.53 mmol) dropwise. The solution was stirred at −78° C. for 2 h, then allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The mixture was recooled to 0° C., H2O (150 mL) added, and the organic phase separated. The aqueous phase was extracted with more Et2O (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 1.19 g (73%). (65% de 3R,4S: 35% de 3S,4S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.46+0.69 (t & m, 6H, J=7.34 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.13-1.29 (m, 4H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.17 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.55 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.20-3.39 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CHCH2 CH3) OH), 4.29 & 4.39 (2×d, 1H, J=4.74 & 5.53 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH2CH3)OH), 7.15-7.52 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4R)-2-Methyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (1.37 g, 2.2 eq, 6.66 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added isopropyllithium (0.7 M in pentane, 17.29 mL, 4 eq, 12.1 mmol) dropwise, and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −70° C., to which was added a solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1 g, 1 eq, 3.03 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 1 h, then allowed to warm to −55° C. and stirred at this temperature for 3 h. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (2×200 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel gradient column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a colourless oil. Yield: 0.53 g (47%). (50% de 3S,4R: 50% de 3R,4R) 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.44 (t, 3H, J=7.03 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 0.52 & 0.77 (2×d, 6H, J=6.48 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 0.79-1.13 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.72 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.11 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.77 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.99 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 4.55 (d, 1H, J=5.21 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 7.15-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4S)-2-Methyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (1.37 g, 2.2 eq, 6.66 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added isopropyllithium (0.7 M in pentane, 17.29 mL, 4 eq, 12.1 mmol) dropwise and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −70° C., to which was added a solution of (S)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1 g, 1 eq, 3.03 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 1 h, then allowed to warm to −55° C. and stirred at this temperature for 3 h. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (2×200 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a colourless oil; Yield: 0.36 g (32%). (50% de 3R,4S: 50% de 3S,4S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.44 (t, 3H, J=6.79 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 0.52 & 0.76 (2×d, 6H, J=6.63 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 0.80-1.15 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.70 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.10 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.76 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 2.99 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH (CH3)2)OH), 4.55 (d, 1H, J=5.84 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 7.17-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4R)-2,2-Dimethyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (1.37 g, 2.2 eq, 6.66 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added tert-butyllithium (1.5 M in pentane, 8.0 mL, 4 eq, 12.0 mmol) dropwise and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −55° C., to which was added a solution of (R)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1 g, 1 eq, 3.03 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring, and stirred at this temperature for 3 h. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (2×200 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel gradient column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.57 g (49%). (55% de 3S,4R: 45% de 3R,4R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.36 & 0.86 (2×t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, —NH CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 0.57 & 0.71 (2×s, 9H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (C(CH3)3)OH), 1.38-1.52 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.99 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 2.27 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 2.95 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 4.22 & 4.77 (2×d, 1H, J=4.42 5.21 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 7.14-7.52 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3RS,4S)-2,2-Dimethyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol To a stirred suspension of CuBr.SMe2 (1.37 g, 2.2 eq, 6.66 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −78° C., was added tert-butyl lithium (1.5 M in pentane, 8.0 mL, 4 eq, 12.0 mmol) dropwise and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature. The mixture was recooled to −55° C., to which was added a solution of (S)-2-(trityl-amino)-butyraldehyde (1 g, 1 eq, 3.03 mmol) in Et2O (25 mL) dropwise with stirring, and stirred at this temperature for 3 h. To the reaction mixture was added a saturated aqueous solution of NH4Cl (100 mL) and allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was extracted with Et2O (2×200 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane: Et2O (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.47 g (40%). (53% de 3R,4S: 47% de 3S,4S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.37 & 0.87 (2×t, 3H, J=7.46 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 0.58 & 0.71 (2×s, 9H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (C(CH3)3)OH), 1.38-1.52 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 2.00 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 2.28 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 2.95 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 4.24 & 4.79 (2×d, 1H, J=5.21 & 6.16 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 7.15-7.53 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3R)-3-(Trityl-amino)-pentan-2-one To a stirred solution of DMSO (2.19 mL, 2.8 eq, 30.86 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) under an argon atmosphere at 45° C., was added oxalyl chloride (2 M in DCM, 7.69 mL, 1.4 eq, 15.38 mmol) dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at −45° C. for 1 h, after which time a solution (2S,3R)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (3.81 g, 1 eq, 11.04 mmol) in DCM (20 mL) was added dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 4 h, when TLC (hexane:ether; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added N-ethylpiperidine (7.54 mL, 5 eq, 54.88 mmol), and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with more DCM (50 mL) and washed with water (200 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in Et2O (100 μL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (50 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 3.78 g (100%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.73 (t, 3H, J=7.35 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 1.47-1.60 (m, 5H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3O), 3.12 (d, 1H, J=8.38 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 3.32 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)O), 7.16-7.49 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3S)-3-(Trityl-amino)-pentan-2-one To a stirred solution of DMSO (1.95 mL, 2.8 eq, 27.48 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) under an argon atmosphere at −45° C., was added oxalyl chloride (2 M in DCM, 6.85 mL, 1.4 eq, 13.70 mmol) dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at −45° C. for 1 h, after which time a solution (2R,3S)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (3.39 g, 1 eq, 9.83 mmol) in DCM (20 mL) was added dropwise with stirring. The reaction mixture was stirred at this temperature for 4 h, when TLC (hexane:ether; 80:20) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. To the reaction mixture was added N-ethylpiperidine (6.71 mL, 5 eq, 48.84 mmol), and the solution allowed to warm to room temperature over 16 h. The reaction mixture was diluted with more DCM (50 mL) and washed with water (200 mL). The aqueous phase was extracted with DCM (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in Et2O (100 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in hexane (50 mL), the solid precipitate removed by filtration and the filtrate was evaporated in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 3.15 g (93%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.73 (t, 3H, J=7.50 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 1.45-1.62 (m, 5H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 3.12 (d, 1H, J=8.53 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 3.31 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)O), 7.13-7.45 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3R)-2-Methyl-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (3R)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-one (0.87 g, 1 eq, 2.54 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added methylmagnesium iodide (3 M in ether, 2.54 mL, 3 eq, 7.62 mmol) dropwise. The solution was placed in a preheated oil bath at 45° C. and refluxed at this temperature for 16 h. The mixture was recooled to 0° C., H2O (100 mL) added, the solution filtered through Celite, and the Celite washed with more Et2O (50 mL). The combined organic phase was separated, the aqueous phase was extracted with Et2O (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane:ether (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.21 g (23%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.26 (t, J=7.42 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.00 & 1.25 (2×s, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 0.72-1.43 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.84 (m, 1H, —NHCH (CH2CH3)C(CH3)2 OH), 2.90 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 4.32 (s, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 7.17-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (3S)-2-Methyl-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (3S)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-one (0.59 g, 1 eq, 1.72 mmol) in Et2O (100 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added methylmagnesium iodide (3 M in Et20, 1.72 mL, 3 eq, 5.16 mmol) dropwise. The solution was placed in a preheated oil bath at 45° C. and refluxed at this temperature for 16 h. The mixture was recooled to 0° C., H2O (100 mL) added, the solution filtered through Celite, and the Celite washed with more Et2O (50 mL). The combined organic phase was separated, the aqueous phase was extracted with Et2O (2×50 mL), and the combined organic phase washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by silica gel column chromatography, eluted with hexane: Et2O (100:0→90:10) to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.10 g (16%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.27 (t, J=7.10 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 0.99 & 1.25 (2×s, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 0.75-1.42 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.88 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2 CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 2.92 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 4.32 (s, 1H, —NHCH (CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 7.18-7.46 (m, 15H, 3×Ph). (2S,3R)-3-Amino-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2S,3R)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (1.32 g, 1 eq, 3.83 mmol) in DCM (50 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (10 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was precipitated from Et2O (15 mL) with hexane (300 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.30 g (99%). (80% de 2S,3R: 20% de 2R,3R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.915 & 0.924 (2×t, 3H, J=7.50 & 7.58 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.06 & 1.13 (2×d, J=6.48 & 6.32 Hz), NH2CH (CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.41-1.59 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 2.77 & 2.93 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.62-3.72 & 3.80-3.90 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 7.75 (bs, 2H, NH2). (2R,3S)-3-Amino-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2R,3S)-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (1.64 g, 1 eq, 4.75 mmol) in DCM (50 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (10 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was precipitated from Et2O (15 mL) with hexane (300 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.30 g (98%). (80% de 2R,3S: 20% de 2S,3S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.913 & 0.923 (2×t, 3H, J=7.50 & 7.50 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.11 & 1.18 (2×d, J=6.48 & 6.48 Hz), NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.41-1.65 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 2.76+2.93 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.61-3.69 & 3.80-3.90 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 7.73 (bs, 2H, NH2). (3RS,4R)-4-Amino-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4R)-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (1.13 g, 1 eq, 3.14 mmol) in DCM (15 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (7 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 4 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, EtOH (20 mL) added, and removed in vacuo, and this process repeated twice. The residue was precipitated from Et2O (5 mL) with hexane (40 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.37 g (100%). (57% de 3S,4R: 43% de 3R,4R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.79 & 0.92 (t & m, 6H, J=7.42 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.30-1.67 (m, 4H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH (CH2CH3)OH), 2.70 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.84 & 2.96 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.41 & 3.56 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 7.71 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH). (3RS,4S)-4-Amino-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4S)-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (1.19 g, 1 eq, 3.31 mmol) in DCM (15 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (7 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 4 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, EtOH (20 mL) added, and removed in vacuo, and this process repeated twice. The residue was precipitated from Et2O (5 mL) with hexane (40 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound. Yield: 0.39 g (99%). (65% de 3R,4S: 35% de 3S,4S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.79 & 0.92 (t & m, 6H, J=7.50 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.22-1.68 (m, 4H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.71 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 2.83 & 2.95 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.39 & 3.54 (2×m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 7.77 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH). (3RS,4R)-4-Amino-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4R)-2-methyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (0.53 g, 1 eq, 1.41 mmol) in DCM (20 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, the residue was precipitated from Et2O (10 mL) with hexane (90 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (20 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.18 g (100%). (50% de 3S,4R: 50% de 3R,4R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.85-0.99 (m, 9H, NH2CH (CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.42-1.79 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2) OH), 2.95 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.18 (m, 1H, NH2CH (CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.37 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 7.58 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH). (3RS,4S)-4-Amino-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4S)-2-methyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (0.36 g, 1 eq, 0.97 mmol) in DCM (20 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, the residue was precipitated from Et2O (10 mL) with hexane (90 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (20 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.13 g (100%). (50% de 3R,4S: 50% de 3S,4S) 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.85-1.01 (m, 9H, NH2CH (CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.44-1.76 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2) OH), 2.94 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.17 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.40 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2) OH), 7.54 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH). (3RS,4R)-4-Amino-Z 2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4R)-2,2-dimethyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (0.57 g, 1 eq, 1.47 mmol) in DCM (10 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, the residue was precipitated from Et2O (3 mL) with hexane (20 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (20 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.21 g (100%). (55% de 3S,4R: 45% de 3R,4R). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.84-0.99 (m, 3H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.25-1.29 (m, 9H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(C (CH3)3)OH), 1.20-1.72 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.14 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.39 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3) OH), 3.65 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 7.43, 7.77 & 8.54 (3×bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH). (3RS,4S)-4-Amino-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (3RS,4S)-2,2-dimethyl-4-(trityl-amino)-hexan-3-ol (0.47 g, 1 eq, 1.21 mmol) in DCM (10 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, the residue was precipitated from Et2O (3 mL) with hexane (20 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (20 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.18 g (99%). (53% de 3R,4S: 47% de 3S,4S). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.86-0.99 (m, 3H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.25-1.30 (m, 9H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.20-1.67 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.14 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.38 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.64 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 7.41, 7.73 & 8.44 (3×bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) CH(CH(CH3)2)OH). (3R)-3-Amino-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (3R)-2-methyl-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (0.21 g, 1 eq, 0.60 mmol) in DCM (5 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (2.5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was precipitated from Et2O (15 mL) with hexane (300 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil; Yield: 0.07 g (100%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 0.97 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.06 & 1.19 (2×s, 6H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.28-1.71 (m, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 2.72 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 5.21 (s, 1H, NH2CH (CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 7.63 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH). (3S)-3-Amino-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (3S)-2-methyl-3-(trityl-amino)-pentan-2-ol (0.38 g, 1 eq, 1.06 mmol) in DCM (5 mL) under an argon atmosphere at room temperature, was added CF3COOH (2.5 mL) dropwise, and the solution was stirred at this temperature for 1 h. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue was precipitated from Et2O (15 mL) with hexane (300 mL) with stirring to give a yellow oil. The solvent was decanted from the oil, and the oil was washed with hexane (30 mL) and dried in vacuo to afford the title compound as a light yellow oil. Yield: 0.12 g (99%). 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ0.97 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.07 & 1.19 (2×s, 6H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.28-1.61 (m, 2H, NH2CH (CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 2.72 (m, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 5.21 (s, 1H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 7.63 (bs, 2H, NH2CH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH). 6-Chloro-2-fluoro-9H-purine This compound was prepared by a modification of a literature procedures (Gray, N. S.; Kwon, S.; Schultz, P. G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 38 (7), 1161-1164.) Chloro-9H-purin-2-ylamine (75.0 g, 0.44 mol) was suspended in aq HBF4 (1.5 L of 48% w/w solution in H2O). This mixture was cooled to −15° C. and was stirred vigorously. NaNO2 (2.5 L of an 0.3 M aq solution) was then added slowly over 75 min with stirring and careful temperature control (<10° C.). After complete addition, the pale yellow solution was further stirred at room temperature for 30 min. It was then re-cooled to −15° C. and was neutralised carefully to pH=6.2 with NaOH (50% w/v aq solution). This solution was rotary evaporated to semi-dryness. The resulting cake was divided with a spatula and dried under high vacuum overnight. The resulting yellow powder was dry-loaded onto a flash chromatography column (24×15 cm SiO2 bed), which was eluted with CH2Cl2/MeOH, 9:1. Appropriate fractions were collected, pooled, and evaporated. After drying in vacuo, the title compound (34.8 g, 48%) was obtained as a colourless powder. TLC: Rf=0.25 (CH2Cl2/MeOH, 9:1), starting material Rf=0.16. m/z 173 (MH+, 100), 175 (MH+2, 33). (2-Fluoro-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine To a stirred solution of 6-chloro-2-fluoropurine (0.4 g, 1 eq, 2.31 mmol) in n-BuOH (25 mL) under an argon atmosphere, cooled to 0° C., was added DIEA (1.13 mL, 2.80 eq, 6.49 mmol) followed by C-pyridin-2-yl-methylamine (0.48 mL, 2.0 eq, 4.66 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 3 h, and then allowed to return to room temperature over 30 min. and stirred at this temperature for 1 h, when TLC (CHCl3:MeOH; 90:10) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue partitioned between citric acid solution (200 mL, 10% aq.) and EtOAc (200 mL), the aqueous phase was separated and extracted with more EtOAc (2×100 mL), and the bulked organic phase containing traces of 6-chloro-2-fluoropurine was discarded. The pH of the aqueous phase was adjusted to 7.0 with NaOH solution (50% w/v, aq.), extracted with EtOAc (4×100 mL), and the bulked organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel, eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (95:5→85:15), to afford the title compound as a light yellow solid. Yield: 0.40 g (71%). Mp 217-220° C. 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 4.58 (d, 2H, J=5.68 Hz, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.29, 7.71, 8.49 (3×m, 4H, Pyr), 8.10 (s, 1H, —N═CH—NH—), 8.69 (bs, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 13.07 (bs, 1H, —N═CH—NH—). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 245 ([M+H]+, 55), 176 (30), 154 (100), 136 (85). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 245.0951, Measured: 245.0942. Microanalysis (Expected: Measured) C11H9N6F.0.4H2O: C, 52.55: 52.91, H, 3.93: 3.49, N, 33.42: 33.26. 2-Fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (0.4 g, 1 eq, 1.64 mmol) in DMA (5 mL) under an argon atmosphere, at RT, was added K2CO3 (powdered, anhydrous, 1.1 g, 4.85 eq, 7.96 mmol) followed 2-bromopropane (1.5 mL, 9.75 eq, 15.98 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 40° C. for 48 h, when TLC (CHCl3: MeOH; 90:10) indicated that the reaction had gone to completion. The solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the residue partitioned between water (200 mL) and EtOAc (100 mL), the aqueous phase was separated and extracted with more EtOAc (2×50 mL). The bulked organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo, and the residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel, eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→95:5), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 0.27 g (58%). mp 150-152° C. 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, 250 MHz): δ 1.49 (2×s, 6H, CH(CH3)2), 4.63 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.71 (d, 2H, J=5.76 Hz, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.26, 7.71, 8.49 (3×m, 4H, Pyr), 8.26 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 8.78 (bs, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 287 ([M+H]+, 100), 245 (10), 154 (22), 136 (17). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 287.1420, Measured: 287.1412. Microanalysis (Expected: Measured) C14H15N6F: C, 58.73: 58.38, H, 5.28: 5.13, N, 29.35: 29.36. (2S3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (2.5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.2 mL, 10.96 eq, 1.14 mmol) followed by (2S,3R)-3-amino-pentan-2-ol (60 mg, 5.5 eq, 0.58 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 160° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and water (50 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 36.1 mg (93%). (80% de 3R,2S: 20% de 3R,2R). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.91 & 1.06 (2×t, 3H, J=7.11 & 7.42 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 1.16 & 1.29 (2×d, 3H, J=6.48 & 3.48 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH) 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.71-2.01 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.98 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 4.58-4.69 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.83-5.00 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 6.75-6.91 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.19-7.25 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.37 (d, 1H, J=8.05 Hz, Pyr-H), 7.57 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N), 7.64-7.71 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.58 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 370 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (40). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 370.2355, Measured: 370.2347. (2R,3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (2.5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.2 mL, 10.96 eq, 1.14 mmol) followed by (2R,3S)-3-amino-pentan-2-ol (60 mg, 5.5 eq, 0.58 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 160° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and water (50 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 22 mg (57%). (80% de 3S,2R: 20% de 3S,2S). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.90 & 1.05 (2×t, 3H, J=7.11 & 7.42 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 1.17 & 1.25 (2×d, 3H, J=6.31 & 6.16 Hz, —NHCH (CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH) 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.75-2.03 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH3)OH), 3.93-4.05 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH3)OH), 4.58-4.70 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.83-5.01 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 6.74-6.91 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.19-7.25 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.37 (d, 1H, J=7.90 Hz, Pyr-H), 7.57 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.64-7.71 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.90 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 370 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (43). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 370.2355, Measured: 370.2347. (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (20 mg, 1 eq, 0.07 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (3.75 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.18 mL, 15 eq, 1.03 mmol) followed by (3RS,4R)-4-amino-hexan-3-ol (110 mg, 13 eq, 0.94 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 11 mg (41%). (57% de 4R,3S: 43% de 4R,3R). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.85-1.06 (m, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, & —CH(CH3)2), 1.42-1.65 (m, 4H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.45 (d, 1H, J=6.31 Hz, OH), 3.57-3.70 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.91-4.03 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3) OH), 4.57-4.76 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.86-4.98 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.18-5.29 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 6.73-6.89 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.15-7.25 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.38 (d, 1H, J=7.90 Hz, Pyr-H), 7.56 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.63-7.70 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.60 (d, 1H, J=4.42 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 384 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (35), 307 (37), 297 (25), 289 (20). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 384.2512, Measured: 384.2523. (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (20 mg, 1 eq, 0.07 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (3.75 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.18 mL, 15 eq, 1.03 mmol) followed by (3RS,4S)-4-amino-hexan-3-ol (110 mg, 13 eq, 0.94 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 10 mg (37%). (57% de 4S,3R: 43% de 4S,3S). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.85-1.06 (m, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3)OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, & —CH(CH3)2), 1.43-1.64 (m, 4H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.45 (d, 1H, J=6.16 Hz, OH), 3.56-3.70 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 3.91-4.02 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH2CH3) OH), 4.58-4.71 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.86-4.98 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.21-5.32 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH2CH3)OH), 6.76-6.94 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.16-7.26 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.38 (d, 1H, J=7.74 Hz, Pyr-H), 7.58 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.64-7.70 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.60 (d, 1H, J=4.45 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 384 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (35), 307 (37), 297 (25), 289 (20). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 384.2512, Measured: 384.2523. (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (2.5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.10 mL, 5.5 eq, 0.57 mmol) followed by (3RS,4R)-4-amino-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol (42 mg, 3.0 eq, 0.32 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 7.8 mg (19%). 50% de 4R,3S: 50% de 4R,3R). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.91-1.04 (m, 9H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.66-1.94 (m, 4H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.22-3.34 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH (CH3)2)OH), 3.79-3.93 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 4.57-4.71 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.85-4.97 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.13-5.24 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 6.65-6.79 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.13-7.24 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.32-7.42 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.56 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.58-7.73 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.60 (d, 1H, J=4.42 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 398 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (50). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 398.2668, Measured: 398.2654. (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (2.5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.20 mL, 11 eq, 1.14 mmol) followed by (3RS,4S)-4-amino-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol (28 mg, 2.0 eq, 0.21 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 160° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid; Yield: 5.7 mg (14%). (50% de 4S,3R: 50% de 4S,3S). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 0.90-1.06 (m, 9H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.64-1.93 (m, 4H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 3.24-3.37 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(CH (CH3)2)OH), 3.80-3.95 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (CH(CH3)2)OH), 4.57-4.71 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.84-4.96 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.13-5.24 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(CH(CH3)2)OH), 6.65-6.80 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.12-7.23 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.30-7.40 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.56 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.59-7.74 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.42 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 398 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (55). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 398.2668, Measured: 398.2654. (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.10 mL, 5.5 eq, 0.57 mmol) followed by (3RS,4R)-4-amino-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (52 mg, 3.41 eq, 0.36 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 6.3 mg (15%). (55% de 4R,3S: 45% de 4R,3R). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 1.00-1.03 (m, 12H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.56 & 0.58 (2×d, 6H, J=6.63 & 6.63 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.69-1.89 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.56 (d, 1H, J=1.89 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.72-3.84 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3) OH), 4.58-4.70 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.88-4.98 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.22-5.39 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 6.70-6.80 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.18-7.24 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.38 (d, 1H, J=7.90, Pyr-H), 7.57 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.63-7.70 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.90 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 412 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (70). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 412.2825, Measured: 412.2835. (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (5 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.10 mL, 5.5 eq, 0.57 mmol) followed by (3RS,4S)-4-amino-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (43 mg, 2.81 eq, 0.29 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 5.9 mg (14%). (53% de 4S,3R: 47% de 4S,3S). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 1.00-1.04 (m, 12H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 1.56 & 1.58 (2×d, 6H, J=6.63 & 6.63 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.67-1.90 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.56 (d, 1H, J=1.89 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 3.70-3.83 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH (C(CH3)3)OH), 4.58-4.69 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.88-4.98 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 5.23-5.39 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)CH(C(CH3)3)OH), 6.71-6.80 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.17-7.24 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.38 (d, 1H, J=7.90, Pyr-H), 7.57 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.63-7.70 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.90 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 412 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (75). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 412.2825, Measured: 412.2835. (3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (20 mg, 1 eq, 0.07 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (1.25 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.25 mL, 20.5 eq, 1.44 mmol) followed by (3R)-3-amino-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol (22 mg, 2.7 eq, 0.19 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 3.7 mg (14%). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 1.01 (t, 3H, J=7.35 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.22 & 1.30 (2×s, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.69-1.88 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 3.68-3.82 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 4.59-4.72 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.86-5.03 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 6.88-7.09 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.20-7.25 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.40 (d, 1H, J=7.74, Pyr-H), 7.59 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.65-7.72 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.42 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 384 ([M+H]+, 100), 324 (80), 307 (30), 193 (50), 176 (90), 165 (35). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 384.2512, Measured: 384.2494. (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-2-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (1.25 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.25 mL, 14.4 eq, 1.44 mmol) followed by (3S)-3-amino-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol (40 mg, 3.2 eq, 34 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 4.8 mg (12%). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 1.01 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.22 & 1.30 (2×s, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.70-1.88 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 3.69-3.84 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 4.59-4.73 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.87-5.08 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 6.87-7.16 (m, 1H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.20-7.26 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.40 (d, 1H, J=8.05, Pyr-H), 7.59 (s, 1H, —N═CH—N—), 7.65-7.73 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 8.61 (d, 1H, J=4.53 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 384 ([M+H]+, 100), 370 (30), 324 (80). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 384.2512, Measured: 384.2494. (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-3-ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol To a stirred solution of (2-fluoro-9-isopropyl-9H-purin-6-yl)-pyridin-3-ylmethyl-amine (30 mg, 1 eq, 0.10 mmol) in n-BuOH/DMSO (1.25 mL, 4:1) at room temperature under an argon atmosphere was added DIEA (0.25 mL, 14.4 eq, 1.44 mmol) followed by (3S)-3-amino-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol (40 mg, 3.2 eq, 34 mmol). The reaction mixture was placed in a preheated oil bath at 140° C. and stirred at this temperature for 72 h. The reaction mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature and the solvent was evaporated in vacuo. The residue was partitioned between EtOAc (50 mL) and brine/water (1:1, 100 mL), the aqueous phase was extracted with more EtOAc (2×25 mL), and the combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried (MgSO4) and evaporated in vacuo. The residue was purified by gradient column chromatography on silica gel eluted with CHCl3:MeOH (100:0→98:2), to afford the title compound as a white solid. Yield: 6.5 mg (16%). 1H-NMR (d-CDCl3, 250 MHz): δ 1.00 (t, 3H, J=7.42 Hz, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.22 & 1.31 (2×s, 6H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 1.57 (d, 6H, J=6.79 Hz, —CH(CH3)2), 1.70-1.90 (m, 2H, —NHCH(CH2CH3)C(CH3)2OH), 3.66-3.81 (m, 1H, —NHCH(CH2CH3) C(CH3)2OH), 4.56-4.73 (m, 1H, —CH(CH3)2), 4.78-5.01 (m, 2H, —HNCH2-Pyr), 7.20-7.45 (m, 3H, 2×Pyr-H & —N═CH—N—), 7.48-7.69 (m, 1H, Pyr-H), 7.77 (d, 1H, J=7.74 Hz, Pyr-H). FABMS m/z (relative intensity): 384 ([M+H]+, 100), 366 (30), 324 (85), 286 (40), 242 (65), 192 (63), 176 (70). Accurate Mass (M+H): Actual: 384.2512, Measured: 384.2494. Various modifications and variations of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Although the invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are obvious to those skilled in the relevant fields are intended to be covered by the present invention. TABLE 1 Kinase inhibition (μM) CDK2/ CDK 1/ CDK4/ CDK7/ cyclin E cyclin B cyclin D1 cyclin H PKA ERK2 Name IC50 SD IC50 SD IC50 SD IC50 SD IC50 IC50 SD Roscovitine 0.10 0.10 2.7 2.5 14 4 0.49 0.26 >50 1.2 1.3 (2S3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6- 0.52 0.13 39 1 48 6 0.55 0.25 >200 73 16 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6- 0.05 0.00 8.9 4.4 18 2 2.6 0.9 >200 77 2 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-pentan-2-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 0.77 0.33 35 2 20 1 1.2 0.1 >200 230 54 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 0.42 0.06 40 6 24 13 2.6 0.2 >200 80 33 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 3.4 0.2 84 25 32 7 3.9 3.2 >200 >200 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl- hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 3.1 2.6 >200 49 29 3.3 0.7 >200 >200 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2-methyl- hexan-3-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 2.8 1.2 >200 38 9 2.4 0.4 >200 >200 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2- dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6- 1.0 0.2 >200 22 18 5.8 1.3 >200 137 34 [(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)-amino]- 9H-purin-2-ylamino}-2,2- dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 0.48 0.16 44 4 18 12 4.2 1.1 >200 >200 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 0.31 0.06 24 22 20 6 4.3 0.2 >200 59 12 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol TABLE 2 In vitro anti-proliferative activity (72-h MTT IC50, μM) Name IC50a Stand. Dev. Roscovitine 12 3 (2S3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 12 3 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-pentan-2-ol (2R3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 9.8 3.2 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-pentan-2-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 19 10 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 27 22 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 23 21 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 26 7 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4R)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 38 8 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (3RS,4S)-4-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 33 13 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2,2-dimethyl-hexan-3-ol (3R)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 35 6 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol (3S)-3-{9-Isopropyl-6-[(pyridin- 24 11 2-ylmethyl)-amino]-9H-purin-2- ylamino}-2-methyl-pentan-2-ol aHuman tumour cell lines: A549, HT29, Saos-2 TABLE 3 % Drug after A: % Compound B: IC50 CDK2 C: IC50 cytotox. 30 min. remaining/% roscovitine/IC50 roscovitine/ Clog microsomal roscovitine CDK2 IC50 cytotox. Name P incubation remaining compound compound A × B A × C Roscovitine 3.7 33 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 (2R3S)-3-{9- 2.5 33 1.0 1.9 1.2 1.9 1.2 Isopropyl-6- [(pyridin-2- ylmethyl)- amino]-9H- purin-2- ylamino}- pentan-2-ol | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Initiation, progression, and completion of the mammalian cell cycle are regulated by various cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complexes, which are critical for cell growth. These complexes comprise at least a catalytic (the CDK itself) and a regulatory (cyclin) subunit. Some of the more important complexes for cell cycle regulation include cyclin A (CDK1—also known as cdc2, and CDK2), cyclin B1-B3 (CDK1), cyclin D1-D3 (CDK2, CDK4, CDK5, CDK6), cyclin E (CDK2). Each of these complexes is involved in a particular phase of the cell cycle. Not all members of the CDK family are involved exclusively in cell cycle control, however. Thus CDKs 7, 8, and 9 are implicated in the regulation of transcription, and CDK5 plays a role in neuronal and secretory cell function. The activity of CDKs is regulated post-translationally, by transitory associations with other proteins, and by alterations of their intracellular localisation. Tumour development is closely associated with genetic alteration and deregulation of CDKs and their regulators, suggesting that inhibitors of CDKs may be useful anti-cancer therapeutics. Indeed, early results suggest that transformed and normal cells differ in their requirement for e.g. cyclin A/CDK2 and that it may be possible to develop novel antineoplastic agents devoid of the general host toxicity observed with conventional cytotoxic and cytostatic drugs. While inhibition of cell cycle-related CDKs is clearly relevant in e.g. oncology applications, this may not be the case for the inhibition of RNA polymerase-regulating CDKs. On the other hand, inhibition of CDK9/cyclin T function was recently linked to prevention of HIV replication and the discovery of new CDK biology thus continues to open up new therapeutic indications for CDK inhibitors (Sausville, E. A. Trends Molec. Med. 2002, 8, S32-S37). The function of CDKs is to phosphorylate and thus activate or deactivate certain proteins, including e.g. retinoblastoma proteins, lamins, histone H1, and components of the mitotic spindle. The catalytic step mediated by CDKs involves a phospho-transfer reaction from ATP to the macromolecular enzyme substrate. Several groups of compounds (reviewed in e.g. Fischer, P. M. Curr. Opin. Drug Discovery Dev. 2001, 4, 623-634) have been found to possess anti-proliferative properties by virtue of CDK-specific ATP antagonism. WO 98/05335 (CV Therapeutics Inc) discloses 2,6,9-trisubstituted purine derivatives that are selective inhibitors of cell cycle kinases. Such compounds are useful in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, e.g. rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, type I diabetes, multiple sclerosis; treating cancer, cardiovascular disease, such as restenosis, host v graft disease, gout, polycystic kidney disease and other proliferative diseases whose pathogenesis involves abnormal cell proliferation. WO 99/07705 (The Regents of the University of California) discloses purine analogues that inhibit inter alia protein kinases, G-proteins and polymerases. More specifically, the invention relates to methods of using such purine analogues to treat cellular proliferative disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. WO 97/20842 (CNRS) also discloses purine derivatives displaying antiproliferative properties which are useful in treating cancer, psoriasis, and neurodegenerative disorders. The present invention seeks to provide new 2,6,9-substituted purine derivatives, particularly those having antiproliferative properties. | 20050111 | 20090901 | 20051117 | 57788.0 | 1 | BERCH, MARK L | NEW PURINE DERIVATIVES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,838 | ACCEPTED | Engine, register and methods for the same | An engine, register in a memory, and methods for the same are provided. The engine may include a data encryptor, a key encryptor, a data decryptor, a key decryptor, a register, and a control circuit. The data encryptor may encrypt data using a key. The key encryptor may encrypt the key used by the data encryptor. The data decryptor may receive encrypted data from a storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted data. The key decryptor may receive an encrypted key from the storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted key. The register may indicate the status of the key and/or the encrypted key. The control circuit may control the data encryptor, the data decryptor, the key encryptor, the key decryptor, and the register. | 1. An engine comprising: a data encryptor encrypting data using a key; a key encryptor encrypting the key used by the data encryptor; a data decryptor receiving encrypted data from a storage medium and decrypting the encrypted data; and a key decryptor receiving an encrypted key from the storage medium and decrypting the encrypted key. 2. The engine of claim 1, wherein at least one of the encrypted data and the encrypted key are stored on the storage medium via an interface. 3. The engine of claim 1, wherein the decrypted key is stored in a key table. 4. The engine of claim 1, further including, a register for managing the key and the encrypted key, and a control circuit controlling the data encryptor, the data decryptor, the key encryptor, the key decryptor, and the register. 5. The engine of claim 4, wherein the control circuit transitions the engine into a busy state based on a command to scramble the key when the engine is in an idle state. 6. The engine of claim 4, wherein the control circuit transitions the engine into a busy state based on a command to descramble the encrypted key when the engine is in an idle state. 7. The engine of claim 4, wherein when the engine is in an idle state and an input FIFO is full, the control circuit transitions the engine into a busy state. 8. The engine of claim 7, wherein the input FIFO is full of the encrypted data input from the storage medium. 9. The engine of claim 7, wherein the input FIFO is full of the data. 10. The engine of claim 4, wherein the control circuit transitions the engine into an idle state again when at least one of a scramble operation and a descramble operation is completed. 11. The engine of claim 4, wherein the register further includes, a key index field indicating an offset of a memory region determining a key used, a table index field designating a first table and a second table when the key table includes the first table and the second table, a program field indicating the amount of program data, which can be stored in the storage medium simultaneously, a scramble/descramble field indicating whether the key is encrypted or the encrypted key is decrypted, and an enable field indicating encryption of the key or decryption of the encrypted key. 12. The engine of claim 11, wherein the first table is accessible by a processor. 13. The engine of claim 11, wherein the second table has a security level higher than a security level of the first table, and is used as at least one of a space in which a generated key is stored, and a space in which a key acquired via a smart card is stored. 14. The engine of claim 4, wherein the key encryptor requests the key to be scrambled based on indices stored in a table index field and a key index field of the register, receives the key to be scrambled from a key table, and encrypts the received key using an embedded key when an enable field is turned on and a scramble/descramble field is turned off. 15. The engine of claim 4, wherein the key decryptor decrypts the encrypted key received from a storage medium using an embedded key, and stores the decrypted key in a key table, within the register, based on indices stored in a table index field and a key index field, of the register, when an enable field, of the register, is turned on and the scramble/descramble field, of the register, is turned on. 16. An encryption/decryption method, the method comprising: encrypting a key and storing an encrypted key; encrypting data using the key and storing the encrypted data; receiving and decrypting the encrypted key, and storing a decrypted key; and receiving and decrypting the encrypted data, using the stored key. 17. The method of claim 16, further including, managing the key and the encrypted key. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the managing further includes, indicating an offset of a memory region and determining a key required in copy protection, designating a first table and a second table when a key table is formed of the first table and the second table, indicating an amount of program data, which can be stored in a storage medium simultaneously, determining whether the key is encrypted or the encrypted key is decrypted, and enabling encryption of the key or decryption of the encrypted key, wherein encrypting the key and storing the encrypted key is performed when the enable field is turned on and the scramble/descramble field is turned off. 19. The method of claim 16, wherein the operation of encrypting the key and storing the encrypted key further includes, requesting a key to be scrambled based on indices stored in a table index field and a key index field, receiving the key to be scrambled from a key table, encrypting a received key using an embedded key, storing the encrypted key in a key register. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein the decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key is performed when an enable field is turned on and a scramble/descramble field is turned on. 21. The method of claim 16, wherein the decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key further includes, setting the encrypted key on a key register, decrypting the encrypted key setting on the key register using the embedded key, storing the decrypted key in a key table based on indices stored in a table index field and a key index field. 22. An engine adapted to selectively encrypt or decrypt at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. 23. The engine of claim 22, further including, an encryptor adapted to encrypt at least one of a data using a key and the key, a decryptor receiving at least one of encrypted data or an encrypted key from a storage medium and decrypting at least one of the encrypted data and encrypted key. 24. An encryption or decryption method, the method comprising: selectively encrypting or decrypting at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. 25. A register in a memory comprising: a first field indicating a selected key; a second field designating a first table and a second table when a key table includes the first table and the second table; a third field indicating an amount of program data, which can be stored in the storage medium; a fourth field indicating whether the selected key is encrypted or an encrypted key is decrypted; and a fifth field indicating the encryption of the selected key or the decryption of the encrypted key. 26. An engine including the register of claim 25. 27. An engine implementing the method of claim 16. 28. An engine implementing the method of claim 24. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This application claims the benefit of Korean Patent Application No. 2004-13780, filed on Feb. 28, 2004, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention relate to an encryption engine (e.g., an Advanced Encryption Standards (AES) engine), which may have a copy protection function, a register and methods for the same. DESCRIPTION OF THE CONVENTIONAL ART In conventional digital televisions, broadcasting data may be illegally accessed and/or copied. Although authorized subscribers may receive broadcasting data transmitted by a broadcasting company, if a subscriber records the broadcasting data, recorded broadcasting data may be copied. To protect broadcasting data from being copied, an illegal copy protection engine may be used. The illegal copy protection engine may encrypt received broadcasting data, store the encrypted data, encrypt a key used to encrypt the data and store the encrypted key. When viewing the stored data, the illegal copy protection engine may first decrypt first the stored encrypted key, and then decrypt the data using the decrypted key. A conventional illegal copy protection engine may be implemented using a data encryption (e.g., a data encryption standard (DES)) algorithm. The Data Encryption algorithm may be unstable and, subsequently, another encryption standard (e.g., an advance encryption standard (AES)) algorithm may be used. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an engine, which may have a copy protection function with an increased security level, a register in a memory, and methods for the same. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides an engine, which may include a data encryptor, a key encryptor, a data decryptor, and a key encryptor. The data encryptor may encrypt data using a key, for example, a public key, a private key, or any other suitable key. The key encryptor may encrypt the key used by the data encryptor. The data decryptor may receive encrypted data from a storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted data. The key decryptor may receive an encrypted key from the storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted key. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provide an engine, which may be adapted to selectively encrypt or decrypt at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides a method, which may include encrypting a key and storing an encrypted key, encrypting data using the key and storing the encrypted data, receiving the encrypted key, decrypting the encrypted key, and storing a decrypted key, and receiving the encrypted data and decrypting the encrypted data, using the stored key. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides an encryption or decryption method. The method may include selectively encrypting or decrypting at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides a register, which may be included in a memory. The register may include a first field indicating a selected key, a second field designating a first table and a second table when a key table includes the first table and the second table, a third field indicating an amount of program data, which may be stored in a storage medium a fourth field indicating whether the key may be encrypted or an encrypted key may be decrypted, and a fifth field indicating encryption of the key or decryption of an encrypted key. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, data encrypted by the data encryptor and the key encrypted by the key encryptor may be stored on the storage medium via an interface. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key decrypted by the key decryptor may be stored in a key table. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may further include a register, which may manage the key and the encrypted key, and a control circuit, which may control the data encryptor, the data decryptor, the key encryptor, the key decryptor, and the register. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state based on a command to scramble the key when the engine may be in an idle state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state based on a command to descramble the encrypted key when the engine may be in an idle state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may be in an idle state, an input FIFO may be full, and the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into an idle state, when at least one of a scramble operation and a descramble operation may be completed. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the register may include a key index field, which may indicate an offset of a memory region determining a key to be used, a table index field, which may designate a first table and a second table when the key table includes the first table and the second table, a program field, which may indicate the amount of program data, which may be stored in the storage medium, a scramble/descramble field, which may determine whether the key may be encrypted or the encrypted key may be decrypted, and an enable field, which may indicate a command which the key may be encrypted or the encrypted key may be decrypted. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the first table may be accessed by a processor. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the second table may have a higher security level higher than the first table, and may be used as at least one of a space in which a generated key may be stored, and a space in which a key acquired via a smart card may be stored. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key encryptor may request a key to be scrambled based on indices stored in the table index field and the key index field, may receive the key to be scrambled from the key table, and may encrypt the received key using an embedded key when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned off. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key decryptor may decrypt the encrypted key received from the storage medium using the embedded key, and may store the decrypted key in the key table based on the indices stored in the table index field and the key index field when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned on. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the encryption of the key and storing the encrypted key may further include, requesting from the key table, a key to be scrambled based on indices stored in the table index field and the key index field. Receiving and encrypting the key to be scrambled, storing the encrypted key in a key register. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key in the key table may be performed when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned on. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key in the key table may further include setting the encrypted key on a key register, decrypting the encrypted key setting on the key register using the embedded key, storing the decrypted key in the key table based on the indices stored in the table index field and the key index field. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may further include an encryptor adapted to encrypt at least one of a data using a key and the key, a decryptor receiving at least one of encrypted data from or an encrypted key from a storage medium and decrypting at least one of the encrypted data and encrypted key. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Exemplary embodiments of the present invention will become more apparent by describing in detail exemplary embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1A is a block diagram of an engine according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B is a diagram illustrating functions of in an example of an encryption/decryption module of the engine shown in FIG. 1A; FIG. 2A is a diagram schematically illustrating an exemplary embodiment of an encryption process which may be performed by the engine of FIG. 1A; FIG. 2B is a diagram schematically illustrating an example of a decryption process which may be performed by the engine of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a control scheme according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram of a example configuration of an exemplary embodiment of a key management register shown in FIG. 1A; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating an example key encryption process which may be performed by an exemplary embodiment of a key encryption device shown in FIG. 1B; and FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating an example key decryption process, which may be performed by an exemplary embodiment of a key decryption device shown in FIG. 1B. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION The present invention will now be described more fully with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the present invention are shown. The same reference numerals are used to denote the same elements throughout the drawings. An engine (e.g., Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) engine) may encrypt broadcasting data, in order to prevent illegal copy, and/or decrypt the encrypted broadcasting such that viewers may view the data. A security level may be determined according to a managing operation of a key used in encrypting broadcasting data and an engine according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention may encrypt a key, store the key on a storage medium, access the key from the storage medium, decrypt the key, set the decrypted key, and decrypt corresponding broadcasting data. FIG. 1A is a block diagram illustrating an engine (e.g., an AES engine) 100 according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. A storage medium 110, an interface (e.g., Personal Video Recorder (PVR) write interface) 120, and a key table 130 are also illustrated. FIG. 1B is a diagram illustrating examples of functions, which may be performed by an module 101 of the engine 100 shown in FIG. 1A. Referring to FIG. 1A, the engine 100 may include the module (e.g., an encryption/decryption module) 101, a control circuit 102, and a register (e.g., a key management register) 103. The module 101 may include a data encryptor 11, a key encryptor 12, a data decryptor 13, and a decryptor 14. The module 101 may selectively perform data encryption, key encryption, data decryption, and key decryption according to the control of the control circuit 102. The data encryptor 11 may encrypt received data (e.g., broadcasting data) P using a key K and may transmit encrypted data E(P) to the interface 120. The key encryptor 12 may encrypt the key K and may transmit an encrypted key E(K) to the interface 120. The transmitted and encrypted key E(K) may be stored in a key register of the interface 120. The interface 120 may be an interface connecting the engine 100 to the storage medium 110. A processor (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU) (not shown)) may store the encrypted key E(K), stored in the key register of the interface 120, along with the encrypted data E(P) on the storage medium 110. The data decryptor 13 may receive the encrypted data E(P) from the storage medium 110 and may decrypt the encrypted data E(P) using the key K. The key decryptor 14 may receive the encrypted key E(K) from the storage medium 110, may decrypt the encrypted key E(K), and may store a decrypted key K in the key table 130. The control circuit 102 may control the encryptor 11, the key encryptor 12, the data decryptor 13, and the key decryptor 14 of the module 101, and the register 103. The control circuit 102 may include a finite state engine, which may enable encryption and/or decryption of the key K and data P in the module 101 of the engine. The register 103 may manage the key K and the encrypted key E(K). The configuration of the register 103 will be described later referring to FIG. 4. FIG. 2A is a diagram illustrating schematically an exemplary embodiment of an encryption process, which may be performed in the engine 100. FIG. 2B is a diagram illustrating schematically, an exemplary embodiment of a decryption process, which may be performed in the engine 100. Referring to FIG. 2A, at S21 the received broadcasting data P may be stored on the storage medium 110 and the key K may be encrypted by the key encryptor 12. The encrypted key E(K) may be stored on the storage medium 110 via the interface 120. At S22, the broadcasting data P may be encrypted using the key E(K) by the data encryptor 12 and the encrypted data E(P) may be stored on the storage medium 110 via the interface 120. Referring to FIG. 2B, at S23, the broadcasting data P stored on the storage medium 110 may be played, the encrypted key E(K) may be received from the storage medium 110, and may be decrypted by the key decryptor 14. At S23, a decrypted key K may be stored in the key table 130. At S24, the encrypted data E(P) may be received from the storage medium 110 and may be decrypted using the key K stored in the key table 130 by the decryptor 13. Exemplary embodiments of the key encryption process and the key decryption process of the AES engine 100 will be described later, referring to FIGS. 5 and 6. FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating an exemplary embodiment of a control scheme of the control circuit 102 shown in FIG. 1A. Referring to FIG. 3, at S31, the engine 100 may be in an idle state and a key scramble operation may be performed at S32. The control circuit 102 may transition the engine 100 into a busy state. At S33, the engine 100 may be in an idle state and a key descramble operation may be performed. The control circuit 102 may transition the engine 100 into a busy state. At S34, the engine 100 may be in an idle state and the control circuit 102 may transition the engine 100 into a busy state, for example, when performing a data scramble operation, applying broadcasting data P and an input FIFO is full. At S35, the engine 100 may be in an idle state. The control circuit 102 may transition the engine 100 into a busy state when performing a data descramble operation, inputting the data E(P) stored on the storage medium 110 and the input FIFO is full. At S36, the engine 100 may be in a busy state and at S37, the control circuit 102 may transition the engine 100 into an idle state when scrambling a key, descrambling a key, scrambling data, or descrambling data may finish. FIG. 4 is a diagram of an example configuration of the register 103 shown in FIG. 1A, which may be included in a memory (e.g., Random Access Memory (RAM)). Referring to FIG. 4, the register 103 may be equipped with a key index field 41, a table index field 42 a program number field 43, a scramble/descramble field 44, and an enable field 45. The key index field 41 may indicate an offset of a memory region, which may determine a key needed for copy protection. The table index field 42 may determine a first table and a second table, for example, when the key table 130 is formed separately of the first table and the second table. The first table may be accessed by a central processing unit (CPU), may have a security level lower than a security level of the second table, and may be flexible. The second table may be related to an illegal copy protection function of a digital TV. The second table may be used as a space in which a key, generated using a random generator, may be stored and may be used as a space in which a key, acquired via a smart card provided from a broadcaster, may increase a security level. The configuration of the table index field 42 may have improved flexibility, higher security level, and may allow a key to be stored in a first table and/or a second table according to the user. The program number field 43 may indicate how many program data may be stored on the storage medium simultaneously. Two program data may be stored on the storage medium simultaneously, and, the program number field 43 may correspond to a field, which may distinguish a first program data from a second program data. The scramble/descramble field 44 may determine whether a key K may be encrypted or decrypted. The enable field 45 may indicate a command to encrypt the key K or to decrypt the encrypted key E(K). The control circuit 102 may monitor the enable field 45 of the register 103. The enable field 45 may be turned on, and a key encryption process may be performed by the key encryptor 12 or a key decryption process may be performed by the key decryptor 14. The key encryption process or the key decryption process may finish, and the enable field 45 may be turned off. The key encryptor 12 may encrypt the key K or the key decryptor 14 may decrypt the encrypted key E(K), and an embedded key KE may be used. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary embodiment key encryption process, which may be performed by the key encryptor 12 shown in FIG. 1B. The key encryptor of the key encryptor 12 may correspond to S21 of FIG. 2A. At S51, the enable field 45 of the register 103 may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field 44 may be turned off and the key encryption process of the key encryptor 12 may be performed. At S52, a key K may be sent to the key table 130, based on indices stored in the table index field 42 and the key index field of the register 103. At S53, a key K may be received at at least one of the first table and the second table of the key table 130. At S54, a received key K may be encrypted using the embedded key KE. At S55, an encrypted key E(K) may be stored in the key register of the interface 120. At S56, the CPU may store the encrypted key E(K) stored in the key register of the interface 120 in the storage medium 110. FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating an exemplary embodiment of the key decryption process, which may be performed by the key decryptor 14 shown in FIG. 1B. The key decryption process performed by the key decryptor 14 may correspond to S23 of FIG. 2B. At S61, the CPU may select the encrypted key E(K) to be decrypted by the key register of the engine 100. At S62, the enable field 45 of the register 103 may be turned on, the scramble/descramble field 44 may be turned on, and the key decryption process may be performed. At S63, the encrypted key E(K), set in the key register of the engine 100, may be decrypted using the embedded key KE. At S64, the decrypted key K may be stored in the key table 130, based on indices stored in the table index field 42 and the key index field 41 of the register 103. The decrypted key K, stored in the key table 130, may be used, for example, when the data decryptor 13 receives encrypted data E(P) from the storage medium 110 and decrypts the encrypted data E(P). Received broadcasting data may be stored on a storage medium, and the engine according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention may encrypt the broadcasting data, which may protect the broadcasting data from being illegally copied. The engine according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention may decrypt encrypted broadcasting data stored on the storage medium, for example, in real time. The engine according to exemplary embodiments of the present invention may encrypt (e.g., separately encrypt) a key used when the broadcasting data may be encrypted, and may store the key on the storage medium, which may increase a security level. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described with respect to Data Encryption Standard (DES) and/or Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), it will be understood that exemplary embodiments of the present invention may be utilized in connection with any encryption standard or method. Although exemplary embodiments of the module 101 has been described as including a data and a key encryptor 11 and 12, respectively, and a data and key decryptor 13 and 14, respectively, it will be understood that any combination of the data encryptor, key encryptor, data decryptor, and key decryptor may be included in one or more individual devices. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described in connection with a personal video recorder (PVR) write interface, it will be understood that any suitable interface may be used. Although exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been described with regard to a register included in, for example, a Random Access Memory (RAM), it will be understood that any suitable memory (e.g., Read Only Memory (ROM)) may be used. While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This application claims the benefit of Korean Patent Application No. 2004-13780, filed on Feb. 28, 2004, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide an engine, which may have a copy protection function with an increased security level, a register in a memory, and methods for the same. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides an engine, which may include a data encryptor, a key encryptor, a data decryptor, and a key encryptor. The data encryptor may encrypt data using a key, for example, a public key, a private key, or any other suitable key. The key encryptor may encrypt the key used by the data encryptor. The data decryptor may receive encrypted data from a storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted data. The key decryptor may receive an encrypted key from the storage medium and may decrypt the encrypted key. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provide an engine, which may be adapted to selectively encrypt or decrypt at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides a method, which may include encrypting a key and storing an encrypted key, encrypting data using the key and storing the encrypted data, receiving the encrypted key, decrypting the encrypted key, and storing a decrypted key, and receiving the encrypted data and decrypting the encrypted data, using the stored key. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides an encryption or decryption method. The method may include selectively encrypting or decrypting at least one of received data, a key, encrypted data stored in a storage medium, or an encrypted key stored in a storage medium. Another exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides a register, which may be included in a memory. The register may include a first field indicating a selected key, a second field designating a first table and a second table when a key table includes the first table and the second table, a third field indicating an amount of program data, which may be stored in a storage medium a fourth field indicating whether the key may be encrypted or an encrypted key may be decrypted, and a fifth field indicating encryption of the key or decryption of an encrypted key. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, data encrypted by the data encryptor and the key encrypted by the key encryptor may be stored on the storage medium via an interface. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key decrypted by the key decryptor may be stored in a key table. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may further include a register, which may manage the key and the encrypted key, and a control circuit, which may control the data encryptor, the data decryptor, the key encryptor, the key decryptor, and the register. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state based on a command to scramble the key when the engine may be in an idle state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state based on a command to descramble the encrypted key when the engine may be in an idle state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may be in an idle state, an input FIFO may be full, and the control circuit may transition the engine into a busy state. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the control circuit may transition the engine into an idle state, when at least one of a scramble operation and a descramble operation may be completed. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the register may include a key index field, which may indicate an offset of a memory region determining a key to be used, a table index field, which may designate a first table and a second table when the key table includes the first table and the second table, a program field, which may indicate the amount of program data, which may be stored in the storage medium, a scramble/descramble field, which may determine whether the key may be encrypted or the encrypted key may be decrypted, and an enable field, which may indicate a command which the key may be encrypted or the encrypted key may be decrypted. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the first table may be accessed by a processor. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the second table may have a higher security level higher than the first table, and may be used as at least one of a space in which a generated key may be stored, and a space in which a key acquired via a smart card may be stored. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key encryptor may request a key to be scrambled based on indices stored in the table index field and the key index field, may receive the key to be scrambled from the key table, and may encrypt the received key using an embedded key when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned off. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the key decryptor may decrypt the encrypted key received from the storage medium using the embedded key, and may store the decrypted key in the key table based on the indices stored in the table index field and the key index field when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned on. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the encryption of the key and storing the encrypted key may further include, requesting from the key table, a key to be scrambled based on indices stored in the table index field and the key index field. Receiving and encrypting the key to be scrambled, storing the encrypted key in a key register. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key in the key table may be performed when the enable field may be turned on and the scramble/descramble field may be turned on. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the decrypting the encrypted key and storing the decrypted key in the key table may further include setting the encrypted key on a key register, decrypting the encrypted key setting on the key register using the embedded key, storing the decrypted key in the key table based on the indices stored in the table index field and the key index field. In exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the engine may further include an encryptor adapted to encrypt at least one of a data using a key and the key, a decryptor receiving at least one of encrypted data from or an encrypted key from a storage medium and decrypting at least one of the encrypted data and encrypted key. | 20050113 | 20091208 | 20050901 | 68411.0 | 0 | NALVEN, ANDREW L | ENGINE, REGISTER AND METHODS FOR THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,890 | ACCEPTED | Washer | A washer enhances user convenience by scrolling on a display unit information indicative of the washer's operational state, according to a setup input via button and dial units. The washer includes an input unit for receiving setup items for the washing cycle such as a water supply quantity, a washing course, and the like from a user; a display for displaying a large quantity of information indicating an operational state of a body by scrolling; and a microcomputer for controlling an operation according to a value transferred from the input unit and implementing information according to a control result to be displayed via the display by scrolling | 1. A washer comprising: an input unit for receiving setup items for the washing cycle such as a water supply quantity, a washing course, and the like from a user; a display for displaying a large quantity of information indicating an operational state of a body by scrolling; and a microcomputer for controlling an operation according to a value transferred from the input unit and implementing information according to a control result to be displayed via the display by scrolling. 2. The washer of claim 1, the input unit comprising: a button unit providing a scroll setup state by pressing at least two random buttons for several seconds simultaneously; and a dial unit setting a scroll direction by a rotational operation of a dial if the scroll setup state is provided by the button unit. 3. The washer of claim 2, wherein the dial unit changes the scroll direction into a left, right, upward, or downward direction according to each rotational operation of the dial and wherein the dial unit makes the setup of the scroll direction appear repeatedly in case of a continuous rotational operation of the dial. 4. The washer of claim 2, the button unit further comprising a power button for storing scroll data set by the dial unit in case of the scroll setup state. 5. The washer of claim 1, wherein the microcomputer comprises an input processor for processing contents inputted from the button unit and the dial unit and a display controller for scrolling information on the display according to a value set by the input processor. | This application claims the benefit of Korean Application No. 10-2004-39506 filed on Jun. 1, 2004, which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a washer, by which information for an operational state of the washer is scrolled on a display by setting up a scroll direction through a simple operation. 2. Discussion of the Related Art Generally, a washer is an apparatus for removing filth from laundry. Water is supplied enough for the laundry to be submerged under the water. An appropriate amount of detergent is dissolved in the water to remove the filth attached to the laundry by chemical reaction with the detergent. A tub holding the laundry therein is rotated to generate mechanical friction or vibration between the water and the laundry to facilitate the removal of the filth from the laundry. A washer according to a related art, as shown in FIG. 1, generally includes an input unit for selecting a step of a washing cycle of washing, rinsing, or dewatering and reserving the selected washing cycle and a display unit displaying a reserved time or a time of the reserved washing cycle. The washer includes a tub receiving laundry therein, a motor rotating the tub, a microcomputer controlling the washing cycle of the washer and overall items of the washer, and water supply and drain valves turned on/off by a control of the microcomputer. Hence, the washer carries out the washing cycle of the laundry received in the tub according to the washing cycle selected by the input unit. The display unit displays the reserved time and an operational time according to the washing cycle of the washer via LED. The display unit displays setup items for washing water and hot/cold water in a manner of turning on LED. Moreover, the display unit may consist of a liquid crystal display (LCD) through which characters indicating information appear to enable a user to understand an operational state of the washer. However, the display unit displays the data limited to the basic washing only. Even if the liquid crystal display is employed, a multitude of procedures need to be executed to check a lot of information. Hence, it is difficult for a user to recognize the details of the washing cycle. Moreover, in case of displaying a lot of information by enlarging a size of the liquid crystal display, a size of the display unit of the washer needs to be increased accordingly and a product cost is raised. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a washer that substantially obviates one or more of the problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. An object of the present invention, which has been devised to solve the foregoing problem, lies in providing a washer, which enhances user convenience by scrolling a large quantity of information for an operational state of the washer on a display according to a setup input via button and dial units. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from a practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by the subject matter particularly pointed out in the specification and claims hereof as well as in the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages in accordance with the present invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, there is provided a washer comprising an input unit for receiving setup items for the washing cycle such as a water supply quantity, a washing course, and the like from a user; a display for displaying a large quantity of information indicating an operational state of a body by scrolling; and a microcomputer for controlling an operation according to a value transferred from the input unit and implementing information according to a control result to be displayed via the display by scrolling. It is to be understood that both the foregoing explanation and the following detailed description of the present invention are exemplary and illustrative and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this application, illustrate embodiment(s) of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principle of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a plan view of a button unit and a display unit of a general washer; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a washer according to the present invention; FIG. 3 is a plan view of a washer according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a plan view of the display of FIG. 3; and FIG. 5 is a flowchart of a method of setting up a scrolled display state in the washer of FIG. 4. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Reference will now be made in detail to the preferred embodiment of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Throughout the drawings, like elements are indicated using the same or similar reference designations where possible. As shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, a washer according to the present invention includes a display 30 transferring a large amount of information by scrolling an operational state for a washing cycle of the washer and an input unit 10 receiving setup items for the washing cycle such as a water supply quantity, a washing course, and the like according to a user selection. The washer further includes a microcomputer 20 performing the washing cycle according to the setup items inputted via the input unit 10 and implementing information of the washing cycle of the washer to be displayed via the display 30 by scrolling. The input unit 10 includes a button unit 11 configured with a plurality of option buttons for setting up an operation for the washing cycle and a dial unit 12 for setting up the washing cycle according to a washing course and laundry. Specifically, if at least two of a plurality of the option buttons are randomly pressed during several seconds simultaneously, the display 30 is switched to a menu mode for setting up a scroll direction by the button unit 11. The selected scroll setup is stored by a power button of a plurality of the buttons. In doing so, the dial unit 12 sets up the scroll direction by a rotational operation of the dial in case of the scroll setup state by the button unit 11. An initial value of the scroll direction is set up by a left scroll, as shown in FIG. 4. The dial unit 12 changes the scroll direction into a left, right, up, or down direction according to each rotational operation of the dial. The dial unit 12 makes the setup of the scroll direction appear repeatedly in case of a continuous rotational operation of the dial. The microcomputer 20 includes an input processor 21 processing contents inputted from the random button input of the button unit 11 and the dial unit 12 and a display controller 22 scrolling a large quantity of information on the display 30 according to a value set by the input processor 21. The input processor 21 enables the washing cycle according to a general input of the button unit 11. In case that at least two random buttons are pressed for several seconds, the input processor 21 recognizes the inputs of the button unit 11 and the dial unit 12 as an input for a scroll setup and then sets up the scroll direction. If the power button is pressed, the input processor 21 allows the scroll setup to be stored. The display controller 22 displays a scroll setup menu on the display 30 according to the above selected and stored setup and allows the information of the washing cycle of the washer to be scrolled on the display 30. Hence, even if the display 30 of the washer is provided with a small liquid crystal display, the state information of the washer is scrolled thereon to transfer a large quantity of information to a user. Thus, the present invention can reduce an area occupied by the display of the washer for which a large display is unnecessary. Referring to FIG. 5, illustrating an operational method of the washer according to the present invention, power of the washer is turned on and a general washing cycle setup is then selected/inputted by a user. The washer executes the corresponding washing cycle and an operational state of the washer appears via the display. In case of intending to see information of the washer by scrolling, the user simultaneously presses at least two of the option buttons for several seconds randomly to enable a scroll setup state (S1). In doing so, the previous information of the operational state of the washer disappears and a menu for setting the scroll direction appears on the display 30 of the washer 30 (S2). A menu for changing the scroll direction appears on the scroll setup menu and an initial value of the scroll direction is set by a left scroll. In case of one rotational operation of the dial, the scroll direction is switched to a right scroll from the left scroll. In case of one further rotational operation of the dial, the scroll setup is switched to an upward scroll. In case of several rotational operations of the dial, the scroll direction of the scroll setup is switched to left, right, upward, and downward directions. Such a setup is repeatedly displayed (S3). After completion of setting the scroll direction, the power button is pressed to store the set scroll information (S4). After completion of the scroll setup, the information of the washing cycle of the washer is scrolled on the display according to the set scroll information (S5). Accordingly, the present invention sets up the information of the washing cycle to be scrolled using the previous buttons, thereby enabling the small display of the washer to display a large quantity of information with simple operations. Therefore, the present invention enhances user convenience and reduces the size of a display to lower product cost. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention cover such modifications and variations, provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a washer, by which information for an operational state of the washer is scrolled on a display by setting up a scroll direction through a simple operation. 2. Discussion of the Related Art Generally, a washer is an apparatus for removing filth from laundry. Water is supplied enough for the laundry to be submerged under the water. An appropriate amount of detergent is dissolved in the water to remove the filth attached to the laundry by chemical reaction with the detergent. A tub holding the laundry therein is rotated to generate mechanical friction or vibration between the water and the laundry to facilitate the removal of the filth from the laundry. A washer according to a related art, as shown in FIG. 1 , generally includes an input unit for selecting a step of a washing cycle of washing, rinsing, or dewatering and reserving the selected washing cycle and a display unit displaying a reserved time or a time of the reserved washing cycle. The washer includes a tub receiving laundry therein, a motor rotating the tub, a microcomputer controlling the washing cycle of the washer and overall items of the washer, and water supply and drain valves turned on/off by a control of the microcomputer. Hence, the washer carries out the washing cycle of the laundry received in the tub according to the washing cycle selected by the input unit. The display unit displays the reserved time and an operational time according to the washing cycle of the washer via LED. The display unit displays setup items for washing water and hot/cold water in a manner of turning on LED. Moreover, the display unit may consist of a liquid crystal display (LCD) through which characters indicating information appear to enable a user to understand an operational state of the washer. However, the display unit displays the data limited to the basic washing only. Even if the liquid crystal display is employed, a multitude of procedures need to be executed to check a lot of information. Hence, it is difficult for a user to recognize the details of the washing cycle. Moreover, in case of displaying a lot of information by enlarging a size of the liquid crystal display, a size of the display unit of the washer needs to be increased accordingly and a product cost is raised. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a washer that substantially obviates one or more of the problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. An object of the present invention, which has been devised to solve the foregoing problem, lies in providing a washer, which enhances user convenience by scrolling a large quantity of information for an operational state of the washer on a display according to a setup input via button and dial units. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from a practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention will be realized and attained by the subject matter particularly pointed out in the specification and claims hereof as well as in the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages in accordance with the present invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, there is provided a washer comprising an input unit for receiving setup items for the washing cycle such as a water supply quantity, a washing course, and the like from a user; a display for displaying a large quantity of information indicating an operational state of a body by scrolling; and a microcomputer for controlling an operation according to a value transferred from the input unit and implementing information according to a control result to be displayed via the display by scrolling. It is to be understood that both the foregoing explanation and the following detailed description of the present invention are exemplary and illustrative and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. | 20050113 | 20080909 | 20051201 | 83542.0 | 0 | STINSON, FRANKIE L | WASHER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,934 | ACCEPTED | SRAM having improved cell stability and method therefor | A SRAM (14) includes a SRAM cell (26), the cell (26) includes a first storage node (N1), a second storage node (N2), and a cross coupled latch (40) including a first primary source current path to the first storage node, a first primary sink current path to the first storage node, a second primary source current path to the second storage node, a second primary sink current path to the second storage node, a fifth primary current path to the first storage node, and a sixth primary current path to the second storage node. During standby and/or a read operation of the SRAM cell (26), one of the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path is conductive. During a write operation, the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path are non-conductive. | 1. A method of operating a SRAM memory including an SRAM memory cell, the memory cell includes a first storage node, a second storage node, and a cross coupled latch including a first primary source current path to the first storage node, a first primary sink current path to the first storage node, a second primary source current path to the second storage node, a second primary sink current path to the second storage node, a fifth primary current path to the first storage node, and a sixth primary current path to the second storage node, the method comprising: reading the memory cell; and writing to the memory cell, wherein during the writing to the memory cell, the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path are non conductive. 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the fifth primary current path is in parallel with the first primary source current path and the sixth primary current path is in parallel with the second primary source current path. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the fifth primary current path is in parallel with the first primary sink current path and the sixth primary current path is in parallel with the second primary sink current path. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the fifth primary current path includes a first transistor and the sixth primary current path includes a second transistor, wherein one of the first transistor and the second transistor is conductive during a read of the memory cell and the first transistor and the second transistor are non-conductive during a write to the memory cell. 5. The method of claim 4 wherein the first transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node and the second transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein: the first source current path includes a first transistor, the first transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; the first sink current path includes a second transistor, the second transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; the second source current path includes a third transistor, the third transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node; the second sink current path includes a fourth transistor, the fourth transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node; the fifth primary current path includes a fifth transistor, the fifth transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; the sixth primary current path includes a sixth transistor, the sixth transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein: the fifth primary current path includes a first transistor; the sixth primary current path includes a second transistor; wherein the first transistor and the second transistor are conductive during the reading the memory cell; wherein the first transistor and the second transistor are non conductive during the writing to the memory cell. 8. An SRAM memory cell comprising: a first storage node; a second storage node; a cross coupled latch including a first terminal coupled to the first storage node and a second terminal coupled to the second storage node, the cross coupled latch including: a first primary source current path to the first storage node; a first primary sink current path to the first storage node; a second primary source current path to the second storage node; and a second primary sink current path to the second storage node; a fifth primary current path to the first storage node; and a sixth primary current path to the second storage node; wherein one of the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path is non-conductive during a write to the memory cell. 9. The apparatus of claim 8 wherein the fifth primary current path is in parallel with the first primary source current path and the sixth primary current path is in parallel with the second primary source current path. 10. The memory cell of claim 8 wherein the fifth primary current path is in parallel with the first primary sink current path and the sixth primary current path is in parallel with the second primary sink current path. 11. The memory cell of claim 8 wherein the fifth primary current path includes a first transistor and the sixth primary current path includes a second transistor, wherein one of the first transistor and the second transistor is conductive during a read of the memory cell and the first transistor and the second transistor are non conductive during a write to the memory cell. 12. The memory cell of claim 11 wherein the first transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node and the second transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node. 13. The memory cell of claim 11 further comprising: a third transistor coupled between the control terminal of the first transistor and the second storage node; a fourth transistor coupled between the control terminal of the second transistor and the first storage node; the third transistor and the fourth transistor are conductive during a read of the memory cell; and the third transistor and the fourth transistor are non conductive during a write to the memory cell. 14. The memory cell of claim 8 wherein: the first source current path includes a first transistor, the first transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; the first sink current path includes a second transistor, the second transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; the second source current path includes a third transistor, the third transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node; and the second sink current path includes a fourth transistor, the fourth transistor includes a control terminal coupled to the first storage node. 15. The memory cell of claim 8 wherein: the fifth primary current path includes a first transistor; the sixth primary current path includes a second transistor; and the first transistor and the second transistor are conductive during a read of the memory cell; wherein the first transistor and the second transistor are non conductive during a write to the memory cell. 16. The memory cell of claim 8 further comprising: a first bit line; a second bit line complementary to the first bit line; a first transistor coupled between the first bit line and the first storage node; and a second transistor coupled between second bit line and the second storage node. 17. The memory cell of claim 8 further comprising: a read bit line, the read bit line including a transistor; wherein the first storage node is coupled to a control terminal of the transistor. 18. The memory cell of claim 8 wherein the memory cell is implemented on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) integrated circuit. 19. A data processing system comprising a processor and a memory array operably coupled to the processor, the memory array including the memory cell of claim 8. 20. A SRAM memory cell comprising: a first storage node; a second storage node; a cross coupled latch including a first terminal coupled to the first storage node and a second terminal coupled to the second storage node, the cross coupled latch including: a first primary source current path to the first storage node; a first primary sink current path to the first storage node, the first primary sink current path including a first transistor, the first transistor including a control terminal coupled to the second storage node; a second primary source current path to the second storage node; and a second primary sink current path to the second storage node, the second primary sink current path including a second transistor, the second transistor including a control terminal coupled to the first storage node; a fifth primary current path to the first storage node, the fifth primary current path includes a third transistor, the third transistor having a control terminal coupled to the second storage node, wherein the fifth primary current path is in parallel with the first primary source current path or the first primary sink current path; and a sixth primary current path to the second storage node, the sixth primary current path includes a fourth transistor, the fourth transistor having a control terminal coupled to the first storage node, wherein the sixth primary current path is in parallel with the second primary source current path or the second primary sink current path; wherein one of the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path is conductive during a read of the memory cell, and the fifth primary current path and the sixth primary current path are non conductive during a write to the memory cell. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates generally to memories, and more particularly, to a static random access (SRAM) memory having improved cell stability and method therefor. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Static random access memories (SRAMs) are generally used in applications requiring high speed, such as memory in a data processing system. Each SRAM cell stores one bit of data and is implemented as a pair of cross-coupled inverters. The SRAM cell is only stable in one of two possible voltage levels. The logic state of the cell is determined by whichever of the two inverter outputs is a logic high, and can be made to change states by applying a voltage of sufficient magnitude and duration to the appropriate cell input. The stability of a SRAM cell is an important issue. The SRAM cell must be stable against transients, process variations, soft error, and power supply fluctuations which may cause the cell to inadvertently change logic states. Also, the SRAM cell must provide good stability during read operations without harming speed or the ability to write to the cell. In a six transistor SRAM cell, an alpha ratio is defined as the width of a PMOS load transistor divided by the width of an NMOS access transistor. A beta ratio is defined as the width of an NMOS pull-down transistor divided by the width of the NMOS access transistor. The alpha and beta ratios are used to describe a SRAM cell's stability against the influences of factors such as power supply fluctuations and noise. Generally, increasing the alpha and beta ratios improves cell stability. However, improving stability comes at the expense of lower write performance. Therefore, there is a need for a SRAM having improved cell stability without decreased write margins. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates, in block diagram, a data processing system in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates the memory array of FIG. 1 in more detail. FIG. 3 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell of the memory array of FIG. 2 in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell of the memory array of FIG. 2 in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein, the term “bus” is used to refer to a plurality of signals or conductors which may be used to transfer one or more various types of information, such as data, addresses, control, or status. The conductors as discussed herein may be illustrated or described in reference to being a single conductor, a plurality of conductors, unidirectional conductors, or bidirectional conductors. However, different embodiments may vary the implementation of the conductors. For example, separate unidirectional conductors may be used rather than bidirectional conductors and vice versa. Also, plurality of conductors may be replaced with a single conductor that transfers multiple signals serially or in a time multiplexed manner. Likewise, single conductors carrying multiple signals may be separated out into various different conductors carrying subsets of these signals. Therefore, many options exist for transferring signals. Generally, the present invention provides, in one form, a SRAM memory cell having good stability without harming the ability to write. The memory cell includes an additional current path coupled to the storage nodes of the cross-coupled latch that is disabled during a write operation to the cell. The additional current path functions to provide a higher current to maintain the state of the storage nodes during, for example, a read operation. The additional current path is disabled during a write operation, providing for a relatively faster write with less power consumption. FIG. 1 illustrates, in block diagram, a data processing system 10 in accordance with the present invention. In one embodiment, data processing system 10 is implemented on an integrated circuit using a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) manufacturing technology. In other embodiments, the data processing system 10 may be implemented in another technology, such as for example, bulk silicon or gallium arsenide. Data processing system 10 includes a central processing system (CPU) 12, a memory array 14, a row decoder 16, a column logic block 18, and a bus 20. CPU 12 may be a processor capable of executing instructions, such as a microprocessor, digital signal processor, etc., or may be any other type of bus master, such as for example, a direct memory access (DMA) controller, debug circuitry, or the like. Also, the processor 12 may be a slave device, such as for example, any type of peripheral circuit which resides on the bus or slave device that requires access to a memory. CPU 12 is bi-directionally coupled to bus 20. Bus 20 has a plurality of conductors for communicating address, data, and control information between CPU 12 and other circuits coupled to bus 20, such as memory array 14. The row decoder 16 has a plurality of input terminals for receiving a row address from the bus 20 for selecting a row of memory cells in memory array 14. Column logic 18 is bi-directionally coupled to memory array 14 for providing and receiving data in response to column select signal and control information. The column logic receives a column address, and in response, couples one or columns of memory cells to the bus 20. The column logic includes column decoders, sense amplifiers, and precharge and equalization circuits. The sense amplifiers are for sensing and amplifying the relatively low voltage signals from the selected memory cells. In other embodiments, the column logic may include additional or different circuits for inputting and outputting data from the memory. During a read operation, data signals labeled “DATA” are read from selected memory cells of memory array 14 and provided to bus 20. During a write operation the data signals DATA are provided to selected memory cells from the bus 20. Note that in other embodiments, a bus interface block may be coupled between the bus 20 and the memory. For purposes of describing the invention, the data processing system 10 of FIG. 1 is simplified to illustrate only a central processing unit and a memory coupled together via a bus. However, in other embodiments, the data processing system may be much more complex, including for example, multiple processors coupled to multiple buses, additional memories, and other circuits not shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 2 illustrates the memory array 14 of FIG. 1 in more detail. In the memory array 14, the memory cells are organized in row and columns. A column 24 of memory cells includes a bit line pair and all of the memory cells coupled to the bit line pair. For example, the bit line pair labeled “BL0” and “BLB0” and cells 26, 28, 30 comprises one column. A column 25 includes a bit line pair BLN and BLBN and memory cells 32, 34, and 36. Note that memory array 14 includes N+1 columns where N is an integer. The bit line pairs are used to communicate differential signals to and from the cells during read and write operations. A row of memory array 14 comprises a word line and all of the memory cells coupled to the word line. For example, a word line labeled “WL0” and memory cells 26 and 32 comprise one row. Likewise, word line WL, and memory cells 28 and 34 comprise another row. Word line WLM and memory cells 30 and 36 comprise another row in a memory array having M+1 rows, where M is an integer. Decoded control signals are coupled to each of the memory cells. A control signal labeled “CB0” is coupled to each of the memory cells of column 24, and a control signal labeled “CBN” is coupled to each of the memory cells of column 25. Note that the “B” (bar) at the end of the control signal name indicates that the control signal having the “B” is a logical complement of a control signal having the same name but lacking the “B”. The control signal is decoded at the column select level to disable additional current paths in the cells to decrease cell stability during write operations. Note that in other embodiments, the control signals may be coupled to the row decoding logic. The additional current paths for increasing cell stability will be described in more detail below. FIG. 3 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, the memory cell 26 of memory array 14 of FIG. 2. Memory cell 26 includes cross-coupled latch 40, enable transistors 46, cross-coupled pair 50, and access transistors 54 and 56. Cross-coupled latch 40 includes P-channel transistors 41 and 42 and N-channel transistors 43 and 44. Enable transistors 46 includes P-channel transistors 47 and 48. Cross-coupled pair 50 includes P-channel transistors 51 and 52. In cross-coupled latch 40, transistors 41-44 are connected together to form a pair of CMOS inverter circuits. The CMOS inverter circuits have their inputs and outputs connected together at storage nodes N1 and N2. In enable circuit 46, P-channel transistor 47 has a source coupled to a power supply voltage terminal labeled “VDD”, a gate for receiving a control signal labeled “CB0”, and a drain. P-channel transistor 48 has a source coupled to VDD, a gate for receiving control signal CB0, and a drain. In cross-coupled pair 50, P-channel transistor 51 has a source coupled to the drain of transistor 47, a gate coupled to node N2, and a drain coupled to node N1. P-channel transistor 52 has a source coupled to the drain of transistor 48, a gate coupled to node N1, and a drain coupled to node N2. Access transistor 54 couples storage node N1 to bit line BL0 in response to a logic high word line select signal on word line WL0. Likewise, access transistor 56 couples storage node N2 to bit line BLB0 in response to a logic high word line select signal on word line WL0. The cross-coupled latch 40 is coupled to the power supply voltage terminal VDD and a power supply voltage terminal labeled “VSS”. In the illustrated embodiment, VDD is for receiving a positive power supply voltage and VSS is coupled to ground. In other embodiments, other power supply voltages may be used. During a write operation of memory cell 26, the control signal CB0 is provided at a logic high voltage and word line WL0 is provided with a logic high to couple bit line pair BL0/BLB0 to respective storage nodes. A differential signal representing a bit of information is then provided to bit line pair BL0/BLB0. The cross-coupled latch 40 functions as in a conventional SRAM cell. The logic high control signal CB0 will cause P-channel transistors 47 and 48 to be substantially non-conductive, causing cross-coupled pair 50 to be decoupled from VDD. Assuming, for example, that the differential signal provides a logic high to bit line BL0 and a logic low to bit line BLB0, the logic states stored on the storage nodes N1 and N2 will be “flipped” to a logic high and a logic low respectively, if necessary. Because transistors 47 and 48 are non-conductive, the cross-coupled pair of transistors 51 and 52 are not providing a current path to the storage nodes and thus do not harm the ability to write new data into the cross-coupled latch 40. During a read operation of memory cell 26, the control signal CB0 is provided at a logic low voltage and word line WL0 is provided with a logic high to couple bit line pair BL0/BLB0 to respective storage nodes of the cross-coupled latch 40. A differential signal representing a bit of information is provided to bit line pair BL0/BLB0. P-channel transistors 47 and 48 will be conductive, causing cross-coupled pair 50 to be coupled between VDD and the storage nodes N1 and N2. The cross-coupled pair 50 will provide an additional primary source current path in parallel with the source current path of P-channel transistors 41 and 42 to reinforce the logic states stored on the storage nodes to prevent the logic states of the storage nodes from being changed, or flipped, when the storage nodes are coupled to the bit lines. Note that as the power supply voltage decreases, the cell stability decreases. Using the cross-coupled pair 50 as an additional current path during read operations maintains read margins and cell stability during operation at lower power supply voltages. Also, in another embodiment, the cross-coupled pair 50 may be enabled when the memory 14 is not being accessed, that is, during a storage mode of operation, especially during low voltage operations such as during a sleep mode, to increase cell stability during, for example, the occurrence of transients, process variations, soft error, and power supply fluctuations. In addition, in yet another embodiment, the cross-coupled pair 50 may be enabled during the storage mode of operation and during read operations, and disabled during write operations. Because the SRAM cell 26 includes four additional transistors, the greatest benefit is derived in relatively small, high speed, memory arrays where the impact of the increased layout area is minimized. However, the SRAM cell 26 may provide advantages, such as increased stability without harm to the write margins, in any sized array. FIG. 4 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell 60 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. Memory cell 60 includes a cross-coupled latch 62, a cross-coupled pair 72, a pair of enable transistors 68 and access transistors 76 and 78. Cross-coupled latch 62 includes P-channel transistors 63 and 64 and N-channel transistors 65 and 66. Storage nodes N3 and N4 of cross-coupled latch 62 are coupled to the bit line pair BL0/BLB0 via access transistors 76 and 78. Enable transistors 68 includes N-channel transistors 69 and 70. Cross-coupled pair 72 includes N-channel transistors 73 and 74. Memory cell 60 is implemented to be a mirror image of memory cell 26 in FIG. 3 and provides an additional current path for maintaining cell stability. Note that control signal C0 of FIG. 4 is active as a logic high voltage instead of a logic low voltage as described above regarding control signal CB0. FIG. 5 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell 90 in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention. Memory cell 90 is a dual-port memory and includes a cross-coupled latch 92, an enable circuit 98, a cross-coupled pair 102, access transistors 106 and 108, and a read port 110. Cross-coupled latch 92 includes P-channel transistors 93 and 94 and N-channel transistors 95 and 96. Storage nodes N5 and N6 of cross-coupled latch 92 are coupled to write bit line pair WBL/WBLB via access transistors 106 and 108. Enable circuit 98 includes P-channel transistors 99 and 100. Cross-coupled pair 102 includes P-channel transistors 103 and 104. Read port 110 includes N-channel transistors 112 and 114. In dual-port memory 90, write bit line pair WBL/WBLB is for providing data to storage nodes N5 and N6 during a write cycle in a manner identical to the write operation of memory cell 26 of FIG. 3. During a read operation, read port 110 relies on single-ended sensing and is used to read the logic state of storage node N6. During the read operation, transistor 112 is made conductive and if storage node N6 is a logic high, transistor 114 becomes conductive and causes read bit line RBL to output a logic low voltage. Also, during the read operation, the control signal CB is a logic low causing cross-coupled pair 102 and enable circuit 98 to function as described for cross-coupled pair 50 and enable circuit 46 in FIG. 3. Note that in other embodiments, read port 110 may use differential sensing. FIG. 6 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell 118 in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 5 and FIG. 6, similar elements use the same reference numbers. Memory cell 118 is similar to memory cell 90, except that the enable transistors 122 and 126 are implemented between the gates of cross-coupled transistors 103 and 104 and storage nodes N5 and N6. The gates of cross-coupled transistors 103 and 104 are disconnected during a write operation by asserting CB as a logic low to cause N-channel transistors 122 and 126 to be substantially non-conductive. The P-channel transistors 120 and 124 prevent the gates of transistors 103 and 104 from floating during a write operation by coupling them to VDD. Otherwise, the operation of memory cell is the same as described above for memory cell 26 of FIG. 3 and memory cell 90 of FIG. 5. Note that the embodiments of FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 may be implemented using N-channel transistors for the cross-coupled pairs 102 as described above for the embodiment of FIG. 4. While the invention has been described in the context of a preferred embodiment, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention may be modified in numerous ways and may assume many embodiments other than that specifically set out and described above. Accordingly, it is intended by the appended claims to cover all modifications of the invention which fall within the true scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Static random access memories (SRAMs) are generally used in applications requiring high speed, such as memory in a data processing system. Each SRAM cell stores one bit of data and is implemented as a pair of cross-coupled inverters. The SRAM cell is only stable in one of two possible voltage levels. The logic state of the cell is determined by whichever of the two inverter outputs is a logic high, and can be made to change states by applying a voltage of sufficient magnitude and duration to the appropriate cell input. The stability of a SRAM cell is an important issue. The SRAM cell must be stable against transients, process variations, soft error, and power supply fluctuations which may cause the cell to inadvertently change logic states. Also, the SRAM cell must provide good stability during read operations without harming speed or the ability to write to the cell. In a six transistor SRAM cell, an alpha ratio is defined as the width of a PMOS load transistor divided by the width of an NMOS access transistor. A beta ratio is defined as the width of an NMOS pull-down transistor divided by the width of the NMOS access transistor. The alpha and beta ratios are used to describe a SRAM cell's stability against the influences of factors such as power supply fluctuations and noise. Generally, increasing the alpha and beta ratios improves cell stability. However, improving stability comes at the expense of lower write performance. Therefore, there is a need for a SRAM having improved cell stability without decreased write margins. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 illustrates, in block diagram, a data processing system in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates the memory array of FIG. 1 in more detail. FIG. 3 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell of the memory array of FIG. 2 in accordance with a first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell of the memory array of FIG. 2 in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory cell in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 illustrates, in schematic diagram form, a memory in accordance with a fourth embodiment of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050112 | 20070109 | 20060713 | 81908.0 | G11C1100 | 0 | TRAN, MICHAEL THANH | SRAM HAVING IMPROVED CELL STABILITY AND METHOD THEREFOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G11C | 2,005 |
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11,033,944 | ACCEPTED | Food chopper | A food chopping or slicing device preferably includes three primary components, including a lid, a blade tray, and a food reservoir. The lid and the food reservoir are pivotally connected to one another, with the blade tray being removably mounted within an upper rim of the reservoir. In some embodiments a reservoir bottom is removable and the device includes orthogonal volumetric markings. | 1. A food processing device, comprising: a reservoir having upwardly extending sidewalls when the reservoir is resting on a horizontal surface, the sidewalls having a top end and a bottom end; a tray secured to the reservoir relatively closer to the top end of the reservoir than to the bottom end of the reservoir, the tray having a plurality of blades; and a lid pivotally attached to the device for movement between a first position adjacent the tray and a second position relatively distant from the tray, the lid having a plurality of projections sized and configured to be received between the plurality of blades when the lid is adjacent the tray. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein each of the blades within the plurality of blades is parallel to one another. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the plurality of blades further comprises a first plurality of parallel blades and a second plurality of parallel blades, the second plurality of parallel blades being generally orthogonal to the first plurality of parallel blades to define a plurality of substantially square openings, and further wherein each of the projections among the plurality of projections is configured to fit within one of the plurality of substantially square openings. 4. The device of claim 1, wherein the tray is removably secured to the reservoir, and further wherein the tray comprises a bore to facilitate removal of the tray from the reservoir. 5. The device of claim 1, wherein the lid is removably attached to the reservoir. 6. The device of claim 1, further comprising a reservoir bottom removably secured to the bottom end of the reservoir sidewalls. 7. The device of claim 1, wherein the reservoir bottom further comprises a non-skid surface. 8. The device of claim 1, wherein the second pivotable position of the lid forms an angle of at least 90 degrees with respect to the first pivotable position of the lid. 9. The device of claim 1, wherein the reservoir is substantially transparent. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein at least one the device further comprises one or more volumetric indicators. 11. The device of claim 10, wherein the device further comprises a horizontal axis when the device is resting on a horizontal surface, and further the one or more volumetric indicators are arranged to indicate a volume along the horizontal axis. 12. The device of claim 10, wherein the device further comprises a horizontal plane when the device is resting on a horizontal surface, and further wherein the one or more volumetric indicators are arranged to indicate a volume of a top surface of items within the device that is non-parallel to the horizontal plane. 13. The device of claim 10, wherein the device further comprises a horizontal axis when the device is resting on a horizontal surface, and further the one or more volumetric indicators are substantially orthogonal to the horizontal axis. 14. A food processing device, comprising: a reservoir having upwardly extending sidewalls when the reservoir is resting on a horizontal surface, the sidewalls having a top end and a bottom end; a tray secured to the reservoir relatively closer to the top end of the reservoir than to the bottom end of the reservoir, the tray having a means for slicing an object; and a means for urging the object through the slicing means, the urging means being pivotally secured to the device. 15. The device of claim 14, wherein the tray is removably secured to the reservoir. 16. The device of claim 1, wherein means for urging comprises a lid that is removably attached to the reservoir. 17. The device of claim 1, further comprising a reservoir bottom removably secured to the bottom end of the reservoir sidewalls. 18. The device of claim 1, wherein the reservoir is substantially transparent. 19. The device of claim 1, wherein at least one the device further comprises one or more volumetric indicators. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application claims the benefit of prior U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 60/623,582, filed Oct. 29, 2004. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to food preparation devices, including devices for chopping or slicing onions, mushrooms, and the like. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In preparing food, it is often desirable to prepare onions by slicing them in strips or chopping them into small pieces. Most commonly, this is done by using a knife. There are other specially-designed devices for chopping foods, but none are particularly well suited to chopping onions. One exemplary food cutting device is used to cut potatoes for French fries, incorporating a sliding array of rectangular projections that can be pressed downward to push the potato through a grid of blades. This arrangement is common to all French fry cutters, which can also be used to cut other vegetables such as onions. In such devices, the blades and the projections are parallel to each other at all times. One problem with such devices is that there is no integrated reservoir to receive the sliced potatoes as they are pushed through the grid of blades. There are also presently existing mushroom cutters, including a blade frame and pusher element that are pivotally connected to each other via an elongated handle. Unfortunately, the operation of the device pushes the food onto the countertop or work surface, limiting the amount of food that can be chopped and potentially mashing the food or resulting in an uneven slicing operation. Alternatively the user must hold the device above the countertop with one hand, and use the other hand to receive the slices as they emerge from the device. There is therefore a need for an improved food chopping or slicing device, including devices suitable for cutting mushrooms, onions, and the like. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 2 is an exploded view of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 4 is a side view of a preferred food chopper oriented on end. FIG. 5 is a partial exploded view of a preferred food chopper, oriented upside down. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A preferred food chopper is shown in FIG. 1, below. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the food chopper includes three primary components, including a lid 10, a blade tray 20, and a food reservoir 30. The blade tray and the food reservoir are pivotally connected to one another, with the blade tray being removably mounted within an upper rim of the reservoir. The lid is generally rectangular in shape, having squared corners at a first end that is pivotally connected to the reservoir and rounded corners at a second end opposite the first end. A downward-extending flange surrounds the peripheral edge of the lid, and is sized and shaped to snugly receive an outer surface of the reservoir within the flange when the lid is rotated downward against the reservoir. The lid further includes a grid of projections 50 on the inner surface, extending downward in the same direction as the flange. The projections may take on any size or shape, as desired, and are ideally shaped to thoroughly push the food through the blades within the blade tray. As discussed further below, the blade tray includes a network of blades 40 configured at right angles and forming generally square openings. The projections on the lid are sized and located within the lid such that when the lid is closed a projection fits within each of the blade openings. The food reservoir, best seen in the exploded view of FIG. 2, is formed in substantially the same shape as the lid when viewed from the top. Thus, in the preferred form, it has a generally rectangular shape with two rounded corners. The reservoir includes a bottom and four side walls to form an interior rectangular cubic cavity. The depth of the reservoir may vary, and is preferably sized to hold a typical expected volume of onions, mushrooms, or other food ingredients that may be used in cooking. The reservoir includes a boss 64 at opposing sides of the squared ends of the top of the rectangular reservoir. The bosses are configured to be received within a pair of bores 66 at opposite sides of the squared ends of the lid, forming the pivotal connection between the lid and the reservoir. Accordingly, the lid is able to rotate about the pivotal connection from an open position that is preferably at least about 90 degrees with respect to the blade tray to a closed position resting adjacent and substantially flush with the blade tray. In alternate embodiments of the invention, the reservoir also includes volumetric measurements on an inner or outer surface, as shown in FIG. 4. As discussed further below, the measurements enable the user to determine when he or she has chopped enough of the food ingredient, without the necessity of a further step of transferring the ingredient to an additional measuring cup. In another alternate embodiment, the bores 66 on the lid are open adjacent the outer edge of the lid, as shown in FIG. 2, forming a C-shape. The C-shaped openings enable the lid to more readily be removed from the tray for cleaning. The blade tray 20 is formed in the same shape as the lid and reservoir, such that in the preferred embodiment it comprises a rectangular shape with two rounded corners. A substantially square blade grid 40 is formed at a central location on the tray. Preferably, the tray is formed from plastic and the blade grid formed from stainless steel. The top edges of the blades within the grid are sharpened in order to slice through the foods that are being pushed through the blade grid from above. At one end of the tray, in this case, the rounded end, a bore 62 is included to more easily enable the tray to be lifted from the reservoir and removed for cleaning and removal of the food within the reservoir. The tray includes a flat base that transitions to a generally vertical peripheral wall, as best seen in FIG. 2. At the top of the wall, the tray includes a substantially horizontal peripheral flange. The wall and flange are sized and configured such that the wall is snugly received within the side walls of the reservoir, and the flange rests against a top rim of the reservoir. In this fashion, the flange enables the tray to rest securely atop the reservoir. Alternative arrangements are also possible, including for example an internal flange or shoulder within the reservoir. Likewise, the size and shape of the tray and other components may be varied, consistent with the invention. Each of the lid, tray, and reservoir is preferably formed from plastic, except for the blades as noted above. In a preferred form, at least the reservoir is formed from clear plastic to enable the user to see the volume of food inside. The reservoir may optionally include non-skid feet attached to the bottom, as best seen in FIG. 4, formed from silicone or other suitable materials. In yet other embodiments, as best seen in FIGS. 2 and 5, the reservoir 30 may include a removable bottom section 70 that is preferably friction-fitted or snap-fitted into the reservoir 30. Thus, with the bottom section in place, food that is chopped with the device will be retained within the reservoir and can be readily carried to a pot or bowl. With the bottom removed, the chopper can be placed directly onto a plate, bowl, or other device to allow food to be chopped and dropped directly into the plate, bowl, or pan. In some embodiments, a top surface of the lid includes a generally rounded convex shape adjacent the rounded end, as best seen in FIG. 2. This provides a better grip and more ergonomic surface for the user when chopping food within the device. In use, the user places an onion (or other food item) atop the grid of blades while the lid is open. By pressing against the lid, causing pivotal and downward rotation of the lid, the grid of projections is pressed against the onion. In turn, the onion is pressed against the grid of blades, urging it through the blade openings and producing chopped onion sections having a cross-sectional shape that is the same as the blade openings. Once the lid approaches the blade grid, the projections press through the grid to clear any remaining food from the grid. When the reservoir is full, or the chopping is completed, the tray is removed from the top of the reservoir. The chopped onion or other food may then be readily removed from the reservoir. The entire device can also be easily cleaned by separating the tray from the reservoir and, if desired, also removing the lid. An alternate form of the food chopping device is shown in FIG. 3. In this form, the device includes the same primary components of a lid, tray, and reservoir. The primary difference is that the grid of blades comprises a plurality of elongated parallel blades, rather than two pluralities of blades arranged at right angles. The grid of projections extending from the lid is similarly configured as a series of adjacent parallel bars that will fit snugly through the grid of blades. In addition, the reservoir is somewhat deeper and the rectangular shape is somewhat shorter, with the length and width of the rectangle being closer in length to one another. As shown in FIG. 4, the food chopping device may include measurement markings 80. In the preferred form, the measurement markings 80 are oriented vertically, so that the words are read properly with the device tipped up on end, or rotated 90 degrees. As food is chopped with the device, it will form a mound shape, making it difficult to tell with certainty the amount of food that has been chopped, even if there are measurement markings oriented horizontally. This is especially true for devices that have a base of a width or length that is substantially greater than the height. In order to determine the amount of food that has been chopped, the device is rotated 90 degrees, allowing the food to settle to the hinged end. The device may be shaken gently to allow the food to settle and form a substantially horizontal top. At that point, the user can determine the amount of chopped onions or other food ingredients by looking at the measurement markings associated with the top of the ingredient level through the clear plastic food reservoir. Ideally, the size of the reservoir is sufficient to accommodate a typically expected volume of food. In the example shown in FIG. 4, there are markings in half-cup increments up to the 2-cup level, with the reservoir itself exceeding 2 cups in volume. As shown in FIG. 4, the volumetric markings 80 are placed on a sidewall of the reservoir. In alternate embodiments, the markings may be placed on the bottom 70, the lid 10, or in other locations that are visible and enable a determination of the volume of articles within the device. This alternate embodiment is particularly well suited for use in slicing mushrooms or other foods intended to be sliced rather than chopped into smaller bits. The device is used in the same manner, by placing a mushroom or other food item atop the grid of blades and rotating the lid toward the tray, urging the food through the grid of blades. While the preferred embodiment of the invention has been illustrated and described, as noted above, many changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In preparing food, it is often desirable to prepare onions by slicing them in strips or chopping them into small pieces. Most commonly, this is done by using a knife. There are other specially-designed devices for chopping foods, but none are particularly well suited to chopping onions. One exemplary food cutting device is used to cut potatoes for French fries, incorporating a sliding array of rectangular projections that can be pressed downward to push the potato through a grid of blades. This arrangement is common to all French fry cutters, which can also be used to cut other vegetables such as onions. In such devices, the blades and the projections are parallel to each other at all times. One problem with such devices is that there is no integrated reservoir to receive the sliced potatoes as they are pushed through the grid of blades. There are also presently existing mushroom cutters, including a blade frame and pusher element that are pivotally connected to each other via an elongated handle. Unfortunately, the operation of the device pushes the food onto the countertop or work surface, limiting the amount of food that can be chopped and potentially mashing the food or resulting in an uneven slicing operation. Alternatively the user must hold the device above the countertop with one hand, and use the other hand to receive the slices as they emerge from the device. There is therefore a need for an improved food chopping or slicing device, including devices suitable for cutting mushrooms, onions, and the like. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 2 is an exploded view of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an alternate embodiment of a preferred food chopper. FIG. 4 is a side view of a preferred food chopper oriented on end. FIG. 5 is a partial exploded view of a preferred food chopper, oriented upside down. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050111 | 20070320 | 20060504 | 66170.0 | B26B300 | 2 | LANDRUM, EDWARD F | FOOD CHOPPER | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | B26B | 2,005 |
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11,033,972 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus, method, and computer product for recognizing video contents, and for video recording | An apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts video shots similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot having a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot for the video. | 1. An apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, the apparatus comprising: a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. 2. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: an assessing unit that assesses whether the maximum count video shot extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit corresponds to the representative video shot determined by the representative-video-shot determining unit based on a count of the similar video shots that are similar to the maximum count video shot and a count of a first set of video shots; and a second representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the representative video shot as the maximum count video shot based on the assessment result of the assessing unit. 3. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 2, wherein the assessing unit includes an appearance-ratio calculating unit that calculates an appearance ratio between a shot count of similar video shots that are similar to the maximum count video shot and the shot count of the first set of video shots; and an appearance-ratio comparing unit that compares the appearance ratio calculated by the appearance-ratio calculating unit with a predetermined appearance ratio, and the assessing unit assesses whether the maximum count video shot corresponds to the representative video shot based on a comparison result of the appearance-ratio comparing unit. 4. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising a video-content recognizing unit that recognizes whether the video content of a second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot, wherein the splitting unit splits the second sequence of picture frames into a second set of video shots that include picture frames delimited by cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen, and the video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on the video shot of the representative video shot and the second set of video shots. 5. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the video-content recognizing unit includes a degree-of-similarity calculating unit that calculates a degree of similarity between the video shot of the representative video shot and each of the second set of video shots; and a shot-count finding unit that finds a count of the second set of video shots for each degree of similarity calculated by the degree-of-similarity calculating unit, and the video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second set of video shots is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on a result of the shot-count finding unit. 6. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the video-content recognizing unit further includes a graph creating unit that creates a graph that represents the result of the shot-count finding unit, and the video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second set of video shots is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on a shape of the graph created by the graph creating unit. 7. The video-content recognizing apparatus according to claim 6, wherein the video-content recognizing unit further includes a shot-count comparing unit that compares the shot count corresponding to a degree of similarity below a predetermined degree of similarity to a predetermined shot count based on the shape of the graph created by the graph creating unit, and the video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second set of video shots is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on a comparison result of the shot-count comparing unit. 8. A recording apparatus comprising: a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, the video-content recognizing apparatus including a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit, wherein the video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program, and the recording control unit ends the recording set in the recording information based on a result of representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. 9. A recording apparatus comprising: a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, the video-content recognizing apparatus including a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video; and a video-content recognizing unit that recognizes whether the video content of a second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot, wherein the splitting unit splits the second sequence of picture frames into a second set of video shots that include picture frames delimited by cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen, and the video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on the video shot of the representative video shot and the second set of video shots; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit, wherein the video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the first sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program, and the recording control unit records the second sequence of picture frames input within a predetermined duration after the broadcasting duration of the program set in the recording information has elapsed if the video-content recognizing apparatus is able to determine the representative video shot representing the program set in the recording information. 10. The recording apparatus according to claim 9, wherein the video-content recognizing apparatus recognizes the video content of the second sequence of picture frames based on the video shot of the second sequence of pictures recorded by the recording control unit within the predetermined duration after the broadcasting duration has elapsed and based on the video shot of the representative video shot representing the program set in the recording information, and the recording control unit extends further the recording of the program set in the recording information by a predetermined duration based on a recognition result of the video content portraying the second sequence of picture frames. 11. The recording according to claim 10, wherein the recording control unit ends the recording of the program set in the recording information if the video content portraying the second sequence of picture frames is different from the video content of the representative video shot. 12. A recording apparatus comprising: a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, the video-content recognizing apparatus including a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit, wherein the recording-information input unit additionally receives an input of program information pertaining to a program preceding the program intended for recording, the video-content recognizing apparatus determines a representative video shot representing a video content of the program preceding the program intended for recording based on a sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program input by the recording-information input unit, and the recording control unit changes the recording information based on a result of the representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. 13. A method of recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, the method comprising: splitting the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot that represents the contents of the video. 14. A method of recording a video made of picture frames, the method comprising: inputting recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; starting recording of a video of the program; splitting the picture frames of the video into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots split from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has the maximum number of similar video shots; making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot; and ending the recording based on the representative video shot. 15. A computer-readable recording medium that stores a computer program for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames, wherein the computer program makes a computer execute splitting the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot that represents the contents of the video. 16. A computer-readable recording medium that stores a computer program for recording a video made of picture frames, wherein the computer program makes a computer execute inputting recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; starting recording of a video of the program; splitting picture frames of the video into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots split from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has the maximum number of similar video shots; making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot; and ending the recording based on the representative video shot. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a technology for recognizing contents of a video and a technology for recording a video. 2) Description of the Related Art A programmed recording device records video images of a program at a scheduled time. Such a programmed recording device recognizes contents of a video that is being recorded from various features of the video image and based on those features, recognizes whether the program that is being recorded has been prolonged. If so, it alters the starting and ending of recording. A typical conventional programmed recording device includes a video-content recognizing unit, a program information setting unit, which sets information related to programs intended to be recorded, and a recording time control unit, which collates the contents recognized by the video-content recognizing unit and the information set by the program information setting unit and controls the starting and ending of a recording. The video-content recognizing unit includes a feature detecting unit, which detects features of image signals, a knowledge base unit, which contains a knowledge base related to the features of the image content, and a feature verifying unit, which collates the detected features and the knowledge base. Such a conventional technology has been disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H6-309733. However, in the conventional programmed recording devices, the knowledge base unit, which contains the knowledge base related to the features of the video image content, has to be prepared in advance. As a result, it is difficult to provide feature data of video image contents related to a new program. Consequently, the accuracy of feature detection from the video image content becomes low, leading to a failure to record a new program. For example, assume programmed recording has been set for a relay of a baseball match. When the knowledge base unit receives new video image signals such as when a baseball match is relayed from a different stadium, the uniform of the baseball team has changed, or the screen layout of the broadcasting station relaying the match changes, etc., these signals are not recognized as video image contents of the baseball relay scheduled to be recorded. As a result, no recording is performed. One approach to enhance the accuracy is to update the contents of the knowledge base unit. However, with a current trend towards multi-channel broadcasting, the quantity of data involved and the frequency of data updating will become inordinately large and the volume of parameter data of the knowledge base unit will also increase. The increased parameter data results in a higher probability of erroneous detection, which decreases the accuracy of detection. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to solve at least the problems in the conventional technology. An apparatus for recognizing contents of a video according to one aspect of the present invention includes a splitting unit that splits picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. A recording apparatus according to another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program. The recording control unit ends the recording set in the recording information based on a result of the representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. A recording apparatus according still another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video; and a video-content recognizing unit that recognizes whether the video content of a second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot. The splitting unit splits the second sequence of picture frames into a second set of video shots that include picture frames delimited by cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen. The video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on the video shot of the representative video shot and the second set of video shots. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the first sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program. The recording control unit records the second sequence of picture frames input within a predetermined duration after the broadcasting duration of the program set in the recording information has elapsed if the video-content recognizing apparatus is able to determine the representative video shot representing the program set in the recording information. A recording apparatus according to still another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. The recording-information input unit additionally receives the input of program information pertaining to a program preceding the program intended for recording. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the preceding program. The recording control unit ends the recording set in the recording information based on a result of the representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. A method of recognizing contents of a video according to still another aspect of the present invention includes splitting picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot that represents the contents of the video. A method of recording a video according to still another aspect of the present invention includes inputting recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; starting recording of a video of the program; splitting picture frames of the video into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots split from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has the maximum number of similar video shots; making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot; and ending the recording based on the representative video shot. A computer readable recording medium according to still another aspect of the present invention stores a computer program that causes a computer to execute the above method of recognizing contents of a video according to the present invention. A computer readable recording medium according to still another aspect of the present invention stores a computer program that causes a computer to execute the above method of recording a video according to the present invention. The other objects, features and advantages of the present invention are specifically set forth in or will become apparent from the following detailed descriptions of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a hardware configuration of a video-content recognizing apparatus and a recording apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a sequence of picture frames input into the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a functional configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus; FIG. 4 is a schematic for explaining the contents of the feature information database shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is an example of extraction by the similar-video-shot extracting unit shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is an example of a graph created by the graph creating unit shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 7 is another example of a graph created by the graph creating unit shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 8 is a flow chart of a representative video shot assessing process according to a first working example; FIG. 9 is a flow chart of a representative video shot assessing process according to a second working example; FIG. 10 is a flow chart of a recording process according to a third working example; FIG. 11 is a detailed flow chart of the video content recognizing process shown in FIG. 10; FIG. 12 depicts distribution of video shots during the elapsed time in the recording process according to the third working example; FIG. 13 is a flow chart of a recording process according to a fourth working example; and FIG. 14 is a flow chart of a recording process according to a fifth working example. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Exemplary embodiments of an apparatus, a method, and a computer program for recognizing contents of a video, and an apparatus, a method, and a computer product for recording a video are explained below with reference to the accompanying drawings. A hardware configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus and recording apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention is explained next. FIG. 1 is a hardware configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. The video-content recognizing apparatus and recording apparatus includes a central processing unit (CPU) 101, a read-only memory (ROM) 102, a random access memory (RAM) 103, a hard disk drive (HDD) 104, a hard disk (HD) 105, a player/recorder 106, a removable recording medium 107, a picture/sound input interface 108, a receiving antenna 109, a picture/sound output interface 110, a display 111, speakers (or headphones) 112, data input interface 113, a remote control 114, a keyboard/mouse 115, a communication interface 116, and a bus 100 connecting all the parts mentioned above. The CPU 101 controls the entire video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus. The ROM 102 stores programs, such as a boot program. The CPU 101 uses the RAM 103 as a work area. The HDD 104 reads data from and writes data to the HD 105 under the control of CPU 101. The HD 105, under the control HDD 104, stores the data written to it. The player/recorder 106 plays data from/records data to the recording medium 107 under the control of the CPU 101. The recording medium 107 is removable from the player/recorder 106. Under the control of the player/recorder 106, data can be read from or written to the recording medium 107. Examples of the recording medium include a compact disk (CD), a compact disk—recordable (CD-R), a compact disk—read-only memory (CD-ROM), a digital versatile disk (DVD), a digital versatile disk recordable (DVD−R), a DVD+R, a DVD Rewritable (DVD−RW), a DVD+RW, a magneto optical (MO), a flash memory card, a video tape, HD 105, etc. The picture/sound input I/F 108 input the picture and sound received by the receiving antenna 109. The picture/sound output I/F 110 is connected to the display 111, which displays the picture, and the speakers (or headphones) 112, which output the sound. The display 111 displays various types of data such as icons, cursors, menu, windows, text, images, etc. The display 111 may be, for example, a cathode-ray tube (CRT), a thin-film transistor (TFT) liquid crystal display, a plasma display, etc. The data input I/F 113 inputs the data that is input with the aid of the remote control 114, which is equipped with a plurality of keys for inputting text, numerals, instructions, etc., and the keyboard/mouse 115. Examples of data that may be input are power ON/OFF, channel setting, information pertaining to programmed recording, etc. The communication I/F 116 inputs various data such as picture data, sound data, electronic program guide data, etc. from a network 117. Examples of the network 117 include a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), the Internet, etc. A sequence of picture frames that is input into the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus is explained next. FIG. 2 is a sequence of picture frames that is input into the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus. A sequence of picture frames 200 portraying a certain video content is sequentially input from the picture/sound input I/F 108 or the communication I/F shown in FIG. 1. The video content of the sequence of picture frames 200 portrays a baseball relay. The sequence of picture frames 200 is made of a plurality of video shots Si (i=1 to n). The video shot Si is made of a set of continuous picture frames between two cut points Ci (i=1 to n+1), where the cut point Ci represents a major change in the screen. For example, the video shot Si, which is made of a continuous sequence of picture frames f1 through fj, is shot by a centrally located camera. The subsequent video shot Si+2, which is made of a sequence of picture frames fj+1 through fk, is shot by a camera located elsewhere. The next video shot Si+2 represents a commercial. A functional configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus according to the present invention is explained next. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a functional configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus and the recording apparatus. A recording apparatus 300 includes a picture frame input unit 301, a video-content recognizing apparatus 302, a recording-information input unit 303, a recording unit 304, and a recording control unit 305. The picture frame input unit 301 receives the input of, for example, the continuous sequence of picture frames 200. The function of the frame image input unit 301 can be realized with the aid of the picture/sound input I/F 108 or the communication I/F 116 shown in FIG. 1. A functional configuration of the video-content recognizing apparatus 302 is explained next. The video-content recognizing apparatus 302 includes a splitting unit 320, a feature information creating unit 321, a feature information database 322, a filtering unit 323, a similar-video-shot extracting unit 324, a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325, a representative-video-shot determining unit 326, an assessing unit 327, and a video-content recognizing unit 328. The splitting unit 320 splits the sequence of picture frames input from the picture frame input unit 301 into video shots made of picture frames delimited by the cut points where the video content changes. In particular, the splitting unit 320 splits the sequence of picture frames 200 shown in FIG. 2 into a plurality of video shots Si. The splitting unit 320 includes an edge detecting unit 331, a behavior analyzing unit 332, a color analyzing unit 333, and a cut point finding unit 334. The edge detecting unit 331 detects edges of objects in each of the series of picture frames input from the picture frame input unit 301. Examples of an object include the players, the referee, the ground, the back net, etc. in the picture frame f1 in FIG. 2. The behavior analyzing unit 332 analyzes the behavior of objects by comparing the edges of the picture frame detected by the edge detecting unit 331 with the edges of another picture frame. For instance, in the video shot Si in FIG. 2, the edges of the dynamic objects, such as the players and the referee, shift either partly or fully. On the other hand, static objects, such as the ground or the back net, do not shift. Upon exceeding the cut point Ci+1, the behavior information undergoes a significant change as the objects, whose edges are detected by the edge detecting unit 331, change significantly to the objects in the next video shot Si+1. When a movie is compressed using the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) compression format, the behavior analyzing unit 332 analyzes the behavior of a video shot S with the aid of the picture frames and motion vector. The color analyzing unit 333 analyzes the colors in each of the picture frames. In particular, the color analyzing unit 333 calculates the color information for each picture frame in a YUV format, Y representing the brightness signal, U representing the difference between the brightness signal and the red component, and V representing the difference between the brightness signal and the blue component. In the video shot Si, the color information does not vary much because the same objects are present in each of the picture frames. However, the color information changes significantly for the next video shot Si+1. The cut point finding unit 334 compares two consecutive picture frames and recognizes the cut point C, which represent the point where the video content changes. In particular, the cut point finding unit 334 recognizes a cut point C between two consecutive picture frames when the difference in the color information or the behavior information of the two frames exceeds a predetermined threshold. For example, the cut point finding unit 334 compares the color information and the behavior information of the consecutive picture frames fj and fj+1 and, if the difference exceeds a preset threshold, assesses that the video shot S has changed from the video shot Si to the video shot Sj+1. The cut point finding unit 334 recognizes the picture frame fj, which precedes the cut point Ci+1, as the last frame of the video shot Si and the picture frame fj+1, which follows the cut point Ci+1, as the first frame of the video shot Si+1. Thus, by the recognition of the cut point C, the sequence of picture frames 200 input from the picture frame input unit 301 is split into video shots S made of a sequence of picture frames delimited by cut points C, which represent the points where the screen changes. The CPU 101 realizes the function of the splitting unit 320 by executing the program stored in the recording medium, such as the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. The feature information creating unit 321 creates feature information indicating the feature of each of the video shots S split by the splitting unit 320. The feature information database 322 stores the feature information created by the feature information creating unit 321. FIG. 4 is a drawing of the contents of the feature information database 322. In particular, the feature information includes block information, which includes the first frame and the last frame, of each video shot S, the color information of each video shot obtained by averaging out the color information of all the picture frames in the video shot, and the behavior information of each video shot obtained by averaging out the behavior information of all the picture frames in the video shot. The CPU 101 realizes the function of the feature information creating unit 321 by executing the program stored in the recording medium, such as the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. The function of the feature information database 322 can be realized by the ROM 102 RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. Returning to FIG. 3, the filtering unit 323 filters out the feature information of the video shot Si+2 corresponding to the commercials from the feature information stored in the feature information database 322. In particular, since the number of picture frames in a video shot S from a relay camera is likely to be far greater than that of any other program or commercials, the filtering unit 323 sets a predetermined threshold for the number of picture frames and, if the number of picture frames in a video shot S is less then the preset threshold, filters out the feature information pertaining to the video shot S. The video shot S is calculated as a difference between the last frame number and the first frame number. The CPU 101 realizes the function of the filtering unit 323 by executing the program stored in the recording medium, such as the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 extracts the video shots S that are similar for each of the video shots split by the splitting unit 320. In particular, the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 calculates the degree of similarity between one video shot S and rest of the video shots S with the aid of the feature information of each video shot S stored in the feature information database 322. The degree of similarity may for instance be the difference in the color information included in the feature information of the two video shots being compared. The degree of similarity may also be the difference in the behavior information included in the feature information of the two video shots being compared. Alternatively, the degree of similarity may be a total of the differences in both the color information and the behavior information of the video shots being compared. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 extracts the video shots S that are within the predetermined degree of similarity as similar video shots Sr. The CPU 101 realizes the function of the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 by executing the program stored in the recording medium, such as the ROM 102, RAM103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. A more specific example of extraction by the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 is explained next. FIG. 5 is a more specific example of extraction by the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 splits the continuous sequence of video shots S into a plurality of blocks E. Next, the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 extracts the video shots S that are similar to one another from among the video shots S in each of the blocks E. For example, the similar video shot extracting unit 324 extracts the video shots Sb and Sd that are similar to one another from among the video shots Sa through Se in block E1. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 calculates the degree of similarity between the video shots (such as Sb and Sd), which are extracted from any given block E (such as block E1), with the video shots S, which are extracted from the remaining blocks E. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 extracts similar video shots Sr for every video shot S extracted from each of the blocks E. Thus, when extracting similar video shots Sr, the video shots S that do not bear any resemblance to any other video shot S can be filtered out by splitting a continuous sequence of video shots S into a plurality of blocks E. Consequently, the speed at which similar video shots Sr are extracted can be enhanced for a program having a considerable number of video shots S, such as a program of duration of over one hour. The maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 extracts a maximum count video shot Srm, which has the maximum number of similar video shots Sr extracted by the similar-video-shot extracting unit 324. If there is a plurality of extracted maximum count video shots Srm, any of the maximum count video shots Srm may be extracted. The CPU 101 can implement the function of the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 by executing the program stored in the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. The representative-video-shot determining unit 326 includes a first representative-video-shot determining unit 341 and a second representative-video-shot determining unit 342. The first representative-video-shot determining unit 341 takes a representative video shot SD, which represents the content of the video, as the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325. Based on an assessment result of the assessing unit 327, the second representative-video-shot determining unit 342 takes the representative video shot SD, which represents the video content of the video, as the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325. The CPU 101 can implement the function of the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 by executing the program stored in the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. The assessing unit 327 assesses whether the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 corresponds to the representative video shot SD determined by the first representative-video-shot determining unit 341 based on the number of video shots S similar to the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 and the number of video shots S split by the splitting unit 320. In particular, the assessing unit 327 includes an appearance-ratio calculating unit 343, a ratio comparing unit 344, and a comparison result assessing unit 345. The appearance-ratio calculating unit 343 calculates an appearance ratio using the number of video shots S split by the splitting unit 320 and the number of video shots S similar to the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325. For example, if the number of video shots S split by the splitting unit 320 is N, and the number of video shots S similar to the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 is M, then the appearance ratio P=M/N. The ratio comparing unit 344 compares the appearance ratio P calculated by the appearance-ratio calculating unit 343 with a predetermined appearance ratio Q. The comparison result assessing unit 345 assesses, based on the comparison result of the ratio comparing unit 344, whether the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 corresponds to the representative video shot SD determined by the first representative-video-shot determining unit 341. In particular, if the appearance ratio P is greater than the predetermined appearance ratio Q, the comparison result assessing unit 345 assesses that the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 corresponds to the representative video shot SD determined by the first representative-video-shot determining unit 341. Otherwise, the comparison result assessing unit 345 assesses that the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 does not correspond to the representative video shot SD determined by the first representative-video-shot determining unit 341. The assessment result is output to the second representative-video-shot determining unit 342. If the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 corresponds to the representative shot SD determined by the first representative shot determining unit 341, the second representative-video-shot determining unit 342 takes the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 as the representative video shot SD. In other words, the second representative-video-shot determining unit 342 upholds the decision of the first representative-video-shot determining unit 341. If the maximum count video shot Srm extracted by the maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit 325 does not correspond to the representative video shot SD determined by the first representative shot determining unit 341, the second representative-video-shot determining unit 342 does not take the maximum count video shot Srm as the representative video shot SD. The CPU 101 can implement the function of the assessing unit 327 by executing the program stored in the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. Thus, if the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 can determine the representative video shot SD from a continuous sequence of video shots S, the video content is taken as portraying repeated video shots of the representative video shot SD or video shots similar to the representative video shot SD. A few examples of this type of video content include, for example, baseball, tennis, volleyball, sumo, boxing, professional wrestling, marathons, marathon relay races, etc. On the other hand, if the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 is unable to determine a representative video shot SD from a continuous sequence of video shots S, the video content is taken as portraying video shots that are dissimilar to the video shot in the representative video shot SD. A few examples of this kind of video content are TV serials, news, variety programs, animations etc., in which the screen changes far more frequently as compared to a relay of sports events. Consequently, whether a sports event relay is being currently broadcast can be determined based on whether the representative video shot SD can be determined. The video-content recognizing unit 328 recognizes the video content based on the video shot S of the representative video shot SD and new video shots S split by the splitting unit 320 after the determination of the representative video shot SD. In particular, the video-content recognizing unit 328 recognizes whether a new sequence of picture frames that have been input after the representative video shot SD has been determined has similar video content as that of the representative video shot SD. The video-content recognizing unit 328 includes a degree-of-similarity calculating unit 351, a shot-count finding unit 352, a graph creating unit 353, a shot-count comparing unit 354, and an assessment result output unit 355. The degree-of-similarity calculating unit 351 calculates the degree of similarity between the video shot of the representative video shot SD and the new video shots S split by the splitting unit 320. In particular, when a new sequence of picture frames 200 is input after the representative video shot SD is determined, the splitting unit 320 splits the sequence of picture frames 200 into new video shots S. The feature information creating unit 321 creates feature information for the new video shots S and stores the feature information in the feature information database 322. The degree-of-similarity calculating unit 351 calculates the degree of similarity between the video shot of the representative video shot SD and the new video shots S with the aid of the feature information stored in the feature information database 322. The degree of similarity may be, for example, the difference in the color information included in the feature information of the two video shots that are being compared. The degree of similarity may also be the difference in the behavior information included in the feature information of the two video shots that are being compared. Alternatively, the degree of similarity may be a total of the differences in both the color information and the behavior information of the video shots that are being compared. The similar-video-shot extracting unit 324 extracts the video shots S that are within the predetermined degree of similarity as similar video shots Sr. The shot-count finding unit 352 finds the shot count of the new video shots S for each degree of similarity calculated by the degree-of-similarity calculating unit 351. The graph creating unit 353 creates a graph that represents the detection result of the shot-count finding unit 352. The graph created by the graph creating unit 353 is explained next. FIG. 6 and FIG. 7 are examples of graphs created by the graph creating unit 353. In FIG. 6 and FIG. 7, the degrees of similarity of the video shots S in comparison to the representative video shot SD and the shot count for each degree of similarity are represented in the form of a histogram and correlation function. The graph in FIG. 6 represents the video content of a baseball relay. The graph in FIG. 7 represents the video content of a TV serial. The X-axis represents the degrees of similarity of the new video shots S and the Y-axis represents the shot count of the new video shots for each degree of freedom. The shot count and the degree of similarity of the representative video shot SD is taken to be ‘0.’ In the graph shown in FIG. 6, the peak value (shot count ‘44’) can be seen for the degree of similarity of ‘6000.’ The degree of similarity corresponding to the peak value is the maximum value of the correlation function. From the peak value the shot count tends to reduce with an increase in the degree of similarity and reaches the minimum for the degree of similarity of ‘15000.’ The shot count again tends to increase from the degree of similarity of ‘15000.’ In the graph shown in FIG. 7, on the other hand, the shot count increases as the degree of similarity increases. In other words, the correlation function increases steadily. The shot-count comparing unit 354 shown in FIG. 3 compares, based on the shape of the graph created by the graph creating unit 353, a predetermined shot count with the shot count corresponding to any random degree of similarity below the predetermined degree of similarity. Based on the comparison result, the shot-count comparing unit 354 determines whether the video content of the new sequence of picture frames that have been input after the representative video shot has been determined is similar to the video content of the representative video shot SD. To explain more specifically, using the graph shown in FIG. 6, suppose the predetermined degree of similarity is ‘15000’—that is, the video content of the new sequence of picture frames is similar to the representative video shot SD if the degree of similarity is ‘15000’ or less, and not similar if the degree of similarity is ‘16000’ or more. And, assuming that the predetermined shot count is ‘20,’ among the degrees of similarity that are less than ‘15000,’ those that correspond to a shot count of ‘20’ or more are ‘6000,’ ‘7000,’ and ‘8000.’ The determination of whether the video content of the new sequence of picture frames is similar to that of the representative video shot SD may be made either by the presence or absence of degrees of similarity corresponding to shot counts below a predetermined shot count or a degree of similarity. Alternatively, a total of the degrees of similarity corresponding to the shot counts greater than the predetermined shot count or a total of those shot counts themselves may be calculated and each compared with a preset threshold to determine whether the video content of the new sequence of picture frames is similar to that of the representative video shot SD. Assuming that the determination is based on the presence or absence of degrees of similarity corresponding to the predetermined shot count of ‘20’ in the example given above, since three degrees of similarity, namely, ‘6000’, ‘7000’, and ‘8000,’ are found, the shot-count comparing unit 354 would recognize the video content of the new sequence of picture frames as being similar to that of the representative video shot SD. The assessment result output unit 355 creates information pertaining to the assessment result (hereinafter, “assessment result information”) of the shot-count comparing unit 354, and outputs the assessment result information to the recording control unit 305. The CPU 101 can implement the function of the video-content recognizing unit 328 by executing the program stored in the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. Returning to FIG. 3, the recording-information input unit 303 receives input of recording information pertaining to any given program including, for example, the date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, broadcasting channel, and broadcasting duration. G-code (registered trademark) and electronic program guides are examples of recording information. The electronic program guide can include listings of programs and information pertaining to them such as their date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, broadcasting channel, broadcasting duration, whether likely to be extended broadcasting, if so, duration of extension, etc. Apart from the G-code (registered trademark) and electronic program guide, a user can directly enter recording information for any program using operation keys or numeric keys. The function of the recording-information input unit 303 can be implemented by the remote control 114, the keyboard/mouse 115 shown in FIG. 1 (in addition to not shown input keys), by data input I/F 113, or the communication I/F 116. The recording unit 304 records a program on a predetermined recording media. The recording unit 304 also plays back the video recorded on the recording media The function of the recording unit 304 can be implemented by the player/recorder 106 shown in FIG. 1. The function of the recording media can be implemented by the recording medium 107 or the HD 105 shown in FIG. 1. The recording control unit 305 controls the recording unit 304 and records the program corresponding to the recording information input by the recording-information input unit 303. In particular, the recording control unit 305 starts up the recording unit 304 at the broadcasting start time on the date of broadcasting specified in the recording information and records the video, or more specifically, the sequence of picture frames 200, of the broadcasting channel specified in the recording information for the entire duration of the broadcast. The recording control unit 305 controls the recording unit 304 and continues recording, suspends recording, or erases the video data recorded on the recording media based on the determination result of the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 and the recognition result of the video-content recognizing unit. When bad weather, such as rain, disrupts a baseball game, the broadcasting channel switches to some other program until the game resumes. Thus, during the recording of the baseball relay, if the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 can determine the representative video shot SD, based on the determination result of the representative-video-shot determining unit 326, the recording control unit 305 assesses that the relay is continuing and accordingly controls the recording unit 304 to continue recording. On the other hand, if the representative-video-shot determining unit 326 cannot determine the representative video shot SD, the recording control unit 305 assesses that the relay is suspended and accordingly controls the recording unit 304 to suspend recording. The recording control unit 305 may also control the recording unit 304 to erase the recorded video. The CPU 101 can implement the function of the recording control unit 305 by executing the program stored in the ROM 102, RAM 103, HD 105, etc. shown in FIG. 1. A first working example of the embodiment is explained next. The steps involved in the representative video shot assessing process by the video-content recognizing apparatus 302 according to the first working example will be explained now. FIG. 8 is a flow chart of a representative video shot assessing process according to the first working example. When a continuous sequence of picture frames 200 of a predetermined duration is input (‘YES’ at Step S801), the cut points C are recognized in the picture frames 200, which split the picture frames 200 into video shots S (Step S802). The feature information indicating the feature of each of the video shots S is created (Step S803). The filtering process is performed for the feature information of each of the video shots S (Step S804). The video shots similar to each of the video shots S (similar video shots Sr) are extracted from the feature information of each of the video shots S (Step S805). The shot counts of the similar video shots Sr are found, and the video shot that has the maximum count of similar video shots Sr (maximum count video shot Srm) is extracted (Step S806). The maximum count video shot Srm is taken to be the representative video shot SD that portrays the video content of the continuous sequence of picture frames 200 of a predetermined duration (Step S807). According to the first working example, the representative video shot SD can be determined from the sequence of picture frames 200 having the video content of an actual broadcast. The recording apparatus can recognize the video of the program being broadcast from a more or less unchanging camera angle even if no video of the program intended for recognition is provided beforehand. A second working example of the embodiment is explained next. The second working example pertains to a process of enhanced assessment accuracy of the representative video shot SD according to the first working example. FIG. 9 is a flow chart of the representative video shot determining process by the video-content recognizing apparatus 302 according to the second working example. The steps S801 through S807 are identical to those in FIG. 8 and hence are not explained here. Once the maximum count video shot Srm is (tentatively) determined to be the representative video shot SD at Step S807, the appearance ratio P, which indicates the shot count of the video shots S that are similar maximum count video shot Srm, is calculated (Step S901). The calculated appearance ratio P is compared with a preset predetermined appearance ratio Q (Step S902). If P is greater than or equal to Q (‘YES’ at Step S903), the maximum count video shot Srm is considered to be corresponding to the representative video shot SD, and the representative shot SD is determined (actual determination) to be the maximum count video shot Srm (Step S904). However, if P is less than Q (‘NO’ at Step S903), the maximum count video shot Srm is considered not to be corresponding to the representative video shot SD, and the maximum count video shot Srm is not determined to be the representative video shot SD (Step S905), thus, disqualifying the determination (tentative determination) made at Step S807. According to the second working example, the maximum count video shot Srm is considered to be corresponding to the representative video shot SD only when the appearance ratio P of the shot count of the video shots similar to the maximum count video shot Srm is greater than a predetermined value. Thus, the recording apparatus recognizes with a high degree of accuracy the video being broadcast as the video from a more or less unchanging camera angle. A third working example of the embodiment is explained next. The recording process of the recording apparatus 300 according to the third working example will be explained now. FIG. 10 is a flow chart of the recording process of the recording apparatus 300 according to the third working example. The program intended for recording is a baseball relay, the broadcast of which is likely to be extended beyond the scheduled broadcasting end time. The recording information pertaining to the baseball relay is input ‘YES’ at Step S1001). When it is recording start time (‘YES.’ at Step S1002), the recording of the baseball relay is started (Step S1003). Next, the representative video shot SD determination process takes place (Step S1004). The representative-video-shot determination process is explained in the flow charts shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 and hence is not explained here. If after Step S1004, the representative video shot is determined (‘YES’ at Step S1005), the scheduled recording end time, which is calculated from the recording start time and the broadcasting duration, is extended by twice a predetermined duration T (e.g., 5 minutes), that is, the recording end time is extended by 2T (Step S1006). Once the predetermined duration T after the scheduled broadcasting end time has elapsed (‘YES’ at Step S1007), the video content recognition process is carried out (Step S1008). The video content recognition process is explained later. If the video content of the continuous sequence of picture frames input during the extended duration, that is, during the predetermined duration T, is the same as that of the representative video shot SD (‘YES’ at Step S1009), the once-extended recording end time is further extended by the predetermined duration T (Step S1010). The process then returns to Step S1007. If at Step S1009, the video content of the continuous sequence of picture frames is not recognized to be similar to that of the representative video shot SD (‘NO’ at Step S1009), once the predetermined duration T after the scheduled recording end time has elapsed (‘YES’ at Step S1011), the recording of the baseball relay is ended (Step S1012). Thus, even if the broadcasting the baseball relay is extended, the program can be recorded right up to the end. If at Step S1005, the representative video shot SD cannot be determined (‘NO’ at Step S1005), it is taken as implying that an interruption has occurred in the baseball relay, such as due to rain, etc., and another program is being aired in its place. Consequently, the recording is ended (Step S1012). The ending of recording may be a mere stopping of the recording. If the recording medium is a video tape, the video tape may be rewound to the beginning of the recording after the recording has ended. If the recording medium is rewritable, such as a DVD+RW or DVD−RW, the recorded video may be erased. Thus, the user's editing work can be made more efficient. The video content recognition process (Step S1008) shown in FIG. 10 is explained next. FIG. 11 is a flow chart of the video content recognition process. When a continuous sequence of picture frames 200 of a predetermined duration T (‘YES’ at Step S1101), the cut points C, which split the picture frames into video shots S, are recognized in the picture frames 200 (Step S1102). The feature information is created for each of the split video shots S (Step S1103). The filtering process is performed for the feature information of the video shots S (Step S1104). The degree of similarity is calculated between the representative video shot SD and each of the split video shots S based on the feature information of each video shot S (Step S1105). The shot count is found for each calculated degree of similarity (Step S1106). From the degrees of similarity and the shot count for each degree of similarity, a histogram is created that shows the distribution of shot count for each degree of similarity (See FIG. 6 and FIG. 7) (Step S1107). From the created histogram, it is determined whether the video content of the continuous sequence of picture frames 200 input in the predetermined duration T is identical to that of the representative video shot SD (Step S1108). The information pertaining to the result of this determination is the recognition result of the video content. Thus, according to the video content recognition process, it is possible to compare the representative video shot SD, which represents the video content of the program that is being broadcast, and the video content of the program currently being broadcast. Thus, it can be recognized whether a particular program with a more or less unchanging camera angle, such as a baseball relay, is continuing. The appearance distribution of the video shots S in the recording process during the elapsed period is explained next. FIG. 12 is a graph of the appearance distribution of the video shots during the elapsed time in the recording process. In the graph shown in FIG. 12, the video shots S are plotted of a baseball relay, the broadcast of which is likely to be extended. In FIG. 12, the X-axis represents the elapsed time, and the Y-axis represents the degree of similarity with the representative video shot SD. The threshold degree of similarity for determining whether the video shot S is similar to the representative video shot SD is ‘14000.’ Thus, if the degree of similarity is ‘14000’ or less, the video shot S is similar to the representative video shot SD. If the broadcasting start time of the baseball relay is 19:00 hours, and the broadcasting duration is 110 minutes, the scheduled broadcasting end time is estimated to be 20:50 hours. The representative video shot SD is determined from the sequence of picture frames being input from 19:00 hours to 19:10 hours. The representative video shot SD that is determined in this period is a video shot by a centrally located camera, as is the bulk of the baseball relay, such as the video shots Si shown in FIG. 2. Once the representative video shot SD has been determined, after 19:10 hours, it is determined whether the baseball relay has continued based on the degree of similarity between the video shot S determined in the representative video shot SD and the video shot of a preset predetermined duration (e.g., 10 minutes' duration). In the graph shown in FIG. 12, the video shots S having a degree of similarity of less than ‘14000’ appear even beyond 20:50 hours, indicating that there is an extension of the baseball relay. Since no video shots S having a degree of similarity of less than ‘14000’ appear after 21:15 hours, it indicates that the baseball relay has ended at 21:15 hours. A fourth working example of the embodiment is explained next. Steps involved in a recording process of the recording apparatus 300 according to the fourth working example will be explained now. To be specific, the steps are explained of the recording process of a program preceded by another program that is likely to be extended beyond the scheduled broadcasting end time and whose video is shot from a more or less unchanging camera angle. FIG. 13 is a flow chart of the recording process of the recording apparatus 300 according to the fourth working example. The preceding program, which has the possibility of being extended, is taken as a baseball relay in this example. Once the recording information pertaining to the program intended for recording is input (‘YES’ at Step S1301), it is determined whether information pertaining to the preceding baseball relay is input (Step 51302). If no information pertaining to the preceding baseball relay is input (‘NO’ at Step S1302), the process directly proceeds to Step S1314. If information pertaining to the preceding baseball relay is input (‘YES’ at Step S1302), at the broadcasting start time (‘YES’ at Step S1303), the sequence of picture frames portraying the video content of the baseball relay is accepted, and the representative-video-shot determination process is performed (Step S1304). The representative-video-shot determination process is explained in the flow charts shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9 and hence is not explained here. If the representative video shot SD is determined (‘YES’ at Step S1305) at the end of Step S1304, the broadcasting end time of the baseball relay is extended by twice a predetermined duration T (e.g., 5 minutes), that is, the broadcasting end time is extended by 2T (Step S1306). Once the predetermined duration after the scheduled recording end time has elapsed (‘YES’ at Step S1307), the video content recognition process is carried out (Step S1308). The video content recognition process is explained in the flow chart shown in FIG. 11 and hence is not explained here. If the video content of the continuous sequence of picture frames input during the extended duration, that is during the predetermined duration T, is the same as that of the representative video shot SD (‘YES’ at Step S1309), the once-extended broadcasting end time is further extended by the predetermined duration T (Step S1310). The process then returns to Step S1307. If at Step S1309 the video content of the sequence of picture frames is not recognized to be similar to that of the representative video shots SD (‘NO’ at Step S1309), then once the predetermined duration T after the scheduled broadcasting end time has elapsed (‘YES’ at Step S1311), the duration by which the baseball relay is extended is calculated (Step S1312). The duration of extension can be calculated from the difference between the extended broadcasting end time and the scheduled broadcasting end time. The duration of extension is added to the recording start time and the broadcasting duration of the program intended to be recorded, thus modifying the recording information of the program intended to be recorded (Step S1313). At the recording start time as per the modified recording information (‘YES’ at Step S1314), the recording of the program set in the recording information is started (Step S1315). Thus, even if the preceding program is extended, the intended program can be recorded completely from start to finish by merely calculating the duration of extension of the preceding program. If at Step S1305, the representative video shot SD cannot be determined (‘NO’ at Step S1305), it is taken as implying that an interruption has occurred in the baseball relay, such as due to rain, etc., and another program, which does not have an unchanging camera angle, is being aired in its place. Thus, at the recording start time as per the recording information input at Step S1301 (Step S1314), the recording of the program set in the recording information is started. Thus, even if a program preceding the program intended to be recorded is likely to be extended beyond the scheduled broadcasting end time, the intended program can be recorded completely from start to finish, regardless of whether the preceding program was extended or the duration of the extension. A fifth working example according to the embodiment is explained next. The steps of a recording process of the recording apparatus 300 according to the fifth working example will be explained now. The recording process explained here involves delaying the recording start time in order to record only the actual program. For instance, in the baseball relay shown in the graph in FIG. 12, the initial two minutes of the baseball relay are usually shots that one may not want to record, such as shots of the baseball field, scoreboard, on-the-spot report, commentators, briefings and highlights of earlier matches, etc. Even if pitching shots are aired, there may be superimposed text, such as the title of the program, interspersed with the pitching shots. Thus, a representative video shot (pitching shot) determining process is carried out for two minutes from the broadcasting start time 19:00 hours to 19:02 hours. FIG. 14 is a flow chart of yet another recording process (Step S1403, explained later) of the recording apparatus 300. The recording information pertaining to the baseball relay is input (‘YES’ at Step S1401). At the recording start time (‘YES’ at Step S1402), the representative-video-shot determination step is carried out (Step S1403). The determination step representative video shot SD is explained in the flow chart shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9, and hence is not explained here. If no representative video shot is determined (‘NO’ at Step S1404), the determination process of the representative video shot SD is carried out again (Step S1403). If the representative video shot is determined (‘YES’ at Step S1404), the recording is started (Step S1405). According to the present working example, recording does not commence until the representative video shot is determined. Consequently, recording of inessential shots can be avoided, and only the actual program is recorded. As a result, the user can start viewing the recording of the program (the baseball relay) directly without having to go through the trouble of fast-forwarding to the beginning of the program. According to the video-content recognizing apparatus 302 and the recording apparatus 300, no data for recognition needs to be provided beforehand as the representative video shot SD can be extracted from the video shots S themselves that are intended to be recognized. Consequently, it is possible to obviate the data for video recognition and the resulting maintenance of data. Since the representative video shot SD is extracted from the video shots S themselves that are intended to be recognized, even when the venue of the game, the uniforms of the teams, or the screen layout of the broadcasting station changes, recognition can still take place, which enhances the accuracy of the detection. By executing a ready program, a personal computer or a workstation can be used to implement the video content recognizing method and the recording method according to an embodiment of the present invention. The computer may load the program from a computer-readable recording medium such as the hard disk, flexible disk, CD-ROM, MO, DVD, and the like. The program may also be distributed via a network, such as the Internet. The present document incorporates by reference the entire contents of Japanese priority document, 2004-012404 filed in Japan on Jan. 20, 2004. Although the invention has been described with respect to a specific embodiment for a complete and clear disclosure, the appended claims are not to be thus limited but are to be construed as embodying all modifications and alternative constructions that may occur to one skilled in the art which fairly fall within the basic teaching herein set forth. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1) Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a technology for recognizing contents of a video and a technology for recording a video. 2) Description of the Related Art A programmed recording device records video images of a program at a scheduled time. Such a programmed recording device recognizes contents of a video that is being recorded from various features of the video image and based on those features, recognizes whether the program that is being recorded has been prolonged. If so, it alters the starting and ending of recording. A typical conventional programmed recording device includes a video-content recognizing unit, a program information setting unit, which sets information related to programs intended to be recorded, and a recording time control unit, which collates the contents recognized by the video-content recognizing unit and the information set by the program information setting unit and controls the starting and ending of a recording. The video-content recognizing unit includes a feature detecting unit, which detects features of image signals, a knowledge base unit, which contains a knowledge base related to the features of the image content, and a feature verifying unit, which collates the detected features and the knowledge base. Such a conventional technology has been disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open Publication No. H6-309733. However, in the conventional programmed recording devices, the knowledge base unit, which contains the knowledge base related to the features of the video image content, has to be prepared in advance. As a result, it is difficult to provide feature data of video image contents related to a new program. Consequently, the accuracy of feature detection from the video image content becomes low, leading to a failure to record a new program. For example, assume programmed recording has been set for a relay of a baseball match. When the knowledge base unit receives new video image signals such as when a baseball match is relayed from a different stadium, the uniform of the baseball team has changed, or the screen layout of the broadcasting station relaying the match changes, etc., these signals are not recognized as video image contents of the baseball relay scheduled to be recorded. As a result, no recording is performed. One approach to enhance the accuracy is to update the contents of the knowledge base unit. However, with a current trend towards multi-channel broadcasting, the quantity of data involved and the frequency of data updating will become inordinately large and the volume of parameter data of the knowledge base unit will also increase. The increased parameter data results in a higher probability of erroneous detection, which decreases the accuracy of detection. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to solve at least the problems in the conventional technology. An apparatus for recognizing contents of a video according to one aspect of the present invention includes a splitting unit that splits picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. A recording apparatus according to another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program. The recording control unit ends the recording set in the recording information based on a result of the representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. A recording apparatus according still another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video; and a video-content recognizing unit that recognizes whether the video content of a second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot. The splitting unit splits the second sequence of picture frames into a second set of video shots that include picture frames delimited by cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen. The video-content recognizing unit recognizes whether the video content of the second sequence of picture frames is similar to the video content of the representative video shot based on the video shot of the representative video shot and the second set of video shots. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the first sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the program. The recording control unit records the second sequence of picture frames input within a predetermined duration after the broadcasting duration of the program set in the recording information has elapsed if the video-content recognizing apparatus is able to determine the representative video shot representing the program set in the recording information. A recording apparatus according to still another aspect of the present invention includes a video-content recognizing apparatus for recognizing contents of a video made of picture frames; a recording-information input unit that receives an input of recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; a recording unit that records a video of a program; and a recording control unit that controls the recording unit and records the video of the program set in the recording information input by the recording-information input unit. The video-content recognizing apparatus includes a splitting unit that splits the picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; a similar-video-shot extracting unit that extracts similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; a maximum-count-video-shot extracting unit that counts a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracts a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and a representative-video-shot determining unit that takes the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot representing the contents of the video. The recording-information input unit additionally receives the input of program information pertaining to a program preceding the program intended for recording. The video-content recognizing apparatus determines the representative video shot representing the video content of the program set in the recording information based on the sequence of picture frames portraying the content of the preceding program. The recording control unit ends the recording set in the recording information based on a result of the representative-video-shot determination by the video-content recognizing apparatus. A method of recognizing contents of a video according to still another aspect of the present invention includes splitting picture frames into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has a maximum count of the similar video shots; and making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot that represents the contents of the video. A method of recording a video according to still another aspect of the present invention includes inputting recording information including date of broadcasting, broadcasting start time, and broadcasting duration of a program intended for recording; starting recording of a video of the program; splitting picture frames of the video into a plurality of sets of video shots based on cut points, each cut point indicating a change of screen; extracting similar video shots that are similar to each of the video shots split from among the sets of video shots; counting a number of similar video shots for each of the video shots and extracting a maximum count video shot that has the maximum number of similar video shots; making the maximum count video shot as a representative video shot; and ending the recording based on the representative video shot. A computer readable recording medium according to still another aspect of the present invention stores a computer program that causes a computer to execute the above method of recognizing contents of a video according to the present invention. A computer readable recording medium according to still another aspect of the present invention stores a computer program that causes a computer to execute the above method of recording a video according to the present invention. The other objects, features and advantages of the present invention are specifically set forth in or will become apparent from the following detailed descriptions of the invention when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050113 | 20090908 | 20050818 | 63859.0 | 0 | ZHAO, DAQUAN | APPARATUS, METHOD, AND COMPUTER PRODUCT FOR RECOGNIZING VIDEO CONTENTS, AND FOR VIDEO RECORDING | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,033,983 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for reducing drag and noise for a vehicle | A body part including a surface having a fluid flow thereover. The body part also includes flocking coupled to at least a portion of the surface that adjusts an aerodynamic characteristic relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. | 1. A body part comprising: a surface having a fluid flow thereover; and flocking coupled to at least a portion of said surface that adjusts an aerodynamic characteristic relative to said surface that is devoid of said flocking. 2. The body part of claim 1 wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes drag and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said surface decreases said drag thereover. 3. The body part of claim 1 wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes noise and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said surface decreases said noise therefrom. 4. The body part of claim 1 wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes volumetric flow over said surface and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said surface increases said volumetric flow thereover. 5. The body part of claim 1 wherein said flocking includes a dimension defining a length selected to adjust said aerodynamic characteristic. 6. The body part of claim 5, wherein said length includes a length distribution and wherein said length distribution is one of uniform and non-uniform. 7. The body part of claim 1 wherein said flocking includes one of a yarn density, a flocking density and combinations thereof selected to adjust said aerodynamic characteristic. 8. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes lift and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said surface to increase said lift produced by said airfoil for a predetermined range of angle of attack. 9. The body part of claim 8 wherein said flocking includes a dimension defining a length selected to increase said lift, said length includes a length distribution and wherein said length distribution is one of uniform and non-uniform. 10. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes a lift to drag ratio and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said surface to increase said lift to drag ratio experienced by said airfoil for a predetermined range of angle of attack. 11. The body part of claim 10 wherein said flocking includes a dimension defining a length, said length includes a length distribution selected to increase said lift to drag ratio for said predetermined range of angle of attack. 12. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said airfoil includes a leading edge and a trailing edge and said flocking includes fibers oriented at angle acute to said surface such that a base of said fibers is positioned toward said leading edge and a tip of said fibers distal from said base is positioned toward said trailing edge. 13. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said airfoil includes a leading edge and a trailing edge, wherein said flocking includes fibers oriented at angle acute to said surface such that a tip of said fibers is positioned toward said leading edge and a base of said fibers distal from said tip is positioned toward said trailing edge. 14. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic is a transition point from laminar flow to turbulent flow and said flocking is coupled to said portion of said surface and located near said transition point. 15. The body part of claim 14 wherein said flocking coupled to said portion of said surface located near said transition point delays one of the transition from said laminar flow to said turbulent flow, separation of said turbulent flow from said airfoil and a combination thereof. 16. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airfoil having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic is a transition point from laminar flow to turbulent flow and said flocking is coupled to said portion of said surface and located near a leading edge. 17. The body part of claim 16 wherein said flocking coupled to said portion of said surface located near said leading edge delays one of the transition from said laminar flow to said turbulent flow, separation of said turbulent flow from said airfoil and a combination thereof. 18. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers randomly distributed over said portion of said surface. 19. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers made of material selected from the group consisting of cotton, nylon, rayon, polyester, polyethylene, polyamide, acrylic, glass, coal, metal, carbon fiber, and combinations thereof. 20. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers made of nylon 66. 21. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers having a dimension that defines a length in a range of about 0.3 millimeters to about 5 millimeters. 22. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers having a yarn density in a range of about 1.7 decitex to about 22 decitex (about 1.5 denier to about 19.8 denier). 23. The body part of claim 1, wherein said flocking includes fibers having a flocking density in a range of about 50 fibers per square millimeter to about 300 fibers per square millimeter. 24. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of a turbine engine having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes drag and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of said turbine engine to decrease said drag over said portion of said. 25. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of a turbine engine having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes noise and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of said engine to decrease said noise therefrom. 26. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airplane having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes drag and said flocking coupled to at least said portion of said airplane decreases said drag thereover. 27. The body part of claim 26 wherein said flocking is coupled to an intake port having said surface, said intake port communicates air to one of an engine, a passenger compartment and a combination thereof to decrease said drag through said intake port. 28. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an airplane having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes thrust and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of a propeller blade to increase said thrust produced by said propeller blade. 29. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of one of a train, an automobile, a boat and combinations thereof having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes one of drag, noise and combinations thereof and said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said one of said train, said automobile, said boat and said combinations thereof to decrease said one of said drag thereover and said noise therefrom. 30. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of one of a train, an automobile, a boat and combinations thereof having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes volumetric flow and said flocking is coupled to the interior of an intake scoop having said surface, said scoop communicates air into an engine to increase volumetric flow into said engine. 31. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of one of a vehicle having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes one of drag and noise and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of a side view mirror cowling having said surface to decrease said one of said drag and said noise thereover. 32. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of a boat having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes one of drag and noise and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of one of a mast, a boom, a hull and combinations thereof to decrease said one of said drag and said noise thereover. 33. The body part of claim 32 wherein said flocking is coupled to at least said portion of said hull above and below a waterline to decrease said one of said drag and said noise over said hull. 34. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of a train having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes one of drag and noise and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of an electrical current collector to decrease said one of said drag and said noise thereover. 35. The body part of claim 34 wherein said electrical current collector includes a pantograph. 36. The body part of claim 1 further comprising at least a portion of an antenna tower having said surface wherein said aerodynamic characteristic includes one of drag, noise and combinations thereof and said flocking is coupled to at least a portion of one of said tower, an antenna array and a combination thereof to decrease said of one said drag thereover and said noise therefrom. 37. The body part of claim 1 wherein said flocking includes a dimension defining a length selected to adjust said aerodynamic characteristic and wherein said length changes along said surface. 38. The body part of claim 1 wherein said flocking includes a characteristic defining one of a length, width, flocking density, yarn density and combinations thereof selected to adjust said aerodynamic characteristic and wherein said one of said length, said width, said flocking density, said yarn density and said combinations thereof is based on localized fluid flow characteristics. 39. The body part of claim 1 wherein said localized fluid flow characteristics includes a boundary layer height. 40. A part of an aeronautical component comprising: a surface having a fluid flow thereover; and flocking coupled to at least a portion of said surface said flocking includes a plurality of fibers each having a characteristic selected to adjust an aerodynamic characteristic relative to said surface that is devoid of said flocking. 41. A method for altering an aerodynamic characteristic of a vehicle, the method comprising: selecting the aerodynamic characteristic; selecting a body part of the vehicle relevant to the aerodynamic characteristic; and flocking at least a portion of the body part. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein said aerodynamic characteristic is drag. 43. The method of claim 41, wherein said aerodynamic characteristic is lift. 44. The method of claim 41, wherein the aerodynamic characteristic is a ration of lift over drag. 45. The method of claim 41, further comprising uniformly distributing said flocking. 46. The method of claim 41, further comprising randomly distributing said flocking. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/535,985, filed on Jan. 12, 2004. The disclosure of the above provisional application is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a coating on a surface and more particularly to flocking an aerodynamic surface to relatively improve an aerodynamic characteristic of the surface including reduced drag and noise. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The term “surface flocking” refers to a process of permanently attaching fibers to a surface. The end result is a “fuzzy” surface that is velvety to the touch. Flocking was originally invented hundreds of years ago to protect fragile objects from normally hard surfaces. First uses of surface flocking include jewelry boxes and body armor interior. Over the past few decades, it was discovered that surface flocking could be used to keep loose items from rattling inside automobile glove boxes and coin holders. Within the last few years it was discovered that surface flocking possesses excellent noise and vibration dampening qualities, and could be used to reduce the famous “bump, rattle, and squeak”. This has lead to a whole array of new applications including shock mounting brackets, sunroof tracks, seals and Heating Ventilation and Cooling (HVAC) ducts. Surface flocking is a popular alternative for acoustical dampening because it is inexpensive, lightweight, thin and generally does not require any design alterations of the original part. The present teachings provide new applications of surface flocking, and, in particular, surface flocking for altering the aerodynamic characteristics of various vehicles, structures and components thereof as described below. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A body part including a surface having a fluid flow thereover. The body part also includes flocking coupled to at least a portion of the surface that adjusts an aerodynamic characteristic relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In one feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes drag and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface decreases the drag thereover relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes noise and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface decreases the noise therefrom relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In still another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes volumetric flow over the surface and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface increases the volumetric flow thereover relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In yet another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes lift and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface increases the lift produced by the airfoil for a predetermined range of angle of attack relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking for the same range of angle of attack. Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the various embodiments of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description, the appended claims and the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a sectional view of a vehicle body part according to the present teachings; FIG. 2 is an enlarged view of Detail D of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a comparison graph of a lift coefficient versus an angle of attack for an airfoil having three different flock lengths; FIG. 4 is a comparison graph of a drag coefficient versus the angle of attack for the airfoil having the three different flock lengths; FIG. 5 is a comparison graph of a ratio of the lift coefficient to the drag coefficient versus the angle of attack for the airfoil having the three different flock lengths; FIG. 6 is a section view of an airfoil according to the present teachings showing flocking on a portion of a surface; FIG. 7 is a section view of a turbine engine according to the present teachings showing flocking on a portion of the intake of the engine; FIG. 8A is a perspective view of a portion of an airplane according to the present teachings showing flocking on predetermined portions of the cowling; FIG. 8B is similar to FIG. 8A and shows the flocking over almost the entire exterior surface of the airplane; FIG. 9A is a perspective view of a portion of a train according to the present teachings showing flocking on predetermined portions of an exterior surface; FIG. 9B is similar to FIG. 9A and shows the flocking over almost the entire exterior surface of the train; FIG. 10A is a perspective view of a portion of an automobile according to the present teachings showing flocking on predetermined portions of an exterior surface; FIG. 10B is similar to FIG. 10A and shows the flocking over almost the entire exterior surface of the automobile; FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a side mirror on an exemplary vehicle according to the present teachings showing flocking over the entire side mirror cowling; FIG. 12 is a perspective view of a sail boat according to the present teachings showing flocking over predetermined surfaces; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of an antenna tower with an antenna array according to the present teachings showing flocking over almost the entire tower and the antenna array; and FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C are section views of an aerodynamic surface showing flocking attached thereto having varying lengths on the same aerodynamic surface. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS EMBODIMENTS The following description of the various embodiments is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention, its application or uses. FIG. 1 illustrates a section of a body part 100 of a vehicle having an external surface 102 that includes a flocked portion 104. Although an airfoil is illustrated in FIG. 1, the body part 100 could be any part of an airplane or water-borne vessel, such as a wing, a propeller blade, a tail portion, a rudder portion, a hydrofoil or any other body portion including a fuselage or aeronautical component that has an external surface 102. The body part 100 may also be a part of various different types of vehicles, including but not limited to automobiles (cars, trucks, and the like), as well a part of any type of watercraft, boat or aircraft. The external surface 102 is defined herein as a surface exposed to the environment during the operation of the vehicle. In an exemplary application in which the vehicle is an aircraft, the external surface 102 is exposed during operations such as taxiing, landing, take-off, flying, etc, such that the design of the external surface 102 may affect aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft, vehicle or vessel including lift, drag, noise, vibration and/or combinations thereof. The body part 100, in the aircraft example, may have a leading edge 106 and a trailing edge 108 relative to the aircraft's flying direction. Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, the external surface 102 of the body part 100 includes the flocked portion 104 having flock 110. It will be understood that the flocked portion 104 may also extend over the entire external surface 102 or predetermined portions thereof (i.e., the flocked portion 104). As will be below described, the flock 110 or flocking 110 may be selected to alter an aerodynamic characteristic of the body part 100 in a desired fashion relative to the external surface 102 that is devoid of flocking 110. The aerodynamic characteristics may include lift, drag, flow resistance, noise, vibration, etc. and combinations thereof. The flock 110 includes a plurality of fibers 112, which are attached to the external surface 102 of the body part 100 by various known flocking processes. The fibers 112 may be selected from a variety of materials, taking into consideration their durability under the environmental conditions experienced during operation of the vehicle as well as any aerodynamic considerations. Examples of fiber materials include various textile materials, such as cotton, nylon, rayon, polyester, but also, polyethylene, polyamide, acrylic, glass, coal, metal, carbon fiber and other natural and/or synthetic fibers 112. Flock fibers 112 may be milled or cut. Milled flock fibers 112 are generally produced from textile waste materials. Cut flock fibers 112 are produced from first quality filament materials. The cutting process produces a very uniform length of flock 110. The fibers 112 may have a length in a range from 0.3 millimeters to 5.0 millimeters and a yarn density of 1.7 decitex to 22 decitex (1.5 denier to 19.8 denier) from various cutting processes known in the art. It will be appreciated that various flock lengths, widths and densities may be used. It will also be appreciated that various flock lengths, widths and densities may be used on a single surface. In one embodiment, the flock fibers are made of Nylon 66. Flocking may be applied to the external surface 102 after an adhesive coating 120 is applied to the external surface 102. A variety of adhesives is available and may be used to attach any type of flock 110 to any type of external surface 102, including metallic and/or composite material surfaces. Examples of adhesives include, but are not limited to, acrylic resin, urethane resin, epoxy resin and/or other polymerizable resins. Adhesives may also be single-component, two-component, and/or water based. The flock 110 may be applied to adhesive-coated surfaces by various methods, including mechanical, electrostatic, or combinations thereof. The flock 110 may also be sprayed using an air compressor, a reservoir and a spray gun similar to spraying paint, particularly for flocking large surface areas. The mechanical methods may be air-blown or beater-bar methods. Electrostatic flocking may incorporate a pneumatic-assisted process that propels the fibers 112 toward the coated surface in an air stream. Flocking the body part 100 may be done, for example, using a standard automated electrostatic flocking process. Briefly, the body part 100 is sprayed with a sufficiently strong adhesive, using, for example, a multi-axis robotic arm. After the external surface 102 (or a portion thereof 104), of the body part 100 is evenly coated, the body part 100 is clamped, and an electrostatic charge is applied to it. In some applications, the fibers 112 may be charged using a friction charging process (i.e., a tribocharging method) rather than electric current. The fibers 112 may be randomly dusted over the external surface 102, or portion 104 thereof, at a desired flocking density, such as, for example, 50 fibers per square millimeter to 300 fibers per square millimeter. The charge causes the fibers 112 to be attached at one end 114 (FIG. 2) and stand up like carpet pile, substantially perpendicularly to the external surface 102. The fibers 112 may also be applied, if desired, at a given orientation angle (e.g., an angle θ, as shown in FIG. 2) relative to the external surface 102. Depending on the application process and the applied charge, if any, the fibers 112 may be substantially parallel to each other, perpendicular to the external surface 102, inclined at a desired angle (i.e., the angle θ) and/or combinations thereof. For example, the fibers 112 may be oriented in a direction from the leading edge 106 to the trailing edge 108, with the angle θ being an acute angle for aerodynamic, aeronautical and/or other considerations. After the flocking 110 is fully applied, the adhesive coating 120 may be processed for permanently bonding the fibers 112 to the surface 102. Depending on the adhesive used, heat to cause polymerization or cross-linking or other curing processes may be applied to the adhesive coating 120 using known methods. Excess, loose and/or poorly bonded fibers 112 may be removed by vacuuming, air blowing, and/or shaking the surface. The flock 110 may be selected to alter an aerodynamic characteristic of the body part 100 in a desirable way relative to a surface devoid of flocking 110. The particular flock material, the process of flocking, the density of the flock 110, the orientation of the flock fibers 112, the width of the flock fibers 112 and/or the length of the flock fibers 112, for example, may (alone or in combination) alter aerodynamic characteristics of the body part 100. As an example, a flock length 122 (FIG. 2) may be easily controlled, regardless of flock material, flocking process, etc. The effect of flock length 122 on various aerodynamic characteristics is illustrated in comparative graphs in FIG. 3—FIG. 5, produced by testing four identical body parts 100. The four body parts 100 of this example are NACA 2412 airfoils tested in a low-speed, wind tunnel at the University of Michigan having a two-foot (about 0.6 meters) by two-foot (about 0.6 meters) test section. NACA 2412 airfoils are often used as baseline wing designs for general aviation airplanes. Three of the four airfoils are flocked over their entire external surface 102 using an automated electrostatic flocking process. Each of the three airfoils are flocked with short fibers 124, medium fibers 126 and long fibers 128 (FIGS. 3-5), respectively, having, for example, respective lengths of 0.5 mm, 1.0 mm, and 2.5 mm. The fourth airfoil is unflocked 130, and serves as a control. The aerodynamic characteristics selected in the example are drag and lift. The drag coefficient Cd, the lift coefficient Cl and the ratio CV Cd are shown (along the y-axis) in FIG. 3-FIG. 5 as functions of angle of attack “α” (along the x-axis). The free stream velocity of the above described tests was about 26.3 m/s (about 58.8 mph), and the Reynolds number (Re) is around 50,000. Referring to FIG. 4, which shows the graph of coefficient of drag (Cd) versus angle of attack (α) for the tested airfoils, flocking reduces the drag of the tested airfoils possibly because flocking 110 attached the airfoil increases surface roughness. This may be similar to the golf ball effect, where the dimples on the ball cause a controlled turbulent airflow around the ball (not shown). The controlled turbulent airflow around the airfoil is less fragile than a laminar flow and thus is much more difficult to separate from the airfoil. Even though there is a transition to controlled turbulence over the airfoil, there is less flow separation behind the transition, leading to reduced drag experienced by the airfoil. Also and for similar reasons, stall on the flocked airfoils 124, 126 and 128 is delayed and its effects are less severe relative to an unflocked airfoil 130. This may be because the surface roughness forces the air to follow the contour of the airfoil, thus delaying the onset of flow separation at higher angles of attack (α). With reference to FIG. 3 and FIG. 4, flocking decreased the drag on the NACA 2412 airfoil throughout nearly the entire range of angles of attack (α). Although applying flocking had nearly no effect at α=0°, the drag is reduced increasingly as the angle of attack (α) is increased. Conversely, lift was decreased (i.e., decreased Cl) as well throughout the range of angles of attack (α). The lift, however, dramatically improves (i.e., increased Cl) beyond the stall angle (i.e., α>about 15°) as flocking may significantly improve stall conditions. Referring to FIG. 5, the Cl/Cd ratio, which measures a component of aerodynamic efficiency, maintained a similar profile for the short flock length 124 (0.5 mm fibers) at low angles of attack (i.e., α<about 5°). At larger angles of attack (i.e., α>about 5°), however, the Cl/Cd ratio of the unflocked airfoil 130 is marginally higher until reaching stall conditions (i.e., α>about 15°), where the flocked airfoils 124, 126 and 128 show dramatic improvement. Accordingly, the drag improvement provided by a uniform flocking treatment (e.g., uniform flocking density, flocking fiber length, flocking yarn density etc.) may have a beneficial effect on any exposed aerodynamic surface that is not relied upon to produce lift. Non-uniform applications of flocking (e.g., non-uniform flocking density, flocking fiber length, flocking yarn density etc.) may achieve the drag reduction while still maintaining suitable lift. Commercial and business aircraft, in particular, could reap large benefits from flocking 110, as these aircraft are generally at angles of attack less than five degrees in flight except for take-off, approach and landing, which may present other and more sizeable aerodynamic inefficiencies. The prolonged flight time at cruise conditions experienced by commercial, business and general aviation airplanes may reap the benefit from a relatively increased lift/drag ratio (Cl/Cd), which may result in increased weight capacity and/or reduced fuel consumption. It will be appreciated that while values are provided for angle of attack (α) for the above examples using a NACA 2412 airfoil, angle of attack (α) for other aircraft, airfoils and water-borne vessels may be different, and as such the disclosed values do not limit the present teachings. Additionally, for aircraft that commonly fly near stall conditions, for example acrobatic aircraft, flocking 110 may be considered as it relatively reduces the negative effects of stall, although the lift at the stall angle of certain flocked airfoils is significantly less than that of an unflocked airfoil. Nevertheless, our results show that flocking may alter the aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils to relative benefit of the vehicle. Such modification may be controlled, in the above example, for predetermined angles of attack, by selecting a particular flock length, while keeping other flocking parameters, such as flocking density, flocking material, flocking orientation, etc., constant. Judicious modification of other flocking parameters may relatively improve aerodynamic control of the flocked airfoils particularly in adverse weather conditions winds. Weather-resistant coatings 116 may also be applied to the flock fibers 112 to improve aerodynamic performance in adverse conditions. With reference to FIG. 6, an exemplary airfoil 150 is shown. The exemplary airfoil 150 may be exposed to an airflow 152. In the airflow 152, there is a transition point 154 where the flow changes from a laminar flow 156 to a turbulent flow 158. A surface 160 of the airfoil 150 may contain a flocked portion 162. The flocked portion 162 may be positioned along the chord of the airfoil 150 at or about the transition point 154 between the laminar flow 156 and the turbulent flow 158. It will be appreciated that the flocked portion 162 may extend throughout the span (not shown) of the airfoil 150 or along portions thereof. By positioning the flocked portion 162 at or near the transition point 154, the transition from laminar flow 156 to turbulent flow 158 may be delayed. By delaying the transition, drag may be reduced over the airfoil 150. Moreover, positioning of the flocked portion 162 at predetermined positions along the chord of the airfoil 150 may delay turbulent flow separation 164 to further reduce drag experienced over the airfoil 150. In another example, the flocked portion 162 may be positioned at and/or near a leading edge 166 (in addition to or in lieu of the flocked portion 162 at the transition point 154) in a spanwise direction to control turbulent flow 158 around the airfoil 150. By controlling the turbulent flow 158, there may be less flow separation 164 behind the transition point 154, leading to reduced drag experienced by the airfoil 150. Whether flocking 162 is positioned at or near the transition point 154 and/or at the leading edge 166, stall on the flocked airfoils 124, 126 and 128 may be delayed and its effects may be less severe relative to an unflocked airfoil 130 (FIGS. 3, 4 and 5). Moreover, positioning of the flocked portion 162 along the leading edge 166 may delay turbulent flow separation 164 to further reduce drag experienced over the airfoil 150. With reference to FIG. 7, a section of an exemplary turbine engine 200 is shown. The turbine engine 200 may include a hot section 202 and a cold section 204. The hot section may include a turbine 206 and a compressor 208. The cold section 204 may include low-pressure compressor 210. In addition, braces 212 may attach the hot section 202 of the engine 200 to an engine cowling 214. In one embodiment of the present teachings, flocking 216 may be attached to portions of the turbine engine 200. More specifically, flocking may be attached to the braces 212, interior surfaces 218 of the engine cowling 214, including portions of cowling 214 in front of (i.e., left of) the low-pressure compressor 210. By way of example, drag and noise can be reduced over the surfaces on which flocking 216 is attached. By reducing drag over the surfaces, volumetric flow through the engine 200 may be increased and noise production from the engine 200 may be decreased. Moreover, the efficiency of the engine 200 may be increased. With reference to FIG. 8A, an exemplary airplane 300 is shown. An exterior surface 302 of the airplane 300 may include various intake ports 304 that may, among other things, assist in cooling the engine and interior compartments of the airplane 300. The intake ports 304 may include, for example, a cowl flap 306 and engine intake 308 and a passenger compartment air scoop 310. Flocking 312 may be attached to at least a portion of the intake ports 304 to reduce intake noise and drag through the intake ports 304. By reducing drag through the intake ports 304, flow may be increased through the ports 304, which may increase the overall efficiency of the cooling and ventilation system of the airplane 300. With reference to FIG. 8B, the exemplary airplane 300 is shown with a flocking 312 attached to almost the entire airplane except for the windows 314 and the propeller blades 316. Flocking 312 may be attached to the windows 314 when the flocking process does not obstruct the line of sight therethrough. Moreover, flocking 312 may be attached to the propeller blades 316, when the angle of attack of the blades 316 would be such that the efficiency of the propeller would be increased due to increased thrust and/or decreased drag. Flocking 312 may also be attached to an exhaust port cowling 318 taking into account suitable thermal considerations. It will be appreciated that by attaching flocking 312 to the entire airplane 300 drag experienced by the airplane 300 may be reduced to thereby increase the efficiency of the airplane 300. With reference to FIG. 9A, an exemplary train 350 is shown. Flocking 352 may be attached to specific portions of the train 350. More specifically, flocking 352 may be attached to a nose 354 of the train 350 and leading edges 356 of doorways 358, windows 360 and wheel and electronics system cowlings 362. In addition, air intakes 364 that may for example assist cooling of the engine, braking systems and/or passenger compartment may include flocking 352 attached in the intakes 364 to increase flow therethrough. Moreover, flocking 352 may be attached to an electrical current collector or pantograph 366 that may be configured to deliver electrical current to the train 350 (e.g., the Japanese Shinkansen). It will be appreciated that by attaching flocking 352 to portions of the train 350, drag and noise experienced by the train 350 may be reduced to thereby increase the efficiency of the train 350. With reference to FIG. 9B, the exemplary train 350 is shown with flocking 352 attached almost entirely over the train 350. By attaching flocking 352 to the entire train 350, drag and noise may be reduced over the train 350, which may increase the efficiency of the train 350 by reducing drag and thereby decreasing fuel consumption of the train 350. With reference to FIG. 10A, an exemplary automobile 400 is shown. The automobile may include a plurality of intake vents 402 to cool various portions of the automobile 400 including the engine, brakes and passenger compartment. In addition, the automobile 400 may include an intake scoop 404 to direct air into the engine. In one embodiment, the intake vents 402 and/or scoop 404 may have flocking 406 attached thereto. Attaching flocking 406 to the intake vents 402 and/or scoop 404 may increase volumetric flow into the intake 402 and/or scoop 404 and decrease drag thereover. An increase in volumetric flow through the intake 402 and/or scoop 404 and the decreased drag may ultimately result in decreased fuel consumption for automobile 400. With reference to FIG. 10B, the exemplary vehicle 400 may include flocking 406 attached over the entire vehicle 400 excluding windows 408 and the portions of the tire 410 that contact the road. By attaching flocking 406 to the entire automobile 400, drag over the entire vehicle may be reduced which thereby may increase efficiency of the automobile 400 and reduce fuel consumption. Flocking 406 may be attached to the windows 408 when the flocking process does not obstruct the line of sight therethrough. Moreover, flocking 406 may be attached to the portion of the tire 410 that contacts the road, when flocking process does not detract from grip of tire 410 and may decrease drag thereover. With reference to FIG. 11, an exemplary side view mirror 450 is shown. It will be appreciated that the side view mirror 450 may be attached to myriad vehicles including cars, trucks, earth moving machinery and the like. The side view mirror 450 may include a mirror surface (not shown) and a mirror cowling 452. The mirror cowling 452 may be completely coated with flocking 454. It will be appreciated that by coating the entire mirror cowling 452 with flocking 454, drag and noise over the mirror cowling 452 may be reduced. By reducing drag over the mirror cowling 452 the efficiency of the vehicle (e.g., the automobile 400 in FIGS. 10A and 10B) to which the side view mirror 450 may be attached may also be increased. By reducing the drag for the entire vehicle, fuel consumption may be reduced. With reference to FIG. 12, an exemplary sailboat 500 is shown. The sailboat 500 may include a cabin 502, a mast 504, a boom 506 and various compartments and access ways 508 in and throughout the boat 500. Flocking 510 may be attached to portions of the sailboat 500 that are above and/or within the water 514. More specifically, flocking 510 may be attached to the cabin 502, the mast 504, the boom 506 and a bow area 516 of the boat hull 512 to reduce drag and noise thereover. In other embodiments, flocking 510 may be attached to almost the entire sailboat 500. Again, by reducing drag and noise over the sailboat 500, the efficiency of the sailboat 500 may be increased. It will be appreciated that flocking may be attached to powerboats (i.e., no sails or sails in combination with an engine) whereby flocking will serve to reduce the drag over the boat and thereby reduce fuel consumption. With reference to FIG. 13, an exemplary tower 550 and antenna array 552 are shown. The tower 550 may be a lattice-like structure 554 having three or four posts 556 that may extend from the ground and be connected to the antenna array 552. The antenna array 552 may be of various types including a cellular communication antenna array. Flocking 558 may be attached to portions of the antenna tower 550 and the antenna array 552 or the entire structure 550. By attaching flocking 558 to the entire structure 550, 552, wind resistance over the structure 550, 552 may be reduced and/or noise production by the structure 550, 552 may also be reduced. By reducing wind resistance and/or by reducing noise production, the tower 550 and the antenna array 552 may be more environmentally friendly. Furthermore, reduced wind resistance may reduce the weight and/or strength of the materials required to construct the tower 550 and/or antenna array 552. With reference to FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C, an exemplary aerodynamic body 600 having an aerodynamic surface 602 is shown. The exemplary aerodynamic body 600 can be incorporated into various structures including, for example, the body part 100 (FIG. 1), the airfoil 150 (FIG. 6) and/or the turbine engine 200 (FIG. 7). Flocking 604 is attached to the aerodynamic surface 602 using various suitable methods. The height of the flocking 604 (i.e., the length of fibers 606) can be varied across the aerodynamic surface 602. In FIG. 14A, the flocking 604 may be shorter and gradually become longer (i.e., from left to right), as generally indicated by reference numeral 608. In FIG. 14B, the flocking 604 may be longer and gradually become shorter (i.e., from left to right), as generally indicated by reference numeral 610. In FIG. 14C, the flocking 604 may be shorter and gradually become longer (i.e., from left to right) in discrete steps (e.g., short length 614, medium length 616 and long length 618), as generally indicated by reference numeral 612. The changing height of the fibers 606 included in the flocking 604 may be based on changing fluid velocity of the aerodynamic surface 602. In other examples, the changing height of the fibers may be based on the height of a boundary layer (not shown) over the aerodynamic surface 602. It will be appreciated that localized changes in the fluid flow thereover, whether determined empirically or theoretically may provide a basis from which the length, width, flock density, yarn density or other characteristics of the individual fibers 606 may be determined and implemented. By varying the height etc. of the individual fibers 606 based on empirically and/or theoretically determined fluid flow characteristics, one or more above described aerodynamic characteristics may be altered. It will again be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the teachings of the present invention may be alternatively employed on all forms of, including, but not limited to, vehicles cars, trucks, snowmobiles, amphibian vehicles/aircraft, jet skis, water craft, boats, helicopters, hover craft, hobby aircraft and flying discs and the like. The description of the invention is merely exemplary in nature and, thus, variations that do not depart from the gist of the invention are intended to be within the scope of the invention. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The term “surface flocking” refers to a process of permanently attaching fibers to a surface. The end result is a “fuzzy” surface that is velvety to the touch. Flocking was originally invented hundreds of years ago to protect fragile objects from normally hard surfaces. First uses of surface flocking include jewelry boxes and body armor interior. Over the past few decades, it was discovered that surface flocking could be used to keep loose items from rattling inside automobile glove boxes and coin holders. Within the last few years it was discovered that surface flocking possesses excellent noise and vibration dampening qualities, and could be used to reduce the famous “bump, rattle, and squeak”. This has lead to a whole array of new applications including shock mounting brackets, sunroof tracks, seals and Heating Ventilation and Cooling (HVAC) ducts. Surface flocking is a popular alternative for acoustical dampening because it is inexpensive, lightweight, thin and generally does not require any design alterations of the original part. The present teachings provide new applications of surface flocking, and, in particular, surface flocking for altering the aerodynamic characteristics of various vehicles, structures and components thereof as described below. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A body part including a surface having a fluid flow thereover. The body part also includes flocking coupled to at least a portion of the surface that adjusts an aerodynamic characteristic relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In one feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes drag and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface decreases the drag thereover relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes noise and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface decreases the noise therefrom relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In still another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes volumetric flow over the surface and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface increases the volumetric flow thereover relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking. In yet another feature, the aerodynamic characteristic includes lift and the flocking coupled to at least the portion of the surface increases the lift produced by the airfoil for a predetermined range of angle of attack relative to the surface that is devoid of the flocking for the same range of angle of attack. Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the various embodiments of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. | 20050112 | 20080115 | 20050728 | 74050.0 | 0 | PAPE, JOSEPH | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR REDUCING DRAG AND NOISE FOR A VEHICLE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,138 | ACCEPTED | Cooling structure and cooling method for electronic equipment | A cooling structure for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, each of the electronic devices having a lower part where an air ventilation part configured to ventilate air so as to cool the electronic device is provided, the cooling structure includes an air intake and exhaust hole forming part which is formed at an upper part of a first one of the electronic devices and below the air ventilation part of a second one of the electronic devices provided on the first electronic device. Air outside of the electronic equipment is taken into an inside of the first electronic device or air inside of the second electronic device is exhausted to the outside of the electronic equipment via the air intake and exhaust hole forming part, so that an amount of the air ventilated inside of the first electric device is controlled. | 1. A cooling structure for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, each of the electronic devices having a lower part where an air ventilation part configured to ventilate air so as to cool the electronic device is provided, the cooling structure comprising: an air intake and exhaust hole forming part which is formed at an upper part of a first one of the electronic devices and below the air ventilation part of a second one of the electronic devices provided on the first electronic device; wherein air outside of the electronic equipment is taken into an inside of the first electronic device or air inside of the second electronic device is exhausted to the outside of the electronic equipment via the air intake and exhaust hole forming part, so that an amount of the air ventilated inside of the first electric device is controlled. 2. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electronic device includes an electric device main part situated above the air ventilation part, a cooling object of the air ventilation part is provided at the electric device main part, an air intake and exhaust hole forming area is formed in an area occupying an upper one third through one fourth of front and back surfaces of the electronic device main part, and the air intake and exhaust hole forming part is formed in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area. 3. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 2, wherein a numerical aperture of the air intake and exhaust hole forming part in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area is 20% through 40%. 4. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 2, wherein an electromagnetic wave shielding member, configured to shield against thee leakage of an electromagnetic wave to the outside of the electronic device, is provided in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area. 5. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electronic device includes an electric device main part situated above the air ventilation part, a cooling object of the air ventilation part is provided at the electric device main part, an air intake and exhaust hole forming area is formed in an area occupying an upper one third through one fourth of a side surface of the electronic device main part, and the air intake and exhaust hole forming part is formed in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area. 6. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 5, wherein a numerical aperture of the air intake and exhaust hole forming part in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area is 20% through 40%. 7. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 5, wherein an electromagnetic wave shielding member, configured to shield against the leakage of an electromagnetic wave to the outside of the electronic device, is provided in the air intake and exhaust hole forming area. 8. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 1, wherein the electronic device further includes: a temperature sensing part configured to sense a temperature inside of the electronic device; and an air ventilation control part configured to control an operation of the air ventilation part, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by the temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. 9. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 8, wherein the air ventilation part is a fan, the air ventilation control part increases the number of rotations of the fan when the temperature of an inside of the electronic device is higher than the operation guarantee temperature, and the air ventilation control part decreases the number of rotations of the fan when the temperature of the inside of the electronic device is lower than the operation guarantee temperature. 10. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 8, wherein the temperature sensing part is provided on an upper part of the electric device, and senses a temperature of inside air of the electric device. 11. The cooling structure as claimed in claim 8, wherein the temperature sensing part is fixed to an electric part provided inside of the electric device, and senses a temperature of the electric part. 12. A cooling method for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, the electronic equipment being cooled by ventilating air into the electric device, the cooling method comprising the step of: controlling the ventilation of the air in the electric device by taking air outside of the electronic equipment into an inside of the electronic device or exhausting air inside of the electronic device to the outside of the electronic equipment, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by a temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a U.S. continuation application filed under 35 USC 111(a) and claiming benefit under 35 USC 120 and 365(c) of PCT application No.JP2003/001880 filed on Feb. 20, 2003. The foregoing application is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to cooling structures and cooling methods for electronic equipment, and more particularly, to a cooling structure and a cooling method for electronic equipment which is composed of a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other. 2. Description of the Related Art A structure where plural electronic devices are superposed on each other in a rack is applied for electronic equipment such as telecommunication equipment. More specifically, plural plug-in units wherein electronic parts such as an integrated circuit (IC) or a large scale integration circuit (LSI) are mounted on a printed wiring board are received in a shelf. The plug-in unit is plugged in a back board provided in the shelf by a connector of the plug-in unit so that a single electronic device is formed. In the above-mentioned electronic equipment, the temperature of an inside of the electronic equipment rises due to generation of heat of the electronic parts or others. Because of this, a forced air type of cooling means is applied in order to keep the temperature of the inside of the electronic equipment as a desirable temperature. More specifically, a fan having a high cooling ability is installed and operated into the electronic equipment so that air is forcibly taken in the electronic equipment from the outside and circulated inside of the electronic equipment. As a result of this, the electronic parts which generate heat are cooled and then the heat is discharged outside. Conventionally, the operation of the fan, which forcibly cools the inside of the electronic equipment wherein plural electronic devices are superposed on each other in the rack, is determined based on an air flow whereby the electronic devices can be cooled so that the temperature in the electronic equipment is prevented from exceeding a temperature at which it is guaranteed that the electronic devices can be properly operated, namely an operation guarantee temperature, on the assumption that the greatest number of the plug-in units are installed in the shelf so that a calorific value generated when the greatest number of the electronic devices are installed in the rack, namely a maximum calorific value, is generated. According to the above-discussed conventional forced air type cooling means, the fan is set up and always driven so that the air flow corresponding to the maximum calorific value is always generated regardless of the amount of the rack actually occupied by the electronic devices. Therefore, the fan always consumes the maximum amount of consumption electric power. However, as a matter of fact, the greatest number of the plug-in units is not always installed in the shelf. Hence, there are a lot of cases wherein the calorific power generated by the electronic equipment does not reach to the maximum calorific power. According to the conventional forced air type cooling means, even in this case, the fan is set up and always driven so that the air flow corresponding to the maximum calorific value is always generated so that the fan generates air flow larger than necessary. Therefore, in the conventional forced air type cooling means, there is waste of electric power. Meanwhile, in other conventional art, a necessary number of temperature sensors are provided at proper parts in the electric equipment. By this sensor, the temperature of parts generating heat on the printed circuit board is always detected directly or indirectly. In addition, in this art, in order to make the temperature in the electronic equipment be equal to a setting temperature, a signal corresponding to a difference between the temperature in the electronic equipment and the setting temperature is output to a rotation control part. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, it is a general object of the present invention to provide a novel and useful cooling structure and cooling method for electronic equipment, in which one or more of the problems described above are eliminated. Another and more specific object of the present invention is to provide a cooling structure and a cooling method for electronic equipment, which is composed of a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, whereby the consumption of electric power for driving a fan to forcibly air cool the electronic device can be reduced while the operation guarantee temperature of the electronic device is maintained. The above object of the present invention is achieved by a cooling structure for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, each of the electronic devices having a lower part where an air ventilation part configured to ventilate air so as to cool the electronic device is provided, the cooling structure including: an air intake and exhaust hole forming part which is formed at an upper part of a first one of the electronic devices and below the air ventilation part of a second one of the electronic devices provided on the first electronic device; wherein air outside of the electronic equipment is taken into an inside of the first electronic device or air inside of the second electronic device is exhausted to the outside of the electronic equipment via the air intake and exhaust hole forming part, so that an amount of the air ventilated inside of the first electric device is controlled. The electronic device may further include: a temperature sensing part configured to sense a temperature inside of the electronic device; and an air ventilation control part configured to control an operation of the air ventilation part, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by the temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. The above object of the present invention is also achieved by a cooling method for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, the electronic equipment being cooled by ventilating air into the electric device, the cooling method including the step of: controlling the ventilation of the air in the electric device by taking air outside of the electronic equipment into an inside of the electronic device or exhausting air inside of the electronic device to the outside of the electronic equipment, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by a temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. Other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic front view showing communication equipment 1; FIG. 2 is a view showing a structure of the electronic device 100 shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view taken of the electronic device 100 shown in FIG. 1 taken along the line A-A in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the electronic device 100 seen from a direction shown by an arrow B in FIG. 2; FIG. 5 is an enlarged view of a part surrounded by a dotted line C of a rail plate 104 shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing an inside structure of a fan unit 150 shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 7 is a schematic view showing a method for controlling the number of rotation of a fan 153 by a fan control part 154; FIG. 8 is a view showing a first example wherein a sensor 170 is arranged at an electronic part 400 mounted on a printed wiring board 111; FIG. 9 is a view showing a second example wherein a sensor 170 is arranged at an electronic part 400 mounted on a printed wiring board 111; FIG. 10 is a view showing a third example wherein a sensor 170 is arranged at an electronic part 400 mounted on a printed wiring board 111; FIG. 11 is a schematic view of the communication equipment 1 for explaining air flow in the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300; FIG. 12 is a view showing nine conditions with regard to positions and areas of first intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216 and 316 and second intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 in a first simulation; FIG. 13 is a table showing results of the first simulation under the conditions shown in FIG. 12; FIG. 14 is a table showing results of a second simulation; and FIG. 15 is a perspective view showing a part of punching metal part 117. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERED EMBODIMENTS A description is next given, with reference to FIG. 1 through FIG. 15, of embodiments of the present invention. In the following embodiment, communication equipment is explained as an example of electronic equipment. FIG. 1 is a schematic front view showing communication equipment 1. Referring to FIG. 1, communication equipment 1 of the present invention has a rack 2 where plural shelves are provided in a vertical direction of the communication equipment 1. Electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 are respectively provided on the shelves. Hence, the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 are superposed on each other in the vertical direction in order from a bottom part of the communication equipment 1. Fan units 150, 250, and 350 configured to cool insides of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 are respectively inserted and installed in lower parts of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300. Air intake hole forming parts 15, 25, and 35 are formed on bottom surfaces of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300. Air exhaust hole forming parts 16, 26, and 36 are formed on upper surfaces of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300. Based on drive of the fan units 150, 250, and 300, air is ventilated (circulated) inside of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 so that the inside of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 is cooled. FIG. 2 is a view showing a structure of the electronic device 100 shown in FIG. 1. More specifically, FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the electronic device 100 in a state before the fan unit 150 is inserted and installed into the electronic device 100. In FIG. 2, an illustration of a part of ceiling plate 103 provided on the upper surface (end surface in the Z1 direction) of the electronic device 100 is omitted to easily understand an inside structure of the electronic device 100. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the electronic device 100 shown in FIG. 1 taken along the line A-A in FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the electronic device 100 seen from a direction shown by an arrow B in FIG. 2. Structures of the electronic devices 200 and 300 are same as the structure of the electronic device 100. Hence, explanation of the electronic device 100 represents explanations of the electronic devices 200 and 300. Referring to FIG. 2, the electronic device 100 has a shelf 101 having a substantially box configuration. In the shelf 101, several plug-in units 110 which are objects to be cooled are installed in a horizontal width direction, namely X1-X2 direction, in parallel so as to form an electronic device main body part 180. The plug-in unit 110 is inserted inside of the shelf 101 by sliding on a rail member (not shown) provided inside of the electronic device 100 and on a rail plate 104 whose upper surface is covered with the ceiling plate 103 provided on the upper surface (end surface in the Z1 direction) of the electronic device 100. A fan unit installation part 102 is formed inside of the electronic device 100 and below the electronic device main body part 180. The fan unit 150 is installed in the fan unit installation part 102 so as to cool the inside of the electronic device 100. By inserting the fan unit 150 into the fan unit installation part 102, the fan unit 150 is installed inside of the electronic device 100 so that a fan installation part 190 is formed. Referring to FIG. 3, a back surface cover member 105 is provided on a back surface of the electronic device 100, namely an end surface of the electronic device 100 in the Y1 direction. A back wiring board (hereinafter “BWB”) 106 is provided in a height direction, namely Z1-Z2 direction of the electronic device 100, at a position slightly separated from the back surface cover member 105 in the Y2 direction. The plug-in unit 110 has a printed wiring board 111 where electronic parts not shown in FIG. 3 are mounted. A surface plate 113 is provided at an end part in the Y2 direction of the printed wiring board 111. A lever 115 is rotatably provided at each of end parts of a upper side, namely in the Z1 direction and a lower side in the Z2 direction, of the surface plate 113. A plug-in unit connector part 144 is provided at an end part in the Y1 direction of the printed wiring board 111. When the plug-in unit 110 is slid so that the plug-in unit 110 is completely inserted inside of the electronic device 100, the plug-in unit connector part 144 is engaged with a connector (not shown in FIG. 3) of the BWB 106 of the electronic device 100 so that a plug-in connection is made and thereby a connection for an electric signal is provided. Furthermore, the plug-in unit 110 is fixed to the electronic device 100 by rotating the levers 115 provided the end parts of the upper side, namely in the Z1 direction and the lower side in the Z2 direction, of the surface plate 113. A first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116 is formed in a part that is the upper one third of the whole area of the surface plate 113. A punching metal part 117 where a designated number of first intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114 having designated diameters and areas are formed is installed in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116. By the first intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, air outside of the electronic device 100 is taken into an inside of the electronic device 100 or air inside of the electronic device 100 is exhausted to the outside of the electronic device 100. A back board air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130-1 is formed in an area corresponding to the first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116 at an upper part of the BWB 106. Furthermore, a second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 131 is formed in an area corresponding to the first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116 at the back surface cover member 105. More specifically, a punching metal part 132 where a designated number of back surface cover air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 130-2 are formed is installed in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 131. See FIG. 4, too. The back board air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130-1 and the back surface cover air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130-2 form a second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130. By the second intake and exhaust hole forming parts 130, air outside of the electronic device 100 is taken into an inside of the electronic device 100 or air inside of the electronic device 100 is exhausted to the outside of the electronic device 100. While the electronic device 100 is partially opened to the outside by the above-mentioned first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 and second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, the leakage of electromagnetic waves to the outside of the electronic device 100 is prevented due to shielding by the above-mentioned punching metal part 117 and the punching metal part 132. That is, the punching metal part 117 and the punching metal part 132 function as electromagnetic wave shielding members. As described above, the punching metal part 132 installed at the back surface cover 105 situated more outside than the BWB 106 works as means for shielding the electromagnetic wave from leaking to the outside of the electronic device 100 at a side of a back surface of the electronic device 100, namely at the side of the Y1 direction. Hence, it is not necessary to provide such means at the BEB 106. Thus, in this embodiment, the first intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 is installed at the front surface side of the electronic device 100, namely Y2 side in FIG. 2, and the second intake and exhaust hole forming parts 130 is installed at the back surface side of the electronic device 100, namely Y1 side in FIG. 2. However, the present invention is not limited to the above-mentioned structure. For example, the first intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 may be installed in a side surface 108 (See FIG. 2) situated at the X1 side in FIG. 2 of the electronic device 100, and the second intake and exhaust hole forming part 130 may be installed in a side surface 109 (See FIG. 4) situated at the X2 side in FIG. 2 of the electronic device 100. The above mentioned first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116 and second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 131 work as air intake and exhaust hole forming areas. The first intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 and second intake and exhaust hole forming part 130 work as air intake and exhaust hole forming parts. Next, the structure of a rail plate 104 is discussed. FIG. 5 is an enlarged view of a part surrounded by a dotted line C of a rail plate 104 shown in FIG. 2. Referring to FIG. 3 and FIG. 5, a large number of rail plate hole forming parts 133 are arranged in the rail plate 104. By driving a fan unit 150 described later, air in the electronic device 100 is blown to an electronic device 200 (See FIG. 1) provided above the electronic device 100 via the rail plate hole forming parts 133, the air exhaust hole forming part 16 (See FIG. 1), and the air intake hole forming part 25 (See FIG. 1) of the electronic device 200. A designated number of sockets 172 for installing sensors, described later, are screw-fixed at designated parts of the rail plate 104 where the above-mentioned rail plate hole forming parts 133 are not formed. A sensor is connected to the socket 172. The sensor 170 faces the rail plate hole forming part 133 which is a part where the air inside of the electronic device 100 passes. The sensor 170 is a thermistor, for example, and works as a temperature sensor. In this embodiment, the sensor 170 measures air temperature inside of the electronic device 100. An optional number of the sensors 170 are provided at measuring parts which are determined in advance by a temperature simulation or the like. A cable 171 for sensing is also connected to the socket 172. A connector 173 (See FIG. 3) is provided at an end part at a side not connected to the socket 172 of the cable 171. The connector 173 is connected to the BWB 106 (See FIG. 3). Under this structure, the sensor is electrically connected to the BWB 106. Next, the structure of a fan unit 150 is discussed. FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing an inside structure of the fan unit 150 shown in FIG. 2. In FIG. 6, a cover member 151 (See FIG. 2) covering a part of an upper side of the fan unit 150 is removed. Referring to FIG. 6, the fan unit 150 has a frame body 152 whose plane rectangular-shaped configuration is substantially the same as the plane configuration of the shelf 101 (See FIG. 2). Plural fans 153, ten fans 153 as shown in FIG. 6 for example, are arranged in a level plane in the frame body 152. For example, a direct current (DC) drive axial fan or the like can be used as the fan 153. The fan 153 works as an air ventilation part. By driving the fan 153, air inside of the electronic device 100 is blown up from a lower part to an upper part, namely in the Z1 direction in FIG. 2, so that the inside of the electronic device 100 is cooled. A fan control part 154 is provided at an inside of the frame body 152 and a front surface side, namely the Y2 direction side. The fan control part 154 has a printed circuit board (not shown in FIG. 6) for a fan control circuit for controlling the number of rotations of the fans 153. A fan unit connector 155 is provided at the back surface side, namely the Y1 direction side, of the frame body 152 so as to be connected to the BWB 106 (See FIG. 3). The fans 153, the fan control part 154 and the fan unit connector 155 are connected to each other by a cable (not shown in FIG. 6). Therefore, the fans 153 and the fan control part 154 are electrically connected to the BWN 106 (See FIG. 3) via the fan unit connector 155. Meanwhile, as discussed with reference to FIG. 3, the sensor 170 provided at the upper part of the electronic device 100 is electrically connected to the BWB 106 via the cable 171. Therefore, the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100 sensed by the sensor 170 is transmitted to the BWB 106 via the cable 171 as a voltage change and then transmitted to the fan unit connector 155 provided in the fan unit 150 via a circuit pattern formed in the BWB 106. Based on the transmitted information, the fan control part 154 of the fan unit 150 controls the number of rotations of the fans 153 and works as an air ventilation part controlling part. FIG. 7 is a schematic view showing a method for controlling the number of rotations of the fans 153 by the fan control part 154. For convenience of explanation, the fan control part 154 is shown taken out from the electronic device 100 in FIG. 7. Referring to FIG. 7, the fan control part 154 includes a feedback control part 154-1 and a rotation control part 154-2. As described above, temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100, sensed by the sensor 170, is transmitted to the fan control part 154. The feedback control part 154-1 of the fan control part 154 compares the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100, sensed by the sensor 170, and an operation guarantee temperature which is set in advance as a temperature at which it is guaranteed that the electronic device 100 properly operates. The feedback control part 154-1 further outputs a control signal in proportion to a temperature difference of the above-mentioned temperatures to the rotation control part 154-2, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100 becomes equal to the operation guarantee temperature. The rotation control part 154-2 controls the number of rotations of the fans 153 based on an output signal of the feedback control part 154-1 so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100 is maintained constant at the operation guarantee temperature. More specifically, when the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100 is higher than the operation guarantee temperature, the rotation control part 154-2 increases the number of the rotations of the fans 153 so that the number of the rotations of the fans 153 becomes high. When the temperature of the inside of the electronic device 100 is lower than the operation guarantee temperature, the rotation control part 154-2 decreases the number of the rotations of the fans 153 so that the number of the rotations of the fans 153 becomes low. Meanwhile, as discussed with reference to FIG. 2, FIG. 3, and FIG. 5, in this embodiment, the sensor 170 provided at the upper parts of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 senses a temperature of inside air atmosphere of the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300. However, the present invention is not limited to the above-mentioned structure. For example, as shown in FIG. 8, FIG. 9, and FIG. 10, the sensor 170 may be attached to an electronic parts mounted on the printed wiring board 111 of the plug-in unit 110 shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. FIG. 8 is a view showing a first example wherein the sensor 170 is arranged at an electronic part 400 mounted on the printed wiring board 111. Referring to FIG. 8, the sensor 170 is mounted on the electronic part 400. The sensor 170 and the electronic part 400 are covered with a pushing metal fitting member 401 so that the sensor 170 is pushed and fixed on the electronic part 400. Furthermore, the cable 170 for the sensor 170 which is connected to the sensor 171 is covered with a tube member 402. An end, where the sensor 170 is not connected, of the cable 171 covered with the tube member 402 is taken in the wiring pattern (not shown) of the printed wiring board 111. FIG. 9 is a view showing a second example wherein the sensor 170 is arranged at the electronic part 400 mounted on the printed wiring board 111. Referring to FIG. 9, the sensor 170 is mounted on the electronic part 400 and fixed on the electronic part 400 by a tape 502. The tape 502 has a high insulating property against temperature change. As well as the case shown in FIG. 8, the cable 171 for the sensor 170 which is connected to the sensor 170 is covered with the tube member 402. An end, where the sensor 170 is not connected, of the cable 171 covered with the tube member 402 is taken in the wiring pattern (not shown) of the printed wiring board 111. FIG. 10 is a view showing a third example wherein the sensor 170 is arranged at the electronic part 400 mounted on the printed wiring board 111. Referring to FIG. 10, the sensor is mounted on the electronic part 400. A fin 403 is provided on the electronic part 400 and the sensor 170 so that the sensor 170 is put between the electronic part 400 and the fin 403. Furthermore, as well as the cases shown in FIG. 8 and FIG. 9, the cable 171 connected to the sensor 179 is covered with the tube member 402. An end, where the sensor 170 is not connected, of the cable 171 covered with the tube member 402 is taken in the wiring pattern (not shown) of the printed wiring board 111. Under structures shown in FIG. 8 through FIG. 10, by plugging in the plug-in unit 110 shown in FIG. 3 to the BWB 106, the temperature of the electronic part 400 sensed by the sensor 170 is transmitted to the BWB 106 as a voltage change, and then transmitted to the fan unit connector 155 provided in the fan unit 150 via the circuit pattern formed in the BWB 106. Based on the transmitted information, the fan control part 154 of the fan unit 150 controls the number of rotations of the fans 153. See FIG. 3. According to the structures shown in FIG. 8 through FIG. 10, even if an allowable temperature of the electronic part 400 mounted on the printed wiring board 111 of the plug-in unit 110 is low, it is possible to securely sense the temperature of the electronic part 400 and control the number of the rotations of the fans 153 so that the temperature of the electronic part 400 is prevented from being higher than the operation guarantee temperature. Because of this, it is possible to protect the electronic part 400 mounted on the printed wiring board 111 of the plug-in unit 110. The sensor 170 may be provided at a part corresponding to a measurement point set in advance in the plug-in unit 110 based on a result of a temperature simulation, for example. Next, a method for cooling the communication equipment 1 of the present invention having the electronic devices 100, 200, and 300 having the above-mentioned structures is discussed. FIG. 11 is a schematic view of the communication equipment 1 for explaining an air flow in the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300. As described above, the electronic device 100 includes an electronic device main part 180 and a fan installation part 190 provided below the electronic device main part 180. The sensor 170 for sensing a temperature inside of the electronic device 100 is provided inside of the electronic device main part 180. The fan control part 154 of the fan installation part 190 controls the number of rotations of the fans 153 so that the temperature inside of the electronic device 100 which is sensed by the sensor 170 becomes a constant operation guarantee temperature. Furthermore, at the upper part of the electronic device main part 180, the first intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 and second intake and exhaust hole forming part 130 are provided in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 116 and second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 131 so that the air outside of the electronic device 100 can be taken inside of the electronic device 100 or air inside of the electronic device 100 can be exhausted outside of the electronic device 100. Furthermore, as described above, the electronic device 200 also has the same structure as the electronic device 100. That is, as shown in FIG. 11, the electronic device 200 includes an electronic device main part 280, a fan installation part 290, a fan control part 254, a fan 253, a sensor 270, a first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 214, a second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 230, a first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 216, and a second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 231. Similarly, the electronic device 300 also has the same structure as the electronic device 100. That is, as shown in FIG. 11, the electronic device 300 includes an electronic device main part 380, a fan installation part 390, a fan control part 354, a fan 353, a sensor 370, a first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 314, a second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 330, a first air intake and exhaust hole forming area 316, and a second air intake and exhaust hole forming area 331. That is, in this embodiment, the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 are superposed on each other in the height direction of the communication equipment 1. The fan installation part 290 provided at the lower part of the electronic device 200 provided on the electronic device 100 and the first air intake and exhaust forming part 114 and the second air intake and exhaust forming part 130 provided at the upper part of the electronic device 100 are adjacently positioned. Similarly, the fan installation part 390 provided at the lower part of the electronic device 300 provided on the electronic device 200 and the first air intake and exhaust forming part 214 and the second air intake and exhaust forming part 230 provided at the upper part of the electronic device 200 are adjacently positioned. Under this structure, the communication equipment 1 of the present invention is cooled according to the following equation 1 showing an air flow of air which flows inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300. V1=V2+V3 [Equation 1] Here, V1 represents the air flow of air propelled from a fan from an electronic device (1). V2 represents an air flow set from another electronic device (2) provided below the electronic device (1) to a fan of the electronic device (1). V3 represents an air flow which is taken in or exhausted from the first and second air intake and exhaust hole forming parts of the electronic device (2) provided below the electronic device (1). A case of “intake” is expressed as a positive, and a case of “exhaust” is expressed as a negative. For example, it is hypothetically assumed that the temperature inside of the electronic device 100 and the temperature inside of the electronic device 300 are higher than the operation guarantee temperature, and the temperature inside of the electronic device 200 is lower than the operation guarantee temperature. In this case, in the electronic device 100 whose inside has a temperature higher than the operation guarantee temperature, the fan control part 154 makes the fan 153 rotate at a high speed based on a sensing result of the sensor 170 in order to make the inside temperature of the electronic device 100 become equal to the operation guarantee temperature. On the other hand, in the electronic device 200 whose inside has a temperature lower than the operation guarantee temperature, the fan control part 254 makes the fan 253 rotate at a low speed based on a sensing result of the sensor 270. Therefore, an air flow U1 generated inside of the electronic device 100 by the rotation of the fan 153 and sent to the electronic device 200 is larger than an air flow U2 generated inside of the electronic device 200 by the rotation of the fan 253. The first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130 are provided in the vicinity of a lower side of the fan installation part 290 of the electronic device 200 provided on the electronic device 100. Hence, air having a high temperature inside of the electronic device 100 is exhausted from the first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 114 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130 and the above-mentioned equation 1 is satisfied. Thus, it is possible to control air flowing in the electronic device 200 so that waste of electric power due to rotation of the fan 253 in vain can be prevented. In the electronic device 200 whose inside has a temperature lower than the operation guarantee temperature, the fan control part 254 makes the fan 253 rotate at a low speed based on a sensing result of the sensor 270. In the electronic device 300 whose inside has a temperature higher than the operation guarantee temperature, the fan control part 354 makes the fan 353 rotate at a high speed based on a sensing result of the sensor 370 in order to make the inside temperature of the electronic device 300 equal to the operation guarantee temperature. Therefore, the air flow U2 generated inside of the electronic device 200 by the rotation of the fan 253 and sent to the electronic device 300 is smaller than an air flow U3 generated inside of the electronic device 300 by the rotation of the fan 353. The first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 214 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 230 are provided in the vicinity of a lower side of the fan installation part 390 of the electronic device 300 provided on the electronic device 200. Hence, air outside of the electronic device 200 which has a temperature lower than the inside of the electronic device 200 is taken in through the first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 214 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 230. The outside air taken in through the first air intake and exhaust hole forming part 214 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 230 is mixed with the air having an air flow U2 generated inside of the electronic device 200 by the rotation of the fan 253 and sent to the electronic device 300 so as to be supplied to the electronic device 300 whose inside has a temperature higher than the operation guarantee temperature. As a result of this, the above-mentioned equation 1 is satisfied. Thus, according to the method for cooling the communication equipment 1 of the present invention, in order to make the inside temperature of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 equal to the operation guarantee temperatures, the fans 153, 253 and 353 are rotated so that air having designated air flow is provided. Through the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 130, 230 and 330, air outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is taken inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300, or air inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is exhausted to outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300. Because of this, air flows of the air ventilated (circulated) inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 are controlled. Therefore, because of control of the air flow by the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330, when the fan control parts 154, 254 and 354 control the rotations of the fans 153, 253 and 353 in order to keep the temperature sensed by the sensors 170, 270 and 370 constant, rotating the fans 153, 253 and 353 more than necessary cab be prevented. Therefore, it is possible to reduce consumption of electric power for the fans 153, 253 and 353. Meanwhile, inventors of the present invention did two kinds of simulations and obtained the following results, in order to know proper positions and areas of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 where the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 are formed and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 where the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 are formed; and proper numerical apertures of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331. Here, as conditions for the simulation, measurement of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 are set as having 235 mm as a vertical length, 541 mm as a horizontal length, and 118.5 mm as a height, and measurement of the fan installation parts 190, 290 and 390 are set as having 235 mm as a vertical length, 541 mm as a horizontal length, and 458.5 mm as a height. Furthermore, numerical apertures of the air intake hole forming parts 15, 25 and 35 and the air exhaust hole forming parts 16, 26 and 36 are set as 40%, and loss factors of the air intake hole forming parts 15, 25 and 35 and the air exhaust hole forming parts 16, 26 and 36 are set as 3.0. In addition, the consumption of electric power by heating elements inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300, and the rotations of the fans 153, 253 and 353 are set as shown in the following table 1. TABLE 1 Electronic Electronic Electronic Device 100 Device 200 Device 300 Consumption of 34.5 × 20 17.25 × 20 34.5 × 20 Electric Power By Heating Elements In Electronic Device [W] Rotation of Fan High Speed Low Speed High Speed Rotation Rotation Rotation The inventors of the present invention did a first simulation, by setting constant 40% as the numerical apertures of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331, and changing positions and areas of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 where the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 are formed and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 where the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 are formed as shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 12 is a view showing nine conditions (FIG. 12-(a) through FIG. 12-(i)) with regard to the positions and areas of the first intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216 and 316 and the second intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 in the first simulation. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(a), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the upper half of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(b), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the upper one third of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(c), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the upper one fourth of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(d), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the middle half of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 line-symmetrically with respect to a center part of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 (shown by one point dotted line). In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(e), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the middle one third of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 line-symmetrically with respect to a center part of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 (shown by one point dotted line). In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(f), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the middle one fourth of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 line-symmetrically with respect to a center part of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 (shown by one point dotted line). In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(g), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the lower half of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(h), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the lower one third of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. In the condition shown in FIG. 12-(i), the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the lower one fourth of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380. Under the above-discussed conditions, the simulation was done and it is found that the temperature rises at upper parts, center parts, and lower parts of the electronic devices. FIG. 13 shows a table showing the results of the first simulation under the conditions shown in FIG. 12. Referring to FIG. 13, under the conditions shown in FIG. 12-(b) or FIG. 12-(c), namely in the case where the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the upper one third through one fourth of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380, temperature increases of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 are least and therefore the best cooling effect of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is obtained. Under the conditions shown in FIG. 12-(g) through FIG. 12-(i), that is in the case where the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed at a lower side of the front and back surfaces, namely a side close to the fans 153, 253 and 353, since directivity of a current of air propelled from the fans 153, 253 and 353 is strong, the propelled air spreads to the outside in the vicinity of the fans 153, 253 and 353. Therefore, air propelled from the fans 153, 253 and 353 and having a high speed is blown out to the outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 via the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214 and 314 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 130, 230 and 330 and therefore the cooling effect is degraded. Next, the inventors did a second simulation, by setting the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 to be formed in an area occupying the upper one third of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 0.180, 280 and 380, as shown in FIG. 12-(b), and changing the numerical apertures of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 to 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. As a result of the second simulation, temperature increases at the upper part, center part and lower part of the electric device main parts 180, 280 and 380 as shown in FIG. 14 are found. Here, FIG. 14 shows a table showing the result of the second simulation. Referring to FIG. 14, under the conditions that the numerical apertures of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are 20% through 40%, temperature increases of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 are least and therefore best cooling effect on the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is obtained. That is to say, if only minimizing the temperature increases inside of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 is considered, it is preferable that the above-mentioned numerical aperture be made large. However, it the numerical aperture is too large, shielding against leakage of the electromagnetic waves of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is made weak. The inventors of the present invention realized that it is possible to make the temperature increases inside of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 the least and effectively shield against leakage of the electromagnetic wave to the outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300, by applying the structure shown in FIG. 15 to the punching metal parts 117 and 132 shown in FIG. 3 and others. Here, FIG. 15 is a perspective view showing a part of the punching metal parts 117 and 132. Referring to FIG. 15, in the punching metal parts 117 and 132 each of which has a plate having a thickness of 2 mm, plural opening circles having diameters of 2 mm are formed in a state where center parts of the circles are offset to the side at 3 mm and 60 degrees. Under this structure, in a case where the numerical aperture is 40.3%, that is, the opening parts are formed in the punching plate in a state where 115 opening circles are formed per a square having a side of a wave length, 30.2 dB of shielding effect for electromagnetic waves having a frequency of 10 GHz is obtained by the following equation 2. Shielding effect for electromagnetic waves having a frequency of 10GHz=20 log(fc/f)+27.3(t/w)−10 log(n) [Equation 2] Here, “w” represents the diameter of the opening circle and is 2 mm in the example shown in FIG. 12; “t” represents the thickness of the punching metal and is 2 mm in the example shown in FIG. 12; “f” represents the frequency and is 10 GHz in the example shown in FIG. 12; “fc” represents a shield frequency and is 1.76×1011/W=87.7 GHz in the example shown in FIG. 12; and “n” represents the number of opening circles formed per a square having a side of a wave length λ (3×108/f=30 mm) and is 115 in the example shown in FIG. 12. Thus, in order to realize that it is possible to make the temperature increases inside of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380 the least and effectively shield against leakage of the electromagnetic waves to the outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300, it is most preferable that the numerical aperture in the punching metal parts 117 and 132 be approximately 40%, for example. Thus, under the conditions shown in FIG. 12-(b) or FIG. 12-(c), namely in the case where the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are formed in an area occupying the upper one third through one fourth of the front surface and back surface of the electronic device main parts 180, 280 and 380, and the numerical apertures of the first air intake and exhaust hole forming parts 114, 214, and 314 in the first air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 116, 216, and 316 and the second air intake and exhaust hole forming part 130, 230 and 330 in the second air intake and exhaust hole forming areas 131, 231 and 331 are 20% through 40%, it is possible to effectively shield against the leakage of the electromagnetic waves to outside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 and make the temperature increases of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 the least and therefore the best cooling effect for the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 is obtained. Therefore, under the above-discussed structure, in a case where the plug-in units 110 which are heating sources, are not installed fully inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300, it is possible to reduce the number of rotations of the fans cooling the inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 so that consumption of electric power of the fans can be efficiently reduced. For example, in a case where the plug-in units 110 which are heating sources are fully installed inside of the electronic devices 100, 200 and 300 and the fans 153, 253 and 353 which consume electric power of 50W for cooling them are installed in the electric devices 100, 200 and 300 but only half of the plug-in units 110 actually work, electric power of 150 W is consumed for driving the fans 153, 253 and 353 in the conventional art. However, according to the present invention, only approximately 75 W is consumed and therefore it is possible to reduce consumption of the electric power. The present invention is not limited to these embodiments, but variations and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to cooling structures and cooling methods for electronic equipment, and more particularly, to a cooling structure and a cooling method for electronic equipment which is composed of a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other. 2. Description of the Related Art A structure where plural electronic devices are superposed on each other in a rack is applied for electronic equipment such as telecommunication equipment. More specifically, plural plug-in units wherein electronic parts such as an integrated circuit (IC) or a large scale integration circuit (LSI) are mounted on a printed wiring board are received in a shelf. The plug-in unit is plugged in a back board provided in the shelf by a connector of the plug-in unit so that a single electronic device is formed. In the above-mentioned electronic equipment, the temperature of an inside of the electronic equipment rises due to generation of heat of the electronic parts or others. Because of this, a forced air type of cooling means is applied in order to keep the temperature of the inside of the electronic equipment as a desirable temperature. More specifically, a fan having a high cooling ability is installed and operated into the electronic equipment so that air is forcibly taken in the electronic equipment from the outside and circulated inside of the electronic equipment. As a result of this, the electronic parts which generate heat are cooled and then the heat is discharged outside. Conventionally, the operation of the fan, which forcibly cools the inside of the electronic equipment wherein plural electronic devices are superposed on each other in the rack, is determined based on an air flow whereby the electronic devices can be cooled so that the temperature in the electronic equipment is prevented from exceeding a temperature at which it is guaranteed that the electronic devices can be properly operated, namely an operation guarantee temperature, on the assumption that the greatest number of the plug-in units are installed in the shelf so that a calorific value generated when the greatest number of the electronic devices are installed in the rack, namely a maximum calorific value, is generated. According to the above-discussed conventional forced air type cooling means, the fan is set up and always driven so that the air flow corresponding to the maximum calorific value is always generated regardless of the amount of the rack actually occupied by the electronic devices. Therefore, the fan always consumes the maximum amount of consumption electric power. However, as a matter of fact, the greatest number of the plug-in units is not always installed in the shelf. Hence, there are a lot of cases wherein the calorific power generated by the electronic equipment does not reach to the maximum calorific power. According to the conventional forced air type cooling means, even in this case, the fan is set up and always driven so that the air flow corresponding to the maximum calorific value is always generated so that the fan generates air flow larger than necessary. Therefore, in the conventional forced air type cooling means, there is waste of electric power. Meanwhile, in other conventional art, a necessary number of temperature sensors are provided at proper parts in the electric equipment. By this sensor, the temperature of parts generating heat on the printed circuit board is always detected directly or indirectly. In addition, in this art, in order to make the temperature in the electronic equipment be equal to a setting temperature, a signal corresponding to a difference between the temperature in the electronic equipment and the setting temperature is output to a rotation control part. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, it is a general object of the present invention to provide a novel and useful cooling structure and cooling method for electronic equipment, in which one or more of the problems described above are eliminated. Another and more specific object of the present invention is to provide a cooling structure and a cooling method for electronic equipment, which is composed of a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, whereby the consumption of electric power for driving a fan to forcibly air cool the electronic device can be reduced while the operation guarantee temperature of the electronic device is maintained. The above object of the present invention is achieved by a cooling structure for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, each of the electronic devices having a lower part where an air ventilation part configured to ventilate air so as to cool the electronic device is provided, the cooling structure including: an air intake and exhaust hole forming part which is formed at an upper part of a first one of the electronic devices and below the air ventilation part of a second one of the electronic devices provided on the first electronic device; wherein air outside of the electronic equipment is taken into an inside of the first electronic device or air inside of the second electronic device is exhausted to the outside of the electronic equipment via the air intake and exhaust hole forming part, so that an amount of the air ventilated inside of the first electric device is controlled. The electronic device may further include: a temperature sensing part configured to sense a temperature inside of the electronic device; and an air ventilation control part configured to control an operation of the air ventilation part, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by the temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. The above object of the present invention is also achieved by a cooling method for electronic equipment including a plurality of electronic devices superposed on each other, the electronic equipment being cooled by ventilating air into the electric device, the cooling method including the step of: controlling the ventilation of the air in the electric device by taking air outside of the electronic equipment into an inside of the electronic device or exhausting air inside of the electronic device to the outside of the electronic equipment, so that the temperature of the inside of the electronic device sensed by a temperature sensing part becomes equal to a designated operation guarantee temperature. Other objects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050112 | 20061114 | 20050609 | 68968.0 | 0 | JIANG, CHEN WEN | COOLING STRUCTURE AND COOLING METHOD FOR ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,140 | ACCEPTED | Environmental barrier coating material and coating structure and ceramic structure using the same | An environmental barrier coating material comprising one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; zirconia-containing hafnia; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica, which when formed as a coating structure for covering a substrate which has a low thermal expansion coefficient, has hafnon (HfSiO4) serving as a first layer directly formed on the substrate, and hafnia with which the first layer is coated as a second layer. | 1. An environmental barrier coating material comprising one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; zirconia-containing hafnia; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica. 2. An environmental barrier coating structure for covering a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, comprising hafnon (HfSiO4) serving as a first layer directly formed on the substrate, and hafnia with which the first layer is coated as a second layer. 3. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 2, wherein the hafnia contains zirconia (ZrO2). 4. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 2, wherein the hafnia is stabilized. 5. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 4, wherein stabilization of the hafnia is performed by one or two selected from a group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica. 6. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 3, wherein in the second layer the zirconia content is higher in a portion near a coating surface than a portion near the first layer. 7. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 6, wherein in the second layer the zirconia content gradually increases as receding from the first layer. 8. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 2 , wherein the first layer is a hafnia-silica oxide layer comprising hafnon (HfSiO4) as a main constituent and at least one of hafnia (HfO2), zirconia (ZrO2) or silica (SiO2). 9. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 5, wherein a layer of hafnia which contains zirconia and is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica is formed as the second layer, and the silica constituent of the second layer has a gradient in content so as to gradually decrease from the first layer toward the coating surface. 10. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 9, wherein in the second layer a portion closest to the first layer comprises hafnia stabilized by only silica and a coating surface portion comprises hafnia stabilized by only one or more rare-earth oxides. 11. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 8, wherein the hafnia-silica oxide layer as the first layer has a hafnium and silicon composition ratio by atomic ratio in a range from about 3:7 to 7:3. 12. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 11, wherein a thickness of the hafnia-silica oxide layer is from 0.1 mm to 600 mm. 13. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 4, wherein the stabilized hafnia layer as the second layer comprises a small amount of one or more of SiO2, Ln2Si2O7 (Ln representing a rare-earth), Ln2SiO5, HfSiO4 and ZrSiO4 phases as a subphase. 14. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 13, wherein a thickness of the stabilized hafnia layer is from 1 mm to 600 mm. 15. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 4, wherein the stabilized hafnia is stabilized in a cubic system or a tetragonal system by one or more rare-earth oxides and has a mole ratio with respect to hafnia of AO2 (A representing hafnia): Ln2O3 (Ln representing a rare-earth) in a range from about 97:3 to 50:50. 16. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 4, wherein the stabilized hafnia is stabilized in a cubic system or a tetragonal system by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica, and has a mole ratio AO2:Ln2O3 and SiO2 in a range from about 9:1 to 6:4. 17. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 5, wherein the rare-earth oxide comprises one or more hafnia stabilizers selected from a group consisting of Y2O3, La2O3, Nd2O3, Sm2O3, Gd2O3, DY2O3, Ho2O3, Er2O3, Yb2O3 and Lu2O3. 18. The environmental barrier coating structure according to claim 2, wherein the substrate is formed of silicon nitride ceramics, silicon carbide ceramics or a composite material thereof. | TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure to which the coating material is applied, suitable for use in a harsh environment in which exposure to a high-temperature and high-velocity combustion gas flow containing water vapor occurs. Further, the present invention relates, specifically, to an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure to which the coating material is applied, which suppresses corrosion and erosion under the high-temperature and high-pressure conditions of a gas turbine component in an environment in which a corrosive gases are present. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Silicon nitride ceramics and silicon carbide ceramics are easily oxidized at high temperatures and eroded in an environment, in which water vapor is present, as a result of corrosion. There is, therefore, a need to protect erosion when non-oxide ceramics are applied as a gas turbine component, requiring the application onto the surface of a water vapor corrosion resistant layer for that purpose. A mechanism for improving oxidation resistance has been proposed for silicon nitride ceramics having excellent oxidation resistance in high temperatures, as disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 6-32658, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 5-221728 and Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 5-208870, in which a rare-earth oxide is added as a sintering aid and the resulting compound is formed on the surface. Lutetium disilicate (Lu2Si2O7) has a relatively low thermal expansion coefficient, and it is known that this material can remain on a non-oxide ceramics surface even after testing in an actual gas turbine environment. This material has begun to be broadly researched as a candidate material for an environmental barrier coating for non-oxide ceramics. Regarding non-oxide ceramic structures having a rare-earth oxide silica coating deposited, a rare-earth silicate deposited silicon nitride ceramic structure, with the rare-earth with respect to Y, Yb, Er and Dy, is known as disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 11-139883, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 11-12050, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 10-87386, and Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 10-87364. It is also well known that water vapor corrosion can be effectively suppressed in a static environment when the rare-earth is Lu by depositing lutetium silicate on a silicon nitride ceramics. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, at an actual gas turbine combustion field, water vapor generated from the combustion of fossil fuels exists, and the field is subjected to a high-temperature and high-velocity air flow. Therefore, an environmental barrier coating must be a material which effectively suppresses erosion in such a harsh environment. To put into practical use as a gas turbine component, the erosion in an environment equivalent to that of an actual gas turbine is required to be not more than several hundred microns over 10,000 hours. However, a material showing such excellent environmental-resistance is yet to be found. The erosion mechanism of a material in a high-temperature and high-velocity air flow in the presence of water vapor can be expressed in accordance with an Arrhenius equation as a function of the pressure, water vapor pressure and velocity of the air flow. Accordingly, a large number of parameters need to be taken into consideration for the physical properties required for an environmental barrier coating candidate material, such as (1) high melting point; (2) suppression of high-temperature chemical reaction; and (3) small water vapor pressure of the generated chemical species in cases where high-temperature chemical reaction does occur. However, the fact is that at present using only the test results from a water vapor corrosion test, the physical properties for an excellent environmental barrier coating material cannot be correctly evaluated. In view of this, it is an object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure to which the coating material is applied, which can suppress erosion over a long period of time even in a harsh environment with exposure to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor. It is another object of the present invention to provide a feasible environmental barrier coating structure that is an effective environmental barrier coating for a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, such as a ceramics. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating structure and a ceramic structure which can constitute a corrosion-resistant layer that can effectively suppress the progress into the substrate of a crack resulting from stress between the coating and the substrate. Specifically, it is an object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure in which the coating material is applied, which enables the fabrication of a structure, such as a gas turbine component or the like, having an environmental barrier coating that can suppress corrosion and erosion even in an environment with exposure to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor at a high temperature of about 1300° C. or more. In such circumstances and in view of the above-described conventional art, the present inventors have discovered an environmental barrier coating material which allows the various problems in the above-described conventional art to be fundamentally resolved. As a result of intensive research having as its objective the production of ceramics possessing an environmental barrier coating, the inventors discovered that hafnia, hafnia containing zirconia, and partially stabilized hafnia containing zirconia can suppress erosion over a long period of time even in an environment equivalent to that in an actual gas turbine conditions, that is, an environment exposed to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor. In addition, the present inventors have also discovered that it is possible to fabricate ceramics having an environmental barrier coating that can suppress erosion even in an environment equivalent to that of an actual gas turbine conditions at a high temperature of about 1300° C. or more. That is, the environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention comprises one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; zirconia-containing hafnia; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica. Here, it is sufficient for the environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention to be present on just a top-coat layer portion of the coating. Further, the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention is a structure in which hafnon (HfSiO4) is directly formed as a first layer onto a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient and hafnia is directly deposited thereon as a second layer. Here, the hafnia of the second layer in the environmental barrier coating structure may be such that it does not contain impurities, although the hafnia may also comprise impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or contain a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, a structure wherein zirconia (ZrO2) is comprised as impurities or zirconia has been intentionally added (excluding 100%) is preferable in terms of ease with which raw materials can be obtained and production costs. The zirconia content in the portion toward the coating surface is preferably higher than that in the potion toward the first layer. The above-described hafnia in the environmental barrier coating structure is preferably stabilized, and more preferably is stabilized by one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica. In such a case, the silica constituent contained in the second layer is preferably less in the portion near the coating surface than in the portion near the first layer, and more preferably is a gradient composition in which the ratio decreases toward the coating surface; a state in which the silica component is completely absent or sparingly contained in the top-coat portion forming the surface; or formed only from hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides or from zirconia containing hafnia. In a coating composition such as this, the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch with the first layer is lower. In addition, when the second layer is formed from hafnia which contains zirconia and is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica, the silica component is preferably graded so that it gradually decreases from the first layer toward the coating surface. In addition, the portion closest to the first layer is preferably formed from hafnia stabilized by only silica, while the coating surface portion is preferably formed from hafnia stabilized by only one or more rare-earth oxides. While the first layer may be formed from hafnon that does not contain any impurities, it may also be formed from hafnon which comprises impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or contain a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, the first layer may be formed from hafnon (HfSiO4) as a main constituent and a hafnia-silica oxide comprising at least one of hafnia (HfO2), zirconia (ZrO2) or silica (SiO2). Even such a case maintains the effects of alleviating the stress between the substrate and the environmental barrier coating, which consists of hafnia or has hafnia as a main constituent and which serves as a corrosion-resistant layer covering the substrate, as well as maintaining the effects of resolving the various problems relating to the stress stemming from the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer itself. The environmental barrier coating materials according to the present invention can suppress erosion over a long period of time and does not corrode even in a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow in an environment in which water vapor is present. It can therefore be used as the corrosion protection material of a coating for a substrate made from any type of material. In particular, the present coating material can be used as the top-coat for a gas turbine blade or the like which is employed in a harsh environment in a high-temperature region. Since hafnon, which has a melting point of about 1680° C., is used as an intermediate layer between the substrate and the top-coat, which makes up the second layer, the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention can effectively suppress progress into the substrate of a crack resulting from stress between the coating and the substrate, through the softening of hafnon in a high temperature region of about 1300° C. or more. Therefore, when the above-described environmental barrier coating material is formed as a coating onto a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, the stress resulting from thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the coating and the substrate is alleviated. This improves its reliability as a structural member (substrate) relating to high-temperature properties, whereby erosion can be suppressed over a long period of time. Thus, even in a high-temperature environment of about 1300° C. or more, such as that of a gas turbine combustion location in particular, cracks do not occur in the second layer, i.e. corrosion-resistant layer, whereby a corrosion-resistant layer can be provided which is stable over a prolonged period of time. When a ceramic structure uses the environmental barrier coating material and coating structure according to the present invention for coating a substrate made from silicon nitride ceramics or silicon carbide ceramics, the thermal expansion coefficient of the first layer hafnon which is directly deposited on the substrate is 3.6×10−6, which is close to the thermal expansion coefficient of silicon nitride ceramics and/or silicon carbide ceramics that have a low thermal expansion coefficient, whereby the various problems relating to the stress stemming from a thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer itself can be eliminated. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of the environmental barrier coating according to the present invention. FIG. 2 shows a diagram illustrating an image of the gradation of the second layer composition of the environmental barrier coating. FIG. 3 is an explanatory diagram illustrating the coating method for a silicon nitride ceramics covered with illustrating the coating method for a silicon nitride ceramics covered with an environmental barrier coating, which shows the deposition method for the first layer and the deposition method for the second layer. FIGS. 4A and 4B are a diagram illustrating the external appearance of a silicon nitride ceramics obtained by the method according to FIG. 3, wherein FIG. 4A denotes hafnon and FIG. 4B denotes a silicon nitride ceramics having a layer of yttria-silica further deposited thereon. FIGS. 5A and 5B are a diagram illustrating the external appearance of a sample consisting of a mixture of non-stabilized hafnia and zirconia both before and after undergoing a corrosion test, wherein FIG. 5A is before the test and FIG. 5B is after the test. FIG. 6 is an X-ray diffraction pattern obtained from the sample surface before and after the corrosion test. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The structure of the present invention will now be explained in detail based on a best mode illustrated in the drawings. The environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention comprises as a main constituent at least one of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica. When the coating consists of a plurality of layers, it is sufficient for the environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention to be contained in just the top-coat layer portion of the coating as a main constituent comprising at least one of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica. Here, although the environmental barrier coating material may be formed from 100% hafnia that essentially does not contain any impurities, it may also contain impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or contain a constituent that has been added intentionally. Commercially-available hafnia invariably has a small amount of zirconia mixed therein, so that even for a purity of 99.99%, for example, if broken down this usually works out to be hafnia 98% and zirconia 1.9%. For hafnia in which the purity is poor, there are cases where roughly about 2% zirconia is contained as impurities. Since hafnium and zirconium belong to the same group in the periodic table, their nature is extremely similar, thus making it difficult to completely separate them from each other, whereby hafnia inevitably contains a slight amount of zirconia as impurities. However, zirconia and hafnia have exactly the same nature and zirconia itself possesses excellent environmental resistance. Accordingly, no dramatic deterioration in environmental resistance, such as erosion resistance, is caused, and to the contrary is preferable from the point that a stable supply of raw materials can be ensured. Therefore, as long as the zirconia content does not reach 100%, more than the above-described amount may be intentionally added. In some cases the zirconia content can be made to gradually increase heading toward the coating surface side, or deposited in a plurality of layers in which the zirconia content is higher on the top layer side (coating surface side) than the bottom layer side. In such cases the nature of hafnia and zirconia is still exactly the same, meaning that since zirconia itself possesses excellent environmental resistance, no dramatic deterioration in environmental resistance, such as erosion resistance, is caused, and to the contrary is preferable from the point that a stable supply of raw materials can be ensured. The hafnia is preferably stabilized by one or more constituents selected from the group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica. In particular, because zirconia-containing hafnia is subjected to phase transformation in the vicinity of 1000° C. due to the volumetric expansion of the zirconia, it is necessary to stabilize using a stabilizer such as silica and/or rare-earth oxides. If either or both of silica and rare-earth oxides are added as stabilizer, the high temperature phase (1000° C.) of hafnia can be stabilized until room temperature, thereby suppressing the development of cracks caused by volumetric expansion. The amount added of this silica and/or rare-earth oxides are effective at 3% or more, and can be selected as appropriate within the range in which it becomes a solid-solution in hafnia. For example, when a rare-earth oxide is used as the stabilizer, the mole ratio AO2 (A representing hafnia):Ln2O3 (Ln representing a rare-earth) with respect to hafnia is in the range from about 97:3 to 50:50; preferably from 95:5 to 50:50; and more preferably from 90:10 to 50:50. When hafnia is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica, the mole ratio AO2:Ln2O3 and SiO2 is in the range from about 9:1 to 6:4; preferably from 8:2 to 6:4; and more preferably from 7:3 to 6:4. The rare-earth oxide is preferably one or more of the oxides selected from the group consisting of Y2O3, La2O3, Nd2O3, Sm2O3, Gd2O3, Dy2O3, Ho2O3, Er2O3, Yb2O3 and Lu2O3. While the stabilizer that is usually used is Y2O3, including other rare-earth oxides, all rare-earth oxides can be a solid-solution in the hafnia for achieving stabilization. Adding one or more of the constituents selected from the group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica stabilizes the hafnia in a high-temperature stabilized phase of a cubic system or a tetragonal system by the rare-earth oxide and/or silica. The corrosion-resistant layer achieved by this comprises stabilized hafnia as a main constituent, and can also comprise a small amount of one or more of SiO2, Ln2Si2O7, Ln2SiO5, HfSiO4 and ZrSiO4 phase as a subphase depending on the type of hafnia stabilizer or the like added in response to coating non-uniformity. For example, when the hafnia contains zirconia as impurities, ZrSiO4 phase is manifested as a subphase, whereas for pure hafnia that does not contain zirconia as impurities, (HfSiO4) is manifested as a subphase. However, the manifestation of these subphases does not impair performance as an environmental barrier coating material, namely the corrosion-resistance and erosion-resistance against the high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gases. Here, at the top-coat portion directly exposed to high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gases, the silica constituent is blown by a high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas flow, whereby there is a risk of the corrosion-resistance and erosion-resistance deteriorating. Therefore, it is preferable to use at the top-coat portion directly exposed to high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas zirconia-containing hafnia that is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and that does not contain silica or hafnia that does not contain any impurities. The thickness for the environmental barrier coating materials used as this invention must be at least about 1 μm, and more preferably as thick as possible. For example, the thickness when forming the coating from stabilized hafnia may be selected in the range from 1 μm to 600 μm, more preferably from 100 μm to 500 μm, and even more preferably from 100 μm to 300 μm. This environmental barrier coating material is not corroded and can suppress erosion over a long period of time even in a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow in an environment in which water vapor is present. It can, therefore, be used as the corrosion-resistant material of a coating for a substrate made from any material, and is in particular suitable for use as a top-coat for a gas turbine blade or the like used in a harsh environment in a high-temperature region. On the other hand, because it is desirable to use a material which has a low thermal expansion coefficient for the structural material employed at a gas turbine combustion location in consideration of thermal shock capabilities, the development of silicon based non-oxide ceramics such as silicon nitride or silicon carbide has been progressing. However, when depositing a stabilized hafnia having a high thermal expansion coefficient on a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient of such a type, a large stress stemming from the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch is placed on the coating, wherein there is the risk of cracks forming. The formation of such cracks can affect on the oxidation of the substrate, giving cause for concern of substrate damage. The present invention aims to alleviate this stress by interposing as an intermediate layer hafnon, or a hafnia-silica oxides layer having hafnon as a main constituent, between the substrate and the environmental barrier coating which covers the substrate and which consists of hafnia or has a main constituent of hafnia as a corrosion-resistant layer. That is, the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention covering a substrate which has a low thermal expansion coefficient is a structure in which hafnon (HfSiO4) serves as a first layer and the first layer is coated with hafnia as a second layer. Since the melting point of hafnon is 1680° C., in an environment equivalent to an actual gas turbine conditions, i.e. a temperature of about 1300° C., alleviation of the stress between the coating and the substrate can be achieved by softening to act as a buffering material. Further, the thermal expansion coefficient of hafnon is 3.6×10−6, which is close to the thermal expansion coefficient of silicon nitride ceramics and silicon carbide ceramics having a low thermal expansion coefficient, whereby the various problems relating to the stress stemming from the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer can be eliminated. The first layer, which serves as the intermediate layer, may be formed from 100% hafnon, although it may also be formed from a material containing impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, when hafnon is deposited directly onto a substrate consisting of a silicon based non-oxide ceramics, the silica from the substrate side diffuses into the hafnia which was deposited to obtain zirconia-containing hafnon, thereby comprising a hafnia-silica oxide that consists of any one of hafnia, silica-stabilized hafnia, hafnon and silica, or a mixture thereof. That is, the first layer may consist of hafnon (HfSiO4) as a main constituent and a hafnia-silica oxide comprising at least one of hafnia (HfO2), zirconia (ZrO2), or silica (SiO2). Even such a case maintains the effects of alleviating the stress between the substrate and the environmental barrier coating which serves as a corrosion-resistant layer covering the substrate and which consists of hafnia or has a main constituent of hafnia, and also eliminating the various problems relating to the stress stemming from thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer itself. The composition ratio of silica with respect to hafnia can be selected as appropriate from the solid-solution range of silica with respect to hafnia, and can be, for example, a ratio as defined by atomic ratio in the range from about 3:7 to 7:3; preferably from 4:6 to 7:3; and more preferably from 5:5 to 7:3. Although the thickness of the first layer is not particularly restricted, it is at least about 0.1 μm or more, and up until about 600 μm there are no production difficulties. In particular, increasing the thickness of the heat-resistant coating for a gas turbine (generally referred to as “TBC”) is desirable in terms of maintaining over a long period of time (10, 000 hours or more) in an environment exposed to a high-velocity gas flow which contains water vapor at very high-temperature. Preferable is a thickness exceeding about 300 μm, and more preferable is a thickness about 600 μm that is not subject to any production difficulties. As mentioned in the explanation of the environmental barrier coating material, although the second layer which consists of hafnia may be formed from 100% hafnia that essentially does not contain any impurities, it may also contain impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, a layer comprising zirconia (ZrO2) as impurities, or further a layer in which zirconia has been intentionally added (excluding 100%) is preferable from in terms of the ease with which raw materials can be obtained and production costs. Commercially-available hafnia invariably contains zirconia as impurities, so that it is preferable to stabilize it as a high-temperature stabilized phase of a cubic system or a tetragonal system by one or more constituents selected from the group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica. Especially when used as a coating for improving erosion-resistance of a ceramic substrate which contains silicon as the substrate, such as silicon nitride or silicon carbide, even if the substrate oxidizes to form silica, such silica is preferably absorbed to form stabilized hafnon or zirconia. It is therefore preferable to use silica as a stabilizer at the portion in proximity to the substrate. Here, the silica in the high-temperature and high-velocity combustion gas flow is vaporized by water vapor, thereby increasing recession velocity. This in turn causes the silica constituent to be blown away by the high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas flow at least at the top-coat portion directly exposed to the high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas, whereby there is a risk that corrosion-resistance and erosion-resistance may deteriorate. Therefore, at least at the top-coat portion directly exposed to the high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas, it is preferable to use hafnia that does not contain a silica constituent, for example zirconia-containing hafnia or hafnia that does not contain impurities which has been stabilized by only the rare-earth oxide. On the other hand, at the region of the second layer which is in contact with the first layer, it is preferable to form the stabilized hafnia layer from hafnia stabilized only by silica or in some cases by silica having a large silica component and a rare-earth oxide. Since silica has a large thermal expansion coefficient, if a large amount of silica is present in the hafnon layer, a thermal expansion coefficient mismatch will develop between the substrate and the hafnon layer causing distortions to appear in the coating. Therefore, while ideally silica is not present in a first layer which is being directly coated on a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, in practice hafnon (HfSiO4) is used as a main constituent during the deposition process, whereby the composition comprises a hafnia-silica oxide layer. This is thought to be because during deposition silicon diffuses from the substrate, whereby the silicon phase develops in practice through such factors as the degradation of the hafnon phase Accordingly, if the portion of the second layer in contact with the first layer is made to be hafnia stabilized by silica, the mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient with the first layer decreases. More preferably, the ratio of the silica constituent in the second layer is made to decrease heading toward the coating surface, whereby there is no or hardly any silica constituent at the top-coat portion which forms the surface (refer to FIG. 2). In such a second layer composition, not only does the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch with the first layer decrease, but because the top-coat portion is formed only from hafnia stabilized by a rare-earth oxide, the second layer is stable against a high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas. Of course, this is not to reject stabilizing the hafnia in the second layer by a single constituent of either a rare-earth oxide or silica. The hafnon thermal expansion coefficient of the bottommost layer and the hafnia thermal expansion coefficient employed as the uppermost layer differ by a large margin, meaning that deposition is impossible under conventional methods. Even were deposition able to be carried out, a large thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the hafnon and the hafnia would develop, leading to a risk of damage to the coating. It is therefore necessary to gradually alleviate the large thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the hafnon and the hafnia of the uppermost layer. In the present embodiments the thermal expansion mismatch or the stress caused therefrom, is alleviated by grading the second layer silica constituent so that it gradually decreases from the first layer toward the coating surface. Specifically, the gradient change of the composition of hafnia in the second layer is such that the silica constituent of the stabilizer is subject to gradient change in the thickness direction of the coating. The production method is not particularly restricted, although it is achieved so that the silica constituent used for hafnia stabilization within a single layer gradually decreases toward the coating surface side. Examples include continuously gradient-changing using a method such as degradation which exploits the thermal gradient of a deposited silica solid-solution or excess-silica hafnon layer, gradient-changing by successively depositing a number of layers so that the composition of the silica constituent decreases as a share of the stabilizer, CVD, PVD, particle array/spray method, centrifugal force method, plasma twin torch thermal spraying, SHS and the like. In the present specification the term “gradation of the composition” is used in a sense that encompasses both the case of a multi-layered coating such as that deposited with a number of layers, and the case in which the composition is made to gradually change at the atom level with a single-layer coating. Here, stabilized hafnia may be comprised as a main constituent in the corrosion-resistant layer of hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica, and a small amount of one or more of SiO2, Ln2Si2O7, Ln2SiO5, HfSiO4 and ZrSiO4 phase may be comprised as a subphase depending on the type of hafnia stabilizer or the like added in response to coating non-uniformity. However, the manifestation of these subphases should be kept to the extent that does not impair the performance as an environmental barrier coating material, namely the corrosion-resistance and erosion-resistance against the high-temperature and high-velocity corrosive gas. The environmental barrier coating structure of the above-described structure is provided by directly depositing on a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient a hafnon layer having a low thermal expansion coefficient of about the same magnitude as that of the substrate, and then forming thereon a hafnia layer that is stable over a long period of time in a high-velocity gas. The intermediate layer hafnon can be deposited by sputtering, laser ablation, sol-gel, plasma spraying, dipping or several of these methods used in combination. Considering adhesion to the substrate, a gas phase method or solution method such as sputtering and sol gel, or plasma spraying could be considered as being superior, although because the melting point of hafnon is relatively low, a coating having extreme homogeneity and good adhesion can be achieved by setting the thermal treatment conditions to about 1400° C. for even a dipping method. Similarly, even for the corrosion-resistant layer deposition method, deposition can be carried out by sputtering, laser ablation, sol-gel, plasma spraying, dipping or several of these methods used in combination. The corrosion-resistant layer may comprise stabilized hafnia as a main constituent, and a slight amount of SiO2, Ln2Si2O7, Ln2SiO5, HfSiO4 and ZrSiO4 phase as a subphase. Hafnia is stabilized as a high-temperature stabilized phase of a cubic system or a tetragonal system by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica. Although the thermal expansion coefficient of stabilized hafnia is larger than the thermal expansion coefficient of non-oxide ceramics, by comprising zirconia as a second layer, depositing a layer of hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica, and grading the silica constituent of the second layer so that it gradually decreases from the first layer heading toward the coating surface, hafinia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica and hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides are formed in order of smaller thermal expansion coefficients, whereby stress that develops in the surface layer can be alleviated. Here, if the hafnia is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica, they can be selected as appropriate in the range of a solid-solution of rare-earth oxide and silica in hafnia, and can be, for example, preferably in the range by mole ratio of from about 9:1 to 6:4; preferably from 8:2 to 6:4; and more preferably from 7:3 to 6:4. The gradient change of the hafnia composition in the second layer can be such that the gradient change is made to be continuous within a single layer, or the gradient change is made by successively depositing a number of layers which are different in their composition of the silica constituent as a share of the stabilizer. However, it is enough in the present invention for the composition to be graded in a thickness direction of the coating. A number of methods can be thought of for changing the gradation of the silica constituent within a single layer, and thus the production method is not restricted. Examples include depositing several layers having a different silica constituent content, and degradation by exploiting the thermal gradient of a deposited silica solid-solution or excess-silica hafnon layer. When a non-oxide ceramics is employed as a gas turbine component, it is necessary to suppress erosion for over 8,000 hours or even more (10,000 hours or more). Therefore, for a heat-resistant coating (generally referred to as “TBC”) in a gas turbine that is exposed to a high-velocity gas flow which contains water vapor at very high-temperature (for example 1300° C.), it is desirable for the coating to be as thick as possible. While the thickness of the corrosion-resistant layer is set according to the operating environment in an actual machine and the corrosion-resistance of the material, considering the case of erosion in an actual machine environment exposed to a high-velocity gas flow which contains water vapor at a high-temperature of 1300° C. or more, the thickness should be set to be at least about 200 μm, preferably a thickness exceeding about 300 μm and more preferably a thickness of about 600 μm that is not subject to any production difficulties. It should be noted that the above-described embodiment, while being one preferred example according to the present invention, is not meant to be limiting thereto, and various changes are possible without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, while the present embodiment was mainly described giving an example as a substrate used for the covering of a high-temperature gas turbine blade made from non-oxide ceramics such as silicon nitride, silicon carbide or a composite material thereof, this coating structure can be applied to other substrates having a low thermal expansion coefficient and is effective as an environmental barrier coating. The present invention can be applied oxide ceramics, metals, any substrate as long as it has a low thermal expansion coefficient. In addition, the entire structure can be made so as to not break even if cracks develop by increasing the porosity of the layer in which hafnia has been made as the main constituent, for example to about 50%. While the present embodiment has mainly described the hafnia constituting the second layer by using an example in which the zirconia content is fixed, the present invention is not restricted thereto, wherein two or more differing content ratios may be employed such as by grading the silica constituent in the second layer as well, or just the zirconia by itself. In such a case, because the thermal coefficient of zirconia is larger than the thermal coefficient of hafnia, the zirconia content in the second layer must be made higher in the region close to the coating surface than the region in contact with the first layer. That is, in the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention, the zirconia content in the portion toward the second layer, which is the corrosion-resistant layer, is preferably higher than that in the portion toward the first layer. More preferable is if the zirconia content ratio is graded in a way so that it increases heading away from the first layer. In such a case the change in thermal expansion coefficient in the second layer is more moderate, thereby suppressing crack development. Gradation and stepped change of the zirconia constituent can be easily achieved by gradually increasing the zirconia content ratio heading toward the coating surface (refer to FIG. 2), or depositing with a plurality of layers so that the upper layers (coating surface side) have a higher zirconia content ratio than the bottom layers. Thus, when the mixture consisting of a hafnia constituent and a zirconia constituent is more zirconia-rich the closer it is to the coating surface has the advantage that environmental resistance does not deteriorate while using a cheaper raw material. That is, since hafnium and zirconium belong to the same group in the periodic table, their nature is extremely similar, and zirconia itself possesses excellent environmental resistance. Accordingly, no dramatic deterioration in environmental resistance, such as erosion resistance, is caused, and to the contrary is preferable in terms of reducing costs since hafnia having a large amount of zirconia as impurities, or that wherein the zirconia content is deliberately increased to reduce the size of the region (thickness) in which hafnia is present can be achieved. It is also possible to intentionally add a larger amount of zirconia than which is in poor purity hafnia (a zirconia content of about 10%) as long as the zirconia content in the hafnia does not reach 100%. EXAMPLES Examples according to the present invention shall now be explained based on FIGS. 1 to 6. In the following, a water vapor corrosion test was performed on hafnia and zirconia-containing hafnia in an environment of 1500° C., whereby it was demonstrated that the effects of water vapor on corrosion and the effects of alkali constituent on corrosion were superior to those of other materials. In addition, it was also demonstrated that the corrosion-resistance of hafnia and zirconia-containing hafnia was superior to that of a rare-earth silicate even in a high-velocity gas flow equivalent to an actual gas turbine conditions. FIG. 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of the multi-layered coating ceramics according to the present invention. A first layer in contact with a substrate 1 is a layer having hafnon as a main constituent, which was deposited by dipping. A second layer 3 has formed therein from a position close to the substrate 1 as shown in the figure a hafnia layer stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica and a hafnia layer stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides as respective structural phases. A graded intermediate layer is formed in between these layers from a composition in which the silica constituent gradually decreases from the portion closest to the first layer so that no silica is contained at the coating surface portion (refer to FIG. 2). Although the respective thermal expansion coefficients of the hafnia layer stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and silica and the hafnia layer stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides differ, as a result of the silica constituent gradient the thermal expansion coefficient increases going gradually from close to the substrate. First, using a commercially available silicon nitride ceramics (silicon nitride manufactured by Kyocera Corporation; Product name: SN282) as the substrate 1, a first layer 2 having a main constituent of hafnon was directly deposited onto the substrate, then a second layer 3 was formed on the first layer by depositing zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by silica and one or more rare-earth oxides graded in a such a way that the silica constituent gradually decreased heading away from the first layer 2. FIG. 3 illustrates the production method for a silicon nitride ceramics coated with multi-layers (hafnon)-(hafnia stabilized by yttria and silica)-(hafnia stabilized by yttria) prepared in this Example. A slurry 2s of 99.99% pure hafnia (98% hafnia, 1.9% zirconia) and containing 1 wt. % PVA binder was coated by dipping onto a substrate 1 of a silicon nitride ceramics, and thermally treated in air at 1500° C. for 12 hours (refer to FIG. 3). This caused the silicon nitride ceramics to oxidize, whereby the formed silica and the hafnia coated on the substrate reacted according to the below-described chemical reaction formula to give hafnon, which allowed a hafnon layer 2 serving as an intermediate layer to be deposited on the substrate 1 of the silicon nitride ceramics. Si3N4+3O2→3SiO2+2N2 SiO2+HfO2→HfSiO4 Subsequently, a second layer 3 having silica as a main constituent was formed on the first layer 2. In the present Example, hafnia stabilized by yttria and silica was first deposited, on top of which was further deposited hafnia stabilized by yttria, thereby forming a second layer 3 in which the silica constituent was graded. The method for making the second layer multi-layered is not restricted, wherein the gradient change of the silica constituent can be achieved by not only gradually changing the composition at the atom level in a single layer coating by CVD or the like, but also can be achieved by depositing a number of layers that differ in their silica constituent composition ratio. In the present Example, a graded second layer 3 was formed from a multi-layered coating. First, hafnia 3′ stabilized by yttria and silica was deposited on top of a hafnon layer 2 (first layer). The mole ratio of yttria (Y2O3) to silica (SiO2) in this was made to be 1:2. A slurry 3s′ consisting of this mixture ratio of yttria and silica with hafnia in a mole ratio of 2:8 was coated onto the hafnon layer 2 by dipping. This layer was then thermally treated in air at 1500° C. for 12 hours, which caused the hafnia, silica and yttria to react according to the below-described chemical reaction formula to form a yttria-silica stabilized hafnia layer 3′. HfO2+xSiO2+1/2xY2O3→(SiO2,Y2O3)HfO2 In addition, a slurry 3s″ consisting of yttria and hafnia in a mole ratio of 2:8 was coated onto the yttria-silica stabilized hafnia layer 3′ by dipping, and thermally treated in air at 1500° C. for 12 hours, which caused the hafnia, silica and yttria to react according to the below-described chemical reaction formula to form a yttria stabilized. hafnia layer 3″. At this time, the previously-formed yttria-silica stabilized hafnia layer 3′ surface-side (the surface away from the first layer 2) constituent was degraded according to its thermal gradient thereby forming a gradient in the silica constituent. Although in the present Example both the first layer and the second layer were formed by a dipping method as the coating preparation technique, other methods are also possible, such as sputtering, laser ablation, sol-gel, plasma spraying, or several of these methods taken in combination. HfO2+xY2O3→(Y2O3)HfO2 FIGS. 4A and 4B are a photograph of the external appearance of a silicon nitride ceramics FIG. 4A formed having a hafnon layer, and a silicon nitride ceramics FIG. 4B further formed thereon having a yttria-silica stabilized hafnia layer. A good coating was produced, in which no prominent cracks were apparent from visual observation. The results of phase identity from X-ray diffraction confirmed that the respective hafnon and stabilized hafnia phases were present. A desired multi-layer coated silicon nitride ceramics was produced using the above-described method. As illustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B, a coating was produced in line with the original purpose, in which no prominent cracks were formed, and the stress caused in the coating as a result of thermal expansion coefficient mismatch had been alleviated. Next, results demonstrating that hafnia and zirconia show excellent corrosion-resistance in a static water vapor corrosion environment will be explained. The test was carried out using a mixture of hafnia and zirconia. The sample used in this test had a hafnia:zirconia=98:1.9 composition. The pellet bulk had a density of 4.52 g/cm3, which was 73% of the theoretical density. The corrosion test was performed under the following conditions. In consideration of the environment in an actual gas turbine conditions, temperature was set at 1500° C. Since the purpose was to understand corrosion behavior, the time was set to 50 hours. The rate of raising and lowering the temperature was 250° C./hour. The atmosphere was made to have a 30% weight fraction of water vapor weight with respect to air. In an actual gas turbine conditions, water vapor is formed from the combustion of fossil fuels, and is roughly 10 wt. %, although the test conditions in the present example had a higher water vapor amount. That is, harsh test conditions were selected. The flow amount was 175 ml/min, which was charged into an alumina tube having a 90 mm inner diameter. Compared with the air flow in an actual gas turbine conditions, this air flow was so low that it can be ignored, thus making the present test equivalent to a static state water vapor test. Many oxides corrode under static conditions even at the relatively low temperature of 500° C. Thus, for the purpose of eliminating the effects of corrosion forming at such a low temperature, and to correctly grasp the effects of corrosion at high temperatures, once the temperature had reached 1500° C. water vapor was introduced, and this introduction was stopped at the stage where 50 hours had passed. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate the external appearance of a pre-test sample FIG. 5A and a post-test sample FIG. 5B. The sample 4 used in this instance was a mixture of non-stabilized hafnia and non-stabilized zirconia. Since non-stabilized zirconia undergoes a phase transformation in the vicinity of 1000° C. as a result of volumetric expansion, a crack 6 formed due to thermal history. Since the phase transformation temperature of hafnia is 1700° C., the crack 6 shown in FIG. 5B can be considered as being caused by the zirconia transformation. Since hafnia and zirconia do not exhibit phase transformation up to a high temperature, no cracks formed and a phase transformation and weight decrease due to the water vapor were not found. The corrosion test was performed by placing a tested sample on an alumina plate 5 as shown in FIG. 5B. This alumina did not contain more than a 1% alkali constituent. It is known that the presence of an alkali usually accelerates corrosion; however in the present test no change in the sample was found even on the sample underside in contact with the alumina. Therefore, it was proved that the present sample, namely the mixture of hafnia and zirconia, was stable under static state water vapor test conditions. FIG. 6 illustrates an X-ray diffraction pattern obtained from the sample surface before and after the corrosion test. No phases were found to have been newly formed after the corrosion test. From the fact that the X-ray diffraction pattern obtained from the sample surface after the test was identical to the post-test pattern of FIG. 6, it can be easily surmised that even if this sample contained a small amount of alkali constituent, corrosion was not accelerated due to the presence of the alkali constituent. Next, a test in an environment equivalent to that in an actual gas turbine conditions will be explained. The test was carried out using a mixture of hafnia and zirconia. The ratio of hafnia:zirconia was 98:1.9. To compare the erosion process for this mixture with that of the other samples, the test was carried out under the same conditions on the Lu2Si2O7 phase, which is said to have excellent resistance to water vapor corrosion. The test conditions were: gas temperature 1500° C.; pressure 0.29 MPa; and water vapor partial pressure 30 kPa. The gas flow rate was set to simulate the same flow rate in an actual turbine condition of 150 m/s. Time was set at 10 hours. The results of the test were that the erosion rate of the Lu2Si2O7 phase was in the order of 10−5 g/cm2×h. Further, the erosion rate for the hafnia was within the margin of measurement error, and so no erosion was observed. This fact proved that the hafnia-zirconia mixture was not corroded in a high-temperature and high-velocity air flow equivalent to that in an actual gas turbine conditions even in an environment in which water vapor was present and could therefore suppress erosion over a long period of time. Accordingly, it was proved that the ceramics covered with the environmental barrier coating according to the present invention illustrated in FIG. 1 can suppress erosion over a long period of time in a high-temperature and high-pressure air flow, even in a gas turbine combustion location in which water vapor is present. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The environmental barrier coating material, as well as the coating structure in which the coating material is applied, according to the present invention is suitable for use in a harsh environment which is exposed to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor, and is effective as an environmental barrier coating material for suppressing corrosion and erosion in an environment in which a corrosive gas is present under the high-temperature and high-pressure of a gas turbine component having a substrate such as silicon nitride or silicon carbide which have a low thermal expansion coefficients. FIG. 1 Composition is graded Layer in which Y-stabilized hafnia is the main constituent Layer in which hafnon is the main constituent Ceramics substrate From 1 to 600 micron From 0.1 to 600 micron FIG. 2 Silica constituent Layer in which Y-stabilized hafnia is the main constituent Layer in which hafnon is the main constituent Ceramics substrate Zirconia constituent FIG. 3 Deposition method for the first layer In air Deposition method for the second layer Stabilized hafnia FIG. 6 Prior to test After test | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Silicon nitride ceramics and silicon carbide ceramics are easily oxidized at high temperatures and eroded in an environment, in which water vapor is present, as a result of corrosion. There is, therefore, a need to protect erosion when non-oxide ceramics are applied as a gas turbine component, requiring the application onto the surface of a water vapor corrosion resistant layer for that purpose. A mechanism for improving oxidation resistance has been proposed for silicon nitride ceramics having excellent oxidation resistance in high temperatures, as disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 6-32658, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 5-221728 and Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 5-208870, in which a rare-earth oxide is added as a sintering aid and the resulting compound is formed on the surface. Lutetium disilicate (Lu 2 Si 2 O 7 ) has a relatively low thermal expansion coefficient, and it is known that this material can remain on a non-oxide ceramics surface even after testing in an actual gas turbine environment. This material has begun to be broadly researched as a candidate material for an environmental barrier coating for non-oxide ceramics. Regarding non-oxide ceramic structures having a rare-earth oxide silica coating deposited, a rare-earth silicate deposited silicon nitride ceramic structure, with the rare-earth with respect to Y, Yb, Er and Dy, is known as disclosed in, for example, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 11-139883, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 11-12050, Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 10-87386, and Japanese Patent Laid-Open No. 10-87364. It is also well known that water vapor corrosion can be effectively suppressed in a static environment when the rare-earth is Lu by depositing lutetium silicate on a silicon nitride ceramics. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>However, at an actual gas turbine combustion field, water vapor generated from the combustion of fossil fuels exists, and the field is subjected to a high-temperature and high-velocity air flow. Therefore, an environmental barrier coating must be a material which effectively suppresses erosion in such a harsh environment. To put into practical use as a gas turbine component, the erosion in an environment equivalent to that of an actual gas turbine is required to be not more than several hundred microns over 10,000 hours. However, a material showing such excellent environmental-resistance is yet to be found. The erosion mechanism of a material in a high-temperature and high-velocity air flow in the presence of water vapor can be expressed in accordance with an Arrhenius equation as a function of the pressure, water vapor pressure and velocity of the air flow. Accordingly, a large number of parameters need to be taken into consideration for the physical properties required for an environmental barrier coating candidate material, such as (1) high melting point; (2) suppression of high-temperature chemical reaction; and (3) small water vapor pressure of the generated chemical species in cases where high-temperature chemical reaction does occur. However, the fact is that at present using only the test results from a water vapor corrosion test, the physical properties for an excellent environmental barrier coating material cannot be correctly evaluated. In view of this, it is an object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure to which the coating material is applied, which can suppress erosion over a long period of time even in a harsh environment with exposure to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor. It is another object of the present invention to provide a feasible environmental barrier coating structure that is an effective environmental barrier coating for a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, such as a ceramics. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating structure and a ceramic structure which can constitute a corrosion-resistant layer that can effectively suppress the progress into the substrate of a crack resulting from stress between the coating and the substrate. Specifically, it is an object of the present invention to provide an environmental barrier coating material, as well as a coating structure and a ceramic structure in which the coating material is applied, which enables the fabrication of a structure, such as a gas turbine component or the like, having an environmental barrier coating that can suppress corrosion and erosion even in an environment with exposure to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor at a high temperature of about 1300° C. or more. In such circumstances and in view of the above-described conventional art, the present inventors have discovered an environmental barrier coating material which allows the various problems in the above-described conventional art to be fundamentally resolved. As a result of intensive research having as its objective the production of ceramics possessing an environmental barrier coating, the inventors discovered that hafnia, hafnia containing zirconia, and partially stabilized hafnia containing zirconia can suppress erosion over a long period of time even in an environment equivalent to that in an actual gas turbine conditions, that is, an environment exposed to a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow containing water vapor. In addition, the present inventors have also discovered that it is possible to fabricate ceramics having an environmental barrier coating that can suppress erosion even in an environment equivalent to that of an actual gas turbine conditions at a high temperature of about 1300° C. or more. That is, the environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention comprises one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of hafnia; hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica; zirconia-containing hafnia; and zirconia-containing hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica. Here, it is sufficient for the environmental barrier coating material according to the present invention to be present on just a top-coat layer portion of the coating. Further, the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention is a structure in which hafnon (HfSiO 4 ) is directly formed as a first layer onto a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient and hafnia is directly deposited thereon as a second layer. Here, the hafnia of the second layer in the environmental barrier coating structure may be such that it does not contain impurities, although the hafnia may also comprise impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or contain a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, a structure wherein zirconia (ZrO 2 ) is comprised as impurities or zirconia has been intentionally added (excluding 100%) is preferable in terms of ease with which raw materials can be obtained and production costs. The zirconia content in the portion toward the coating surface is preferably higher than that in the potion toward the first layer. The above-described hafnia in the environmental barrier coating structure is preferably stabilized, and more preferably is stabilized by one or more constituents selected from a group consisting of rare-earth oxides and silica. In such a case, the silica constituent contained in the second layer is preferably less in the portion near the coating surface than in the portion near the first layer, and more preferably is a gradient composition in which the ratio decreases toward the coating surface; a state in which the silica component is completely absent or sparingly contained in the top-coat portion forming the surface; or formed only from hafnia stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides or from zirconia containing hafnia. In a coating composition such as this, the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch with the first layer is lower. In addition, when the second layer is formed from hafnia which contains zirconia and is stabilized by one or more rare-earth oxides and/or silica, the silica component is preferably graded so that it gradually decreases from the first layer toward the coating surface. In addition, the portion closest to the first layer is preferably formed from hafnia stabilized by only silica, while the coating surface portion is preferably formed from hafnia stabilized by only one or more rare-earth oxides. While the first layer may be formed from hafnon that does not contain any impurities, it may also be formed from hafnon which comprises impurities which are inevitably included during the production process or contain a constituent that has been added intentionally. For example, the first layer may be formed from hafnon (HfSiO 4 ) as a main constituent and a hafnia-silica oxide comprising at least one of hafnia (HfO 2 ), zirconia (ZrO 2 ) or silica (SiO 2 ). Even such a case maintains the effects of alleviating the stress between the substrate and the environmental barrier coating, which consists of hafnia or has hafnia as a main constituent and which serves as a corrosion-resistant layer covering the substrate, as well as maintaining the effects of resolving the various problems relating to the stress stemming from the thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer itself. The environmental barrier coating materials according to the present invention can suppress erosion over a long period of time and does not corrode even in a high-temperature high-velocity gas flow in an environment in which water vapor is present. It can therefore be used as the corrosion protection material of a coating for a substrate made from any type of material. In particular, the present coating material can be used as the top-coat for a gas turbine blade or the like which is employed in a harsh environment in a high-temperature region. Since hafnon, which has a melting point of about 1680° C., is used as an intermediate layer between the substrate and the top-coat, which makes up the second layer, the environmental barrier coating structure according to the present invention can effectively suppress progress into the substrate of a crack resulting from stress between the coating and the substrate, through the softening of hafnon in a high temperature region of about 1300° C. or more. Therefore, when the above-described environmental barrier coating material is formed as a coating onto a substrate having a low thermal expansion coefficient, the stress resulting from thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the coating and the substrate is alleviated. This improves its reliability as a structural member (substrate) relating to high-temperature properties, whereby erosion can be suppressed over a long period of time. Thus, even in a high-temperature environment of about 1300° C. or more, such as that of a gas turbine combustion location in particular, cracks do not occur in the second layer, i.e. corrosion-resistant layer, whereby a corrosion-resistant layer can be provided which is stable over a prolonged period of time. When a ceramic structure uses the environmental barrier coating material and coating structure according to the present invention for coating a substrate made from silicon nitride ceramics or silicon carbide ceramics, the thermal expansion coefficient of the first layer hafnon which is directly deposited on the substrate is 3.6×10 −6 , which is close to the thermal expansion coefficient of silicon nitride ceramics and/or silicon carbide ceramics that have a low thermal expansion coefficient, whereby the various problems relating to the stress stemming from a thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between the substrate and the intermediate layer itself can be eliminated. | 20050112 | 20061121 | 20051110 | 63229.0 | 0 | IVEY, ELIZABETH D | ENVIRONMENTAL BARRIER COATING MATERIAL AND COATING STRUCTURE AND CERAMIC STRUCTURE USING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,159 | ACCEPTED | Sharpening guide for dental tools | A sharpening guide for a dental tool is provided, with the dental tool having a handle, a working portion, and a shank extending between the handle and the working portion. The sharpening guide includes a guide body and at least one opening formed in the guide body and extending into the guide body, with the at least one opening having an opening bottom, with the opening having at least one side wall and an opposing side wall portion, with the at least one side wall having a predetermined height in relation to the opening bottom and further having a predetermined distance from the opposing side wall portion, wherein when the shank of the dental tool is positioned against the at least one side wall and when the working portion of the dental tool contacts the opposing side wall portion and contacts the opening bottom, the sharpening guide positions the dental tool at a predetermined angle created by the predetermined height and the predetermined distance in order to correctly sharpen the working portion of the dental tool. | 1. A sharpening guide adapted for use with an abrasive surface and a hand held dental tool having a handle, a working portion, and a shank extending between said handle and said working portion, said sharpening guide comprising: a guide body having first side wall and an opposing side wall with the first and opposing side walls defining an opening through said guide body, with said first side wall having a predetermined height and further having a predetermined distance from said opposing side wall wherein said sharpening guide positions said hand held dental tool at a predetermined angle in order to correctly sharpen said working portion of said hand held dental tool when said sharpening guide is operatively associated with said abrasive surface and when said shank of said hand held dental tool is positioned against said first side wall and when said working portion of said hand held dental tool contacts said opposing side wall adjacent to said abrasive surface. 2. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said sharpening guide is adapted to be permanently affixed to said abrasive surface. 3. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said first side wall is substantially vertical. 4. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said first side wall further comprises an interior surface beveled at a select angle. 5. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said opposing side wall is substantially vertical. 6. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said opening is a slot. 7. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said predetermined angle is selected to correctly sharpen a Gracey type dental tool. 8. The sharpening guide of claim 7, wherein said predetermined angle ranges from about 35 to about 45 degrees. 9. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is metal. 10. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is stainless steel. 11. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is plastic. 12. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said predetermined angle is selected to correctly sharpen a sickle type dental tool. 13. The sharpening guide of claim 12, wherein said predetermined angle ranges from about 15 to about 25 degrees. 14. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said predetermined angle is selected to correctly sharpen a universal type dental tool. 15. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body has at least one beveled peripheral surface, said at least one beveled peripheral surface having a predetermined angle for sharpening a toe of said working portion. 16. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is adapted to be disinfected. 17. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is adapted to be sterilized. 18. The sharpening guide of claim 1, wherein said guide body is adapted to be removably affixed to a power body having a power-driven sharpening abrasive. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This application is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 09/468,871, filed Dec. 22, 1999. The present invention relates generally to a sharpening guide for a dental tool. 2. Description of the Background Art Dentistry relies upon a wide variety of tools and appliances in order to maintain good dental health. These tools range from the basic to the sophisticated, but even the basic tools serve important functions. Included in such basic tools are scalers and curettes. They are used for cleaning teeth, and are therefore designed to reach into all spots in and around the teeth. They have sharpened edges that may be used to scrape teeth to remove plaque, tartar, and calculus. Because scalers and curettes are important to dental health, it is important that they be kept in a good working condition. Part of this is a proper sharpening of any working edges. Related art sharpening devices can be characterized as either hand sharpening or motorized sharpening. A first general category of hand sharpening devices is the freehand sharpening devices. Several types of freehand sharpening devices exist, as in Prusaitis et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,487,693 and 5,667,434. Suter, U.S. Pat. No. 1,950,824, and Wilson, U.S. Pat. No. 5,520,574. Wilson includes an abrasive surface having a groove and rounded exterior surfaces meant to impart a desired angle, but does not guide the tool angle relative to the abrasive surface. Freehand sharpening is undesirable because of the high probability of sharpening the dental tool improperly and at incorrect angles. This may result in damage to the dental tool. A second type of sharpening device is an angle gauge which gives a visual guide as the dental tool is sharpened on an abrasive surface. Several such devices are given in Marguam et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,509,268, Seiler et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,999, and Moore, U.S. Pat. No. 4,821,462 and 5,505,656. These devices have obvious drawbacks in that the visual indicator, while helpful, does not in any way constrain or guide the motion of the dental tool in relation to the abrasive surface. A third related art sharpening guide approach is a device in which the dental tool may be clamped or held, and the device and dental tool are moved in relation to the abrasive surface. Several such devices are given in Revell, U.S. Pat. No. 2,324,025, Slack, U.S. Pat. No. 2,287,910, Wiethoff, U.S. Pat. No. 939,365, and Lentz, U.S. Pat. No. 2,165,929. The clamping or holding approach has a drawback. The clamped dental tool is necessarily sharpened as a planar face, and a curved working portion may not be accommodated and properly sharpened. Continued use of such a device may result in undesirable flat faces or planes on the working portion of a dental tool. Machine sharpening of dental tools typically are similar to the clamping or holding approach, with the addition of a motorized grinding wheel. Machine sharpening devices are given in Lystager, U.S. Pat. No. 5,655,957, Svanberg, U.S. Pat. No. 5,197,227, Thompson, U.S. Pat. No. 2,549,263, and Mudler, U.S. Pat. No. 2,380,988. In addition to the drawback of the clamped dental tool not being sharpened to accommodate curved surfaces, machine sharpening has additional drawbacks. First, because each tool is clamped and held in approximately the same location on the grinding wheel, the grinding wheel may “load up” and retain the material removed from the dental tool. Second, a proper clamp angle may need to be set for each tool to be sharpened. Resetting an angle or angles between different types of instruments may be complicated and time-consuming. Third, the coarseness of the stone may not be easily varied according to the dental tool or cutting edge, necessitating either multiple machines or changing the grinding wheel between dental tools. Fourth, motorized sharpening machines tend to be big, complex, and expensive. There remains a need in the art, therefore, for an improved dental tool sharpening guide. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A sharpening guide for a dental tool is provided according to the invention, with the dental tool having a handle, a working portion, and a shank extending between the handle and the working portion. The sharpening guide comprises a guide body and at least one opening formed in the guide body and extending into the guide body, with the at least one opening having an opening bottom, with the opening having at least one side wall and an opposing side wall portion, with the at least one side wall having a predetermined height in relation to the opening bottom and further having a predetermined distance from the opposing side wall portion, wherein when the shank of the dental tool is positioned against the at least one side wall and when the working portion of the dental tool contacts the opposing side wall portion and contacts the opening bottom, the sharpening guide positions the dental tool at a predetermined angle created by the predetermined height and the predetermined distance in order to correctly sharpen the working portion of the dental tool. The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will be further understood from the following description of the preferred embodiment thereof, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a typical dental tool; FIGS. 2A and 2B show a straight sickle scaler; FIGS. 3A and 3B show a curved sickle scaler; FIGS. 4A and 4B show a universal curette; FIGS. 5A and 5B show a Gracey curette; FIG. 6A shows a working portion that comes from the manufacturer, having desired sharpened edges; FIG. 6B shows the working portion wherein the sharpened edge has been sharpened at too great an angle from vertical; FIG. 6C shows a working portion wherein the sharpened edge has been sharpened at too small an angle from vertical; FIG. 7A shows how the dental tool may be used to scrape a deposit off of a tooth; FIG. 7B shows the dental tool wherein the sharpened edge has been improperly sharpened or has worn excessively and is in need of sharpening; FIGS. 8A-8B show top and side views of the dental sharpening guide of the present invention. FIG. 9 shows a first embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 10 shows a second embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 11 shows a third embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 12 shows a fourth embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 13 shows a fifth embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 14 shows a sixth embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 15 shows a seventh embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 16 shows a eighth embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 17 shows a ninth embodiment of the dental sharpening guide; FIG. 18 shows the use of the sharpening guide for sharpening the toe of a dental tool; and FIG. 19 shows a tenth embodiment that is adapted to be used with a power-driven sharpening abrasive. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 shows a typical dental tool 100. The dental tool 100 includes a body 102, and a shank 104 and a working portion 107 provided on each end of the body 102. The dental tool may be held by the body 102 with the working portion 107 being used to perform functions such as the cleaning of teeth. FIGS. 2A and 2B show a dental tool 100 that is typically referred to as a straight sickle scaler 200. The straight sickle scaler 200 includes a shank 104 and a working portion 107. The working portion 107 has a somewhat rounded bottom and a flat face 110, and includes sharpened edges 109. The working portion 107 is essentially straight from the toe 114 to the heel 116. FIGS. 3A and 3B show a dental tool 100 that is typically referred to as a curved sickle scaler 300. As can be seen from FIG. 3B, the working portion 107 is triangular in cross-section and has sharpened edges 109. FIGS. 4A and 4B show a dental tool 100 that is typically referred to as a universal curette 400. The working portion 107 is curved between the heel 116 and the toe 114. The cross-section of the working portion 107 is semi-circular and has sharpened edges 109. FIGS. 5A and 5B show a dental tool 100 that is typically referred to as a Gracey curette 500. Again, the working portion 107 is curved and has the semi-circular cross-section of the universal curette 300. However, unlike the universal curette 400, the face 110 of the Gracey curette 500 is angled from the horizontal when the shank 104 is held in a vertical position. The angle is typically about 20 degrees from horizontal, but may be varied. FIG. 6A shows a working portion 107 that comes from the manufacturer, having desired sharpened edges 109. The original sharpened edges 109 should be maintained in order to most effectively use the dental tool 100. FIG. 6B shows the working portion 107 wherein a sharpened edge 109 has been sharpened at too great an angle from vertical. This results in a large, flat face 607, and the sharpened edge 109 is too thin and pointed. As a result, the sharpened edge 109 may wear and dull quickly, may tend to break and become jagged and irregular, or may be too sharp for safe use. FIG. 6C shows a working portion 107 wherein the sharpened edge 109 has been sharpened at too small an angle from vertical. As a result, the sharpened edge 109 has been mostly removed and is fairly dull even when freshly sharpened. This sharpened edge 109 will have difficulty in removing deposits. FIG. 7A shows how a dental tool 100 may be used to scrape a deposit 706 off of a tooth 700. The working portion 107 is held and moved in such a manner that the sharpened edge 109 contacts the deposit 706 and scrapes it off of the tooth 700. FIG. 7B shows a dental tool 100 wherein the sharpened edge 109 has been improperly sharpened or is excessively worn, and is not at an optimum sharpness or angle. Therefore, when the dental tool 100 is scraped across the tooth 700, the improperly shaped or sharpened edge 109 might not remove all of the deposit 706. FIGS. 8A-8B show top and side views of the dental sharpening guide 800 of the present invention. The dental sharpening guide 800 is generally rectangular in shape and has a predetermined thickness. The overall shape is not important, and may be varied. However, in a preferred embodiment the sharpening guide 800 is small enough to be used chairside by a dental professional. The sharpening guide 800 may be formed of a variety of materials. In the preferred embodiment, the sharpening guide 800 is formed of stainless steel in order that the sharpening guide 800 be easily disinfected and sterilized. This allows a dental professional to touch up a cutting edge during use. However, the sharpening guide may alternatively be formed of any type of metal or plastic. A first end 815 and optionally a second end 816 may be beveled for use in sharpening the toe 114 of the dental tool 100 (see discussion accompanying FIG. 17). Of course, any edge or edge portion of the sharpening guide 800 may be beveled. Also included in the sharpening guide 800 are one or more openings 806. Each opening 806 may have distinct dimensions. In the preferred embodiment two openings 806 are provided. Each opening 806 has a predetermined width W and at least one side wall of a predetermined height in relation to the abrasive surface 909 (see FIG. 9), and an opposing side wall portion. This is further illustrated in FIGS. 9-15, where an outer web 802 or 803 may be the side wall and the central web 810 may be the opposing side wall portion. The outer webs 802 and 803 may be formed with rounded corners 820 as shown, or may have substantially square corners. It should be understood that the openings 806 may be formed of any desired shape, such as substantially circular, substantially ovoid, substantially rectangular, or substantially irregular. The two openings 806 are positioned between outer webs 802 and 803 and a central web 810. A cross-section M, illustrating the profiles of the webs, will be discussed below in the various embodiments. When the shank 104 of the dental tool 100 is positioned against one side wall and the working portion 107 of the dental tool 100 contacts the opposing side wall portion and contacts the abrasive surface 909, the sharpening guide 800 positions the dental tool 100 at a predetermined angle created by the predetermined height of the side wall to correctly sharpen the working portion 107 of the dental tool 100 (see discussion accompanying FIG. 9 below). FIG. 9 shows a first embodiment 870 of the dental sharpening guide. In the first embodiment 870, the outer webs 802 and 803 are substantially rectangular in cross-sectional shape and are each of a predetermined height. The angles A1 and A2 are determined by the width of the openings 806 and the heights of the outer webs 802 and 803. As can be seen from the figure, the dental sharpening guide 800 may be placed upon an abrasive surface 909 (such as a sharpening stone, for example) in preparation for use. Alternatively, the sharpening guide 800 may be permanently or removably affixed to the abrasive surface 909. The dashed lines represent possible positions of the dental tool 100. As can be seen from the dashed lines, the dental tool 100 may rest against one of the outer webs 802 or 803, with the working portion 107 resting against the bottom of the central web 810 and against the abrasive surface 909. The dental sharpening guide 800 supports the shank 104 of the dental tool 100 at a predetermined angle so that a sharpened edge 109 may be sharpened by contact with the abrasive surface 909. In use, the dental sharpening guide 800 is held in position on the abrasive surface 909 and the dental tool 100 is moved (in a opening 806) in a reciprocating motion. The sharpening guide 800 may be repositioned on the abrasive surface 909 periodically to utilize additional surface regions of the abrasive surface 909, and thereby eliminating loading of the abrasive surface 909. FIGS. 10A and 10B show a second embodiment 880 of the dental sharpening guide. In the second embodiment 880, the outer webs 802 and 803 each have a bevel 831. This bevel 831 provides a greater contact surface between the dental tool 100 and the respective web 802 or 803, providing greater guidance during sharpening and reducing wear on the shank 104 of the dental tool 100. In FIG. 10B, the bevel extends fully across the tops of the outer webs 802 and 803. FIG. 11 shows a third embodiment 883 of the dental sharpening guide. In the third embodiment 883, the outer webs 802 and 803 each have a completely beveled face 931. FIG. 12 shows a fourth embodiment 889 of the dental sharpening guide. In the fourth embodiment 889, the central web 810 may include a cut-out portion 841, therefore allowing the use of the central web 810 to determine the additional sharpening angles A3 and A4. It should be understood that angles A3 and A4 may be distinct from angles A1 and A2. Similar to the angles A1 and A2, the angles A3 and A4 are determined by the height of the central web 810 and the width of the openings 806. It should be understood that the cut-out portion 841 is not strictly necessary, as the widths of the openings 806 may be varied in order to create distinct angles A3 and A4. FIG. 13 shows a fifth embodiment 890. In the fifth embodiment 890, the outer webs 802 and 803 are substantially circular in shape. Their respective diameters determine the sharpening angles of the dental tool 100. FIG. 14 shows a sixth embodiment 891. In the sixth embodiment 891, the outer webs 802 and 803 have a substantially circular face 831. FIG. 15 shows a seventh embodiment 892 of the dental sharpening guide. In the seventh embodiment 892, the central web 810 does not extend the full height of the sharpening guide 892, and also may include beveled faces 854. Therefore, four different surfaces exist against which the dental tool 100 may be placed during sharpening. FIG. 16 shows a eighth embodiment 895 of the dental sharpening guide. In this embodiment, the opening 806 is substantially circular. As in the previous embodiments, the shank 104 of the dental tool 100 is placed in contact with an upper edge of one wall and a lower edge of an opposing side wall portion in order to set the sharpening angle. FIG. 17 shows a ninth embodiment 898 of the dental sharpening guide. In the ninth embodiment 898, the entire sharpening guide may be formed of an abrasive material having openings or depressions 806 and contact surfaces 831 which determine sharpening angles. The openings 806 may extend only partially into the sharpening guide 898 and may therefore have opening bottoms 1702. Alternatively, the sharpening guide 898 may be formed of metal or plastic and have either abrasive coating layers 1700 or abrasive material inserts 1700 (of predetermined thicknesses) located on the bottom surfaces of the depressions 806. FIG. 18 shows the use of the sharpening guide 800 for sharpening the toe 114 of a dental tool 100. To sharpen the toe 114, the working portion 107 contacts the beveled end 815 and the toe 114 contacts the abrasive surface 909. The dental tool 100 may be moved in a reciprocating (or substantially circular) motion along the beveled end 815. In the preferred embodiment, the beveled end 815 is at an angle of about 45 degrees from horizontal, but alternatively the beveled end 815 (and the optional beveled end 816) may be formed at an angle of about 20 degrees to about 70 degrees. FIG. 19 shows a tenth embodiment 1900 that is adapted to be used with a power-driven sharpening wheel or other such shape. The tenth embodiment 1900 may be placed on and optionally affixed to a power body 1909 having a rotating sharpening abrasive 1905 such as an abrasive wheel (or other movable abrasive). The power body 1909 and associated sharpening abrasive 1905 (or other movable abrasive) may be attached to a power source. Other embodiments may include a reciprocating abrasive or a linearly moving abrasive (not shown). Preferably, the power source is a pneumatic dental motor, such as that used for drilling teeth. The tenth embodiment 1900 includes openings 806 which, as previously described, may be used to guide a sharpening angle. While the invention has been described in detail above, the invention is not intended to be limited to the specific embodiments as described. It is evident that those skilled in the art may now make numerous uses and modifications of and departures from the specific embodiments described herein without departing from the inventive concepts. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This application is a continuation of prior application Ser. No. 09/468,871, filed Dec. 22, 1999. The present invention relates generally to a sharpening guide for a dental tool. 2. Description of the Background Art Dentistry relies upon a wide variety of tools and appliances in order to maintain good dental health. These tools range from the basic to the sophisticated, but even the basic tools serve important functions. Included in such basic tools are scalers and curettes. They are used for cleaning teeth, and are therefore designed to reach into all spots in and around the teeth. They have sharpened edges that may be used to scrape teeth to remove plaque, tartar, and calculus. Because scalers and curettes are important to dental health, it is important that they be kept in a good working condition. Part of this is a proper sharpening of any working edges. Related art sharpening devices can be characterized as either hand sharpening or motorized sharpening. A first general category of hand sharpening devices is the freehand sharpening devices. Several types of freehand sharpening devices exist, as in Prusaitis et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,487,693 and 5,667,434. Suter, U.S. Pat. No. 1,950,824, and Wilson, U.S. Pat. No. 5,520,574. Wilson includes an abrasive surface having a groove and rounded exterior surfaces meant to impart a desired angle, but does not guide the tool angle relative to the abrasive surface. Freehand sharpening is undesirable because of the high probability of sharpening the dental tool improperly and at incorrect angles. This may result in damage to the dental tool. A second type of sharpening device is an angle gauge which gives a visual guide as the dental tool is sharpened on an abrasive surface. Several such devices are given in Marguam et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,509,268, Seiler et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,426,999, and Moore, U.S. Pat. No. 4,821,462 and 5,505,656. These devices have obvious drawbacks in that the visual indicator, while helpful, does not in any way constrain or guide the motion of the dental tool in relation to the abrasive surface. A third related art sharpening guide approach is a device in which the dental tool may be clamped or held, and the device and dental tool are moved in relation to the abrasive surface. Several such devices are given in Revell, U.S. Pat. No. 2,324,025, Slack, U.S. Pat. No. 2,287,910, Wiethoff, U.S. Pat. No. 939,365, and Lentz, U.S. Pat. No. 2,165,929. The clamping or holding approach has a drawback. The clamped dental tool is necessarily sharpened as a planar face, and a curved working portion may not be accommodated and properly sharpened. Continued use of such a device may result in undesirable flat faces or planes on the working portion of a dental tool. Machine sharpening of dental tools typically are similar to the clamping or holding approach, with the addition of a motorized grinding wheel. Machine sharpening devices are given in Lystager, U.S. Pat. No. 5,655,957, Svanberg, U.S. Pat. No. 5,197,227, Thompson, U.S. Pat. No. 2,549,263, and Mudler, U.S. Pat. No. 2,380,988. In addition to the drawback of the clamped dental tool not being sharpened to accommodate curved surfaces, machine sharpening has additional drawbacks. First, because each tool is clamped and held in approximately the same location on the grinding wheel, the grinding wheel may “load up” and retain the material removed from the dental tool. Second, a proper clamp angle may need to be set for each tool to be sharpened. Resetting an angle or angles between different types of instruments may be complicated and time-consuming. Third, the coarseness of the stone may not be easily varied according to the dental tool or cutting edge, necessitating either multiple machines or changing the grinding wheel between dental tools. Fourth, motorized sharpening machines tend to be big, complex, and expensive. There remains a need in the art, therefore, for an improved dental tool sharpening guide. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A sharpening guide for a dental tool is provided according to the invention, with the dental tool having a handle, a working portion, and a shank extending between the handle and the working portion. The sharpening guide comprises a guide body and at least one opening formed in the guide body and extending into the guide body, with the at least one opening having an opening bottom, with the opening having at least one side wall and an opposing side wall portion, with the at least one side wall having a predetermined height in relation to the opening bottom and further having a predetermined distance from the opposing side wall portion, wherein when the shank of the dental tool is positioned against the at least one side wall and when the working portion of the dental tool contacts the opposing side wall portion and contacts the opening bottom, the sharpening guide positions the dental tool at a predetermined angle created by the predetermined height and the predetermined distance in order to correctly sharpen the working portion of the dental tool. The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will be further understood from the following description of the preferred embodiment thereof, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050112 | 20051206 | 20050616 | 62885.0 | 1 | MORGAN, EILEEN P | SHARPENING GUIDE FOR DENTAL TOOLS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,203 | ACCEPTED | Jock support short | In one embodiment, the present invention provides a jock support short including a short member and an integrally-formed jock support member. The integral jock support member includes a pocket portion attached to a front portion of the short, which is configured to house a protective groin cup. At least two elongate members extend along opposing sides of the pocket portion and may intersect or meet at a crotch portion of the short such that the pocket and/or protective cup remains secured over a user's groin region during athletic or other physical activity. | 1. A jock support short comprising: a short member including front and rear portions integrally formed to define a waist portion and first and second leg portions; and an integral jock support member including: a pocket portion attached to the front portion of the short member for housing a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user, and at least two elongate members which extend generally downwardly adjacent the pocket portion, between the first and second leg portions, and along the rear portion of the short. 2. The support short of claim 1 wherein the pocket portion includes an open top side for inserting a protective cup and closing means for closing the open top side. 3. The support short of claim 1 wherein the integral jock support member is disposed either on an inside or outside surface of the short member. 4. The support short of claim 1 further comprising a protective cup housed within the pocket. 5. The support short of claim 1 wherein the elongate members extend downwardly from the waist portion of the short member. 6. The support short of claim 1 wherein the elongate members meet or intersect at a crotch portion of the short member. 7. The support short of claim 1 wherein the elongate members comprise first and second straps. 8. The support short of claim 7 wherein the first and second straps include respective first and second ends, each end being attached to the short member at or near the waist portion, and wherein the first and second straps intersect at a crotch portion of the short member. 9. The support short of claim 7 wherein the first and second straps restrict movement of the pocket portion relative to the short member. 10. The support short of claim 1 further comprising padding layers disposed on an outside or inside surface of the short member. 11. The support short of claim 1 further comprising a plurality of hockey sock engagement members disposed on the outside or inside of the short member. 12. The support short of claim 11 wherein the hockey sock engagement members comprise a plurality of straps having a first end attached to the waistband portion of the short member and a second end for attachment to a hockey sock. 13. The support short of claim 11 wherein the hockey sock engagement members comprise connective flaps attached to the leg portions of the short member. 14. The support short of claim 1 wherein the short member includes an inner short member and an outer short member, and wherein the integral jock support member is attached to the inner short member. 15. A jock support short comprising: a short member including a first leg portion, a second leg portion and a pocket portion adapted to receive a protective jock cup, wherein the pocket portion is attached to the first and second legs of the short member; and means for restricting movement of the pocket portion relative to the first and second leg portions. 16. The impact protect device of claim 15 wherein the means includes a pair of elongate fabric members extending along opposing sides of the pocket portion. 17. The impact protection device of claim 15 wherein the means includes a pair of elastic straps extending along opposing sides of the pocket portion. 18. The impact protect device of claim 15 wherein the means includes a pair of tension threads extending along opposing sides of the pocket portion. 19. A jock support short comprising: an outer short member including front and rear portions integrally formed to define a waist portion and first and second leg portions; and an inner short member attached to the waist portion of the outer short member, and an integral jock support member formed on the inner short member which includes a pocket portion for housing a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user and at least two elongate members which are adapted to restrict movement of the pocket portion relative to the inner short member. 20. The support short of claim 19 wherein the outer short comprises a loose-fitting material and the inner short comprises a compression material. 21. The support short of claim 19 wherein both the inner and outer short comprise a compression material. 22. The support short of claim 19 further comprising two elongate members disposed on the outer short member which extend generally vertically along the front of the short, between the first and second leg portions, and along the rear portion of the short member. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. Nos. 60/536,021 entitled “Chin Cup,” 60/536,087 entitled “Jock Cup,” and 60/536,020 entitled “Supporter Briefs,” each of which was filed on Jan. 12, 2004, and is hereby expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND Protective cups and other devices for the protection of the male groin region are utilized during athletic competition, as well as for certain non-athletic occupations and activities where users are susceptible to impacts to the groin region. One conventional method of securing a protective cup against the user's body to protect the groin region from impact is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,134,400. This device utilizes a jock strap that includes a pouch for holding the protective cup over the groin region. The pouch is closed at one end where it is connected to straps that extend downwardly from the waistband and is open at an upper end where the inner layer of the pouch is connected to the waistband. Fasteners positioned at the opening of the pouch close the pouch to secure the cup in the pouch in position on the body. Conventional jock straps generally provide only one body gripping aperture, the elastic waistband, to hold the supporter and relatively heavier protective cup in place. For small boys in particular, whose waist and pelvic-hip region are very small, a single body gripping aperture is not enough to hold a supporting device plus protective cup in place. For others, including men who are large around the waist, it may be uncomfortable to have a single tight fitting body aperture around the waist. Additionally, strap twisting may create discomfort and make it difficult to put on the jock strap. Further, while conventional jock straps hold the protective cup generally in place, they tend to be cumbersome and uncomfortable. An alternative to the jock strap is an athletic support short, which secures a protective cup over the groin region of a user without the use of jock-type straps, and may be comfortably worn as outerwear or under other clothing or equipment. These athletic support shorts may include a releasably closeable pouch to receive a protective cup, such as the shorts reported in U.S. Pat. No. 3,788,314 to Noreen. Although generally more comfortable than conventional jock straps, current athletic short designs may fail to properly secure the protective cup in the most comfortable and protective position over the user's groin, and the protective cup may be become dislodged from its proper positioning when the user moves. Additionally, impact to the genital area may cause the protective cup to be pushed out of position, thereby increasing vulnerability to impact. Further, such movement of the cup may cause the edge of the cup to contact areas of the groin area, potentially causing considerable pain or injury. Therefore, it would be beneficial to provide a jock support device possessing the comfort provided by a short with the level of protection afforded by conventional jock-straps. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the present invention provides a support short including a short member and an integral jock member. The short member generally includes front and rear portions which are integrally formed to define a waist portion and first and second leg portions. The integral jock member includes a pocket portion attached to the front portion of the short member which is adapted to house a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user. The integral jock member further includes two elongate members which extend downwardly along opposing sides of the pocket portion, between the first and second leg portions and along the rear portion of the short. The elongate members may restrict movement of the pocket portion relative to the short member in order to retain a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user. In certain embodiments, the elongate members may be formed as a pair of straps that extend along the front portion of the short member between the waist portion and a crotch portion and on opposing sides of the pocket portion. The straps may further meet and/or intersect at the crotch portion and then extend generally upwardly along the rear portion of the short. In another embodiment, the elongate member may form an “X” type configuration in which the top legs of the “X” extend along the front of the short member on opposing sides of the pocket portion, the bottom legs of the “X” extend along the rear of the short member, and all four legs intersect in the crotch portion of the short member. In an alternate embodiment, the present invention provides a jock support short including a short member having first and second leg portions and a pocket portion attached to the first and second leg portions. The jock support short further includes means for restricting movement of the pocket portion relative to the first and second leg portions. In a further embodiment, the jock support short may include an outer short member, an inner short member and an integral jock support member. The outer short member may be formed from a generally loose-fitting or compression-type material. The jock support member may be integrally attached to the inner short member such that the pocket portion and elongate members are formed on an inside surface of the short. Elongate members may alternatively or additionally be formed on the outer short member as well. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a front view of a support short according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 illustrates a rear view of the support short shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3. illustrates a side view of the support short shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 illustrates a bottom view of the support short shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 5 illustrates a perspective view of the support short shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 6 illustrates a front view of a support short according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates a rear view of the support short shown in FIG. 6; FIG. 8 illustrates a side view of the support short shown in FIG. 6; FIG. 9 illustrates a front view of a support short according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates a rear view of the support short shown in FIG. 9; FIG. 11 illustrates a side view of the support short shown in FIG. 9; FIG. 12 illustrates a front view of a support short according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 illustrates a front view of a support short according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates a cross-sectional front view of an inner short portion of the support short shown in FIG. 13; FIG. 15 illustrates a cross-sectional rear view of an inner short portion of the support short shown in FIG. 13; FIG. 16 illustrates a cross-sectional side view of an inner short portion of the support short shown in FIG. 13; and FIG. 17 illustrates a perspective view of an inner short portion of the support short shown in FIG. 13. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 shows a frontal view of a support short 5 of the present invention which includes a short member 10 having a waistband 12, and front fabric panels 14. A jock support member 15 is disposed in between the front fabric panels and includes a pocket portion 16 for holding a protective cup, and a pair of elongate members 18, 20 extending along opposing sides of the pocket portions. The pocket portion 16 includes a top 22, and vertical sides 24 which generally meet to form the bottom 26 of the cup. The top 22 of the pocket portion 16 may include a closure device, such as Velcro, buttons, zippers and the like to allow for closure of the top 22 yet still provide an opening for insertion of a protective cup. In an embodiment of the present invention, the pocket portion 16 is sized to accommodate a protective cup yet reduce the ability of the cup to shift within the pocket portion 16. FIG. 2 shows a rear view of support short 10 including waistband 12, rear fabric panels 30, and portions of the elongate members 18, 20 illustrated in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 shows a side view of the support short 10 illustrated in FIGS. 1-2, which also illustrates waistband 12, side fabric panel 32 and portions of the member 18. FIG. 3 further shows the pocket portion 16 including a protective cup 34 disposed within a space 36 formed between a front pocket panel 38 and a rear pocket panel 40, which are secured together to form the pocket portion 16. The rear pocket panel 40 may include a padding layer disposed between the cup 34 and a user's groin. The pocket portion 16 is adapted to house a variety of protective cups 34. An example of a suitable protective cup is reported in the U.S. patent application entitled “Impact Protection Device” (attorney docket number 73893-311877), which was filed concurrently with the present application and is hereby expressly incorporate by reference in its entirety. FIG. 4 shows a bottom perspective view of a crotch portion 42 of the support short 10 formed between leg openings 44, 44. The elongate members 18, 20 intersect and/or meet at the crotch portion 42 and continue along the rear and/or side panels 30, 32 of the support short 10 as shown in FIGS. 2 and 3. In alternate embodiments, the elongate members 18, 20 may pass through but not intersect at the crotch portion 42. As exemplified in FIG. 5, the elongate members 18, 20 are generally positioned about the support short 10 to pass between the user's legs and to follow the contours of the user's groin and buttocks regions to increase the contact of the cup 34 over the user's groin region, particularly during body movement. In this manner, the elongate members 18, 20 function similarly to a jock strap. However, because the elongate member 18, 20 are integrally attached to the short member 10, strap twisting experienced with conventional non-integrated straps is eliminated. As further shown in FIG. 5, the elongate members 18, 20 may form an “X” configuration around the short member 10, with top legs 50, 52 attached to the waistband 12, front panels 14 and/or the pocket portion 16, and the bottom legs 54, 56 attached to the rear fabric panels 30 and/or waistband 12. As noted with respect to FIG. 4, the legs 50, 52, 54 and 56 meet, pass and/or intersect at the crotch portion 42 to complete the “X” configuration. The elongate members 18, 20 may be formed in several ways. In the illustrated embodiment, the elongate members 18, 20 are formed by two discrete straps that attach at waistband 12, extend downwardly along opposing sides of cup portion 16, cross at the crotch portion 42, and then extend upwardly along the rear and/or sides of the short member 10 to the waistband 12. Alternatively, the straps could be attached to the inside surface of support short 10. In either case, the straps may be integrally attached to the short member 10 by a conventional zigzag stitch. The straps may be formed from a variety of materials. In one embodiment, the straps are formed from a material having suitable elasticity and/or resiliency to apply tension to the user's body when worn, similar to conventional jock straps. Instead of using straps, the elongate members 18, 20 could be formed by integrally stitching one or more elastic and/or tension threads along the general path shown by the elongate members 18, 20 in FIGS. 1-5 such that a tension force is applied to the user's body along the path of the elongate members 18, 20. Although a variety of configurations may be used, the elongate members 18, 20 apply a tensioning, tightening, and/or compression-type force to restrict movement of the pocket portion 16 relative to the short member. This may help to retain a protective cup housed in the pocket portion 16 during use. The short member 10 may be formed from a variety of materials. In one embodiment, the short member 10 may be at least partially formed from a compression-type material in order to fit snugly to the user's body. Suitable materials of this type include various mixtures of nylon, polyester, cotton and spandex. The material may also have moisture wicking capabilities, and/or may be formed partly or completely into a mesh to provide improved ventilation to the user. In one embodiment, particular panels of material, particularly in the region of a user's groin, are formed from a compressible mesh material. Alternatively, the short member 10 may be formed at least partially from a non-compression, loose fitting material, for example, a loose fitting mesh material. The waistband 12 may be formed from a variety of suitable materials, and may include an elastic strip to provide a tension fit about the waist of a user. In an alternate embodiment, the waistband may include a drawstring or the like. In a further embodiment, the waistband may include adjustment members such as Velcro-type flaps to manually tighten or loosen the waistband 12 about a user's waist (See FIG. 9). The various components of the support short 5 may be sewn together in a conventional manner. For example, the short member 10 illustrated in FIG. 1, may be formed from 2 basic fabric pieces sewn together with a surge seam or a similar seam. A third fabric piece may be sewn to the 2 basic fabric pieces to form the pocket portion 16. The elongate member 18, 20 may be used to secure these fabric pieces together, or may be attached after the support short 10 has been configured. Thus, although the illustrated embodiment is described as having front, rear and side panels for convenience, such panels may or may not be formed from the same piece of materials. Of course, it will be readily appreciated that a range of approaches could be used to form the support short 5. FIG. 6-8 show respective front, rear and side views of an alternate embodiment of the present invention, which includes padding members 50, 50. The padding members 50, 50 may be attached to either an inside or outside surface of support short 10, and may provide additional protection during, for example, a baseball, softball, soccer or football game. As shown in particular in FIG. 8, the elongate members 18, 20 extend underneath the padding members 50, 50 to secure the cup 34 over the user's groin region. FIGS. 9-11 show another embodiment of the present invention which may be particularly useful as hockey shorts. In addition to the features described with reference to FIGS. 1-8, the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 9-11 includes a plurality of hockey sock supports 60 for supporting hockey socks. The sock supports 60 may include a Velcro-type flap for folding over the hockey socks. The waistband 12 also includes several Velcro-type attachments 61 for adjusting the tension of the waistband 12. Additionally, the padding members 50, 50 are shaped to provide extra protection to a user during hockey games. FIG. 12 shows a further embodiment which replaces the hockey sock supports 60 shown in FIGS. 9-11 with garter straps 62 for supporting hockey socks. The garter straps 62 may be formed from an elastic material and may be permanently or removably attached to the waist portion 12. In one embodiment, the jock support short 5 includes at least four garter straps 62. FIGS. 13-17 illustrate yet another embodiment of the present invention which includes an inner short 70 attached to an outer short 72 at waistband 12. FIG. 13 shows outer short 72 including elongate members 18, 20. The elongate members 18, 20 may extend along the outer short 72 similarly to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 1-12. Alternatively, the elongate members 18, 20 may only extend along the front of the outer short 72, and/or may serve only decorative purposes. In a further embodiment, the outer short member does not include elongate members 18, 20. The outer short 72 may be formed from either a loose fitting or a compression material. Outer short 72 and may further include padding layers 50, 50 and/or hockey sock supports 60 as shown in FIGS. 6-12. Inner short 70 may be substantially free-moving relative to the outer short 72. FIGS. 14-16 show respective front, rear and side cross-sectional views of the support short 5. As further shown in FIG. 14, the pocket 76 and elongate members 78, 80 are formed on an inside surface of the inner short 70 such that the cup is secured and retained over a user's groin. As shown in FIG. 17, the elongate members 78, 80 are configured in an “X” configuration similar to the elongate members 18, 20 shown in FIGS. 1-12. As is evident from the foregoing, the present invention may be used for a variety of athletic activities, including baseball, hockey, football, basketball, soccer and the like, as well as certain occupational and other non-athletic activities. The various features reported in the illustrated embodiments may be added, eliminated or combined in a variety of ways for use with or in a particular application. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Protective cups and other devices for the protection of the male groin region are utilized during athletic competition, as well as for certain non-athletic occupations and activities where users are susceptible to impacts to the groin region. One conventional method of securing a protective cup against the user's body to protect the groin region from impact is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,134,400. This device utilizes a jock strap that includes a pouch for holding the protective cup over the groin region. The pouch is closed at one end where it is connected to straps that extend downwardly from the waistband and is open at an upper end where the inner layer of the pouch is connected to the waistband. Fasteners positioned at the opening of the pouch close the pouch to secure the cup in the pouch in position on the body. Conventional jock straps generally provide only one body gripping aperture, the elastic waistband, to hold the supporter and relatively heavier protective cup in place. For small boys in particular, whose waist and pelvic-hip region are very small, a single body gripping aperture is not enough to hold a supporting device plus protective cup in place. For others, including men who are large around the waist, it may be uncomfortable to have a single tight fitting body aperture around the waist. Additionally, strap twisting may create discomfort and make it difficult to put on the jock strap. Further, while conventional jock straps hold the protective cup generally in place, they tend to be cumbersome and uncomfortable. An alternative to the jock strap is an athletic support short, which secures a protective cup over the groin region of a user without the use of jock-type straps, and may be comfortably worn as outerwear or under other clothing or equipment. These athletic support shorts may include a releasably closeable pouch to receive a protective cup, such as the shorts reported in U.S. Pat. No. 3,788,314 to Noreen. Although generally more comfortable than conventional jock straps, current athletic short designs may fail to properly secure the protective cup in the most comfortable and protective position over the user's groin, and the protective cup may be become dislodged from its proper positioning when the user moves. Additionally, impact to the genital area may cause the protective cup to be pushed out of position, thereby increasing vulnerability to impact. Further, such movement of the cup may cause the edge of the cup to contact areas of the groin area, potentially causing considerable pain or injury. Therefore, it would be beneficial to provide a jock support device possessing the comfort provided by a short with the level of protection afforded by conventional jock-straps. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the present invention provides a support short including a short member and an integral jock member. The short member generally includes front and rear portions which are integrally formed to define a waist portion and first and second leg portions. The integral jock member includes a pocket portion attached to the front portion of the short member which is adapted to house a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user. The integral jock member further includes two elongate members which extend downwardly along opposing sides of the pocket portion, between the first and second leg portions and along the rear portion of the short. The elongate members may restrict movement of the pocket portion relative to the short member in order to retain a protective cup adjacent the groin of a user. In certain embodiments, the elongate members may be formed as a pair of straps that extend along the front portion of the short member between the waist portion and a crotch portion and on opposing sides of the pocket portion. The straps may further meet and/or intersect at the crotch portion and then extend generally upwardly along the rear portion of the short. In another embodiment, the elongate member may form an “X” type configuration in which the top legs of the “X” extend along the front of the short member on opposing sides of the pocket portion, the bottom legs of the “X” extend along the rear of the short member, and all four legs intersect in the crotch portion of the short member. In an alternate embodiment, the present invention provides a jock support short including a short member having first and second leg portions and a pocket portion attached to the first and second leg portions. The jock support short further includes means for restricting movement of the pocket portion relative to the first and second leg portions. In a further embodiment, the jock support short may include an outer short member, an inner short member and an integral jock support member. The outer short member may be formed from a generally loose-fitting or compression-type material. The jock support member may be integrally attached to the inner short member such that the pocket portion and elongate members are formed on an inside surface of the short. Elongate members may alternatively or additionally be formed on the outer short member as well. | 20050112 | 20070515 | 20050922 | 97812.0 | 1 | PATEL, TAJASH D | JOCK SUPPORT SHORT | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,226 | ACCEPTED | Standby loss prevention module, transformer system including same, and methods relating thereto | Methods and apparatus for controlling power to a load device. The apparatus include a standby loss prevention module or a transformer system including the module. The module and system are directed to sensing load requirements and controlling a transformer accordingly to reduce power consumption when the load is in a stand by mode. One method includes interposing a control switch between an electrical supply and a load device, determining when the load device requires full-level operational power, activating the control switch to interpose a step-up transformer between the electrical supply and the load device, providing full-level operational power to the load device, and deactivating the step-up transformer when the load device is not in use. | 1. A standby loss prevention module for use with a transformer, said module comprising: a sensor connected to a load associated with a transformer; communication means operatively linked with said sensor, said communication means for detecting a mode of load operation and communicating a corresponding load operation signal, and; a control switch connected to said transformer, said control switch enabled to receive said load operation signal and deactivate said transformer when said load is in a predetermined mode. 2. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said sensor is selected from the group including voltage sensors, current sensors, and resistance sensors. 3. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 2 wherein when said sensor is a voltage sensor, said sensor is selected from the group of coil sensors, potential divider sensors, and feedback controlled voltage sensors. 4. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said sensor is an operational amplifier having a threshold defining means at an input thereof, said operational amplifier receiving at least one input from said load and having an output thereof connected to said control switch through said communications means. 5. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 4 wherein said threshold defining means is a potential divider connected to a second input of said operational amplifier. 6. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 2 wherein when said sensor is a current sensor, said sensor comprises: a sensing transformer connected in series with at least one supply line, said sensing transformer sensing current drawn by said load and converting the current drawn into a voltage signal; and a rectifier and filter circuit connected to an output of said sensing transformer for rectifying and filtering said voltage signal. 7. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said communication means is implemented in a form including physical wires, wireless transmitters and receivers, transceivers, and optically active devices. 8. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 7 wherein said wireless transmitter is connected to said sensor and said receiver is connected to said control switch. 9. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 7 wherein said optically active device is an opto-isolator. 10. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said control switch is connected to said communications means and selected from the group including semiconductor switches and spring based relay control switches. 11. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said control switch is a triac device connected to said communication means. 12. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 10 wherein when said switch is a relay control switch, said switch includes a conductor to short a secondary winding of the transformer in pressure regulator applications. 13. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said control switch includes a timing device for controlling enable-time. 14. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 13 wherein said timing device is selected from the group including spring based timers, microcontroller based timers, and microprocessor based timers. 15. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 12 wherein said relay control switch includes a jumper for remotely controlling transformer operation. 16. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said transformer is a single or multi phase transformer. 17. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said transformer is a booster type, buck type, or isolation type transformer. 18. The standby loss prevention module according to claim 1 wherein said sensor and control switch are printed on a circuit board. 19. A transformer system having standby loss prevention module, said transformer system comprising: a transformer implemented to receive an input and transform said input for use by a load; a sensor connected between an output of said transformer and said load; a communication link including said sensor and being connected between said transformer and said load, said sensor detecting a mode of load operation and communicating a corresponding load mode signal over said communication link, and; a control switch connected to said transformer and sensor through said communicating link, said control switch deactivating said transformer when said load mode signal indicates that said load is in a standby mode to thereby prevent unnecessary power consumption. 20. The transformer system according to claim 19 wherein said transformer has a plurality of primary coils. 21. The transformer system according to claim 20 wherein selected primary coils from said plurality of primary coils are selectively activated and deactivated according to power requirements of said load. 22. The transformer system according to claim 19 wherein said transformer is a plurality of transformers. 23. The transformer system according to claim 22 wherein selected transformers from said plurality of transformers are selectively activated and deactivated according to power requirements of said load. 24. A method of reducing power consumption to an electrical device, said method comprising: interposing a control switch between an electrical supply and a load device; determining when the load device requires full-level operational power; activating said control switch to interpose a step-up transformer between said electrical supply and said load device; providing full-level operational power to the load device; and deactivating the step-up transformer when the load device is not in use. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims the benefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/537,107 filed Jan. 17, 2004 and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/583,282 filed Jun. 25, 2004 both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates in general to electronic control devices and, in particular, to electronic control devices for regulating supply power to electrical apparatus. More specifically, but without restriction to the particular embodiments hereinafter described in accordance with the best mode of practice, this invention relates to a standby loss prevention module and transformer system that may be employed in conjunction with a wide variety of electrical apparatus including industrial motors, large-volume air compressors, tanning equipment used in tanning salons, and other electrical apparatus requiring a transformer action in electrical power as provided by the mains or grid connection. 2. General Discussions and Related Art As the demand for electrical power grows along with economic growth and population increases, there is a need for providing energy savings devices and methods in the employment of electrical-power consuming devices so that the existing grid is not over-loaded. Such a need exists currently because the time for building and bringing on-line additional power plants is long-term compared to the short run seasonal spikes in demand for electrical power, and the current general trend of a steady increase in industrial and consumer demand for electrical power. Recent events in different geographical regions of the United States have witnessed both sky-rocketing electrical power energy cost increases and massive black-outs due to the age of the grid and over demand by consumers for electrical power. Undesirable and disruptive brown-outs and rolling black-outs have also become more common and necessary in recent times due the ever increasing demands for electrical power. The increased demand for electrical power simply cannot be met by building new power plants because the lag time associated with bringing new power plants on-line or up-grading existing power plants is relatively long compared to the fluctuating but steadily increasing demands for electrical power. Thus there is a current need for providing lost cost electrical control devices for conserving the use of electrical power. More specifically, there is a great number of equipment and devices designed to work with 220 vac or 240 vac. U.S. power generators provide either 208 vac or 240 vac. Therefore a booster transformer is required to increase (boost) voltage or a decrease (buck) voltage to supply correct power to a piece of equipment. There are 500,000 tanning beds, a few million industrial air compressors, and millions of other industrial devices such as flow-solder machines, conveyor belts, motors, and other industrial electrical devices that employ transformers to boost power supply. The problem with these transformers is that they are wired in the ON state at all times. They thus draw electricity 24 hours a day even though the devices are only needed a few hours each day. A great amount of energy is wasted during those idle hours. The present invention is designed to solve this problem. The device of the present invention enables the transformer when the load device is ON and disconnects it when load device goes OFF. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide electrical devices with reduced power requirements. Another object of this invention is to reduce power costs associated with operating electrical equipment. Still another object of the invention is to provide a standby loss prevention transformer, which disables itself when the load is not operational. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a sensing and switching module that can be connected to any conventional transformer to convert it into a power efficient transformer. It is yet a further object of the present invention to provide a remote controllable module for reducing standby losses in transformers. Yet another object of the invention is to provide a wireless standby loss prevention module that can be connected to far apart load and transformer without requiring additional long running wires. A further object of the invention is to provide an improved tanning device with standby loss prevention module. These and other objects are attained in accordance with the present invention wherein there is provided a standby loss prevention module for transformers. The module includes a sensor connected between the output of the transformer and the load through a communication connection for detecting the mode of load operation and communicating a corresponding signal. A control switch connected to the transformer and sensor through the communicating connection is employed for receiving a signal corresponding to the mode of operation of the load. The transformer is then accordingly activated or deactivated to thereby reduce the power consumed by the transformer. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the sensor of the standby loss prevention module is provided with a voltage, current, or resistance sensor, or a combination thereof. In accordance with another preferred embodiment, the standby loss prevention module for the transformers is provided with a voltage sensor including a coil, a potential divider, or feedback controlled voltage sensor, or a combination thereof. According to yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the standby loss prevention module is provided with a voltage sensor which is an operational amplifier having a threshold defining member at the input, receiving its at least one input from the load supply and its output being connected to the control switch through the communication connection. The threshold defining member implemented as potential dividers connected to a second input of the operational amplifier. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, the standby loss prevention module for the advantageous use with transformers is provided with a current sensor including a sensing transformer connected in series with at least one supply line for sensing the current drawn by the load and converting it into a voltage signal. In this embodiment, there is also provided a rectifier and filter circuit connected at the output of the sensing transformer for rectifying and filtering the voltage signal and a communication link connected to the control switch for communicating a control signal for activating or deactivating the transformer. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, the communication link of the current sensor and control switch of the standby loss prevention module may be any suitable communication link including, for example, physical wires or a wireless system or network including transmitters and receivers, transceivers, optically active devices, or any desired combination thereof. In one preferred embodiment of the present invention, a wireless transmitter associated with the control switch of the standby loss prevention module is connected to sensors and the receiver is connected to the control switch. In another preferred embodiment hereof, the optically active devices of standby loss prevention module include an opto-isolator. According to a further aspect of the standby loss prevention module, the control switch is implemented as a semiconductor and/or spring based relay control switch connected to the communications link. Preferably the control switch is a triac device connected to the communication link. In accordance with still a further aspect of this invention, the relay control switch may be advantageously provided with an additional conductor to short any secondary windings of the transformer for pressure regulator applications. And according to still another implementation of the control switch of the present standby loss prevention module for transformers, an alternate preferred embodiment of the control switch is advantageously provided with a timing device to thereby control enable-time. This timing device may be implemented as any suitable timing device including a spring based timer, or a semi-conductor type microcontroller or micro-processor based timer. In a particular embodiment of the present module, the relay control switch is provided with a jumper for remotely controlling operations. According to other aspect of this invention, the associated transformers hereof are single or multi-phase transformers. The transformers can be booster type, buck type, or isolation type transformers. In another preferred implementation of the present standby loss prevention module, the sensor and control switch are advantageously printed on a circuit board. According to still yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an improved transformer having a standby loss prevention module which includes a sensor connected between the output of the transformer and a load. The sensor is connected through a communication link and is employed for detecting the mode of load operation and communicating corresponding signal. The improved transformer is further provided with a control switch operatively connected to the transformer and sensor through the communicating link and suitably enabled to receive the signal corresponding to the mode of operation of the load. The control switch is thus accordingly employed to activate and deactivate the transformer thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer. The sensor of the improved transformer including the standby loss prevention module may be a voltage, current, or resistance sensor. In regard to another aspect of the improved transformer, the voltage sensor employed therein is any suitable voltage sensor including a coil, potential divider, or a feedback controlled voltage sensor. More particularly, the voltage sensor may be implemented as an operational amplifier having a threshold defining element at the input and receiving its at least one input from the load supply and its output being connected to the control switch through the communications link. In one particular embodiment, the threshold defining element is a potential divider connected to a second input of the operational amplifier. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the improved transformer having the standby loss prevention module of the present invention, the current sensor may include a sensing transformer connected in series with at least one supply line for sensing the current drawn by the load and converting it into a voltage signal. In this implementation there is provided a rectifier and a filter circuit connected at the output of the sensing transformer for rectifying and filtering a voltage signal, and there is provided a communication link connected to the control switch for communicating a control signal for activating and deactivating the transformer in a desired manner. According to yet a further aspect of this embodiment of the improved transformer hereof, the communication link may be any suitable any communication system or network including physical hard wiring, or wirelessly operative transmitters, receivers, transceivers, or optically active devices. More particularly in specific embodiments thereof, a wireless transmitter is connected to load sensors and a receiver is connected to the control switch. The optically active device may be implemented as an opto-isolator. The control switch employed in these embodiments may be a semiconductor or spring based relay control switch connected to the communications link. In one preferred embodiment, the control switch is a triac device connected to the communication link. The control switch may be further advantageously provided with an additional conductor to short any secondary winding of the transformer for pressure regulator applications. In certain preferred embodiments hereof, the control switch is provided with a timing device which controls enable-time. Another control element may be provided with the control switch which is a jumper. The timing device is any suitable timing device including a spring based timer and a semi-conductor type microcontroller or microprocessor based timer. As with the embodiments discussed above, the transformer of these embodiments is a single or multi-phase transformer and may be a booster type, buck type, or isolation type transformer. And the sensor and control switch may be advantageously printed on a circuit board. And in accordance with yet a further aspect of the present invention there is provided and alternate improved transformer system. This transformer system includes a transformer having a plurality of primary coils which are selectively activated or deactivated according to the power requirements of the load. In an alternate embodiment thereof, the transformer system includes a plurality of transformers which are selectively activated or deactivated according to the power requirements of the load. According to a preferred use aspect of the present invention, any of the above embodiments may be advantageously implemented in association with a tanning device such as a tanning bed to reduce the operation cost thereof by reducing its power consumption as discussed above. The present invention is further directed to a method of reducing power consumption to an electrical device. This method includes the steps of interposing a control switch between an electrical supply and a load device, determining when the load device requires full-level operational power, activating the control switch to interpose a step-up transformer between the electrical supply and the load device, providing full-level operational power to the load device; and deactivating the step-up transformer when the load device is not in use. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES Further objects of the present invention together with additional features contributing thereto and advantages accruing therefrom will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments of the invention which are shown in the accompanying drawing figures, wherein: FIG. 1 shows a conventional single-phase transformer; FIG. 2 illustrates a conventional three-phase transformer; FIG. 3 shows a conventional block diagram for connecting a load and a transformer; FIG. 4 presents a block diagram for a standby loss prevention transformer according to the present invention; FIG. 5 shows a block diagram of another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a transformer wired to an industrial motor in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 7 shows a power saving module connected to a transformer according to the invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a transformer wired to an air compressor according one another embodiment of the invention; FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of yet another embodiment of the invention including a current sensing relay module; FIG. 10 shows still another embodiment of the invention having a transmitter and receiver for remotely placed load and transformer; FIG. 11 illustrates a further embodiment of the invention with a timer device implemented in accordance with the FDA recommendations; FIG. 12 is a schematic representation of a three-phase transformer according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 shows another three-phase transformer according to the present invention; FIG. 14 is a schematic presentation of a further embodiment of a three-phase transformer with a standby loss prevention module connected in a wireless manner to a distantly located load and transformer; FIG. 15 is a block diagram of a tanning device having a standby loss prevention module according to the present invention wired to a conventional transformer; FIG. 16 shows one of several possible circuit diagrams for an Input and Control block of the tanning device according to the invention; FIG. 17 is a schematic diagram of a tanning device with principal components illustrated therein; FIG. 18 illustrates a tanning device including a transformer and a standby loss prevention module according to the present invention; FIG. 19 shows wiring of tanning device when the user does not require a transformer; FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating bypassing a transformer according to one aspect of the present invention; FIG. 21 shows a schematic wiring diagram of a tanning device with a three-phase transformer according to present invention; FIG. 22 is a schematic presentation of a tanning device including a three-phase transformer according to the present invention; FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram of a transformer having a current sensing module according to present invention; FIG. 24 shows a transformer according to present invention having a current sensing module with an increase load capacity and accuracy of triggering point; FIG. 25 illustrates one of several possible embodiments of the present invention that can be employed in variety of industrial or residential complexes according to certain use aspects of the present invention; FIG. 26 is a schematic wiring diagram of separate three-phase transformers for full load operation and standby requirements implemented in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 27 is a schematic representation of a single transformer having multi-primary windings according to the present invention with a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) having a serial port communication member; FIG. 28 shows a single transformer having multi-primary windings according to the present invention with a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) having a wireless communication member; and FIG. 29 is a pictorial representation of one physical implementation of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The following description is provided in conjunction with the accompanying drawing figures which are to be fully considered as a part of this disclosure. The invention herein is being elaborated mainly referring to the booster type of transformers. A person skilled in the art, however, will appreciate that the various aspects of the invention can be readily applied to other types of transformers and a similarly elaborated description is possible for these embodiments. With reference now to FIG. 1, there is shown a conventional single-phase booster type transformer having four windings or coils W1, W2, W3, W4 and a core C. The windings W1 and W2 are high voltage input (primary) windings and are connected in series across the mains. The windings W3 and W4 are low voltage (secondary) windings and are connected in series with each other and the output nodes as shown in FIG. 1. This circuit exploits Lenz's law of induction for its operation. According thereto, a voltage across coils W1 and W2 creates a magnetic flux that is coupled to the windings W3 and W4 through the core C to induce a current in the windings W3 and W4. The current and voltage at the output are determined by the specification of the coils and the core. Normally, for a booster transformer, mains is a 208V AC supply and the output is 230V AC. Nevertheless, the output and mains specification can vary and thus the present invention is not limited to a particular mains or output specification. FIG. 2 shows a three-phase booster transformer. A three phase transformer includes three single phase transformers T1, T2, and T3 each connected across two lines L1-L2, L2-L3, and L3-L1 respectively to form a delta shape as shown in FIG. 2. The output phase is received from lines O1, O2, and O3 of the transformers T1, T2, and T3 respectively. The operating principle for this type of transformer remains the same as discussed above, except that a three phase input is provided at the inputs L1, L2, and L3 and a three phase output is observed at the O1, O2, and O3. A person skilled in the art will understand that at a given time only one transformer action corresponding to the dominant phase is useful. In this example, a three-phase input of 208 V AC fed to the transformer input L1, L2, and L3 and a three-phase output of 232V AC is received at the outputs O1, O2, and O3. The bucking configuration of the transformers can be achieved by swapping the input and output terminals and an isolation transformer configuration can be achieved by appropriately choosing winding and core specifications. The conventional transformers of FIGS. 1 and 2 are typically directly connected to a load as shown in FIG. 3. These transformers have the disadvantage that they consume power even while the load attached is in standby mode. To obviate above and other drawbacks of the prior art, the present invention provides a standby loss prevention module for transformers that can detect if a load connected to the transformer output is in operational mode and accordingly enables or disables the transformer thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer. Referring next to FIG. 4, there is shown a block diagram of an improved transformer with a loss prevention module according to present invention. The transformer of the invention has a sensing member or element connected to the load for sensing the state of operation of the load. This state sensing element provides a signal to the transformer enabling/disabling member. Whenever the load is in standby mode, the sensing element determines the functional state of the load and generates a signal for the transformer enabling/disabling member which in turn disables the transformer, thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer during the standby mode of the load. FIG. 5 shows one of the embodiments for connecting the sensing element or sensor and transformer enabling/disabling member or switch to the load and the transformer. According to this embodiment, a sensing element is connected across the load enabling/disabling member for sensing the state of the load enabling/disabling member, whenever the load is disabled the sensing element generates a signal for the transformer enabling/disabling member and disables the transformer to thereby prevent power consumption. A person skilled in the art will appreciate that many other similar embodiments are possible for wiring these blocks without departing from the concept of the present invention, one of them being connecting the sensing element across the load with the rest of the connections remaining the same. Others wiring implementations would be readily apparent to those of skill in the art given the present disclosure and the various objectives of this invention. Without limiting the scope of the invention, some of the possible explicit circuit embodiments of the invention are described in the subsequent description. With reference next to FIG. 6, there is shown a transformer wired to an industrial motor in accordance with the present invention. The transformer has primary windings 1, secondary windings 2, and the core 3. The primary winding 1 is provided with a relay switch 4. The relay 4 is connected across the load motor 6. When the motor switch 5 is enabled, the relay 4 gets charged that enables the primary winding 1 to conduct and initiate the transformer action. On the other hand, when the motor is not in operation mode the switch 5 is open then the relay 4 disables the primary winding 1 thereby achieving an objective of the invention. The invention further provides a power saving module that can be connected to any conventional transformer and convert it to a power efficient transformer. The module is shown in FIG. 7. The power saving module is provided with a plurality of terminals 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 that can be connected between the load and the transformer. The winding of the transformer is connected to the terminal 9 that connects the supply line 7 through a relay switch 4. The relay terminals 10 and 11 are connected across the load to detect the functional state of the load. The terminal 8 connects the supply line to the load. When the load switch 12 is closed the relay 4 of the module enables the transformer windings whereas if the load switch 12 is open the relay switch disconnects the winding from the mains, thereby discontinuing power consumption by the transformer during standby mode of the load. FIG. 8 shows a transformer wired to an air compressor according one another embodiment of the present invention. In a typical air compressor, the motor is required to be switched on/off when the pressure in the air tank is below/above a predetermined pressure level. A pressure gauge based switch 13 is enabled or disabled according to the pressure requirements in the air tank. According to this embodiment of the invention, the primary winding 14 of the transformer is connected to mains L1 and L2 through a relay switch 16. The relay terminals 17 and 18 are connected across the load motor 19 and an additional conductor C1 is provided with the terminal 18 of the relay to connect line L2 of the mains thereby shorting the secondary winding 15. The additional conductor C1 acts as a conduit in standby mode, whereas in the active mode this conductor adds voltage to achieve a desired potential difference across the output terminals of the transformer. The line L1 is connected to one supply terminal of the load motor 19 through the pressure gauge based switch 13. When the air pressure in the tank is below a predetermined level, the pressure regulated switch 13 turns on the motor 19 to thereby charge the air tank. Once the air tank is appropriately charged and the pressure inside the tank is sufficient enough that it disables the pressure switch 13 and hence disables the motor 19, the relay 16 is de-energized to disconnect the transformer from mains to save the power consumed in the standby mode of the motor. In this embodiment, all that is needed to benefit by this power saving technology is one added wire that connects line L2 to the terminal 18 as illustrated. Another embodiment of the invention is shown in FIG. 9. This embodiment provides an auto-sensing current transformer. The transformer according to this embodiment includes a current sensing relay module 20 that further includes an operational amplifier 21 having one of its input connected to line L1 of mains to receive a reference signal, a second input of the operational amplifier 21 is connected to the ground through a resistor 22 and the output is connected to relay 23. The operational amplifier 21 is designed to trigger the relay 23 at a predetermined signal level. Whenever the load 24 draws enough current to produce a signal that passes through the predetermined level, the relay 23 is triggered by the operational amplifier 21 for enabling/disabling the transformer. The predetermined signal level is defined according to transformer action requirements by the load. More particularly, when the load 24 is enabled the operational amplifier 21 detects current flowing through load 24 and provides a signal that energies the relay 23 to enable the transformer. On the other hand, when the load 24 is disabled the operational amplifier 21 observes zero current flow and then de-energizes the relay to disconnect the transformer to thereby put it in the power saving mode. FIG. 10 shows a standby loss prevention transformer that can be connected to a remotely located load and transformer assembly without requiring additional long running wires. According to this embodiment, a transmitter 25 is connected across the load 26 for detecting the functional state of the load 26. A receiver 27 is provided with the transformer as shown. The receiver 27 controls a switch S1 that enables or disables the transformer. When the load is in active mode, a second switch 28 connected to the load closes, and the transmitter 25 is then powered to transmit a signal to the receiver 27. On receipt of the signal, the receiver 27 enables the transformer to initiate the transformer action. In the standby mode of the load 26, the transmitter 25 transmits a signal for the receiver 27 to disable the transformer thereby achieving objects of the invention. FIG. 11 shows another embodiment of a booster having a time delay relay (TDR) 29 with timer device 30 according to the US Food and Drug Administrations' (FDA) recommendations for avoiding tanning effects. In this embodiment, a removable Junction or jumper 31 is connected across the timer device 30 for providing a remote control operation. In this embodiment the relay 29 is connected across the line L1 and L2 through the parallel combination of the timer device 30 and jumper 31. By removing the jumper 31, an actuator switch S2 of the timer 30 is disconnected from the power source therefore control of the tanning is inhibited. The arrangement of the jumper 31 allows inserting of additional circuitry (if desired) required for enabling remote operation from hundreds of feet away as discussed above with reference to FIG. 10. The timing adjustments of the timer device 30 are achieved by altering either pot or spring setting by means of a knob that can be turned externally, or slotted shaft for screwdriver setting. With this type of timer device 30 all kinds of timing functions can be handled; such as operate-time delay, release-time delay, generation of a delay interval with reset, sequence timing with repetition, pulse generation, and interval timing. Timer device 30 according to its settings activates and deactivates the relay 29, and the relay 29 accordingly enables or disables the transformer providing a power efficient transformer. A fan 32 is optionally connected to the output nodes of the transformer. Whenever transformer action takes place to drive a load, the fan 32 switches on for cooling the transformer. As illustrated in FIG. 11, an AC signal (normally 208V AC) is applied at the input L1 and L2. When the dial (knob) of the timer is twisted, the timer switch S2 is closed, and AC supply powers the relay coil to enable the transformer only when needed to thereby eliminate standby power losses. FIG. 12 shows a three-phase booster transformer according to the present invention. The three-phase booster transformer includes three single-phase transformers T1, T2, and T3 as generally discussed above in connection with reference to FIG. 2. The transformers T1, T2, and T3 of the three-phase transformer are provided with relays K1, K2, and K3 respectively for enabling or disabling their associated transformer. The relays K1, K2, and K3 are controlled by lines C1 and C2. As illustrated, lines C1 and C2 are connected to any two of the three-phase output lines O1, O2, and O3. Another output enabling relay K4 is provided to enable or disable the load. When the relay K4 energizes to enable the load, the control lines C1 and C2 energize the relay K1, K2, and K3 to enable the transformer. The transformer remains disabled when the load is in standby mode hence preventing power losses by the transformer during the standby mode of the load. Referring now to FIG. 13, there is shown another three-phase transformer according to the present invention. The relay keys K1, K2, and K3 are wired to the transformer and control lines C1 and C2 as discussed in the preceding FIG. 12. In this embodiment, however, an additional key K4 is connected to the control line C2 as illustrated (or C2 alternatively). Key K4 receives its input from an operational amplifier (Op-amp) as shown. The operational amplifier in this embodiment is implemented herein as discussed above in connection with FIG. 9. The operational amplifier has one of its input connected to the transformer to receive a reference signal and the second input to ground. The operational amplifier is designed to trigger the relay K4 at a predetermined signal level. In this manner, when the load draws sufficient current to produce a signal that passes through the designed threshold signal level, the relay K4 is triggered and hence keys K1, K2, and K3 are triggered to enable or disable the transformer. FIG. 14 presents a further embodiment of a three-phase transformer with a standby loss prevention module that can be wirelessly connected to a far off separated load and transformer. As discussed above, this wireless aspect of the present invention illuminates the need of additional long running wires. According to this embodiment, a transmitter M1 is connected across the load for detecting the functional state of the load. A receiver R1 physically located in a distant location that is remote from the transmitter M1, is provided with the transformer as shown. The receiver R1 controls the relay key K4 that enables or disables the transformer. When the load is in active mode, the relay key K5 closes and the transmitter M1 is power to transmit a signal for the receiver R1. On receipt of the signal, the receiver R1 enables K4 and hence the keys K1, K2, and K3 to activate the transformer to initiate the transformer action. In the standby mode of the load, the transmitter M1 transmits a signal for the receiver R1 to disable the key K4 and hence the transformer to thereby achieve the desired power consumption reduction. Now with reference next to FIG. 15, there is shown a block diagram of a tanning device having a standby loss prevention module according to the present invention wired to a conventional transformer. Tanning beds and booths come in a variety of models, from 24,100 Watt lamps to 60,160 Watt lamps. They are very power hungry devices and hence it is highly desirable to eliminate ineffective consumption of power from these devices. The tanning device according to this embodiment has three basic blocks. These include an Input and Control block, a Lamp block, and a Cooling block as illustrated. The Input and Control block is designed such that it disables the transformer when the tanning device is not functional thereby eliminating the power consumed by the transformer in the standby mode of the tanning device. During the operation of the tanning device, the Lamp block generates a great amount of heat, which increases the temperature of the device. The Cooling block is provided to keep the temperature under control. The Lamp block is very sensitive to the voltage and for a proper operation of the device it is required to supply an appropriate voltage. FIG. 16 shows one of the possible circuit diagrams according to the invention for the Input and Control block of the tanning device of FIG. 15. The Input and Control block receives input supply from lines L1 and L2, which is then supplied to the Cooling block and the Lamp block through a relay 34. At one leg of the relay 34, a jumper 36 is provided with a timer device 35. The jumper 36 by passes the timer 35 to enable remote operation. This arrangement disables the transformer when the tanning lamps are not functioning thereby reducing power consumed by the transformer during the standby mode of the tanning device. FIG. 17 shows an explicit diagram of a tanning device with minimal components for the purpose of necessary description only. A person suitably skilled in the art would thus appreciate that generally tanning devices are more complicated than shown in FIG. 17. In this embodiment, the tanning device is provided with the standby loss prevention module including a relay 34 having a timer device 35 and jumper 36 at its one leg as illustrated. Cooling devices FAN1, FAN2, and FAN3 of the tanning device are also provided with another timer 37. The tanning device has lamps 38, 39, and 40 receiving the input supply from nodes 11 and 12. The power is supplied to the tanning device from the lines L1 and L2 (normally 232V AC) through the standby loss prevention module. The relay 34 is interposed between the input nodes 11-12 and the supply lines L1-L2 as shown. The other timing device 37 is interposed, as illustrated, between the supply and the cooling device FAN2 and FAN3 that optimally control the cooling operation. Hereinafter, all the timing devices discussed herein without excluding the timing device 30 discussed in FIG. 11 and the timing devices 35 and 37 of FIG. 17 are timing devices that can be any suitable timing device including simple spring base timing devices and highly sophisticated microcontroller/microprocessor based timing devices. With continuing reference to FIG. 17, when the timer device 35 is activated an AC supply starts charging relay 34. When the relay is sufficiently charged it establishes connection between the lines L1-L2 and 11-12, thereby enabling the lamps 38, 39, and 40, and the cooling device FAN1. The timing device 37 triggers the cooling device FAN2 and FAN3. The time for triggering the cooling device FAN2 and FAN3 is determined optimally depending on temperature and/or total time of continuous operation of the tanning device. When the tanning session exhausts, relay 34 gets de-energized disconnecting the lines L1-L2 and 11-12 thereby disabling everything receiving power from lines L1 and L2. The cooling device FAN2 and FAN3 may remain running depending upon the preset delay and/or temperature and/or any other parameter as defined thereto for this purpose. The jumper 36 is connected for enabling remote operation of the tanning device if desired. Referring next to FIG. 18, there is shown a tanning device encompassing the transformer and the standby loss prevention module within itself. The transformer is interposed between the relay 34 and the lamp block inputs L1 and L2. The mains L1 and L2 are connected to the relay 34 through the timing device 35 and jumper 36 as shown. The operation of the circuit remains the same as discussed for the previous FIG. 16. Here, the transformer is wholly encompassed within the tanning device. FIG. 19 shows wiring of a tanning device when the use thereof does not require a transformer. The tanning device is provided with the paired sockets 41, 42 and 43, 44 that can be connected using jumpers to by pass the transformer. This saving power wiring system adds no additional cost to tanning device makers. FIG. 20 shows an effective block diagram for bypassing the transformer. With reference next to FIG. 21, there is shown a wiring diagram of the tanning device for a three-phase transformer. Lines L1, L2, and L3 are mains lines 41, 42, and 43 are transformer input lines and lines 44, 46, and 46 are the transformer output lines connected to the Lamp Circuit block. The relay 34 is connected to any two of the input mains. Each of the transformer input lines are connected to the mains through the relay switch as illustrated. Further, jumpers are optionally provided to short lines 41, 42, and 43 respectively to lines 44, 45, and 46 as shown in case the user does not require transformer operation. FIG. 22 shows a tanning device encompassing a three-phase transformer according to the present invention. As illustrated, the transformer is interposed between the relay 34 and the lamp block inputs 44, 45, and 46. The mains L1, L2 and L3 are connected to the relay 34 through the timing device 35 and jumper 36 as shown. The operation and the circuit remains the same as discussed with reference to FIG. 18 where here, however, the single-phase transformer is replaced by a three-phase transformer. As would be readily apparent to one of skill in the art, this invention can also be practiced with isolation and buck type of transformers without departing from the basic aspects described above. Nevertheless, some of the possible embodiments thereof are described in the subsequent description for the purpose of illustration. The embodiments described earlier and hereinafter are illustrative only and in no way is the invention intended to be limited to the embodiments as shown and illustrated. Referring next to FIG. 23, there is shown a transformer according to present invention having a current sensing module. The transformer according to this embodiment is provided with a current sensing and controlling circuit 50. The circuit 50 senses the current drawn by the load and turns the transformer on or off when the current drawn by the load is above or below a threshold current. The current sensing circuit includes a current transformer 51 (normally a single turn primary transformer like CST2063A) that detects the current drawn by the load and converts it into a voltage signal. The current transformer is provided with rectifying and filtering circuits 52 and 53 at its output to rectify and filter the AC voltage signal generated by the current transformer. The rectifying circuit 52 can be any suitable rectifying circuit including a bridge rectifier having four (4 1N914s') diodes as shown. The RC filter circuit 53 then filters the rectified signal. The rectified and filtered signal is applied to an optically active device 54, (like opto-isolator MOC3011) which generates a triggering signal whenever the voltage signal crosses a threshold voltage. A triac based switch 55 (for example 2N6344) can be used for triggering the load-driving transformer to set it on or off as desired to thereby reduce the power consumed by the transformer. An increased load driving capacity and precise triggering point setting of the current sensing circuit can be achieved by additionally providing a relay 56 as shown in FIG. 24. One leg of the relay 56 is connected to the supply line whereas the other leg is connected to the triac circuit 55. The triac circuit 55 has a charge tank including a resister and a capacitor which is powered using one of the supply lines. When the current drawn by the load is substantially high to produce a trigger for the triac circuit 55 as discussed earlier, the relay 56 starts charging for enabling the transformer. On the other hand, when the current drawn by the load is not substantially high enough the load-driving transformer remains disabled thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer. The circuits shown in FIGS. 23 and 24 are simple and economical circuits for basic applications where additional power supply for the current sensing circuit is not required since the current transformer 51 works as power supply to the opto-isolator. Isolation transformers are used in distribution and are installed in more or less every industrial building or Business Park. The operating current requirement of an individual business or building varies widely and therefore the standby current requirement also, particularly for the instruments like night time lighting, security systems, computers, and other equipment requiring 24-hour power. The present invention can be exercised for reducing power consumption by the transformers used for powering these types of equipment. FIG. 25, for example, shows one of the various possible embodiments that can be used in variety of industrial or residential complexes according to the present invention. According to this embodiment, a plurality of transformers including at least two transformers 57 and 58 each of different size and current rating are provided with the load. A current detecting and controlling module 59 is provided with each of the transformers or alternatively to any number of selected transformers. The current detecting and controlling module 59 selectively enables or disables one or more transformers according to the current requirements of the attached load the current detecting and controlling module may include a microcontroller, microprocessor, or a printed circuit board for the purpose of detecting current and accordingly enabling and disabling one or more transformers. In the example illustrated in FIG. 25, it is assumed that the standby and full operating requirements are known. The transformer 57 is provided for full operating currents. Then when the current requirement can be met by the smaller transformer 58, as detected by the current detecting and controlling module 59, the larger transformer 57 is disabled, thereby providing a power efficient supply system. FIG. 26 shows wiring of separate three-phase transformers for full load operation and standby requirements. A three phase transformer is connected between lines H1, H2, and H3 and lines X1, X2, and X3 for full load operating currents. The full load transformer is disconnected and the operation is taken over by another standby load transformer when the current detecting and controlling module detects that current requirements are below a threshold level. The threshold current can be defined according to the current requirements in business hours and business shut down hours. FIGS. 27 and 28 show a single transformer having multi-primary windings according to the present invention. According to this embodiment, all selected primary windings are disabled or enabled corresponding to the current requirements thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer. This design can be tailored for each application using a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) control with serial port communication, FIGS. 27 and 28, or wireless communication as illustrated in FIG. 28. Through the software on the PCB and computer software, the trigger point of ON and OFF of any current level can be sent to the transformer via communication ports. Multi-primary windings on a single transformer, not necessarily limited to two as illustrated, at OEM for the new generation of the power saving transformer. FIG. 29 provides a pictorial representation of one physical external implementation of the control device of the present invention as employed for use in conjunction with existing or previously installed tanning equipment. While this invention has been described in detail with reference to certain preferred embodiments, it should be appreciated that the present invention is not limited to those precise embodiments. Rather, in view of the present disclosure, which describes the current best mode for practicing the invention, many modifications and variations would present themselves to those of skill in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of this invention. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the following claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes, modifications, and variations coming within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be considered within their scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates in general to electronic control devices and, in particular, to electronic control devices for regulating supply power to electrical apparatus. More specifically, but without restriction to the particular embodiments hereinafter described in accordance with the best mode of practice, this invention relates to a standby loss prevention module and transformer system that may be employed in conjunction with a wide variety of electrical apparatus including industrial motors, large-volume air compressors, tanning equipment used in tanning salons, and other electrical apparatus requiring a transformer action in electrical power as provided by the mains or grid connection. 2. General Discussions and Related Art As the demand for electrical power grows along with economic growth and population increases, there is a need for providing energy savings devices and methods in the employment of electrical-power consuming devices so that the existing grid is not over-loaded. Such a need exists currently because the time for building and bringing on-line additional power plants is long-term compared to the short run seasonal spikes in demand for electrical power, and the current general trend of a steady increase in industrial and consumer demand for electrical power. Recent events in different geographical regions of the United States have witnessed both sky-rocketing electrical power energy cost increases and massive black-outs due to the age of the grid and over demand by consumers for electrical power. Undesirable and disruptive brown-outs and rolling black-outs have also become more common and necessary in recent times due the ever increasing demands for electrical power. The increased demand for electrical power simply cannot be met by building new power plants because the lag time associated with bringing new power plants on-line or up-grading existing power plants is relatively long compared to the fluctuating but steadily increasing demands for electrical power. Thus there is a current need for providing lost cost electrical control devices for conserving the use of electrical power. More specifically, there is a great number of equipment and devices designed to work with 220 vac or 240 vac. U.S. power generators provide either 208 vac or 240 vac. Therefore a booster transformer is required to increase (boost) voltage or a decrease (buck) voltage to supply correct power to a piece of equipment. There are 500,000 tanning beds, a few million industrial air compressors, and millions of other industrial devices such as flow-solder machines, conveyor belts, motors, and other industrial electrical devices that employ transformers to boost power supply. The problem with these transformers is that they are wired in the ON state at all times. They thus draw electricity 24 hours a day even though the devices are only needed a few hours each day. A great amount of energy is wasted during those idle hours. The present invention is designed to solve this problem. The device of the present invention enables the transformer when the load device is ON and disconnects it when load device goes OFF. | <SOH> OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide electrical devices with reduced power requirements. Another object of this invention is to reduce power costs associated with operating electrical equipment. Still another object of the invention is to provide a standby loss prevention transformer, which disables itself when the load is not operational. It is a further object of the present invention to provide a sensing and switching module that can be connected to any conventional transformer to convert it into a power efficient transformer. It is yet a further object of the present invention to provide a remote controllable module for reducing standby losses in transformers. Yet another object of the invention is to provide a wireless standby loss prevention module that can be connected to far apart load and transformer without requiring additional long running wires. A further object of the invention is to provide an improved tanning device with standby loss prevention module. These and other objects are attained in accordance with the present invention wherein there is provided a standby loss prevention module for transformers. The module includes a sensor connected between the output of the transformer and the load through a communication connection for detecting the mode of load operation and communicating a corresponding signal. A control switch connected to the transformer and sensor through the communicating connection is employed for receiving a signal corresponding to the mode of operation of the load. The transformer is then accordingly activated or deactivated to thereby reduce the power consumed by the transformer. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the sensor of the standby loss prevention module is provided with a voltage, current, or resistance sensor, or a combination thereof. In accordance with another preferred embodiment, the standby loss prevention module for the transformers is provided with a voltage sensor including a coil, a potential divider, or feedback controlled voltage sensor, or a combination thereof. According to yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the standby loss prevention module is provided with a voltage sensor which is an operational amplifier having a threshold defining member at the input, receiving its at least one input from the load supply and its output being connected to the control switch through the communication connection. The threshold defining member implemented as potential dividers connected to a second input of the operational amplifier. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, the standby loss prevention module for the advantageous use with transformers is provided with a current sensor including a sensing transformer connected in series with at least one supply line for sensing the current drawn by the load and converting it into a voltage signal. In this embodiment, there is also provided a rectifier and filter circuit connected at the output of the sensing transformer for rectifying and filtering the voltage signal and a communication link connected to the control switch for communicating a control signal for activating or deactivating the transformer. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, the communication link of the current sensor and control switch of the standby loss prevention module may be any suitable communication link including, for example, physical wires or a wireless system or network including transmitters and receivers, transceivers, optically active devices, or any desired combination thereof. In one preferred embodiment of the present invention, a wireless transmitter associated with the control switch of the standby loss prevention module is connected to sensors and the receiver is connected to the control switch. In another preferred embodiment hereof, the optically active devices of standby loss prevention module include an opto-isolator. According to a further aspect of the standby loss prevention module, the control switch is implemented as a semiconductor and/or spring based relay control switch connected to the communications link. Preferably the control switch is a triac device connected to the communication link. In accordance with still a further aspect of this invention, the relay control switch may be advantageously provided with an additional conductor to short any secondary windings of the transformer for pressure regulator applications. And according to still another implementation of the control switch of the present standby loss prevention module for transformers, an alternate preferred embodiment of the control switch is advantageously provided with a timing device to thereby control enable-time. This timing device may be implemented as any suitable timing device including a spring based timer, or a semi-conductor type microcontroller or micro-processor based timer. In a particular embodiment of the present module, the relay control switch is provided with a jumper for remotely controlling operations. According to other aspect of this invention, the associated transformers hereof are single or multi-phase transformers. The transformers can be booster type, buck type, or isolation type transformers. In another preferred implementation of the present standby loss prevention module, the sensor and control switch are advantageously printed on a circuit board. According to still yet another preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an improved transformer having a standby loss prevention module which includes a sensor connected between the output of the transformer and a load. The sensor is connected through a communication link and is employed for detecting the mode of load operation and communicating corresponding signal. The improved transformer is further provided with a control switch operatively connected to the transformer and sensor through the communicating link and suitably enabled to receive the signal corresponding to the mode of operation of the load. The control switch is thus accordingly employed to activate and deactivate the transformer thereby reducing the power consumed by the transformer. The sensor of the improved transformer including the standby loss prevention module may be a voltage, current, or resistance sensor. In regard to another aspect of the improved transformer, the voltage sensor employed therein is any suitable voltage sensor including a coil, potential divider, or a feedback controlled voltage sensor. More particularly, the voltage sensor may be implemented as an operational amplifier having a threshold defining element at the input and receiving its at least one input from the load supply and its output being connected to the control switch through the communications link. In one particular embodiment, the threshold defining element is a potential divider connected to a second input of the operational amplifier. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the improved transformer having the standby loss prevention module of the present invention, the current sensor may include a sensing transformer connected in series with at least one supply line for sensing the current drawn by the load and converting it into a voltage signal. In this implementation there is provided a rectifier and a filter circuit connected at the output of the sensing transformer for rectifying and filtering a voltage signal, and there is provided a communication link connected to the control switch for communicating a control signal for activating and deactivating the transformer in a desired manner. According to yet a further aspect of this embodiment of the improved transformer hereof, the communication link may be any suitable any communication system or network including physical hard wiring, or wirelessly operative transmitters, receivers, transceivers, or optically active devices. More particularly in specific embodiments thereof, a wireless transmitter is connected to load sensors and a receiver is connected to the control switch. The optically active device may be implemented as an opto-isolator. The control switch employed in these embodiments may be a semiconductor or spring based relay control switch connected to the communications link. In one preferred embodiment, the control switch is a triac device connected to the communication link. The control switch may be further advantageously provided with an additional conductor to short any secondary winding of the transformer for pressure regulator applications. In certain preferred embodiments hereof, the control switch is provided with a timing device which controls enable-time. Another control element may be provided with the control switch which is a jumper. The timing device is any suitable timing device including a spring based timer and a semi-conductor type microcontroller or microprocessor based timer. As with the embodiments discussed above, the transformer of these embodiments is a single or multi-phase transformer and may be a booster type, buck type, or isolation type transformer. And the sensor and control switch may be advantageously printed on a circuit board. And in accordance with yet a further aspect of the present invention there is provided and alternate improved transformer system. This transformer system includes a transformer having a plurality of primary coils which are selectively activated or deactivated according to the power requirements of the load. In an alternate embodiment thereof, the transformer system includes a plurality of transformers which are selectively activated or deactivated according to the power requirements of the load. According to a preferred use aspect of the present invention, any of the above embodiments may be advantageously implemented in association with a tanning device such as a tanning bed to reduce the operation cost thereof by reducing its power consumption as discussed above. The present invention is further directed to a method of reducing power consumption to an electrical device. This method includes the steps of interposing a control switch between an electrical supply and a load device, determining when the load device requires full-level operational power, activating the control switch to interpose a step-up transformer between the electrical supply and the load device, providing full-level operational power to the load device; and deactivating the step-up transformer when the load device is not in use. | 20050112 | 20080701 | 20051027 | 69902.0 | 0 | TWEEL JR, JOHN ALEXANDER | STANDBY LOSS PREVENTION MODULE, TRANSFORMER SYSTEM INCLUDING SAME, AND METHODS RELATING THERETO | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,307 | ACCEPTED | To source-antennas for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves | The present invention relates to a source-antenna for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves comprising an array of n radiating elements (113, 114) operating in a first frequency band, means (20) with longitudinal radiation operating in a second frequency band, the array and the means with longitudinal radiation having a substantially common phase centre, the n radiating elements being arranged symmetrically about the longitudinal-radiation means, and each element (113, 114) of the array consisting of a radiating element of the travelling wave type. | 1. Source-antenna for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves comprising an array of n radiating elements operating in a first frequency band, an element with longitudinal radiation operating in a second frequency band and situated at the centre of the array, the array of n radiating elements and the element with longitudinal radiation having a substantially common phase centre, the n radiating elements being arranged symmetrically about the longitudinal-radiation element, wherein each element of the array consists of a radiating element of the travelling wave type. 2. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that the radiating element of the travelling wave type is a helical device. 3. Source-antenna according to claim 2, characterized in that the length of the helical device is calculated in such a way that the radiation pattern of the array is substantially identical to the radiation pattern of the said helical device. 4. Source-antenna according to claim 2, characterized in that the helical devices are arranged so as to form a sequential-rotation array. 5. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that the array of n radiating elements is excited by a feed array of printed type. 6. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that n is equal to 4. 7. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that n is equal to 8. 8. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that the longitudinal-radiation element comprises a longitudinal-radiation dielectric rod with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation. 9. Source-antenna according to claim 1, characterized in that the longitudinal-radiation element comprises a helical device with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation. 10. Source-antenna according to claim 7, characterized in that the longitudinal-radiation element is excited by means comprising a waveguide. 11. Source-antenna according to claim 8, characterized in that the longitudinal-radiation element is excited by means comprising a waveguide. 12. Source-antenna according to claims 1, characterized in that one of the two frequency bands is used for the reception of electromagnetic waves whilst the other frequency band is used for the transmission of electromagnetic waves. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an improvement to source-antennas for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves, more particularly to the devices of this type used for satellite communication systems in the C band, in the Ku band or in the Ka band. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Interactive wireless telecommunication services are developing ever more rapidly. These services relate in particular to telephony, telefax, television, the Internet network and any so-called multimedia domain. The equipment for these general-broadcast services have to be available at reasonable cost. This is true in particular for the user's transmission/reception system which has to communicate with a server, usually by way of a telecommunication satellite. In this case, the communications are performed in the microwave frequency domain, especially in the C, Ku or Ka bands, that is to say at frequencies lying between 4 GHz and 30 GHz. For the transmission (T)/reception (R) source antennas, use is usually made of waveguide devices generally comprising a wide frequency band corrugated horn so as to cover the two bands, transmission and reception, this horn being associated with a device allowing the separation of the transmission and reception paths and/or the orthogonal polarizations and which consist of an orthomode (or OrthoMode Transducer: OMT) and of waveguide filters on each of the ports. The implementational technology is unwieldy and expensive. Its weight and bulk are generally incompatible with use by individuals. Thus, the applicant has already proposed in Patent WO99/35711 in the name of THOMSON Multimedia a transmission/reception source-antenna situated at the focus of a focusing system, such as a spherical lens, a parabolic-reflector antenna or a multireflector antenna, which may be used in home terminals for satellite communication systems. In this case, the source-antenna used for illuminating the lens or the parabolic reflector consists of an array of N radiating elements, i.e. of N patches for one direction of link such as reception and of a longitudinal-radiation antenna such as a helix, a dielectric rod, with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation or any other type of longitudinal-radiation antenna for the other direction of link for example transmission, this antenna being situated at the centre of the array. Thus the phase centres of the longitudinal-radiation antenna and of the array of patches practically coincide and can be placed at the focus of the system of antennas. In order for this type of mixed source to ensure maximum decoupling between the array of N radiating elements of patch type and the longitudinal-radiation antenna such as a helix, it is preferable for the array of patches to be used for the link effected at low frequency, i.e. in reception, and for the longitudinal-radiation antenna to be used for the link effected at high frequency, i.e. in transmission. However, the reception frequency band generally being wider than the transmission frequency band and the link budget being more sensitive to losses of the reception source, the choice of an array of patches for the reception source is not optimal from this point of view. Moreover, with an array of patches, it is often difficult to obtain circular polarization of good quality throughout the reception band. However, most communication systems using low-orbit satellites operate with circular polarizations. The aim of the present invention is therefore to propose an optimal solution to the problems hereinabove, in the case of satellite communication systems using circular polarizations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the subject of the present invention is a source-antenna for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves comprising an array of n radiating elements operating in a first frequency band and an element with longitudinal radiation operating in a second frequency band and situated at the centre of the array, the array with n radiating elements and the element with longitudinal radiation having a substantially common phase centre, the n radiating elements being arranged symmetrically about the longitudinal-radiation element, characterized in that each element of the array consists of a radiating element of the travelling wave type. According to a preferred embodiment, the radiating element of the travelling wave type is a helical device. In this case, the length of each helix of the array with n elements will be the longitudinal-radiation element i.e. almost identical to that of the array. The length of each helix is determined in a conventional manner knowing that, for correct operation of the helix in its longitudinal mode, the following typical relations must hold: 3/4Π×D/λ<4/3 0.6 D<S<0.8 D with λ the wavelength corresponding to the central frequency of operation of the helix, D the diameter of a turn and S the distance between two successive turns. The number N′ of turns, and hence the total length of the helix L=N′S, determines the directivity of the helix. The width of the main beam of the radiation pattern is given by the following typical relation: θ°=52/{square root}(N′S/λ) where θ° is the width of the beam at 3 dB. The use of radiating devices of the travelling wave type, more particularly of helical devices, exhibits a certain number of advantages. Thus, it makes it possible to restrict the array losses, the helical devices exhibiting very low losses. Consequently, the losses from the array-antenna are limited almost to the losses from the feed array. Moreover, they afford a solution to the problems of choosing the substrate. Specifically, in the case of patch-type antennas, compromises are necessary between the demands of circuits requiring a slender substrate with high dielectric permittivity and those of the antennas requiring a thick substrate with low permittivity. Moreover, the use of a helical device as elementary radiating element for the array makes it possible by virtue of its intrinsic radiation under circular polarization and of its operation over a wide frequency band to afford a solution to the problems of width of bands and of circular polarization of the source-antenna. Furthermore, when the n radiating elements are positioned using the technique of sequential rotation for the array, the use of a helix as elementary radiating element makes it possible to simplify the topology of the feed array, thus restricting its losses and its bulk. According to another characteristic of the present invention, the longitudinal-radiation element comprises a longitudinal-radiation dielectric rod with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation or a helical device with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation. In the case of a dielectric rod, the longitudinal-radiation element is excited by means comprising a waveguide. According to yet another characteristic of the present invention, one of the two frequency bands is used for the reception of electromagnetic waves whilst the other frequency band is used for the transmission of electromagnetic waves. Thus, the invention can be used in the case of low-frequency/high-frequency inversion. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other characteristics and advantages of the present invention will become apparent on reading the following description of various preferred embodiments, this description being given with reference to the herein-appended drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a sectional view of a first embodiment of a source-antenna for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a view from above of the source-antenna of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a sectional view along A-A of FIG. 1, representing the topology of the feed circuit of the array of helices. FIG. 4 is a sectional view of another embodiment of a source-antenna for transmitting/receiving magnetic waves in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 5 is a view from above of the antenna of FIG. 4. To simplify the description, in the drawings, the same elements bear the same references. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS As represented more particularly in FIGS. 1 and 4, the source-antenna is a mixed source comprising a first array of n radiating elements operating in a first frequency band more particularly in reception and a longitudinal-radiation antenna operating in a second frequency band, i.e. in transmission. As represented in FIG. 1, the first array of n radiating elements consists of a support 1 of parallelepipedal shape, covered on its upper face with a substrate 2 made of dielectric materials. As represented clearly in FIG. 2, the support 1 comprises four circular holes 101, 102, 103, 104, which, in the embodiment represented, are positioned at the four vertices of a square. These four holes allow the passage of four radiating elements consisting of helices 111, 112, 113, 114. Provided at the middle of the square is a circular aperture 3 allowing the passage of a fastening stem which forms part of the support element of the longitudinal-radiation antenna which will be described subsequently. The circular orifice 3 is positioned at the centre of the square bounded by the orifices 101, 102, 103, 104 allowing the passage of four radiating elements as described hereinabove. As represented in FIG. 2, the helical devices 111, 112, 113, 114 are positioned in such a way as to form a sequential-rotation array. Moreover, as represented in FIG. 1, the helical devices 111, 112, 113, 114 exhibit a small length l. Furthermore, as represented in FIG. 3, the helices 111, 112, 113, 114 are connected to a feed array made in printed technology on the rear face of the substrate 2. In a known manner, the feed array consists of microstrip lines L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6, L7. More specifically, the lines L1 and L2 connect the antennas 111 and 112 with the point of connection C1, the lines L2 and L4 connect the antennas 113 and 114 with the point of connection C2, the line L5 connects the point C1 to the point C3 and the line L6 connects the point C2 to the point C3, the line L7 being connected between the excitation circuit and the point of connection C3. To obtain a sequential rotation, the values Li satisfy the relations: L5−L6=λg/2 L2−L1=L3−L4=λg/4 where λg represents the guided wavelength in the microstrip line at the central frequency of operation. Thus, the relative excitation phases of the helices 112, 111, 113, 114 are respectively 0°, 90°, 180° and 270°. If the helices are turned sequentially about their axis by an angle of 0°, 90°, 180° and 270° respectively, the conditions of the sequential rotation are ensured in the present case for a right circular polarization. For left circular polarization, the sequential rotation is obtained by turning the helices by 0°, −90°, −180° and −270° respectively. The embodiment represented relates to an array of radiating elements comprising four helices. However, as will be described subsequently, the array of radiating elements can comprise for example eight helices regularly distributed over a circle of diameter 1.7 λ0. As represented in FIG. 1, associated with this array of four helices operating in a first frequency band which is used in reception is a longitudinal-radiation means operating in a second frequency band. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, this means consists of a helix 20 connected by a coaxial cable 21 passing inside the stem 3 to an excitation circuit described subsequently. The helix 20 is composed of a set of turns 22 and operates in axial mode. The right circular section of the helix is therefore restricted to roughly the wavelength divided by three. More specifically, it has to satisfy the relation 3/4<Π×D/λ<4/3 where D is the diameter of the helix. The stem 3 forms part of a support 4 of parallelepipedal shape made from a conducting material, the support 4 being intended to receive the excitation circuit. This circuit consists of a single microstrip line L′ etched on the substrate and whose characteristic impedance is equal to that of the helix adapted by the stretch of coaxial line (the stem) to ensure good matching. In a known manner, the lines L7 and L′ are connected respectively in the embodiment represented to a circuit for receiving and to a circuit for transmitting electromagnetic waves, these circuits comprising amplifiers and frequency converters. According to a variant of the present invention, the reception and transmission circuits may be inverted, i.e. the long-helix antenna is used in reception and the array in transmission. Another embodiment of a transmission/reception source-antenna according to the present invention will now be described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. In this case, the reception circuit consists, as for the first embodiment, of an array of n radiating elements operating in a first frequency band, i.e. of an array of eight helices, 301, 302, 303 . . . 308 which are positioned on a circle of diameter 1.7 λ0 approximately. Depending on the desired directivity, the diameter of this circle can be modified. The use of eight radiating elements makes it possible to obtain more directional radiation of the array and this embodiment is suitable for illuminating a double-reflector antenna. The helices 301 to 308 are fed in such a way as to obtain a sequential rotation. They are connected to a feed array (not represented) made in printed technology. In the embodiment of FIGS. 4 and 5, the longitudinal-radiation means consists of an element comprising a longitudinal-radiation dielectric rod with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation. More specifically, as represented in FIG. 4, the longitudinal-radiation means comprise a rod 40 emerging above the stem 31. The vertex of the cone 41 points towards the space towards which the waves radiate or from which they are picked up. This cone 41 is extended at its base by a cylinder 42 and terminates in a cone 43 whose vertex points in the opposite direction to that of the cone 41. The rod 40 formed of the cone 41, of the cylinder 42 and of the cone 43 comprises for example compressed polystyrene constituting a longitudinal-radiation dielectric antenna, i.e. one exhibiting a relatively slender radiation pattern. This type of antenna is referred to as a “polyrod”. The configuration of the rod 40 explains its name of cylindro-conical antenna. The rod 40 operates as a waveguide and the mode which it transmits is such that the maximum radiation can appear on the axis of the direction of the rod 40. According to a variant which is not represented, the rod 40 is hollow. The technique for producing such dielectric antennas is well known to the person skilled in the art and will not be described in greater detail. As represented in FIG. 4, the rod 40 is surrounded at the base of the cone 41 by a cylindrical stem 44 with axis coinciding with the axis of the rod 40. The stem 44 passes inside the body 31 as well as inside a body 45 of parallelepipedal shape made from a conducting material. The stem 44 is made from a conducting material and forms a waveguide whose walls are in contact with the body 45. The upper part of the stem 44 emerging from the upper face of the body 31 is open whereas the lower part of the stem 44 emerging from the body 45 is closed by a metal plate 44a, the stem thus forming a resonant cavity. The stem 44 exhibits a perpendicular aperture allowing the passage of a substrate plate 46 receiving the electromagnetic wave reception or transmission circuit made in microstrip technology. The substrate-forming plate 46 is constructed from a material of given dielectric permittivity such as Teflon glass for example. It exhibits an upper face directed towards the rod 40 and a metallized lower face forming an earth plane. It is in contact with the conducting walls of the stem 44. The plate 46 is fed in a known manner by probes etched on the upper surface of the plate 46. The embodiment operates in an identical manner to the first embodiment. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Interactive wireless telecommunication services are developing ever more rapidly. These services relate in particular to telephony, telefax, television, the Internet network and any so-called multimedia domain. The equipment for these general-broadcast services have to be available at reasonable cost. This is true in particular for the user's transmission/reception system which has to communicate with a server, usually by way of a telecommunication satellite. In this case, the communications are performed in the microwave frequency domain, especially in the C, Ku or Ka bands, that is to say at frequencies lying between 4 GHz and 30 GHz. For the transmission (T)/reception (R) source antennas, use is usually made of waveguide devices generally comprising a wide frequency band corrugated horn so as to cover the two bands, transmission and reception, this horn being associated with a device allowing the separation of the transmission and reception paths and/or the orthogonal polarizations and which consist of an orthomode (or OrthoMode Transducer: OMT) and of waveguide filters on each of the ports. The implementational technology is unwieldy and expensive. Its weight and bulk are generally incompatible with use by individuals. Thus, the applicant has already proposed in Patent WO99/35711 in the name of THOMSON Multimedia a transmission/reception source-antenna situated at the focus of a focusing system, such as a spherical lens, a parabolic-reflector antenna or a multireflector antenna, which may be used in home terminals for satellite communication systems. In this case, the source-antenna used for illuminating the lens or the parabolic reflector consists of an array of N radiating elements, i.e. of N patches for one direction of link such as reception and of a longitudinal-radiation antenna such as a helix, a dielectric rod, with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation or any other type of longitudinal-radiation antenna for the other direction of link for example transmission, this antenna being situated at the centre of the array. Thus the phase centres of the longitudinal-radiation antenna and of the array of patches practically coincide and can be placed at the focus of the system of antennas. In order for this type of mixed source to ensure maximum decoupling between the array of N radiating elements of patch type and the longitudinal-radiation antenna such as a helix, it is preferable for the array of patches to be used for the link effected at low frequency, i.e. in reception, and for the longitudinal-radiation antenna to be used for the link effected at high frequency, i.e. in transmission. However, the reception frequency band generally being wider than the transmission frequency band and the link budget being more sensitive to losses of the reception source, the choice of an array of patches for the reception source is not optimal from this point of view. Moreover, with an array of patches, it is often difficult to obtain circular polarization of good quality throughout the reception band. However, most communication systems using low-orbit satellites operate with circular polarizations. The aim of the present invention is therefore to propose an optimal solution to the problems hereinabove, in the case of satellite communication systems using circular polarizations. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the subject of the present invention is a source-antenna for transmitting/receiving electromagnetic waves comprising an array of n radiating elements operating in a first frequency band and an element with longitudinal radiation operating in a second frequency band and situated at the centre of the array, the array with n radiating elements and the element with longitudinal radiation having a substantially common phase centre, the n radiating elements being arranged symmetrically about the longitudinal-radiation element, characterized in that each element of the array consists of a radiating element of the travelling wave type. According to a preferred embodiment, the radiating element of the travelling wave type is a helical device. In this case, the length of each helix of the array with n elements will be the longitudinal-radiation element i.e. almost identical to that of the array. The length of each helix is determined in a conventional manner knowing that, for correct operation of the helix in its longitudinal mode, the following typical relations must hold: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? 3/4Π× D/λ< 4/3 in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? 0.6 D<S<0.8 D in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? with λ the wavelength corresponding to the central frequency of operation of the helix, D the diameter of a turn and S the distance between two successive turns. The number N′ of turns, and hence the total length of the helix L=N′S, determines the directivity of the helix. The width of the main beam of the radiation pattern is given by the following typical relation: in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? θ°=52/{square root}( N′S/ λ) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where θ° is the width of the beam at 3 dB. The use of radiating devices of the travelling wave type, more particularly of helical devices, exhibits a certain number of advantages. Thus, it makes it possible to restrict the array losses, the helical devices exhibiting very low losses. Consequently, the losses from the array-antenna are limited almost to the losses from the feed array. Moreover, they afford a solution to the problems of choosing the substrate. Specifically, in the case of patch-type antennas, compromises are necessary between the demands of circuits requiring a slender substrate with high dielectric permittivity and those of the antennas requiring a thick substrate with low permittivity. Moreover, the use of a helical device as elementary radiating element for the array makes it possible by virtue of its intrinsic radiation under circular polarization and of its operation over a wide frequency band to afford a solution to the problems of width of bands and of circular polarization of the source-antenna. Furthermore, when the n radiating elements are positioned using the technique of sequential rotation for the array, the use of a helix as elementary radiating element makes it possible to simplify the topology of the feed array, thus restricting its losses and its bulk. According to another characteristic of the present invention, the longitudinal-radiation element comprises a longitudinal-radiation dielectric rod with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation or a helical device with axis coinciding with the axis of radiation. In the case of a dielectric rod, the longitudinal-radiation element is excited by means comprising a waveguide. According to yet another characteristic of the present invention, one of the two frequency bands is used for the reception of electromagnetic waves whilst the other frequency band is used for the transmission of electromagnetic waves. Thus, the invention can be used in the case of low-frequency/high-frequency inversion. | 20050112 | 20080506 | 20050915 | 58900.0 | 0 | WIMER, MICHAEL C | IMPROVEMENT TO SOURCE-ANTENNAS FOR TRANSMITTING/RECEIVING ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,325 | ACCEPTED | Method and system for detecting objects external to a vehicle | Method and system for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle and preventing collisions involving the vehicle includes directing a laser beam from the vehicle into the environment, receiving from an object in the path of the laser beam a reflection of the laser beam at a location on the vehicle, and analyzing the received laser beam reflections to obtain information about the object from which the laser beam is being reflected. Analysis of the laser beam reflections preferably entails range gating the received laser beam reflections to limit analysis of the received laser beam reflections to only those received from an object within a defined (distance) range such that objects at distances within the range are isolated from surrounding objects. | 1. A method for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle, comprising: directing a laser beam from the vehicle into the environment; receiving from an object in the path of the laser beam a reflection of the laser beam at a location on the vehicle; and analyzing the received laser beam reflections to obtain information about the object from which the laser beam is being reflected, the analyzing step comprising range gating the received laser beam reflections to limit analysis of the received laser beam reflections to only those received from an object within a defined range such that objects at distances within the range are isolated from surrounding objects. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the analyzing step obtains information about the distance between the vehicle and the object. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the laser beam is infrared. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising controlling the direction of the laser beam. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: providing a digital map including information relating to roads on which the vehicle can travel or is traveling; defining a field into which the laser beam will be directed based on the map; and directing the laser beam into the defined field. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: scanning with the laser beam at a high scanning speed; and scanning with an additional laser beam at a slower scanning speed. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the analyzing step comprises analyzing the received laser beam reflections to detect the presence of objects potentially affecting operation of the vehicle, the range gating step being performed once the presence of each object is detected and the range being determined to encompass any objects whose presence has been detected. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the analyzing step further comprising narrowing the range such that laser beam reflections from only the object whose presence is detected and other objects in the same range are analyzed. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein the analysis of the received laser beam reflections to detect the presence of objects is performed using a pattern recognition algorithm. 10. The method of claim 7, wherein the analyzing step further comprises ascertaining the identity of or identifying each object and proceeding to obtain information about the distance between the object and the vehicle based on the identity or identification of the object. 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising alerting a driver of the vehicle if the information obtained about an object in the environment outside of and around the vehicle indicates that a collision with the object is about to occur. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the laser beam reflections are received by an image sensor. 13. A method for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object, comprising: mounting a laser beam projector on the vehicle; directing a laser beam from the projector outward from the vehicle; determining whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam based on reception of reflections of the laser beam caused by the presence of the object in the path of the laser beam; when an object is determined to be present, setting a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object; processing only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle; and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, effecting a countermeasure with a view toward preventing the impact. 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising: providing a digital map including information relating to roads on which the vehicle can travel or is traveling; defining a field into which the laser beam will be directed based on the map; and directing the laser beam into the defined field. 15. The method of claim 13, further comprising: scanning with the laser beam at a high scanning speed; and scanning with an additional laser beam at a slower scanning speed. 16. The method of claim 13, wherein the processing step comprises applying a pattern recognition technique to ascertain the identity of or identify each object in the set distance range and assessing the potential for and consequences of an impact between the vehicle and the object based on the identity or identification of the object. 17. The method of claim 13, wherein the countermeasure effected entails alerting a driver of the vehicle about the possible impact and/or altering the travel of the vehicle. 18. A system for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object, comprising: a laser beam projector arranged on the vehicle to directing a laser beam outward from the vehicle; a receiving unit for receiving reflections of the laser beam which reflect off of objects in the path of the laser beam; and a processor arranged to process any received reflections to determine whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam and when an object is determined to be present, said processor being arranged to set a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object, process only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle, and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, cause a countermeasure to be effected with a view toward preventing the impact. 19. The system of claim 18, wherein said processor includes a pattern recognition algorithm which ascertains the identity of or identifies each object in the set distance range and assesses the potential for and consequences of an impact between the vehicle and the object based on the identity or identification of the object. 20. The system of claim 18, further comprising a driver notification system or a vehicle control system, the countermeasure caused by said processor being activation of the driver notification system to alert the driver of the impending impact or activation of the vehicle control system to vary the travel of the vehicle to avoid the impending impact. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/822,445 filed Apr. 12, 2004 which is a continuation-in-part of: 1) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/118,858 filed Apr. 9, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,720,920, which is: A) a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/177,041 filed Oct. 22, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,370,475, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/062,729 filed Oct. 22, 1997; B) a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/679,317 filed Oct. 4, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,405,132, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/523,559 filed Mar. 10, 2000, now abandoned, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/123,882 filed Mar. 11, 1999, and which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/177,041 filed Oct. 22, 1998, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,370,475, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/062,729 filed Oct. 22, 1997; and C) a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/909,466 filed Jul. 19, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,526,352; and 2) U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/216,633 filed Aug. 9, 2002, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,768,944, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/118,858 filed Apr. 9, 2002. All of the above applications are incorporated by reference herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention is in the fields of automobile safety, intelligent highway safety systems, accident avoidance, accident elimination, collision avoidance, blind spot detection, anticipatory sensing, automatic vehicle control, intelligent cruise control, vehicle navigation, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-non-vehicle communication and non-vehicle-to-vehicle communication and other automobile, truck and train safety, navigation, communication and control related fields. The invention relates generally to methods for vehicle-to-vehicle communication and communication between a vehicle and non-vehicles and more particularly to apparatus and methods using coded spread spectrum, ultrawideband, noise radar or similar technologies. The coding scheme can use may be implemented using multiple access communication methods analogous to frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), or code division multiple access (CDMA) in a manner to permit simultaneous communication with and between multiple vehicles generally without the use of a carrier frequency. The invention also relates generally to an apparatus and method for precisely determining the location and orientation of a host vehicle operating on a roadway and location of multiple moving or fixed obstacles that represent potential collision hazards with the host vehicle to thereby eliminate collisions with such hazards. In the early stages of implementation of the apparatus and method and when collisions with such hazards cannot be eliminated, the apparatus and method will generate warning signals and possibly initiate avoidance maneuvers to minimize the probability of a collision and the consequences thereof. More particularly, the invention relates to the use of a Global Positioning System (“GPS”), differential GPS (“DGPS”), other infrastructure-based location aids, cameras, radar, laser radar, terahertz radar and an inertial navigation system as the primary host vehicle and target locating system with centimeter level accuracy. The invention is further supplemented by a processor to detect, recognize and track all relevant potential obstacles, including other vehicles, pedestrians, animals, and other objects on or near the roadway. More particularly, the invention further relates to the use of centimeter-accurate maps for determining the location of the host vehicle and obstacles on or adjacent the roadway. Even more particularly, the invention further relates to an inter-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication systems for transmitting GPS or DGPS position data, velocities, headings, as well as relevant target data to other vehicles for information and control action. The present invention still further relates to the use of Kalman filters, neural networks, combination neural networks and neural-fuzzy rule sets or algorithms for recognizing and categorizing obstacles and generating and developing optimal avoidance maneuvers where necessary. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION All of the patents, patent applications, technical papers and other references referenced below are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Various patents, patent applications, patent publications and other published documents are discussed below as background of the invention. No admission is made that any or all of these references are prior art and indeed, it is contemplated that they may not be available as prior art when interpreting 35 U.S.C. §102 in consideration of the claims of the present application. There are numerous components described and disclosed herein. Many combinations of these components are described but to conserve space, the inventors have not described all combinations and permutations of these components but the inventors intend that each such combination and permutation is an invention to be considered disclosed by this disclosure. The inventors further intend to file continuation and continuation-inpart applications to cover many of these combinations and permutations. Automobile accidents are one of the most serious problems facing society today, both in terms of deaths and injuries, and in financial losses suffered as a result of accidents. The suffering caused by death or injury from such accidents is immense. The costs related to medical treatment, permanent injury to accident victims and the resulting loss of employment opportunities, and financial losses resulting from damage to property involved in such accidents are staggering. Providing the improved systems and methods to eventually eliminate these deaths, injuries and other losses deserves the highest priority. The increase in population and use of automobiles worldwide with the concomitant increased congestion on roadways makes development of systems for collision avoidance and elimination even more urgent. While many advances have been made in vehicle safety, including, for example, the use of seatbelts, airbags and safer automobile structures, much room for improvement exists in automotive safety and accident prevention systems. There are two major efforts underway that will significantly affect the design of automobiles and highways. The first is involved with preventing deaths and serious injuries from automobile accidents. The second involves the attempt to reduce the congestion on highways. In the first case, there are approximately forty two thousand (42,000) people killed each year in the United States by automobile accidents and another several hundred thousand are seriously injured. In the second case, hundreds of millions of man-hours are wasted every year by people stuck in traffic jams on the world's roadways. There have been many attempts to solve both of these problems; however, no single solution has been able to do so. When a person begins a trip using an automobile, he or she first enters the vehicle and begins to drive, first out of a parking space and then typically onto a local or city road and then onto a highway. In leaving the parking space, he or she may be at risk from an impact of a vehicle traveling on the road. The driver must check his or her mirrors to avoid such an event and several electronic sensing systems have been proposed which would warn the driver that a collision is possible. Once on the local road, the driver is at risk of being impacted from the front, side and rear, and electronic sensors are under development to warn the driver of such possibilities. Similarly, the driver may run into a pedestrian, bicyclist, deer or other movable object and various sensors are under development that will warn the driver of these potential events. These various sensors include radar, optical, terahertz or other electromagnetic frequencies, infrared, ultrasonic, and a variety of other sensors, each of which attempts to solve a particular potential collision event. It is important to note that as yet, in none of these cases is there sufficient confidence in the decision that the control of the vehicle is taken away from the driver. Thus, action by the driver is still invariably required. In some proposed future Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) designs, hardware of various types is embedded into the highway and sensors which sense this hardware are placed onto the vehicle so that it can be accurately guided along a lane of the highway. In various other systems, cameras are used to track lane markings or other visual images to keep the vehicle in its lane. However, for successful ITS, additional information is needed by the driver, or the vehicle control system, to take into account weather, road conditions, congestion etc., which typically involves additional electronic hardware located on or associated with the highway as well as the vehicle. From this discussion, it is obvious that a significant number of new electronic systems are planned for installation ontovehicles. However, to date, no product has been proposed or designed which combines all of the requirements into a single electronic system. This is one of the intents of some embodiments of this invention. The safe operation of a vehicle can be viewed as a process in the engineering sense. To achieve safe operation, first the process must be designed and then a vehicle control system must be designed to implement the process. The goal of a process designer is to design the process so that it does not fail. The fact that so many people are being seriously injured and killed in traffic accidents and the fact that so much time is being wasted in traffic congestion is proof that the current process is not working and requires a major redesign. To design this new process, the information required by the process must be identified, the source of that information determined and the process designed so that the sources of information can communicate effectively with the user of the information, which will most often be a vehicle control system. Finally, the process must have feedback that self-corrects the process when it is tending toward failure. Although it is technologically feasible, it is probably socially unacceptable at this time for a vehicle safety system to totally control the vehicle. An underlying premise of embodiments of this invention, therefore, is that people will continue to operate their vehicle and control of the vehicle will only be seized by the control system when such an action is required to avoid an accident or when such control is needed for the orderly movement of vehicles through potentially congested areas on a roadway. When this happens, the vehicle operator will be notified and given the choice of exiting the road at the next opportunity. In some cases, especially when this invention is first implemented on a trail basis, control will not be taken away from the vehicle operator but a warning system will alert the driver of a potential collision, road departure or other infraction. Let us consider several scenarios and what information is required for the vehicle control process to prevent accidents. In one case, a driver is proceeding down a country road and falls asleep and the vehicle begins to leave the road, perhaps heading toward a tree. In this case, the control system would need to know that the vehicle was about to leave the road and for that, it must know the position of the vehicle relative to the road. One method of accomplishing this would be to place a wire down the center of the road and to place sensors within the vehicle to sense the position of the wire relative to the vehicle, or vice versa. An alternate approach would be for the vehicle to know exactly where it is on the surface of the earth and to also know exactly where the edge of the road is. These approaches are fundamentally different because in the former solution every road in the world would require the placement of appropriate hardware as well as the maintenance of this hardware. This is obviously impractical. In the second case, the use of the global positioning satellite system (GPS), augmented by additional systems to be described below, will provide the vehicle control system with an accurate knowledge of its location. While it would be difficult to install and maintain hardware such as a wire down the center of the road for every road in the world, it is not difficult to survey every road and record the location of the edges, and the lanes for that matter, of each road. This information must then be made available through one or more of a variety of techniques to the vehicle control system. Another case might be where a driver is proceeding down a road and decides to change lines while another vehicle is in the driver's blind spot. Various companies are developing radar, ultrasonic or optical sensors to warn the driver if the blind spot is occupied. The driver may or may not heed this warning, perhaps due to an excessive false alarm rate, or he or she may have become incapacitated, or the system may fail to detect a vehicle in the blind spot and thus the system will fail. Consider an alternative technology where again each vehicle knows precisely where it is located on the earth surface and additionally can communicate this information to all other vehicles within a certain potential danger zone relative to the vehicle. Now, when the driver begins to change lanes, his or her vehicle control system knows that there is another vehicle in the blind spot and therefore will either warn the driver or else prevent him or her from changing lanes thereby avoiding the accident. Similarly, if a vehicle is approaching a stop sign, other traffic marker or red traffic light and the operator fails to bring the vehicle to a stop, if the existence of this traffic light and its state (red in this example) or stop sign has been made available to the vehicle control system, the system can warn the driver or seize control of the vehicle to stop the vehicle and prevent a potential accident. Additionally, if an operator of the vehicle decides to proceed across an intersection without seeing an oncoming vehicle, the control system will once again know the existence and location and perhaps velocity of the oncoming vehicle and warn or prevent the operator from proceeding across the intersection. Consider another example where water on the surface of a road is beginning to freeze. Probably the best way that a vehicle control system can know that the road is about to become slippery, and therefore that the maximum vehicle speed must be significantly reduced, is to get information from some external source. This source can be sensors located on the highway that are capable of determining this condition and transmitting it to the vehicle. Alternately, the probability of icing occurring can be determined analytically from meteorological data and a historical knowledge of the roadway and communicated to the vehicle over a LEO or GEO satellite system, the Internet or an FM sub-carrier or other means. A combination of these systems can also be used. Studies have shown that a combination of meteorological and historic data can accurately predict that a particular place on the highway will become covered with ice. This information can be provided to properly equipped vehicles so that the vehicle knows to anticipate slippery roads. For those roads that are treated with salt to eliminate frozen areas, the meteorological and historical data will not be sufficient. Numerous systems are available today that permit properly equipped vehicles to measure the coefficient of friction between the vehicle's tires and the road. It is contemplated that perhaps police or other public vehicles will be equipped with such a friction coefficient measuring apparatus and can serve as probes for those roadways that have been treated with salt. Information from these probe vehicles will be fed into the information system that will then be made available to control speed limits in those areas. Countless other examples exist; however, from those provided above, it can be seen that for the vehicle control system to function without error, certain types of information must be accurately provided. These include information permitting the vehicle to determine its absolute location and means for vehicles near each other to communicate this location information to each other. Additionally, map information that accurately provides boundary and lane information of the road must be available. Also, critical weather or road-condition information is necessary. The road location information need only be generated once and changed whenever the road geometry is altered. This information can be provided to the vehicle through a variety of techniques including prerecorded media such as CD-ROM or DVD disks or through communications from transmitters located in proximity to the vehicle, satellites, radio and cellular phones. Consider now the case of the congested highway. Many roads in the world are congested and are located in areas where the cost of new road construction is prohibitive or such construction is environmentally unacceptable. It has been reported that an accident on such a highway typically ties up traffic for a period of approximately four times the time period required to clear the accident. Thus, by eliminating accidents, a substantial improvement of the congested highway problem is obtained. This of course is insufficient. On such highways, each vehicle travels with a different spacing, frequently at different speeds and in the wrong lanes. If the proper spacing of the vehicles could be maintained, and if the risk of an accident could be substantially eliminated, vehicles under automatic control could travel at substantially higher velocities and in a more densely packed configuration thereby substantially improving the flow rate of vehicles on the highway by as much as a factor of 3 to 4 times. This not only will reduce congestion but also improve air pollution. Once again, if each vehicle knows exactly where it is located, can communicate its location to surrounding vehicles and knows precisely where the road is located, then the control system in each vehicle has sufficient information to accomplish this goal. Again, an intention of the system and process described here is to totally eliminate automobile accidents as well as reduce highway congestion. This process is to be designed to have no defective decisions. The process employs information from a variety of sources and utilizes that information to prevent accidents and to permit the maximum vehicle throughput on highways. The information listed above is still insufficient. The geometry of a road or highway can be determined once and for all, until erosion or construction alters the road. Properly equipped vehicles can know their location and transmit that information to other properly equipped vehicles. There remains a variety of objects whose location is not fixed, which have no transmitters and which can cause accidents. These objects include broken down vehicles, animals such as deer which wander onto highways, pedestrians, bicycles, objects which fall off of trucks, and especially other vehicles which are not equipped with location determining systems and transmitters for transmitting that information to other vehicles. Part of this problem can be solved for congested highways by restricting access to these highways to vehicles that are properly equipped. Also, these highways are typically in urban areas and access by animals can be effectively eliminated. Heavy fines can be imposed on vehicles that drop objects onto the highway. Finally, since every vehicle and vehicle operator becomes part of the process, each such vehicle and operator becomes a potential source of information to help prevent catastrophic results. Thus, each vehicle should also be equipped with a system of essentially stopping the process in an emergency. Such a system could be triggered by vehicle sensors detecting a problem or by the operator strongly applying the brakes, rapidly turning the steering wheel or by activating a manual switch when the operator observes a critical situation but is not himself in immediate danger. An example of the latter case is where a driver witnesses a box falling off of a truck in an adjacent lane. To solve the remaining problems, therefore, each vehicle should also be equipped with an anticipatory collision sensing system, or collision forecasting system, which is capable of identifying or predicting and reacting to a pending accident. As the number of vehicles equipped with the control system increases, the need for the collision forecasting system will diminish. Once again, the operator will continue to control his vehicle provided he or she remains within certain constraints. These constraints are like a corridor. As long as the operator maintains his vehicle within this allowed corridor, he or she can operate that vehicle without interference from the control system. That corridor may include the entire width of the highway when no other vehicles are present or it may be restricted to all eastbound lanes, for example. In still other cases, that corridor may be restricted to a single line and additionally, the operator may be required to keep his vehicle within a certain spacing tolerance from the preceding vehicle. If a vehicle operator wishes to exit a congested highway, he could operate his turn signal that would inform the control system of this desire and permit the vehicle to safely exit from the highway. It can also inform other adjacent vehicles of the operator's intent, which could then automatically cause those vehicles to provide space for lane changing, for example. The highway control system is thus a network of individual vehicle control systems rather than a single highway resident computer system. Considering now the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) policy, in the DOT FY 2000 Budget in Brief Secretary Rodney Slater states that “Historic levels of federal transportation investment . . . are proposed in the FY 2000 budget.” Later, Secretary Slater states that “Transportation safety is the number one priority.” DOT has estimated that $165 billion per year are lost in fatalities and injuries on U.S. roadways. Another $50 billion are lost in wasted time of people on congested highways. Presented herein is a plan to eliminate fatalities and injuries and to substantially reduce congestion. The total cost of implementing this plan is minuscule compared to the numbers stated above. This plan has been named the “Road to Zero Fatalities™”, or RtZF™ for short. The DOT Performance Plan FY 2000, Strategic Goal: Safety, states that “The FY 2000 budget process proposes over $3.4 billion for direct safety programs to meet this challenge.” The challenge is to “Promote the public health and safety by working toward the elimination of traffic related deaths, injuries and property damage”. The goal of the RtZF™, as described below and which is a part of the present invention, is the same and herein a plan is presented for accomplishing this goal. The remainder of the DOT discussion centers around wishful thinking to reduce the number of transportation-related deaths, injuries, etc. However, the statistics presented show that in spite of this goal, the number of deaths is now increasing. As discussed below, this is the result of a failed process. Reading through the remainder of the DOT Performance Plan FY 2000, one is impressed by the billions of dollars that are being spent to solve the highway safety problem coupled with the enormous improvement that has been made until the last few years. It can also be observed that the increase in benefits from these expenditures has now disappeared. For example, the fatality rate per 100 million vehicle miles traveled fell from 5.5 to 1.7 in the period from the mid-1960s to 1994. But this decrease has now substantially stopped! This is an example of the law of diminishing returns and signals the need to take a totally new approach to solving this problem. The U.S. Intelligent Vehicle Initiative (IVI) policy states that significant funds have been spent on demonstrating various ITS technologies. It is now time for implementation. With over 40,000 fatalities and almost four million people being injured every year on U.S. roadways, it is certainly time to take affirmative action to stop this slaughter. The time for studies and demonstrations is past. However, the deployment of technologies that are inconsistent with the eventual solution of the problem will only delay implementation of the proper systems and thereby result in more deaths and injuries. A primary goal of the Intelligent Vehicle Initiative was to reduce highway related fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles traveled from 1.7 in 1996 to 1.6 in 2000. Of course, the number of fatalities may still increase due to increased road use. If this reduction in fatalities comes about due to slower travel speeds, because of greater congestion, then has anything really been accomplished? Similar comments apply to the goal of reducing the rate of injury per 100 million vehicle miles from 141 in 1996 to 128 in 2000. An alternate goal, as described herein, is to have the technology implemented on all new vehicles by the year 2010 that will eventually eliminate all fatalities and injuries. As an intermediate milestone, it is proposed to have the technology implemented on all new vehicles by 2007 to reduce or eliminate fatalities caused by road departure, center (yellow) line crossing, stop sign infraction, rear end and excessive speed accidents. Inventions described herein will explain how these are goals can be attained. In the IVI Investment Strategy Critical Technology Elements And Activities of the DOT, it says “The IVI will continue to expand these efforts particularly in areas such as human factors, sensor performance, modeling and driver acceptance”. An alternate, more effective, concentration for investments would be to facilitate the deployment of those technologies that will reduce and eventually eliminate highway fatalities. Driver acceptance and human factors will be discussed below. Too much time and resources have already been devoted to these areas. Modeling can be extremely valuable and sensor performance is in a general sense a key to eliminating fatalities. On Jul. 15, 1998, the IVI light vehicle steering committee met and recommended that the IVI program should be conducted as a government industry partnership like the PNGV. This is believed to be quite wrong and it is believed that the IVI should now move vigorously toward the deployment of proven technology. The final recommendations of the committee was “In the next five years, the IVI program should be judged on addressing selected impediments preventing deployment, not on the effect of IVI services on accident rates.” This is believed to be a mistake. The emphasis for the next five years should be to deploy proven technologies and to start down the Road to Zero Fatalities™. Five years from now technology should be deployed on production vehicles sold to the public that have a significant effect toward reducing fatalities and injuries. As described in the paper “Preview Based Control of A Tractor Trailer Using DGPS For Preventing Road Departure Accidents” the basis of the technology proposed has been demonstrated. DISCUSSION AND REVIEW OF RELEVANT ART 1. Vehicle Collision Warning and Control The world is experiencing an unacceptable growth in traffic congestion and attention is increasingly turning to smart highway systems to solve the problem. It has been estimated that approximately $240 billion will be spent on smart highways over the next 20 years. All of the initiatives currently being considered involve a combination of vehicle-mounted sensors and sensors and other apparatus installed in or on the roadway. Such systems are expensive to install, difficult and expensive to maintain and will thus only be used on major highways, if at all. Although there will be some safety benefit from such systems, it will be limited to the highways which have the system and perhaps to only a limited number of lanes. The RtZF™ system in accordance with the invention eliminates the shortcomings of the prior art by providing a system that does not require modifications to the highway. The information as to the location of the highway is determined, as discussed above, by mapping the edges of the roadway and the edges of the lanes of the roadway using a process whereby the major roads of the entire country can be mapped at very low cost. Thus, the system has the capability of reducing congestion as well as saving lives on all major roads, not just those which have been selected as high-speed guided lanes. The ALVINN project of Carnegie Mellon University (Jochem, Todd M., Pomerleau, Dean A., and Thorpe, Charles E., “Vision-Based Neural Network Road and Intersection Detection and Traversal”, IEEE Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Aug. 5-9, 1995, Pittsburgh, Pa., USA)) describes an autonomous land vehicle using a neural network. The neural network is trained based on how a driver drives the vehicle given the output from a video camera. The output of the neural network is the direction that the vehicle should travel in based on the input information from the video camera and the training based on what a good driver would do. A similar system can be used in some embodiments of the present invention to guide a vehicle to a safe stop in the event that the driver becomes incapacitated or some other emergency situation occurs wherein the driver is unable to control the vehicle. The input to the neural network in this case would be the map information rather than a video camera. Additionally, a laser radar or terahertz radar imaging system of this invention could also be an input to the system. This neural network system can additionally take over in the event that an accident becomes inevitable. Simple neural networks are probably not sufficient for this purpose and neural fuzzy, modular neural networks or combination neural networks are probably required. U.S. Pat. No. 05,479,173 to Yoshioka, et al. uses a steering angle sensor, a yaw rate sensor and a velocity of the vehicle sensor to predict the path that the vehicle will take. It uses a radar unit to identify various obstacles that may be in the path of the vehicle, and it uses a CCD camera to try to determine that the road is changing direction in front of the vehicle. No mention is made of the accuracy with which these determinations are made. It is unlikely that sub-meter accuracy is achieved. If an obstacle is sensed, the brakes can be automatically activated. U.S. Pat. No. 05,540,298 to Yoshioka, et al. is primarily concerned with changing the suspension and steering characteristics of the vehicle in order to prevent unstable behavior of the vehicle in response to the need to exercise a collision avoidance maneuver. The collision anticipation system includes an ultrasonic unit and two optical laser radar units. U.S. Pat. No. 05,572,428 to Ishida is concerned with using a radar system plus a yaw rate sensor and a velocity sensor to determine whether a vehicle will collide with another vehicle based on the area occupied by each vehicle. Since radar cannot accurately determine this area, it has to be assumed by the system. U.S. Pat. No. 05,613,039 to Wang, et al. is a collision warning radar system utilizing a real time adaptive probabilistic neural network. Wang discusses that about 60% of roadway collisions could be avoided if the operator of the vehicle was provided warning at least one-half second prior to a collision. The radar system used by Wang uses two separate frequencies. The reflective radar signals are analyzed by a probabilistic neural network that provides an output signal indicative of the likelihood and threat of a collision with a particular object. A Fourier transform circuit converts the digitized reflective signal from a time series to a frequency representation. It is important to note that in this case, as in the others above, true collision avoidance will not occur since, without a knowledge of the roadway, two vehicles can be approaching each other on a collision course, each following a curved lane on a highway and yet the risk of collision is minimal due to the fact that each vehicle remains in its lane. Thus, true collision avoidance cannot be obtained without an accurate knowledge of the road geometry. U.S. Pat. No. 05,983,161 to Lemelson describes a GPS-based collision avoidance and warning system that contains some of the features of embodiments of the present invention. This patent is primarily concerned with using centimeter-accuracy DGPS systems to permit vehicles on a roadway to learn and communicate their precise locations to other vehicles. In that manner, a pending collision can, in some cases, be predicted. Lemelson does not use an inertial navigation system for controlling the vehicle between GPS updates. Thus, the vehicle can travel a significant distance before its position can be corrected. This can lead to significant errors. Lemelson also does not make use of accurate map database and thus it is unable to distinguish cases where two cars are on separate lanes but on an apparent collision course. Although various radar and lidar systems are generally discussed, the concept of range gating is not considered. Thus, the Lemelson system is unable to provide the accuracy and reliability required by the Road to Zero Fatalities™ system described herein. Since many of the concepts disclosed in the inventions herein make use of neural networks, a background of neural networks is important to the reader. The theory of neural networks including many examples can be found in several books on the subject including: (1) Techniques and Application of Neural Networks, edited by Taylor, M. and Lisboa, P., Ellis Horwood, West Sussex, England, 1993; (2) Naturally Intelligent Systems, by Caudill, M. and Butler, C., MIT Press, Cambridge Mass., 1990; (3) J. M. Zaruda, Introduction to Artificial Neural Systems, West publishing Co., N.Y., 1992, (4) Digital Neural Networks, by Kung, S. Y., PTR Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1993, Eberhart, R., Simpson, P., (5) Dobbins, R., Computational Intelligence PC Tools, Academic Press, Inc., 1996, Orlando, Fla., (6) Cristianini, N. and Shawe-Taylor, J. An Introduction to Support Vector Machines and Other Kernel-Based Learning Methods, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge England, 2000; (7) Proceedings of the 2000 6th IEEE International Workshop on Cellular Neural Networks and their Applications (CNNA 2000), IEEE, Piscataway N.J.; and (8) Sinha, N. K. and Gupta, M. M. Soft Computing & Intelligent Systems, Academic Press 2000 San Diego, Calif. The neural network pattern recognition technology is one of the most developed of pattern recognition technologies. The invention described herein uses combinations of neural networks to improve the pattern recognition process. 2. Accurate Navigation U.S. Pat. No. 05,504,482 to Schreder describes an automobile equipped with an inertial and satellite navigation system as well as a local area digitized street map. The main use of this patent is for route guidance in the presence of traffic jams, etc. Schreder describes how information as to the state of the traffic on a highway can be transmitted and utilized by a properly equipped vehicle to change the route the driver would take in going to his destination. Schreder does not disclose sub-meter vehicle location accuracy determination, nevertheless, this patent provides a good picture of the state of the art as can be seen from the following quoted paragraphs: “ . . . there exists a wide range of technologies that have disadvantageously not been applied in a comprehensive integrated manner to significantly improve route guidance, reduce pollution, improve vehicular control and increase safety associated with the common automobile experience. For example, it is known that gyro based inertial navigation systems have been used to generate three-dimensional position information, including exceedingly accurate acceleration and velocity information over a relatively short travel distance, and that GPS satellite positioning systems can provide three-dimensional vehicular positioning and epoch timing, with the inertial system being activated when satellite antenna reception is blocked during “drop out” for continuous precise positioning. It is also known that digitized terrain maps can be electronically correlated to current vehicular transient positions, as have been applied to military styled transports and weapons. For another example, it is also known that digitally encoded information is well suited to RF radio transmission within specific transmission carrier bands, and that automobiles have been adapted to received AM radio, FM radio, and cellular telecommunication RF transmissions. For yet another example, it is further known that automobile electronic processing has been adapted to automatically control braking, steering, suspension and engine operation, for example, anti-lock braking, four-wheel directional steering, dynamic suspension stiffening during turns and at high speeds, engine governors limiting vehicular speed, and cruise control for maintaining a desired velocity. For still another example, traffic monitors, such as road embedded magnetic traffic light sensor loops and road surface traffic flow meters have been used to detect traffic flow conditions. While these sensors, meters, elements, systems and controls have served limited specific purposes, the prior art has disadvantageously failed to integrate them in a comprehensive fashion to provide a complete dynamic route guidance, dynamic vehicular control, and safety improvement system.” “Recently, certain experimental integrated vehicular dynamic guidance systems have been proposed. Motorola has discussed an Intelligent Vehicle Highway System in block diagram form in copyright dated 1993 brochure. Delco Electronics has discussed another Intelligent Vehicle Highway System also in block diagram form in Automotive News published on Apr. 12, 1993. These systems use compass technology for vehicular positioning. However, displacement wheel sensors are plagued by tire slippage, tire wear and are relatively inaccurate requiring recalibration of the current position. Compasses are inexpensive, but suffer from drifting particularly when driving on a straight road for extended periods. Compasses can sense turns, and the system may then be automatically recalibrated to the current position based upon sensing a turn and correlating that turn to the nearest turn on a digitized map, but such recalibration, is still prone to errors during excessive drifts. Moreover, digitized map systems with the compass and wheel sensor positioning methods operate in two dimensions on a three dimensional road terrain injecting further errors between the digitized map position and the current vehicular position due to a failure to sense the distance traveled in the vertical dimension.” “These Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems appear to use GPS satellite reception to enhance vehicular tracking on digitized road maps as part of a guidance and control system. These systems use GPS to determine when drift errors become excessive and to indicate that recalibration is necessary. However, the GPS reception is not used for automatic accurate recalibration of current vehicular positioning, even though C-MIGITS and like devices have been used for GPS positioning, inertial sensing and epoch time monitoring, which can provide accurate continuous positioning.” “These Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems use the compass and wheel sensors for vehicular positioning for route guidance, but do not use accurate GPS and inertial route navigation and guidance and do not use inertial measuring units for dynamic vehicular control. Even though dynamic electronic vehicular control, for example, anti-lock braking, anti-skid steering, and electronic control suspension have been contemplated by others, these systems do not appear to functionally integrate these dynamic controls with an accurate inertial route guidance system having an inertial measuring unit well suited for dynamic motion sensing. There exists a need to further integrate and improve these guidance systems with dynamic vehicular control and with improved navigation in a more comprehensive system.” “These Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems also use RF receivers to receive dynamic road condition information for dynamic route guidance, and contemplate infrastructure traffic monitoring, for example, a network for road magnetic sensing loops, and contemplate the RF broadcasting of dynamic traffic conditions for dynamic route guidance. The discussed two-way RF communication through the use of a transceiver suggests a dedicated two-way RF radio data system. While two-way RF communication is possible, the flow of necessary information between the vehicles and central system appears to be exceedingly lopsided. The flow of information from the vehicles to a central traffic radio data control system may be far less than the required information from traffic radio data control system to the vehicles. It seems that the amount of broadcasted dynamic traffic flow information to the vehicles would be far greater than the information transmitted from the vehicles to the central traffic control center. For example, road side incident or accident emergency messages to a central system may occur far less than the occurrences of congested traffic points on a digitized map having a large number of road coordinate points.” “Conserving bandwidth capacity is an objective of RF communication systems. The utilization of existing infra structure telecommunications would seem cost-effective. AT&T has recently suggested improving the existing cellular communication network with high-speed digital cellular communication capabilities. This would enable the use of cellular telecommunications for the purpose of transmitting digital information encoding the location of vehicular incidents and accidents. It then appears that a vehicular radio data system would be cost-effectively used for unidirectional broadcasting of traffic congestion information to the general traveling public, while using existing cellular telecommunication systems for transmitting emergency information. The communication system should be adapted for the expected volume of information. The Intelligent Vehicular Highway Systems disadvantageously suggest a required two-way RF radio data system. The vast amount of information that can be transmitted may tend to expand and completely occupy a dedicated frequency bandwidth. To the extent that any system is bidirectional in operation tends to disadvantageously require additional frequency bandwidth capacity and system complexity.” 2.1 GPS Referring to FIG. 1, the presently implemented Global Positioning System with its constellation of 24 satellites 2 is truly revolutionizing navigation throughout the world. The satellites orbit the Earth in six orbits 4. However, in order to reach its full potential for navigation, GPS needs to be augmented both to improve accuracy and to reduce the time needed to inform a vehicle driver of a malfunction of a GPS satellite, the so-called integrity problem. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation and time transfer system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS serves marine, airborne and terrestrial users, both military and civilian. Specifically, GPS includes the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) that provides civilian users with 100 meter accuracy as to the location or position of the user. It also serves military users with the Precise Positioning Service that provides 20-meter accuracy for the user. Both of these services are available worldwide with no requirement for any local equipment. 2.2 DGPS, WAAS, LAAS and Pseudolites Differential operation of GPS is used to improve the accuracy and integrity of GPS. Differential GPS places one or more high quality GPS receivers at known surveyed locations to monitor the received GPS signals. This reference station(s) estimates the slowly varying components of the satellite range measurements, and forms a correction for each GPS satellite in view. The correction is broadcast to all DGPS users within the coverage area of the broadcast facilities. For a good discussion of DGPS, several are reproduced from OMNISTAR: in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/822,445 and incorporated by reference herein. The above description is provided to illustrate the accuracy which can be obtained from the DGPS system. It is expected that the WAAS system when fully implemented will provide the same benefits as provided by the OMNISTAR system. However, when the standard deviation of approximately 0.5 meter is considered, it is evident that this WAAS system is insufficient by itself and will have to be augmented by other systems to improve the accuracy at least at this time. GLONASS is a Russian system similar to GPS. This system provides accuracy that is not as good as GPS. The Projected Position Accuracy of GPS and GLONASS, Based on the Current Performance is: Horizontal Error (m) Vertical Error (m) (50%) (95%) (95%) GPS 7 18 34 GLONASS 10 26 45 The system described here will achieve a higher accuracy than reported in the above table due to the combination of the inertial guidance system that permits accurate changes in position to be determined and through multiple GPS readings. In other words, the calculated position will converge to the real position over time. The addition of DGPS will provide an accuracy improvement of at least a factor of 10, which, with the addition of a sufficient number of DGPS stations in some cases is sufficient without the use of the carrier frequency correction. A further refinement where the vehicle becomes its own DGPS station through the placement of infrastructure stations at appropriate locations on roadways will further significantly enhance the system accuracy to the required level. Multipath is the situation where more than one signal from a satellite comes to a receiver with one of the signals resulting from a reflection off of a building or the ground, for example. Since multipath is a function of geometry, the system can be designed to eliminate its effects based on highway surveying and appropriate antenna design. Multipath from other vehicles can also be eliminated since the location of the other vehicles will be known. As discussed below, the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is being installed by the US Government to provide DGPS for airplane landings. The intent is to cover the entire CONUS. This may be useful for much of the country for the purposes of this invention. Another alternative would be to use the cellular phone towers, since there are so many of them, if they could be programmed to act as pseudolites. An important feature of DGPS is that the errors from the GPS satellites change slowly with time and therefore, only the corrections need be sent to the user from time to time. Using reference receivers separated by 25-120 km, accuracies from 2 cm to 1 m are achievable using local area DGPS which is marginal for RtZF™. Alternately, through the placement of appropriate infrastructure as described below even better accuracies are obtainable. A type of wide area DGPS (WADGPS) system has been developed spans the entire U.S. continent which provides position RMS accuracy to better than about 50 cm. This system is described in the Bertiger, et al, “A Prototype Real-Time Wide Area Differential GPS System,” Proceedings of the National Technical Meeting, Navigation and Positioning in the Information Age, Institute of Navigation, Jan. 14-16, 1997 pp. 645-655. A RMS error of 50 cm would be marginally accurate for RtZF™. Many of the teachings of this invention, especially if the road edge and lane location error were much less, could be accomplished using more accurate surveying equipment. The OmniSTAR system is another WADGPS system that claims 6 cm (1 σ) accuracy. A similar DGPS system which is now being implemented on a nationwide basis is described in “DGPS Architecture Based on Separating Error Components, Virtual Reference Stations and FM Subcarrier Broadcast”, by Differential Corrections Inc., 10121 Miller Ave., Cupertino, Calif. 95041. The system described in this paper promises an accuracy on the order of about 10 cm. Suggested DGPS update rates are usually less than twenty seconds. DGPS removes common-mode errors, those errors common to both the reference and remote receivers (not multipath or receiver noise). Errors are more often common when receivers are close together (less than 100 km). Differential position accuracies of 1-10 meters are possible with DGPS based on C/A code SPS signals. Using the CNET commercial system, 1 foot accuracies are possible if base stations are no more than 30 miles from the vehicle unit. This would require approximately 1000 base stations to cover CONUS. Alternately, the same accuracy is obtainable if the vehicle can become its own DGPS system every 30 miles as described herein. Unfortunately, the respective error sources mentioned above rapidly decorrelate as the distances between the reference station and the vehicle increases. Conventional DGPS is the terminology used when the separation distances are sufficiently small that the errors cancel. The terms single-reference and multi-reference DGPS are occasionally used in order to emphasize whether there is a single reference station or whether there are multiple ones. If it is desired to increase the area of coverage and, at the same time, to minimize the number of fixed reference receivers, it becomes necessary to model the spatial and temporal variations of the residual errors. Wide Area Differential GPS (WADGPS) is designed to accomplish this. Funds have now been appropriated for the U.S. Government to deploy a national DGPS system. The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is being deployed to replace the Instrument Landing System used at airports across the country. The WAAS system provides an accuracy of from about 1 to 2 meters for the purpose of aircraft landing. If the vertical position of the vehicle is known, as would be in the case of automobiles at a known position on a road, this accuracy can be improved significantly. Thus, for many of the purposes of this invention, the WAAS can be used to provide accurate positioning information for vehicles on roadways. The accuracy of the WAAS is also enhanced by the fact that there is an atomic clock in every WAAS receiver station that would be available to provide great accuracy using carrier phase data. With this system, sub-meter accuracies are possible for some locations. The WAAS is based on a network of approximately 35 ground reference stations. Signals from GPS satellites are received by aircraft receivers as well as by ground reference stations. Each of these reference stations is precisely surveyed, enabling each to determine any error in the GPS signals being received at its own location. This information is then passed to a wide area master station. The master station calculates correction algorithms and assesses the integrity of the system. This data is then put into a message format and sent to a ground earth station for uplink to a geostationary communications satellite. The corrective information is forwarded to the receiver on board the aircraft, which makes the needed adjustments. The communications satellites also act as additional navigation satellites for the aircraft, thus, providing additional navigation signals for position determination. This system will not meet all of FAA's requirements. For category III landings, the requirement is 1.6-m vertical and horizontal accuracy. To achieve this, FAA is planning to implement a network of local area differential GPS stations that will provide the information to aircraft. This system is referred to as the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). The WAAS system, which consists of a network of earth stations and geo-synchronous satellites, is currently being funded by the U.S. Government for aircraft landing purposes. Since the number of people that die yearly in automobile accidents greatly exceeds those killed in airplane accidents, there is clearly a greater need for a WAAS-type system for solving the automobile safety problem using the teachings of this invention. Also, the reduction in required highway funding resulting from the full implementation of this invention would more than pay for the extension and tailoring of the WAAS to cover the nation's highways. The Local Area Augmented System (LAAS) is also being deployed in addition to the WAAS system to provide even greater coverage for the areas surrounding major airports. According to Newsletter of the Institute of Navigation, 1997, “the FAA's schedule for (LAAS) for Category II and 111 precision instrument approaches calls for development of standards by 1998 that will be sufficient to complete a prototype system by 2001. The next step will be to work out standards for an operational system to be fielded in about 2005, that could serve nationwide up to about 200 runways for Cat II-III approaches.” In a country like the United States, which has many airfields, a WAAS can serve a large market and is perhaps most effective for the control of airplane landings. The best way for other countries, with fewer airports, to participate in the emerging field of GPS-based aviation aids may be to build LAAS. In countries with a limited number of airports, LAAS is not very expensive while the costs of building a WAAS to get Category I type accuracy is very expensive. However, with the added benefit of less highway construction and greater automobile safety, the added costs for a WAAS system may well be justified for much of the world. For the purposes of the RtZF™ system, both the WAAS and LAAS would be useful but probably insufficient unless the information is used in a different mathematical system such as used by the OmniSTAR™ WADGPS system. Unlike an airplane, there are many places where it might not be possible to receive LAAS and WAAS information or, even more importantly, the GPS signals themselves with sufficient accuracy and reliability. Initial RtZF™ systems may therefore rely on the WAAS and LAAS but as the system develops more toward the goal of zero fatalities, road-based systems which permit a vehicle to pinpoint its location will be preferred. However, there is considerable development ongoing in this field so that all systems are still candidates for use with RtZF™ system and the most cost effective will be determined in time. Pseudolites are artificial satellite like structures, located on the earth surface, that can be deployed to enhance the accuracy of the DGPS system. Such structures could become part of the RtZF™ system. 2.3 Carrier Phase Measurements An extremely accurate form of GPS is Carrier Based Differential GPS. This form of GPS utilizes the 1.575 GHz carrier component of the GPS signal on which the Pseudo Random Number (PRN) code and the data component are superimposed. Current versions of Carrier Based Differential GPS involve generating position determinations based on the measured phase differences at two different antennas, a base station or pseudolite and the vehicle, for the carrier component of a GPS signal. This technique initially requires determining how many integer wave-lengths of the carrier component exist between the two antennas at a particular point in time. This is called integer ambiguity resolution. A number of approaches currently exist for integer ambiguity resolution. Some examples can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 05,583,513 and U.S. Pat. No. 05,619,212. Such systems can achieve sub-meter accuracies and, in some cases, accuracies of about 1 cm or less. U.S. Pat. No. 05,477,458 discusses a DGPS system that is accurate to about 5 cm with the base stations located on a radius of about 3000 km. With such a system, very few base stations would be required to cover the CONUS. This system still suffers from the availability of accurate signals at the vehicle regardless of its location on the roadway and the location of surrounding vehicles and objects. Nevertheless, the principle of using the carrier frequency to precisely determine the location of a vehicle can be used with the highway-based systems described below to provide extreme location accuracies. Several attempts to improve the position accuracy of GPS are discussed here, for example, the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) and various systems that make use of the carrier phase. A paper by S. Malys et al., titled “The GPS Accuracy Improvement Initiative” provides a good discussion of the errors inherent in the GPS system without using differential corrections. It is there reported that the standard GPS provides a 9-meter RMS 3-D navigational accuracy to authorize precise positioning service users. This reference indicates that there are improvements planned in the GPS system that will further enhance its accuracy. The accuracies of these satellites independently of the accuracies of receiving units is expected to be between 1 and 1.5 meters RMS. Over the past eight years of GPS operations, a 50% (4.6 meter to 2.3 meter) performance improvement has been observed for the signal in space range errors. This, of course, is the RMS error. The enhancements contained in the accuracy improvement initiative will provide another incremental improvement from the current 2.3 meters to 1.3 meters and perhaps to as low as 40 centimeters. Pullen, Samuel, Enge, Per and Parkinson, Bradford, “Simulation-Based Evaluation of WAAS Performance: Risk and Integrity Factors” discusses the accuracy that can be expected from the WAAS system. This paper indicates that the standard deviation for WAAS is approximately 1 meter. To get more accurate results requires more closely spaced differential stations. Using DGPS stations within 1,500 kilometers from the vehicle, high accuracy receivers can determine a location within 3 meters accuracy for DGPS according to the paper. Other providers of DGPS corrections claim considerably better accuracies. From a paper by J. F. Zumberge, M. M. Watkins and F. H. Webb, titled “Characteristics and Applications of Precise GPS Clock Solutions Every 30 Seconds”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 4, Winter 1997-1998, it appears that by using the techniques described in this reference, the WAAS system could eventually be improved to provide accuracies in the sub-decimeter range for moving vehicles without the need for other DGPS systems. This data would be provided every 30 seconds. W. I. Bertiger et al., “A Real-Time Wide Area Differential GPS System”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 4, Winter 1997-1998. This paper describes the software that is to be used with the WAAS System. The WAAS System is to be completed by 2001. The goal of the research described in this paper is to achieve sub-decimeter accuracies worldwide, effectively equaling local area DGPS performance worldwide. The full computation done on a Windows NT computer adds only about 3 milliseconds. The positioning accuracy is approximately 25 centimeters in the horizontal direction. That is, the RMS value so that gives an error at +3 sigma of 1.5 meters. Thus, this real time wide area differential GPS system is not sufficiently accurate for the purposes of some embodiments of this invention. Other systems claim higher accuracies. According to the paper by R. Braff, titled “Description of the FAA's Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 4, Winter 1997-1998, the LAAS System is the FAA's ground-based augmentation system for local area differential GPS. It is based on providing corrections of errors that are common to both ground-based and aircraft receivers. These corrections are transmitted to the user receivers via very high frequency (VHF), line of sight radio broadcast. LAAS has the capability of providing accuracy on the order of 1 meter or better on the final approach segment and through rollout. LAAS broadcasts navigational information in a localized service volume within approximately 30 nautical miles of the LAAS ground segment. O'Connor, Michael, Bell, Thomas, Elkaim, Gabriel and Parkinson, Bradford, “Automatic Steering of Farm Vehicles Using GPS” describes an automatic steering system for farm vehicles where the vehicle lateral position error never deviated by more than 10 centimeters, using a carrier phase differential GPS system whereby the differential station was nearby. The following quote is from Y. M. Al-Haifi et al., “Performance Evaluation of GPS Single-Epoch On-the Fly Ambiguity Resolution”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 4, Winter 1997-1998. This technique demonstrates sub-centimeter precision results all of the time provided that at least five satellites are available and multipath errors are small. A resolution of 0.001 cycles is not at all unusual for geodetic GPS receivers. This leads to a resolution on the order of 0.2 millimeters. In practice, multipath affects, usually from nearby surfaces, limit the accuracy achievable to around 5 millimeters. It is currently the case that the reference receiver can be located within a few kilometers of the mobile receiver. In this case, most of the other GPS error sources are common. The only major problem, which needs to be solved to carry out high precision kinematic GPS, is the integer ambiguity problem. This is because at any given instant, the whole number of cycles between the satellite and the receiver is unknown. The recovery of the unknown whole wavelengths or integer ambiguities is therefore of great importance to precise phase positioning. Recently, a large amount of research has focused on so-called “on the fly” (OTF) ambiguity resolution methodologies in which the integer ambiguities are solved for while the unknown receiver is in motion.” The half-second processing time required for this paper represents 44 feet of motion for a vehicle traveling at 60 mph, which would be intolerable unless supplemented by an inertial navigation system. The basic guidance system in this case would have to be the laser or MEMS gyro on the vehicle. With a faster PC, one-tenth a second processing time would be achievable, corresponding to approximately 10 feet of motion of the vehicle, putting less reliance on the laser gyroscope. Nowhere in this paper is the use of this system on automobiles suggested. The technique presented in this paper is a single epoch basis (OTF) ambiguity resolution procedure that is insensitive to cycle slips. This system requires the use of five or more satellites which suggests that additional GPS satellites may need to be launched to make the smart highway system more accurate. F. van Diggelen, “GPS and GPS+GLONASS RTK”, ION-GPS, September 1997 “New Products Descriptions”, gives a good background of real time kinematic systems using the carrier frequency. The products described in this paper illustrate the availability of centimeter level accuracies for the purposes of the RtZF™ system. The product described in F. van Diggelen requires a base station that is no further than 20 kilometers away. A paper by J. Wu and S. G. Lin, titled “Kinematic Positioning with GPS Carrier Phases by Two Types of Wide Laning”, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, Vol. 44, No. 4, Winter 1997 discusses that the solution of the integer ambiguity problem can be simplified by performing other constructs other than the difference between the two phases. One example is to use three times one phase angle, subtracted from four times another phase angle. This gives a wavelength of 162.8 centimeters vs. 86.2 for the single difference. Preliminary results with a 20-kilometer base line show a success rate as high as 95% for centimeter level accuracies. A paper by R. C. Hayward et al., titled “Inertially Aided GPS Based Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) for General Aviation Aircraft” provides the list of inertial sensors that can be used with the teachings of embodiments of this invention. K. Ghassemi et al., “Performance Projections of GPS IIF”, describes the performance objectives for a new class of GPS 2F satellites scheduled to be launched in late 2001. Significant additional improvement can be obtained for the WAAS system using the techniques described in the paper “Incorporation of orbital dynamics to improve wide-area differential GPS” by J. Ceva, W. Bertinger, R. Mullerschoen, T. Yunck and B. Parkinson, Institute on Navigation, Meeting on GPS Technology, Palm Springs, Calif., September 1995. Singh, Daljit and Grewal, Harkirat, “Autonomous Vehicle using WADGPS”, discusses ground vehicle automation using wide-area DGPS. Though this reference describes many of the features of embodiments of the present invention, it does not disclose sub-meter accuracy or sub-meter accurate mapping. U.S. Pat. No. 05,272,483 to Kato describes an automobile navigation system. This system attempts to correct for the inaccuracies in the GPS system through the use of an inertial guidance, geomagnetic sensor, or vehicle crank shaft speed sensor. However, it is unclear as to whether the second position system is actually more accurate than the GPS system. This combined system, however, cannot be used for sub-meter positioning of an automobile. U.S. Pat. No. 05,383,127 to Shibata uses map matching algorithms to correct for errors in the GPS navigational system to provide a more accurate indication of where the vehicle is or, in particular, on what road the vehicle is. This procedure does not give sub-meter accuracy. Its main purpose is for navigation and, in particular, in determining the road on which the vehicle is traveling. U.S. Pat. No. 05,416,712 to Geier, et al. relates generally to navigation systems and more specifically to global positioning systems that use dead reckoning apparatus to fill in as backup during periods of GPS shadowing such as occur amongst obstacles, e.g., tall buildings in large cities. This patent shows a method of optimally combining the information available from GPS even when less than 3 or 4 satellites are available with information from a low-cost, inertial gyro, having errors that range from 1-5%. This patent provides an excellent analysis of how to use a modified Kalman filter to optimally use the available information. U.S. Pat. No. 05,606,506 to Kyrtsos provides a good background of the GPS satellite system. It describes a method for improving the accuracy of the GPS system using an inertial guidance system. This is based on the fact that the GPS signals used by Kyrtsos do not contain a differential correction and the selective access feature is on. Key paragraphs from this application that describe subject matter applicable to embodiments of the instant invention follow. “Several national governments, including the United States (U.S.) of America, are presently developing a terrestrial position determination system, referred to generically as a global positioning system (GPS). A GPS is a satellite-based radio-navigation system that is intended to provide highly accurate three-dimensional position information to receivers at or near the surface of the Earth. “The U.S. government has designated its GPS the “NAVSTAR.” The NAVSTAR GPS is expected to be declared fully operational by the U.S. government in 1993. The government of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is engaged in the development of a GPS known as “GLONASS”. Further, two European systems known as “NAVSAT” and “GRANAS” are also under development.” For ease of discussion, the following disclosure focuses specifically on the NAVSTAR GPS. The invention, however, has equal applicability to other global positioning systems. “In the NAVSTAR GPS, it is envisioned that four orbiting GPS satellites will exist in each of six separate circular orbits to yield a total of twenty-four GPS satellites. Of these, twenty-one will be operational and three will serve as spares. The satellite orbits will be neither polar nor equatorial but will lie in mutually orthogonal inclined planes.” “Each GPS satellite will orbit the Earth approximately once every 12 hours. This coupled with the fact that the Earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours causes each satellite to complete exactly two orbits while the Earth turns one revolution.” “The position of each satellite at any given time will be precisely known and will be continuously transmitted to the Earth. This position information, which indicates the position of the satellite in space with respect to time (GPS time), is known as ephemeris data.” “In addition to the ephemeris data, the navigation signal transmitted by each satellite includes a precise time at which the signal was transmitted. The distance or range from a receiver to each satellite may be determined using this time of transmission which is included in each navigation signal. By noting the time at which the signal was received at the receiver, a propagation time delay can be calculated. This time delay when multiplied by the speed of propagation of the signal will yield a “pseudorange” from the transmitting satellite to the receiver.” “The range is called a “pseudorange” because the receiver clock may not be precisely synchronized to GPS time and because propagation through the atmosphere introduces delays into the navigation signal propagation times. These result, respectively, in a clock bias (error) and an atmospheric bias (error). Clock biases may be as large as several milliseconds.” “Using these two pieces of information (the ephemeris data and the pseudorange) from at least three satellites, the position of a receiver with respect to the center of the Earth can be determined using passive triangulation techniques.” “Triangulation involves three steps. First, the position of at least three satellites in “view” of the receiver must be determined. Second, the distance from the receiver to each satellite must be determined. Finally, the information from the first two steps is used to geometrically determine the position of the receiver with respect to the center of the Earth.” “Triangulation, using at least three of the orbiting GPS satellites, allows the absolute terrestrial position (longitude, latitude, and altitude with respect to the Earth's center) of any Earth receiver to be computed via simple geometric theory. The accuracy of the position estimate depends in part on the number of orbiting GPS satellites that are sampled. Using more GPS satellites in the computation can increase the accuracy of the terrestrial position estimate.” “Conventionally, four GPS satellites are sampled to determine each terrestrial position estimate. Three of the satellites are used for triangulation, and a fourth is added to correct for the clock bias described above. If the receiver's clock were precisely synchronized with that of the GPS satellites, then this fourth satellite would not be necessary. However, precise (e.g., atomic) clocks are expensive and are, therefore, not suitable for all applications.” “For a more detailed discussion on the NAVSTAR GPS, see Parkinson, Bradford W. and Gilbert, Stephen W., “NAVSTAR: Global Positioning System—Ten Years Later, “Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 71, No. 10, October 1983; and GPS: A Guide to the Next Utility, published by Trimble Navigation Ltd., Sunnyvale, Calif., 1989, pp. 147. For a detailed discussion of a vehicle positioning/navigation system which uses the NAVSTAR GPS, see commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/628,560, entitled “Vehicle Position Determination System and Method,” filed Dec. 3, 1990.” “The NAVSTAR GPS envisions two modes of modulation for the carrier wave using pseudorandom signals. In the first mode, the carrier is modulated by a “C/A signal” and is referred to as the “Coarse/Acquisition mode”. The Coarse/Acquisition or C/A mode is also known as the “Standard Positioning Service”. The second mode of modulation in the NAVSTAR GPS is commonly referred to as the “precise” or “protected” (P) mode. The P-mode is also known as the “Precise Positioning Service”. The P-mode is intended for use only by Earth receivers specifically authorized by the U.S. government. Therefore, the P-mode sequences are held in secrecy and are not made publicly available. This forces most GPS users to rely solely on the data provided via the C/A mode of modulation (which results in a less accurate positioning system) “In addition to the clock error and atmospheric error, other errors which affect GPS position computations include receiver noise, signal reflections, shading, and satellite path shifting (e.g., satellite wobble). These errors result in computation of incorrect pseudoranges and incorrect satellite positions. Incorrect pseudoranges and incorrect satellite positions, in turn, lead to a reduction in the precision of the position estimates computed by a vehicle positioning system.” U.S. Pat. No. 05,757,646 to Talbot, et al. illustrates the manner in which centimeter level accuracy on the fly in real time is obtained. It is accomplished by double differencing the code and carrier measurements from a pair of fixed and roving GPS receivers. This patent also presents an excellent discussion of the problem and various prior solutions as in the following paragraphs: “When originally conceived, the global positioning system (GPS) that was made operational by the United States Government was not foreseen as being able to provide centimeter-level position accuracies. Such accuracies are now commonplace.” “Extremely accurate GPS receivers depend on phase measurements of the radio carriers that they receive from various orbiting GPS satellites. Less accurate GPS receivers simply develop the pseudoranges to each visible satellite based on the time codes being sent. Within the granularity of a single time code, the carrier phase can be measured and used to compute range distance as a multiple of the fundamental carrier wavelength. GPS signal transmissions are on two synchronous, but separate carrier frequencies “L1” and “L2”, with wavelengths of nineteen and twenty-four centimeters, respectively. Thus, within nineteen or twenty-four centimeters, the phase of the GPS carrier signal will change 360°.” “However the numbers of whole cycle (360°) carrier phase shifts between a particular GPS satellite and the GPS receiver must be resolved. At the receiver, every cycle will appear the same. Therefore there is an “integer ambiguity”. The computational resolution of the integer ambiguity has traditionally been an intensive arithmetic problem for the computers used to implement GPS receivers. The traditional approaches to such integer ambiguity resolution have prevented on-the-fly solution measurement updates for moving GPS receivers with centimeter accurate outputs. Very often such highly accurate GPS receivers have required long periods of motionlessness to produce a first and subsequent position fix.” “There are numerous prior art methods for resolving integer ambiguities. These include integer searches, multiple antennas, multiple GPS observables, motion-based approaches, and external aiding. Search techniques often require significant computation time and are vulnerable to erroneous solutions when only a few satellites are visible. More antennas can improve reliability considerably. If carried to an extreme, a phased array of antennas results whereby the integers are completely unambiguous and searching is unnecessary. But for economy the minimum number of antennas required to quickly and unambiguously resolve the integers, even in the presence of noise, is preferred.” “One method for integer resolution is to make use of the other observables that modulate a GPS timer. The pseudo-random code can be used as a coarse indicator of differential range, although it is very susceptible to multipath problems. Differentiating the L1 and L2 carriers provides a longer effective wavelength, and reduces the search space. However dual frequency receivers are expensive because they are more complicated. Motion-based integer resolution methods make use of additional information provided by platform or satellite motion. But such motion may not always be present when it is needed.” This system is used in an industrial environment where the four antennas are relatively close to each other. Practicing teachings of this invention permits a navigational computer to solve for the position of the rover vehicle to within a few centimeters on the fly ten times a second. An example is given where the rover is an airplane. The above comments related to the use of multiple antennas to eliminate the integer ambiguity suggest that if a number of vehicles are nearby and their relative positions are known, the ambiguity can be resolved in this manner. 2.4 Inertial Navigation System An example of how various sensors other than the GPS and PPS systems described in this invention can be found in “Magnetometer and Differential Carrier-Phase GPS-Aided INS for Advanced Vehicle Control”, IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 19, No. 2, April 2003. 3. Maps and Mapping It is intended that the map database of embodiments of the instant invention will conform to the open GIS specification. This will permit such devices to additionally obtain on-line consumer information services such as driving advisories, digital yellow pages that give directions, local weather pictures and forecasts and video displays of local terrain since such information will also be in the GIS database format. A paper by O'Shea, Michael and Shuman, Valerie entitled “Looking Ahead: Map Databases in Predictive Positioning and Safety Systems” discusses map databases which can assist radar and image-processing systems of this invention since the equipped vehicle would know where the road ahead is and can therefore distinguish the lane of the preceding vehicle. No mention, however, is made in this reference of how this is accomplished through range gating or other means. This reference also mentions that within five years it may be possible to provide real time vehicle location information of one-meter accuracy. However, it mentions that this will be limited to controlled access roads such as interstate highways. In other words, the general use of this information on all kinds of roads for safety purposes is not contemplated. This reference also states that “road geometry, for example, may have to be accurate to within one meter or less as compared to the best available accuracy of 15 meters today”. This reference also mentions the information about lane configuration that can be part of the database including the width of each lane, the number of lanes, etc., and that this can be used to determine driver drowsiness. This reference also states that “at normal vehicle speeds, the vehicle location must be updated every few milliseconds”. It is also stated that the combination of radar and map data can help to interpret radar information such as the situation where a radar system describes an overpass as a semi truck. Image processing in this reference is limited to assessing road conditions such as rain, snow, etc. The use of a laser radar system, for example, is not contemplated by this reference. The use of this information for road departures warnings is also mentioned, as is lane following. The reference also mentions that feedback from vehicles can be used to improve map configurations. A great flow of commercially available data will begin with the new generation of high resolution (as fine as about 1 meter) commercial earth imaging satellites from companies like EarthWatch and SPOT Image. Sophisticated imaging software is being put in place to automatically process these imaging streams into useful data products. This data can be used to check for gross errors in the map database. According to Al Gore, in “The Digital Earth: Understanding our Planet in the 21st Century”, California Science Center, Jan. 31, 1998, the Clinton Administration licensed commercial satellites to provide one meter resolution imaging beginning in 1998. Such imaging can be combined with digital highway maps to provide an accuracy and reality check. U.S. Pat. No. 05,367,463 to Tsuji describes a vehicle azimuth determining system. It uses regression lines to find the vehicle on a map when there are errors in the GPS and map data. This patent does not give sub-meter accuracy. The advantage of this invention is that it shows a method of combining both map matching data and GPS along with a gyroscope and vehicle velocity and odometer data to improve the overall location accuracy of the vehicle. 4. Precise Positioning For the purposes herein, a Precise Positioning Station, or PPS, will mean any system that involves the existence of or placement of a detectable infrastructure on or near a roadway that when used in conjunction with an accurate map permits a vehicle to determine its precise location. In other words, PPS can be any system that can recognize anything in or on the infrastructure and thereby, in conjunction with an accurate map, can locate the vehicle. Such detectable infrastructure can comprise a MIR triad, radar reflectors, SAW devices, RFID devices, devices or marks detectable visibly such as bar codes or other recognizable objects including edges of buildings, poles, signs or the like, magnetic markers or any other object whose position is precisely known and/or is detectable in a manner that permits the vehicle to determine its position relative to the device or absolutely and where the object is noted on a map database residing within the vehicle. An alternative procedure is to map the reflective signature of the road environment and, using a laser, radar, terahertz or similar system, a vehicle can compare the sensed reflective signature with that recorded and thereby determine its location. As the environment changes with the seasons, there will be segments of the signature that are unreliable but since a reasonable adjustment distance might be once per mile it is quite likely that somewhere during a mile of travel that the reflective signature will be invariant over time. Bridge abutments, roadside signs or light poles, for example, would not typically change from one time of the year to another and thus could be used as quite accurate markers of position along the road. Such a system has the advantage that no additions to the infrastructure would be required. When PPS or Precise Positioning Station is referred to below, it is generally intended to include all of these devices and/or methods. If two vehicles are traveling near each other and have established communications, and assuming that each vehicle can observe at least four of the same GPS satellites, each vehicle can send the satellite identification and the time of arrival of the signal at a particular epoch to the other. Then, each vehicle can determine the relative position of the other vehicle as well as the relative clock error. As one vehicle passes a Precise Positioning Station (PPS), it knows exactly where it is and thus the second vehicle also knows exactly where it is and can correct for satellite errors. All vehicles that are in communication with the vehicle at the PPS similarly can determine their exact position and the system approaches perfection. This concept is based on the fact that the errors in the satellite signals are identical for all vehicles that are within a mile or so of each other. Furthermore, each vehicle can set its onboard clock since the vehicle passing the PPS can do so, and communicate the exact time to the others, and then each vehicle can know the carrier phase of each satellite signal at the PPS and thus invoke carrier phase DGPS. When the operator begins operating his vehicle with a version of the RtZF™ system of this invention, he or she will probably not be near a reference point as determined by one of the radar reflector, MIR or RFID or other landmark locator systems as discussed below as part of this invention, for example. In this situation, he or she will use the standard GPS system with the WAAS or other DGPS corrections such as available from OmniStar™, the U.S. Government or other provider. This will provide accuracy of between a few meters to 6 centimeters. This accuracy might be further improved as he or she travels down the road through map-matching or through communication with other vehicles. The vehicle will know, however, that is not operating in the high accuracy mode. As soon as the vehicle (vehicle #1) passes a radar reflector, SAW, MIR, RFID or equivalent precise positioning system, it will be able to calculate exactly where it is within a few centimeters and the vehicle will know that it is in the accurate mode. Similarly, when another vehicle passes through a precise positioning station and learns its precise location it can communicate this fact with other vehicles in its vicinity (5 miles, for example) along with the latest GPS satellite transmissions. Each other vehicle will then be able to calculate its relative location extremely accurately and thus know its position almost as accurately as the vehicle that just passed through the precise positioning station. Furthermore, if vehicle #1 also has an accurate clock, as further described below, it can record the phase of each carrier wave from each satellite and predict that phase for perhaps an hour into the future. This then permits vehicle #1 to switch to carrier phase DGPS and know its precise position relative to the precise positioning station, and thus on the earth, until the clock accuracy degrades its knowledge of the carrier phase at the precise positioning station. Through continuous communication between vehicle #1 and other vehicles, all vehicles in the vicinity can similarly operate in the carrier phase DGPS mode without the need for the installation and maintenance of local DGPS stations. Thus, the addition of a few precise positioning stations at very low cost permits each vehicle traveling on the road to know its precise location on the earth and for the system to approach perfection, a necessary requirement for achieving zero fatalities. For high-speed travel on a controlled highway, frequent precise positioning stations can be inexpensively provided and each vehicle can thereby be accurately contained within its proper corridor. Also, the size of the corridors that the vehicle is permitted to travel in can be a function of the accuracy state of the vehicle. A paper by Han, Shaowei entitled “Ambiguity Recovery For Long-Range GPS Kinematic Positioning” appears to say that if a mobile receiver is initially synchronized with a fixed receiver such that there is no integer ambiguity, and if the mobile receiver then travels away from the fixed receiver, and during the process it loses contact with the satellites for a period of up to five minutes, that the carrier phase can be recovered and the ambiguity eliminated, providing again centimeter-range accuracies. Presumably, the fixed station is providing the differential corrections. This is important for embodiments of the instant invention since the integer ambiguity can be eliminated each time the vehicle passes a Precise Positioning Station (PPS) as explained below. After that, a five-minute loss of GPS signals should never occur. Thus, carrier phase accuracies will eventually be available to all vehicles. Note that the integer ambiguity problem disappears when the GPS satellites provide more frequencies. If, for example, each satellite would broadcast two frequencies with each frequency being a prime number of cycles per second, there would be no integer ambiguity problem. Due to the problem of identifying large prime numbers, other schemes can be used such that the relative phase of one carrier to the other does not repeat in the space from the vehicle to the satellite or if it does repeat, it repeats only a few times. This problem becomes simpler as more frequencies are added as for three frequencies, for example, the phase relation between any two can repeat as long as the phase relationships between all three don't repeat very often. Also, with multiple frequencies the DGPS corrections become less important and in some cases may not be needed. This is because each frequency is diffracted a different amount by the ionosphere and therefore the diffraction or cash frequency can be determined. A new civilian frequency is scheduled to be introduced by the U.S. Government as part of the NAVSTAR system and the forthcoming European GALILEO system is planned to have multiple frequencies for civilian use. U.S. Pat. No. 05,361,070 to McEwan, although describing a motion detector, discusses technology which is used as part of a system to permit a vehicle to precisely know where it is on the face of the earth at particular locations. The ultra wideband 200 picosecond radar pulse emitted by the low power radar device of McEwan is inherently a spread spectrum pulse which generally spans hundreds of megahertz to several gigahertz. A frequency allocation by the FCC is not relevant. Furthermore, many of these devices may be co-located without interference. The concept of this device is actually discussed in various forms in the following related patents to McEwan. The following comments will apply to these patents as a group. U.S. Pat. No. 05,510,802 to McEwan describes a time of flight radio-location system similar to what is described below. In this case, however, a single transmitter sends out a pulse, which is received by three receivers to provide sub-millimeter resolution. The range of this device is less than about 10 feet. The concept described in McEwan's U.S. Pat. No. 05,519,400 is that the MIR signal can be modulated with a coded sequence to permit positive identification of the sending device. In an additional McEwan patent, U.S. Pat. No. 05,589,838, a short-range radio-location system is described. Additionally, in U.S. Pat. No. 05,774,091, McEwan claims that the MIR system will operate to about 20 feet and give resolutions on the order of 0.01 inches. 5. Radar and Laser Radar Detection and Identification of Objects External to the Vehicle The RtZF system described herein can include an energy beam or flood that is projected from the vehicle into the environment for the purpose of illuminating the environment around the vehicle and objects therein. In some cases this can be a beam of radar operating at 24 GHz or 77 GHz, for example. In other cases, this can be a laser beam in the infrared portion of the spectrum. Other frequencies can also be used and there are particularly interesting developments in the terahertz frequency range. Terahertz devices are under development that can create a terahertz beam of radiation using laser technology. Similarly devices are now available for sensing terahertz radiation with an array of pixels. The terahertz frequency is interesting for interrogating the vicinity of a vehicle since it can be transmitted in a very narrow beam like a laser and yet it has the ability to penetrate fog, for example, more like radar, but not nearly as good as radar, thus providing the advantages of both systems. In the form of a flood light to illuminate areas closer to the vehicle for blind spot interrogation or for use as a headlight for animal and pedestrian identification is also interesting since such a system would work in both daylight and at night since there is little natural radiation in the terahertz part of the electromagnetic spectrum. When used as a beam, terahertz will be referred herein as terahertz radar. For the purposes herein, the terahertz frequency range will be taken as the range from about 300 GHz (0.3 THz) to about 3000 GHz (3 THz) which is about where the infrared range begins. Lasers, such as infrared lasers, can be used in beams of varying diameter and divergence angles through the appropriate optics providing the energy of the beam per square millimeter remains below the eye safety limits set by the U.S. Government. Thus, a very narrow beam can be used in a scanning fashion, in which case, in the limit a single pixel can be used as the detector such as a photodiode or avalanche diode. In other cases, a high-powered diode laser can still emit radiation below the eye safe limits if the beam is expanded through appropriate optics, in which case, a multi-pixel detector such as a CCD or CMOS imager can be used. In both cases, a particular range from the vehicle can be interrogated and imaged, as discussed below herein, through range gating. Although this concept was originally disclosed in the patents and patent applications referenced above and assigned to the current assignee of this patent application, several recent patents and publications have also disclosed some features. Some of these related art patents and publications will now be discussed. One method of achieving range gating is disclosed in WO9701111 and that publication discloses other prior art range gating methods that have been used to obtain three dimensional information of a scene. As mentioned elsewhere herein, other systems use liquid crystals, garnet crystals, Pockel and Kerr cells. Prior to the disclosure in the assignee's patents, none of these methods have been used in the automotive environment for obtaining three-dimensional information about objects within or outside of a vehicle. Nevertheless, the use of the optical ranging apparatus and techniques disclosed in this and other patents and publications of 3DV Systems Ltd. are among the preferred methods used in practicing the teachings of the instant invention. Other patents and publications of 3DV include: WO9701112, WO9701113, U.S. Pat. No. 06,327,073, U.S. Pat. No. 06,483,094 and U.S. 20020185590. U.S. Pat. No. 05,791,757, U.S. Pat. No. 05,857,770, U.S. Pat. No. 05,890,796, U.S. Pat. No. 05,971,578 and U.S. Pat. No. 06,036,340 are patents assigned to Ford Global Technologies, LLC relating to the use of a high power laser diode in the visible portion of the spectrum for automotive headlight and tail light application. These patents are significant in that they show how to implement such a device so that little space is occupied. These patents do not disclose the use of a laser diode for interrogating the space adjacent to or at a distance from the vehicle for any purpose such as collision avoidance. The optics system illustrated could be usable in implementing one or more of the inventions disclosed herein as are other optical systems. U.S. Pat. No. 06,690,017, also assigned to Ford Global Technologies, LLC, relates to the use of a high-power infrared laser diode in conjunction with a display for night vision applications. In order to avoid blinding a similar system of an approaching vehicle, the illumination created is synchronized based of the GPS clock and the direction that the vehicle is traveling. In at least one invention disclosed herein, the GPS clock is also utilized to control the time of transmission of an IR interrogating illumination but since the distance to the object being interrogated in important, and since vehicles traveling in the same direction as the subject vehicle may also have similar apparatus, the transmission is synchronized so as not to interfere with such similar systems as discussed below. U.S. Pat. No. 06,725,139, also assigned to Ford Global Technologies, LLC, relates to a method of controlling the direction of infrared illumination based on the steering direction of the vehicle. This night vision system is used in conjunction with a display to supplement the normal headlights. Although inventions described herein disclose changing the direction of projected illumination, in general it is not tied to the direction of the steering wheel. U.S. Pat. No. 06,730,913, U.S. Pat. No. 06,774,367 and U.S. Pat. No. 06,809,870, similarly assigned to Ford Global Technologies, LLC, describe a night vision system using range gating to determine the location of objects in the field of view. The general disclosure of these patents is believed to be anticipated by assignee's patents referenced above. The patents describe three methods of obtaining equal illumination for varying distances, varying the intensity of the transmitted pulses, varying the camera sensitivity or varying the number of pulses used to interrogate a particular range. It is well known in the art that to obtain an image of sufficient brightness to permit display or image analysis, sufficient illumination must be supplied. These patents, however, purport to provide equal brightness for all objects regardless of their distance from the camera. Also, these patents are based on the concept that a series of gradually increasing ranges will always be sequentially interrogated whereas in the instant invention the interrogation method will not necessarily follow such a scheme and the location of the roadway as known from accurate maps will often be used to determine the range and direction of the interrogating illumination. Another variable, not discussed in the '913 patent is the variation of the transmission angular field of view of the illumination as is used in some applications of the current invention discussed below. Further, at least one of the current inventions disclosed herein can be used for illuminating and identifying objects external to the vehicle both in daytime and at night. Note also that the concept of triggering illumination out of phase to prevent one vehicle's system from interfering with another's as disclosed in the '367 patent was previously disclosed in assignee's patents and patent applications. U.S. Pat. No. 06,429,429 and patent application publications U.S. 20030034462, U.S. 20030036881 and U.S. 20030155513 also assigned to Ford Global Technologies, LLC, describe various night vision systems some of which use range gating and time-of-flight methods as first disclosed in the assignee's patents cross referenced above. A paper by Amamoto, Naohiro and Matsumoto, Koji entitled “Obstruction Detector By Environmental Adaptive Background Image Updating” describes a method for distinguishing between moving object pixels, stationary object pixels, and pixels that change due to illumination changes in a video image. This paper appears to handle the case of a camera fixed relative to the earth, not one mounted on a vehicle. This allows the system to distinguish between a congested area and an area where cars are moving freely. The video sampling rate was 100 milliseconds. A paper by Doi, Ayumu, Yamamomo, Yasunori, and Butsuen, Tetsuro entitled “Development Of Collision Warning System and Its Collision Avoidance Effect” describes a collision warning system that has twice the accuracy of conventional systems. It uses scanning a laser radar. In the system described in this paper, the authors do not appear to use phase measurements, range gating or time of flight to separate one vehicle from another. A paper by Min, Joon, Cho, Hyung, and Choi, Jong, entitled “A Learning Algorithm Using Parallel Neuron Model” describes a method of accurately categorizing vehicles based on the loop in the highway. This system uses a form of neural network, but not a back propagation neural network. This would essentially be categorizing a vehicle by its magnetic signature. Much information is lost in this system, however, due to the lack of knowledge of the vehicle's velocity. Work has been done at JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratories) to develop a target recognition system. Neural networks play a key role in this target recognition process. The recognition of vehicles on a roadway is a considerably simpler process. Most of the cluttering information can be eliminated through range gating. The three-dimensional image obtained as described below will permit simple rotations of the image to artificially create a frontal view of the object being investigated. Also, the targets of interest here are considerably closer than was considered by JPL. Nevertheless, the techniques described in this reference and in the references cited by this reference, are applicable here in a simplified form. The JPL study achieved over a 90% success rate at 60 frames per minute. U.S. Pat. No. 04,521,861 to Logan describes a method and apparatus for enhancing radiometric in-aging and a method and apparatus for enhancing target detection through the utilization of an imaging radiometer. The radiometer, which is a passive thermal receiver, detects the reflected and emitted thermal radiation of targets. Prior to illumination, foliage will appear hot due to its high emissivity and metals will appear cold due to their low emissivities. When the target is momentarily illuminated foliage appears dark while metals appear hot. By subtracting the non-illuminated image from the illuminated image, metal targets are enhanced. The teachings of this patent thus have applicability to embodiments of the instant invention as discussed below. U.S. Pat. No. 05,463,384 to Juds uses a plurality of infrared beams to alert a truck driver that a vehicle is in his blind spot when he begins to turn the vehicle. The system is typically activated by the vehicle's turn signal. No attempt is made to measure exactly where the object is, only whether it is in the blind spot or not. U.S. Pat. No. 05,467,072 to Michael relates to a phased array radar system that permits the steering of a radar beam without having to rotate antennas. Aside from that, it suffers from all the disadvantages of radar systems as described here. In particular, it is not capable of giving accurate three-dimensional measurements of an object on the roadway. U.S. Pat. No. 05,486,832 to Hulderman employs millimeter wave radar and optical techniques to eliminate the need for a mechanical scanning system. A 35-degree arc is illuminated in the azimuth direction and 6 degrees in elevation. The reflected waves are separated into sixteen independent, simultaneously overlapping 1.8 degree beams. Each beam, therefore, covers a width of about 3 feet at 100 feet distance from the vehicle, which is far too large to form an image of the object in the field of view. As a result, it is not possible to identify the objects in the field of view. All that is known is that an object exists. Also, no attempt has been made to determine whether the object is located on the roadway or not. Therefore, this invention suffers from the limitations of other radar systems. U.S. Pat. No. 05,530,447 to Henderson, et al. shows a system used to classify targets as threatening or non-threatening, depending on whether the target is moving relative to the ground. This system is only for vehicles in an adjacent lane and is primarily meant to protect against blind-spot type accidents. No estimation is made by the system of the position of the target vehicle or the threatening vehicle, only its relative velocity. U.S. Pat. No. 05,576,972 to Harrison provides a good background of how neural networks are used to identify various objects. Although not directly related to intelligent transportation systems or to accident-avoidance systems such as described herein, these techniques will be applied to embodiments of the invention described herein as discussed below. U.S. Pat. No. 05,585,798 to Yoshioka, et al. uses a combination of a CCD camera and a laser radar unit. The invention attempts to make a judgment as to the danger of each of the many obstacles that are detected. The load on the central processor is monitored by looking at different obstacles with different frequencies depending on their danger to the present system. A similar arrangement is contemplated for embodiments of the invention as disclosed herein. U.S. Pat. No. 05,767,953 to McEwan describes a laser tape measure for measuring distance. It is distinct from laser radars in that the width of the pulse is measured in sub-nanosecond times, whereas laser radars are typically in the microsecond range. The use of this technology in the current invention would permit a much higher scanning rate than by convention radar systems and thus provide the opportunity for obtaining an image of the obstructions on the highway. It is also less likely that multiple vehicles having the same system would interfere with each other. For example, if an area 20 feet by 5 feet were scanned with a 0.2 inch pixel size, this would give about one million pixels. If using laser radar, one pixel per microsecond is sent out, it would take one second to scan the entire area during which time the vehicle has traveled 88 feet at 60 miles an hour. On the other hand, if scanning this array at 100 feet, it would take 200 nanoseconds for the light to travel to the obstacle and back. Therefore, if a pulse is sent out every fifth of a microsecond, it will take a fifth of a second to obtain a million pixels, during which time the vehicle has traveled about 17 feet. If 250,000 pixels are used, the vehicle will only have traveled about 4 feet. U.S. Pat. No. 04,352,105 and U.S. Pat. No. 04,298,280 to Harney describe an infrared radar system and a display system for use by aircraft. In particular, these patents describe an infrared radar system that provides high resolution, bad weather penetration, day-night operation and which can provide simultaneous range, intensity and high resolution angular information. The technology uses CO2 laser and a 10.6 micron heterodyne detection. It is a compact imaging infrared radar system that can be used with embodiments of the invention described herein. Harney applies this technology to aircraft and does not contemplate its application to collision avoidance or for other uses with land-based vehicles such as automobiles. Although, there appears not to be any significant prior art involving a vehicle communicating safety information to another vehicle on the roadway, several patents discuss methods of determining that a collision might take place using infrared and radar. U.S. Pat. No. 05,249,128 to Markandey et al., for example, discusses methods of using infrared to determine the distance to a vehicle in front and U.S. Pat. No. 05,506,584 to Boles describes a radar-based system. Both systems suffer from a high false alarm rate and could be substantially improved if a pattern recognition system such as neural networks were used. Also, neither system makes use of noise modulation technologies as taught herein. 6. Smart Highways A paper entitled “Precursor Systems Analyses of Automated Highway Systems (Executive Summary)” discusses that “an AHS (automated highway system) can double or triple the efficiency of today's most congested lanes while significantly increasing safety and trip quality”. There are one million, sixty-nine thousand, twenty-two miles of paved non-local roads in the US. Eight hundred twenty-one thousand and four miles of these are classified as “rural” and the remaining two hundred forty-eight thousand, eighteen miles are “urban”. The existing interstate freeway system consists of approximately 50,000 miles which is 1% of the total of 3.8 million miles of roads. Freeways make up 3% of the total urban/suburban arterial mileage and carry approximately 30% of the total traffic. In one study, dynamic route guidance systems were targeting at reducing travel time of the users by 4%. Under the system of this invention, the travel times would all be known and independent of congestion once a vehicle had entered the system. Under the current system, the dynamic delays can change measurably after a vehicle is committed to a specific route. According to the Federal Highway Administration Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS Field Operational Test), dynamic route guidance systems have not been successful. There are several systems presented in the Federal Highway Administration Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS Field Operational Test) for giving traffic information to commuters, called “Advance Traveler Information System” (ATIS). In none of these articles does it discuss the variation in travel time during rush hour for example, from one day to the next. The variability in this travel time would have to be significant to justify such a system. A system of this type would be unnecessary in situations where embodiments of the instant invention has been deployed. The single most important cause of variability from day to day is traffic incidents such as accidents, which are eliminated or at least substantially reduced by the instant invention. One of the conclusions in a study published in the “Federal Highway Administration Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS Field Operational Test)” entitled “Direct Information Radio Using Experimental Communication Technologies” was that drivers did not feel that the system was a significant advance over commercial radio traffic information. They did think the system was an improvement over television traffic information and changeable message signs. The drivers surveyed on average having changed their route only one time in the eight week test period due to information they received from the system. 7. Weather and Road Condition Monitoring A paper by Miyata, Yasuhiro and Otomo, Katsuya, Kato, Haijime, Imacho, Nobuhiro, Murata, Shigeo, entitled “Development of Road Icing Prediction System” describes a method of predicting road icing conditions several hours in advance based on an optical fiber sensor laid underneath the road and the weather forecast data of that area. There is likely a better way of determining ice on the road than described in this paper. The reflection of an infrared wave off the road varies significantly depending on whether there is ice on the road or snow, or the road is wet or dry. A neural network could be a better solution. The system of this paper measures the road surface temperature, air temperature and solar radiation. A combination of active and passive infrared would probably be sufficient. Perhaps, a specially designed reflective surface could be used on the road surface in an area where it is not going to be affected by traffic. What this paper shows is that if the proper algorithm is used, the actual road temperature can be predicted without the need to measure the road surface temperature. This implies that icing conditions can be predicted and the sensors would not be necessary. Perhaps, a neural network algorithm that monitors a particular section of road and compares it to the forecasted data would be all that is required. In other words, given certain meteorological data, the neural network ought to be able to determine the probability of icing. What is needed, therefore, is to pick a section of roadway and monitor that roadway with a state-owned vehicle throughout the time period when icing is likely to occur and determine if icing has occurred and compare that with the meteorological data using a neural network that is adapted for each section of road. 8. Communication with Other Vehicles The RtZF™ system of this invention can incorporate vehicle-to-vehicle communication allowing vehicles to inform other vehicles of their location, velocity, mass etc. U.S. Pat. No. 05,506,584 to Boles relates to a system for communication between vehicles through a transmit and transponder relationship. The patent mentions that there may be as many as 90 vehicles within one half mile of an interrogation device in a multi-lane environment, where many of them may be at the same or nearly the same range. Boles utilizes a transponder device, the coded responses which are randomized in time, and an interrogation device which processes the return signals to provide vehicle identification, speed, location and transponder status information on vehicles to an operator or for storage in memory. No mention is made of how a vehicle knows its location or how accurate that knowledge is and therefore how it can transmit that location to other vehicles. U.S. Pat. No. 05,128,669 to Dabbs provides for two-way communication and addressing messages to specific vehicles. This is unnecessary and the communications can be general since the amount of information that is unique to one vehicle is small. A method of handing bidirectional communication is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 05,506,584 to Boles. The preferred vehicle-to-vehicle communication system using pseudonoise techniques is more thoroughly discussed below. In embodiments of the invention described herein, vehicle-to-vehicle communication is used, among other purposes, to allow the fact that one vehicle knows its position more accurately than another to use communication to cause the other vehicle to also improve the accuracy with which it knows its position. 9. Infrastructure-to-Vehicle Communication The RtZF™ system of this invention can also incorporate communication between a vehicle and infrastructure for a variety of reasons including obtaining the latest map updates, weather conditions, road conditions, speed limits, sign contents, accidents ahead, congestion ahead, construction, general Internet access and for many other reasons. The DGPS correction information can be broadcast over the radio data system (RDS) via FM transmitters for land use. A company called Differential Correction, Inc. has come up with a technique to transmit this DGPS information on the RDS channel. This technique has been used in Europe since 1994 and, in particular, Sweden has launched a nationwide DPGS service via the RDS (see, Sjoberg, Lars, “A ‘1 Meter’ Satellite Based Navigation Solutions for the Mobile Environment That Already Are Available Throughout Europe”). This system has the potential of providing accuracies on the premium service of between about 1 and 2 meters. A 1 meter accuracy, coupled with the carrier phase system to be described below, provides an accuracy substantially better than about 1 meter as preferred in the Road to Zero Fatalities™ (RtZF™) system of this invention. In addition to the FM RDS system, the following other systems can be used to broadcast DGPS correction data: cellular mobile phones, satellite mobile phones, satellite Internet, WiFi, WiMAX, MCA (multi-channel access), wireless tele-terminals, DARCs/RBDS (radio data systems/radio broadcast data system), type FM sub-carrier, exclusive wireless, and pagers. In particular, DARC type is used for vehicle information and communication systems so that its hardware can be shared. Alternately, the cellular phone system, coupled with the Internet, could be used for transmitting corrections (see, Ito, Toru and Nishiguchi, Hiroshi entitled “Development of DGPS using FM Sub-Carrier For ITS”). Primarily, as discussed elsewhere, vehicle-to-vehicle communications can be used to transmit DGPS corrections from one vehicle to another whether the source is a central DGPS system or one based on PPS or other system. One approach for the cellular system is to use the GSM mobile telephone system, which is the Europe-wide standard. This can be used for transmitting DGPS and possibly map update information (see, Hob, A., Ilg, J. and Hampel, A. entitled “Integration Potential Of Traffic Telematics). In Choi, Jong and Kim, Hoi, “An Interim Report: Building A Wireless Internet-Based Traveler's Information System As A Replacement Of Car Navigation Systems”, a system of showing congestion at intersections is broadcast to the vehicle through the Internet. The use of satellites is discussed as well as VCS system. This is another example of the use of the Internet to provide highway users with up-to-date traffic congestion information. Nowhere in this example, however, is the Internet used to transmit map information. In fact, once there is an Internet or equivalent connection to a vehicle, then other information can be transmitted such as updated map information, weather and visibility, local conditions ahead, accident information, congestion information, DGPS corrections, etc. In fact, with a high bandwidth Internet connection, much of the computations, especially safety related computations, can best be done on the Internet where the system reliability would exceed that of a vehicle-based system. The forecast that “the network is the computer” will begin to become reality. The crash of a safety related processor due to a software bug could not be tolerated in a safety related system and would be less likely to occur if the critical computations occur on the network. Furthermore, upgrades to vehicle-based software also become feasible over such a high bandwidth connection. A paper by Sheu, Dennis, Liaw, Jeff and Oshizawa, Al, entitled “A Communication System For In-Vehicle Navigation System” provides another description of the use of the Internet for real traffic information. However, the author (unnecessarily) complicates matters by using push technology which isn't absolutely necessary and with the belief that the Internet connection to a particular vehicle to allow all vehicles to communicate, would have to be stopped which, of course, is not the case. For example, consider the @home network where everyone on the network is connected all the time. A paper by Rick Schuman entitled “Progress Towards Implementing Interoperable DSRC Systems In North America” describes the standards for dedicated short-range communications (DSRC). DSRC could be used for inter-vehicle communications, however, its range according to the ITS proposal to the Federal Government would be limited to about 90 meters although there have been recent proposals to extend this to about 1000 meters. Also, there may be a problem with interference from toll collection systems, etc. According to this reference, however, “it is likely that any widespread deployment of intersection collision avoidance or automated highways would utilize DSRC”. Ultra wide band communication systems, on the other hand, are a viable alternative to DSRC as explained below. The DSRC physical layer uses microwaves in the 902 to 928 megahertz band. However, ITS America submitted a petition to the FCC seeking to use the 5.85 to 5.925 gigahertz band for DSRC applications. A version of CDPD, which is a commercially available mobile, wireless data network operated in the packet-switching mode, extends Internet protocol capabilities to cellular channels. This is reported on in a paper entitled “Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Opportunity”. According to a paper by Kelly, Robert, Povich, Doublas and Poole, Katherine entitled “Petition of Intelligent Transportation Society of America for Amendment Of The Commission's Rules to Add Intelligent Transportation Services (ITS) As A New Mobile Service With Co-Primary Status In The 5.850 to 5.925 GHz”, from 1989 to 1993 police received an annual average of over 6.25 million vehicle accident reports. During this same period, the total comprehensive cost to the nation of motor vehicle accidents exceeded the annual average of 400 billion dollars. In 1987 alone, Americans lost over 2 billion hours (approximately 22,800 years) sitting in traffic jams. Each driver in Washington D.C. wastes an average of 70 hours per year idling in traffic. From 1986 to 1996, car travel has increased almost 40% which amounts to about a 3.4% increase per year. Further, from Kelly et al., the FCC has allocated in Docket 94-124, 46.7 to 46.9 GHz and 76 to 77 GHz bands for unlicensed vehicular collision avoidance radar. The petition for DSRC calls for a range of up to about 50 meters. This would not be sufficient for the RtZF™ system. For example, in the case of a car passing another car at 150 kilometers per hour. Fifty meters amounts to about one second, which would be insufficient time for the passing vehicle to complete the passing and return to the safe lane. Something more in the order of about 500 meters would be more appropriate. This, however, may interfere with other uses of DSRC such as automatic toll taking, etc., thus DSRC may not be the optimum communication system for communication between vehicles. DSRC is expected to operate at a data rate of approximately 600 kbps. DSRC is expected to use channels that are six megahertz wide. It might be possible to allocate one or more of the six megahertz channels to the RtZF™ system. On DSRC Executive Roundtable—Meeting Summary, Appendix 1—Proposed Changes to FCC Regulations covering the proposed changes to the FCC regulations, it is stated that “ . . . DSRCS systems utilize non-voice radio techniques to transfer data over short distances between roadside and mobile units, between mobile units and between portable and mobile units to perform operations related to the improvement of traffic flow, traffic safety and other intelligent transportation service applications . . . ”, etc. A state or the Federal Government may require in the future that all vehicles have passive transponders such as RFID tags. This could be part of the registration system for the vehicle and, in fact, could even be part of the license plate. This is somewhat discussed in a paper by Shladover, Steven entitled “Cooperative Advanced Vehicle Control and Safety Systems (AVCSS)”. AVCSS sensors will make it easy to detect the presence, location and identity of all other vehicles in their vicinity. Passive radio frequency transponders are discussed. The use of differential GPS with accuracies as good as about two (2) centimeters, coupled with an inertial guidance system, is discussed, as is the ability of vehicles to communicate their locations to other vehicles. It discusses the use of accurate maps, but not of lateral vehicle control using these maps. It is obvious from reading this paper that the author did not contemplate the safety system aspects of using accurate maps and accurate GPS. In fact, the author stresses the importance of cooperation between various government levels and agencies and the private sector in order to make AVCSS feasible. “Automotive suppliers cannot sell infrastructure-dependent systems to their customers until the very large majority of the infrastructure is suitable equipped.” 10. The RtZF™ System—Intelligent Transportation Infrastructure Benefits A paper entitled “Intelligent Transportation Infrastructure Benefits: Expected and Experienced”, 1996 US Department of Transportation, provides a summary of costs and benefits associated with very modest ITS implementations. Although a complete cost benefit analysis has not been conducted on the instant invention, it is evident from reading this paper that the benefits to cost ratio will be a very large number. According to this paper, the congestion in the United States is increasing at about 9% per year. In 50 metropolitan areas, the cost in 1992 was estimated at 48 billion dollars and in Washington, D.C., it represented an annual cost of $822 per person, or $1,580 per registered vehicle. In 1993, there were 40,115 people killed and 3 million injured in traffic accidents. Sixty-one percent (61%) of all fatal accidents occurred in rural areas. This reference lists the 29 user services that make up the ITS program. It is interesting that the instant invention provides 24 of the 29 listed user services. A listing of the services and their proposed implementation with the RtZF™ system is found in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/822,445 and is incorporated by reference herein. The above references, among other things, demonstrate that there are numerous methods and future enhancements planned that will provide centimeter level accuracy to an RtZF™ equipped vehicle. There are many alternative paths that can be taken but which ever one is chosen the result is clear that such accuracies are within the start of the art today. In the particular area of speed control, U.S. Pat. No. 05,530,651 to Uemura, et al. describes a combination of an ultrasonic and laser radar optical detection system which has the ability to detect soiled lenses, rain, snow, etc. The vehicle control system then automatically limits the speed, for example, that the vehicle can travel in adverse weather conditions. The speed of the vehicle is also reduced when the visibility ahead is reduced due to a blind, curved corner. The permitted speed is thus controlled based on weather conditions and road geometry. There is no information in the vehicle system as to the legal speed limit as provided for in embodiments of the instant invention. 11. Limitations of the Prior Art Previous inventions have attempted to solve the collision avoidance problem for each vehicle independently of the other vehicles on the roadway. Systems that predict vehicle trajectories generally fail because two vehicles can be on a collision course and within the last 0.1 second, a slight change of direction avoids the collision. This is a common occurrence that depends on the actions of the individual drivers and no collision avoidance system now in existence is believed to be able to differentiate this case from an actual collision. In the present invention described below, every equipped vehicle will be confined to a corridor and to a position within that corridor where the corridor depends on sub-meter accurate digital maps. Only if that vehicle deviates from the corridor will an alarm sound or the vehicle control system take over control of the vehicle sufficiently to prevent the vehicle from leaving its corridor if an accident would result from the departure from that corridor. Additionally, no prior art system is believed to have successfully used the GPS navigational system, or an augmented DGPS to locate a vehicle on a roadway with sufficient accuracy that that information can be used to prevent the equipped vehicle from leaving the roadway or striking another similarly equipped vehicle. Prior art systems in addition to being poor at locating potential hazards on the roadway, have not been able to ascertain whether they are in fact on the roadway or off on the side, whether they are threatening vehicles, static signs, overpasses etc. In fact, no credible attempt to date has been made to identify or categorize objects which may impact the subject vehicle. The RtZF™ system in accordance with this invention also contemplates a different kind of interrogating system. It is optionally based on scanning infrared laser radar, terahertz radar with or without range gating. This system, when used in conjunction with accurate maps, will permit a precise imaging of an object on the road in front of the vehicle, for example, permitting it to be identified (using neural networks) and its location, velocity and the probability of a collision to be determined. In particular, the system of this invention is particularly effective in eliminating accidents at intersections caused by drivers running stop signs, red stoplights and turning into oncoming traffic. There are approximately one million such accidents and they are the largest killer of older drivers who frequently get confused at intersections. 12. Definitions “Pattern recognition” as used herein will generally mean any system which processes a signal that is generated by an object (e.g., representative of a pattern of returned or received impulses, waves or other physical property specific to and/or characteristic of and/or representative of that object) or is modified by interacting with an object, in order to determine to which one of a set of classes that the object belongs. Such a system might determine only that the object is or is not a member of one specified class, or it might attempt to assign the object to one of a larger set of specified classes, or find that it is not a member of any of the classes in the set. The signals processed are generally a series of electrical signals coming from transducers that are sensitive to acoustic (ultrasonic) or electromagnetic radiation (e.g., visible light, infrared radiation, capacitance or electric and/or magnetic fields), although other sources of information are frequently included. Pattern recognition systems generally involve the creation of a set of rules that permit the pattern to be recognized. These rules can be created by fuzzy logic systems, statistical correlations, or through sensor fusion methodologies as well as by trained pattern recognition systems such as neural networks, combination neural networks, cellular neural networks or support vector machines. “Neural network” as used herein, unless stated otherwise, will generally mean a single neural network, a combination neural network, a cellular neural network, a support vector machine or any combinations thereof. For the purposes herein, a “neural network” is defined to include all such learning systems including cellular neural networks, support vector machines and other kernel-based learning systems and methods, cellular automata and all other pattern recognition methods and systems that learn. A “combination neural network” as used herein will generally apply to any combination of two or more neural networks as most broadly defined that are either connected together or that analyze all or a portion of the input data. A “combination neural network” as used herein will generally apply to any combination of two or more neural networks that are either connected together or that analyze all or a portion of the input data. A combination neural network can be used to divide up tasks in solving a particular object sensing and identification problem. For example, one neural network can be used to identify an object occupying a space at the side of an automobile and a second neural network can be used to determine the position of the object or its location with respect to the vehicle, for example, in the blind spot. In another case, one neural network can be used merely to determine whether the data is similar to data upon which a main neural network has been trained or whether there is something significantly different about this data and therefore that the data should not be analyzed. Combination neural networks can sometimes be implemented as cellular neural networks. What has been described above is generally referred to as modular neural networks with and without feedback. Actually, the feedback does not have to be from the output to the input of the same neural network. The feedback from a downstream neural network could be input to an upstream neural network, for example. The neural networks can be combined in other ways, for example in a voting situation. Sometimes the data upon which the system is trained is sufficiently complex or imprecise that different views of the data will give different results. For example, a subset of transducers may be used to train one neural network and another subset to train a second neural network etc. The decision can then be based on a voting of the parallel neural networks, sometimes known as an ensemble neural network. In the past, neural networks have usually only been used in the form of a single neural network algorithm for identifying the occupancy state of the space near an automobile. At least one of the inventions disclosed herein is primarily advancing the state of the art and using combination neural networks wherein two or more neural networks are combined to arrive at a decision. The applications for this technology are numerous as described in the patents and patent applications listed above. However, the main focus of some of the instant inventions is the process and resulting apparatus of adapting the system in the patents and patent applications referenced above and using combination neural networks for the detection of the presence of an object such as another vehicle in the environment of the subject vehicle where an accident may occur and the motion of the vehicle needs to be controlled so as to prevent such an accident. A trainable or a trained pattern recognition system as used herein generally means a pattern recognition system that is taught to recognize various patterns constituted within the signals by subjecting the system to a variety of examples. The most successful such system is the neural network used either singly or as a combination of neural networks. Thus, to generate the pattern recognition algorithm, test data is first obtained which constitutes a plurality of sets of returned waves, or wave patterns, or other information radiated or obtained from an object (or from the space in which the object will be situated in the passenger compartment, i.e., the space above the seat) and an indication of the identify of that object. A number of different objects are tested to obtain the unique patterns from each object. As such, the algorithm is generated, and stored in a computer processor, and which can later be applied to provide the identity of an object based on the wave pattern being received during use by a receiver connected to the processor and other information. For the purposes here, the identity of an object sometimes applies to not only the object itself but also to its location and/or orientation and velocity in the vicinity of the vehicle. For example, a vehicle that is stopped but pointing at the side of the host vehicle is different from the same vehicle that is approaching at such a velocity as to impact the host vehicle. Not all pattern recognition systems are trained systems and not all trained systems are neural networks. Other pattern recognition systems are based on fuzzy logic, sensor fusion, Kalman filters, correlation as well as linear and non-linear regression. Still other pattern recognition systems are hybrids of more than one system such as neural-fuzzy systems. A pattern recognition algorithm will thus generally mean an algorithm applying or obtained using any type of pattern recognition system, e.g., a neural network, sensor fusion, fuzzy logic, etc. To “identify” as used herein will generally mean to determine that the object belongs to a particular set or class. The class may be one containing, for example, all motorcycles, one containing all trees, or all trees in the path of the host vehicle depending on the purpose of the system. To “ascertain the identity of” as used herein with reference to an object will generally mean to determine the type or nature of the object (obtain information as to what the object is), i.e., that the object is an car, a car on a collision course with the host vehicle, a truck, a tree, a pedestrian, a deer etc. A “rear seat” of a vehicle as used herein will generally mean any seat behind the front seat on which a driver sits. Thus, in minivans or other large vehicles where there are more than two rows of seats, each row of seats behind the driver is considered a rear seat and thus there may be more than one “rear seat” in such vehicles. The space behind the front seat includes any number of such rear seats as well as any trunk spaces or other rear areas such as are present in station wagons. An “optical image” will generally mean any type of image obtained using electromagnetic radiation including visual, infrared, terahertz and radar radiation. In the description herein on anticipatory sensing, the term “approaching” when used in connection with the mention of an object or vehicle approaching another will usually mean the relative motion of the object toward the vehicle having the anticipatory sensor system. Thus, in a side impact with a tree, the tree will be considered as approaching the side of the vehicle and impacting the vehicle. In other words, the coordinate system used in general will be a coordinate system residing in the target vehicle. The “target” vehicle is the vehicle that is being impacted. This convention permits a general description to cover all of the cases such as where (i) a moving vehicle impacts into the side of a stationary vehicle, (ii) where both vehicles are moving when they impact, or (iii) where a vehicle is moving sideways into a stationary vehicle, tree or wall. “Vehicle” as used herein includes any container that is movable either under its own power or using power from another vehicle. It includes, but is not limited to, automobiles, trucks, railroad cars, ships, airplanes, trailers, shipping containers, barges, etc. The word “container” will frequently be used interchangeably with vehicle however a container will generally mean that part of a vehicle that separate from and in some cases may exist separately and away from the source of motive power. Thus a shipping container may exist in a shipping yard and a trailer may be parked in a parking lot without the tractor. The passenger compartment or a trunk of an automobile, on the other hand, are compartments of a container that generally only exists attaches to the vehicle chassis that also has an associated engine for moving the vehicle. Note a container can have one or a plurality of compartments. “Out-of-position” as used for an occupant will generally mean that the occupant, either the driver or a passenger, is sufficiently close to an occupant protection apparatus (airbag) prior to deployment that he or she is likely to be more seriously injured by the deployment event itself than by the accident. It may also mean that the occupant is not positioned appropriately in order to attain the beneficial, restraining effects of the deployment of the airbag. As for the occupant being too close to the airbag, this typically occurs when the occupant's head or chest is closer than some distance such as about 5 inches from the deployment door of the airbag module. The actual distance where airbag deployment should be suppressed depends on the design of the airbag module and is typically farther for the passenger airbag than for the driver airbag. “Transducer” or “transceiver” as used herein will generally mean the combination of a transmitter and a receiver. In come cases, the same device will serve both as the transmitter and receiver while in others two separate devices adjacent to each other will be used. In some cases, a transmitter is not used and in such cases transducer will mean only a receiver. Transducers include, for example, capacitive, inductive, ultrasonic, electromagnetic (antenna, CCD, CMOS arrays, laser, radar transmitter, terahertz transmitter and receiver, focal plane array, pin or avalanche diode, etc.), electric field, weight measuring or sensing devices. In some cases, a transducer will be a single pixel either acting alone, in a linear or an array of some other appropriate shape. In some cases, a transducer may comprise two parts such as the plates of a capacitor or the antennas of an electric field sensor. Sometimes, one antenna or plate will communicate with several other antennas or plates and thus for the purposes herein, a transducer will be broadly defined to refer, in most cases, to any one of the plates of a capacitor or antennas of a field sensor and in some other cases a pair of such plates or antennas will comprise a transducer as determined by the context in which the term is used. “Adaptation” as used here will generally represent the method by which a particular occupant or vehicle or other object sensing system is designed and arranged for a particular vehicle model. It includes such things as the process by which the number, kind and location of various transducers is determined. For pattern recognition systems, it includes the process by which the pattern recognition system is designed and then taught or made to recognize the desired patterns. In this connection, it will usually include (1) the method of training when training is used, (2) the makeup of the databases used, testing and validating the particular system, or, in the case of a neural network, the particular network architecture chosen, (3) the process by which environmental influences are incorporated into the system, and (4) any process for determining the pre-processing of the data or the post processing of the results of the pattern recognition system. The above list is illustrative and not exhaustive. Basically, adaptation includes all of the steps that are undertaken to adapt transducers and other sources of information to a particular vehicle to create the system that accurately identifies and/or determines the location of an occupant or other object in a vehicle or in the environment around the vehicle. A “morphological characteristic” will generally mean any measurable property of a human such as height, weight, leg or arm length, head diameter, skin color or pattern, blood vessel pattern, voice pattern, finger prints, iris patterns, etc. A “wave sensor” or “wave transducer” is generally any device which senses either ultrasonic or electromagnetic waves. An electromagnetic wave sensor, for example, includes devices that sense any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet down to a few hertz. The most commonly used kinds of electromagnetic wave sensors include CCD and CMOS arrays for sensing visible and/or infrared waves, millimeter wave and microwave radar, and capacitive or electric and/or magnetic field monitoring sensors that rely on the dielectric constant of the object occupying a space but also rely on the time variation of the field, expressed by waves as defined below, to determine a change in state. A “CCD” will be defined to include all devices, including CMOS arrays, APS arrays, QWIP arrays or equivalent, artificial retinas and particularly HDRC arrays, which are capable of converting light frequencies, including infrared, visible and ultraviolet, into electrical signals. The particular CCD array used for many of the applications disclosed herein is implemented on a single chip that is less than two centimeters on a side. Data from the CCD array is digitized and sent serially to an electronic circuit (at times designated 120 herein) containing a microprocessor for analysis of the digitized data. In order to minimize the amount of data that needs to be stored, initial processing of the image data takes place as it is being received from the CCD array, as discussed in more detail above. In some cases, some image processing can take place on the chip such as described in the Kage et al. artificial retina article referenced above. The “windshield header” as used herein includes the space above the front windshield including the first few inches of the roof. An “occupant protection apparatus” is any device, apparatus, system or component which is actuatable or deployable or includes a component which is actuatable or deployable for the purpose of attempting to reduce injury to the occupant in the event of a crash, rollover or other potential injurious event involving a vehicle Inertial measurement unit (IMU), inertial navigation system (INS) and inertial reference unit (IRU) will in general be used be used interchangeably to mean a device having a plurality of accelerometers and a plurality of gyroscopes generally within the same package. Usually such a device will contain 3 accelerometers and 3 gyroscopes. In some cases a distinction will be made whereby the INS relates to an IMU or an IRU plus additional sensors and software such as a GPS, speedometer, odometer or other sensors plus optimizing software which may be based on a Kalman filter. A precise positioning system or PPS is a system based on some information, usually of a physical nature, in the infrastructure that determines the precise location of a vehicle independently of a GPS based system or the IMU. Such a system is employed as a vehicle is traveling and passes a particular location. A PPS can make use of various technologies including radar, laser radar, terahertz radar, RFID tags located in the infrastructure, MIR transmitters and receivers. Such locations are identified on a map database resident within the vehicle. In one case, for example, the map database contains data from a terahertz radar continuous scan of the environment to the side of a vehicle from a device located on a vehicle and pointed 45 degrees up relative to the horizontal plane. The map database contains the exact location of the vehicle that corresponds to the scan. Another vehicle can then determine its location by comparing its scan data with that stored with the map database and when there is a match, the vehicle knows its location. Of course many other technologies can be used to accomplish a similar result. Unless stated otherwise, laser radar, lidar and ladar will be considered equivalent herein. In all cases they represent a projected laser beam, which can be in the visual part of the electromagnetic spectrum but generally will be the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum and usually in the near infrared wavelengths. The projected laser beam can emanate from the optics as a nearly parallel beam or as a beam that diverges at any desired angle from less than zero degrees to ten or more of degrees depending on the application. A particular implementation may use a laser beam that at one time diverges at an angle less than one degree and at another time may diverge at several degrees using adjustable optics. The laser beam can have a diameter as it leaves the vehicle ranging from less than a millimeter to several centimeters. The above represent typical or representative ranges of dimensions but this invention is not limited by these ranges. OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a new and improved method for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a new and improved method and system for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object, such as another vehicle or infrastructure. In order to achieve these objects and others, a method for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle includes directing a laser beam from the vehicle into the environment, receiving from an object in the path of the laser beam a reflection of the laser beam at a location on the vehicle, and analyzing the received laser beam reflections to obtain information about the object from which the laser beam is being reflected. Analysis of the laser beam reflections preferably entails range gating the received laser beam reflections to limit analysis of the received laser beam reflections to only those received from an object within a defined (distance) range such that objects at distances within the range are isolated from surrounding objects. In this manner, data gathering is optimized in that data about only objects in the distance range is obtained. To optimize the method, the direction of the laser beam can be controlled to cover only a desired operating sector. Also, so that objects that cannot potentially impact the vehicle are not considered, thereby reducing wasted processing time for the processor and false alerts, a digital map may be provided including information relating to roads on which the vehicle can travel or is traveling. In this manner, objects which cannot impact the vehicle, such as those traveling on the same road but in an opposite direction and when a concrete barrier separates the lanes, are not considered potentially dangerous. A field into which the laser beam will be directed is defined based on the map and the laser beam is directed primarily only into the defined field. To cover possible situations with curved roads causing the vehicle to curve, two laser beams can be directed into the environment. The laser beams can have different scanning speeds. Analysis of the laser beam reflections may also entail analyzing the received laser beam reflections to detect the presence of objects potentially affecting operation of the vehicle, e.g., which would require the vehicle to alter its travel path to avoid a collision with the vehicle. Range gating is performed once the presence of each object is detected and the range is determined to encompass any objects whose presence has been detected. The range can be narrowed such that laser beam reflections from only the object whose presence is detected and other objects in the same range are analyzed and processed to obtain identification or identity information about them. Pattern recognition algorithms can be used to process the received laser beam reflections, e.g., to ascertain the identity of or identity the objects. If an object is identified and the potential for a collision between the vehicle and that object is determined to be present, the driver can be alerted about the potential collisions, e.g., visually and/or audibly, and/or a vehicle control system can be activated to alter the vehicle's travel path to avoid the collision. A method for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object includes mounting a laser beam projector on the vehicle, directing a laser beam from the projector outward from the vehicle, determining whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam based on reception of reflections of the laser beam caused by the presence of the object in the path of the laser beam, and when an object is determined to be present, setting a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object, processing only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle, and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, effecting a countermeasure with a view toward preventing the collision. The same enhancements to the method described above can be applied here as well, e.g., the use of a digital map to limit the number of objects considered as potentially dangerous and the countermeasures effected to avoid collisions. A system for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object includes a laser beam projector arranged on the vehicle to directing a laser beam outward from the vehicle, a receiving unit for receiving reflections of the laser beam which reflect off of objects in the path of the laser beam, and a control unit, module or processor arranged to process any received reflections to determine whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam. When an object is determined to be present, the processor sets a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object, processes only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle, and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, causes a countermeasure to be effected with a view toward preventing the collision. Optionally, the processor includes a pattern recognition algorithm which ascertains the identity of or identifies each object in the set distance range and assesses the potential for and consequences of a collision between the vehicle and the object based on the identity or identification of the object. The countermeasures can be activation of a driver notification system to alert the driver of the impending collision or activation of a vehicle control system to vary the travel of the vehicle to avoid the impending collision. Other objects and advantages of disclosed inventions include: 1. To provide a system based partially on the global positioning system (GPS) or equivalent that permits an onboard electronic system to determine the position of a vehicle with an accuracy of 1 meter or less. 2. To provide a system which permits an onboard electronic system to determine the position of the edges and/or lane boundaries of a roadway with an accuracy of 1 meter or less in the vicinity of the vehicle. 3. To provide a system which permits an onboard vehicle electronic system to determine the position of the edges and/or lane boundaries of a roadway relative to the vehicle with an accuracy of less than about 10 centimeters, one sigma. 4. To provide a system that substantially reduces the incidence of single vehicle accidents caused by the vehicle inappropriately leaving the roadway at high speed. 5. To provide a system which does not require modification to a roadway which permits high speed controlled travel of vehicles on the roadway thereby increasing the vehicle flow rate on congested roads. 6. To provide a collision avoidance system comprising a sensing system responsive to the presence of at least one other vehicle in the vicinity of the equipped vehicle and means to determine the location of the other vehicle relative to the lane boundaries of the roadway and thereby determine if the other vehicle has strayed from its proper position on the highway thereby increasing the risk of a collision, and taking appropriate action to reduce that risk. 7. To provide a means whereby vehicles near each other can communicate their position and/or their velocity to each other and thereby reduce the risk of a collision. 8. To provide a means for accurate maps of a roadway to be transmitted to a vehicle on the roadway. 9. To provide a means for weather, road condition and/or similar information can be communicated to a vehicle traveling on a roadway plus means within the vehicle for using that information to reduce the risk of an accident. 10. To provide a means and apparatus for a vehicle to precisely know its location at certain positions on a road by passing through or over an infrastructure based local subsystem thereby permitting the vehicle electronic systems to self correct for the satellite errors making the vehicle for a brief time a DGPS station and facilitate carrier phase DGPS for increased location accuracy. Such a subsystem may be a PPS including one based on the signature of the environment. 11. To utilize government operated navigation aid systems such as the WAAS and LAAS as well as other available or to become available systems to achieve sub-meter vehicle location accuracies. 12. To utilize the OpenGIS™ map database structure so as to promote open systems for accurate maps for the RtZF™ system. 13. To eliminate intersection collisions caused by a driver running a red light or stop sign. 14. To eliminate intersection collisions caused by a driver executing a turn into oncoming traffic. 15. To provide a method of controlling the speed of a vehicle based on may information or information transmitted to the vehicle from the infrastructure. Such speed control may be based on information as to the normal legal speed limit or a variable peed limit set by weather or other conditions. Other improvements will now be obvious to those skilled in the art. The above features are meant to be illustrative and not definitive. The preferred embodiments of the inventions are shown in the drawings and described in the detailed description below. Unless specifically noted, it is applicants' intention that the words and phrases in the specification and claims be given the ordinary and accustomed meaning to those of ordinary skill in the applicable art(s). If applicants intend any other meaning, they will specifically state they are applying a special meaning to a word or phrase. Likewise, applicants' use of the word “function” in the detailed description is not intended to indicate that they seek to invoke the special provisions of 35 U.S.C. §112, ¶6 to define their invention. To the contrary, if applicants wish to invoke the provision of 35 U.S.C. § 112, ¶6, to define their invention, they will specifically set forth in the claims the phrases “means for” or “step for” and a function, without also reciting in that phrase any structure, material or act in support of the function. Moreover, even if applicants invoke the provisions of 35 U.S.C. § 112, ¶6, to define their invention, it is applicants' intention that their inventions not be limited to the specific structure, material or acts that are described in their preferred embodiments. Rather, if applicants claim their invention by specifically invoking the provisions of 35 U.S.C. §112, ¶6, it is nonetheless their intention to cover and include any and all structures, materials or acts that perform the claimed function, along with any and all known or later developed equivalent structures, materials or acts for performing the claimed function. For example, the present inventions make use of GPS satellite location technology, including the use of MIR or RFID triads or radar and reflectors, to derive kinematic vehicle location and motion trajectory parameters for use in a vehicle collision avoidance system and method. The inventions described herein are not to be limited to the specific GPS devices or PPS devices disclosed in the preferred embodiments, but rather, are intended to be used with any and all such applicable satellite and infrastructure location devices, systems and methods, as long as such devices, systems and methods generate input signals that can be analyzed by a computer to accurately quantify vehicle location and kinematic motion parameters in real time. Thus, the GPS and PPS devices and methods shown and referenced generally throughout this disclosure, unless specifically noted, are intended to represent any and all devices appropriate to determine such location and kinematic motion parameters. Likewise, for example, the present inventions generate surveillance image information for analysis by scanning using any applicable image or video scanning system or method. The inventions described herein are not to be limited to the specific scanning or imaging devices or to a particular electromagnetic frequency or frequency range or part of the electromagnetic spectrum disclosed in the preferred embodiments, but rather, are intended to be used with any and all applicable electronic scanning devices, as long as the device can generate an output signal that can be analyzed by a computer to detect and categorize objects. Thus, the scanners or image acquisition devices are shown and referenced generally throughout this disclosure, and unless specifically noted, are intended to represent any and all devices appropriate to scan or image a given area. Accordingly, the words “scan” or “image” as used in this specification should be interpreted broadly and generically. Further, there are disclosed several processors or controllers, that perform various control operations. The specific form of processor is not important to the invention. In its preferred form, applicants divide the computing and analysis operations into several cooperating computers or microprocessors. However, with appropriate programming well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, the inventions can be implemented using a single, high power computer. Thus, it is not applicants' intention to limit their invention to any particular form or location of processor or computer. For example, it is contemplated that in some cases the processor may reside on a network connected to the vehicle such as one connected to the Internet. Further examples exist throughout the disclosure, and it is not applicants' intention to exclude from the scope of his invention the use of structures, materials, or acts that are not expressly identified in the specification, but nonetheless are capable of performing a claimed function. The above and other objects are achieved in the present invention which provides motor vehicle collision avoidance, warning and control systems and methods using GPS satellite location systems augmented with Precise Positioning Systems to provide centimeter location accuracy, and to derive vehicle attitude and position coordinates and vehicle kinematic tracking information. GPS location and computing systems being integrated with vehicle video scanning, radar, laser radar, terahertz radar and onboard speedometer and/or accelerometers and gyroscopes to provide accurate vehicle location information together with information concerning hazards and/or objects that represent impending collision situations for each vehicle. Advanced image processing techniques are used to quantify video information signals and to derive vehicle warning and control signals based upon detected hazards. Outputs from multiple sensors as described above are used in onboard vehicle neural network and neural-fuzzy system computing algorithms to derive optimum vehicle warning and control signals designed to avoid vehicle collisions with other vehicles or with other objects or hazards that may be present on given roadways. In a preferred embodiment, neural fuzzy control algorithms are used to develop coordinated braking, acceleration and steering control signals to control individual vehicles, or the individual wheels of such vehicles, in an optimal manner to avoid or minimize the effects of potential collisions. Video, radar, laser radar, terahertz radar and GPS position and trajectory information are made available to each individual vehicle describing the movement of that vehicle and other vehicles in the immediate vicinity of that vehicle. In addition, hazards or other obstacles that may represent a potential danger to a given vehicle are also included in the neural fuzzy calculations. Objects, obstacles and/or other vehicles located anywhere to the front, rear or sides of a given vehicle are considered in the fuzzy logic control algorithms in the derivation of optimal control and warning signals. The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention are achieved by the preferred embodiments that are summarized and described in detail below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The various hardware and software elements used to carry out the invention described herein are illustrated in the form of system diagrams, block diagrams, flow charts, and depictions of neural network algorithms and structures. The preferred embodiment is illustrated in the following figures: FIG. 1 illustrates the GPS satellite system with the 24 satellites revolving around the earth. FIG. 2 illustrates four GPS satellites transmitting position information to a vehicle and to a base station which in turn transmits the differential correction signal to the vehicle. FIG. 3 illustrates a WADGPS system with four GPS satellites transmitting position information to a vehicle and to a base station which in turn transmits the differential correction signal to the vehicle. FIG. 4 is a logic diagram showing the combination of the GPS system and an inertial navigation system. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of the overall vehicle accident avoidance, warning, and control system and method of the present invention illustrating system sensors, radio transceivers, computers, displays, input/output devices and other key elements. FIG. 5A is a block diagram of a representative accident avoidance, warning and control system. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an image analysis computer of the type that can be used in the accident avoidance system and method of this invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a vehicle traveling on a roadway in a defined corridor. FIG. 8 illustrated two adjacent vehicles traveling on a roadway and communicating with each other. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating a neural network of the type useful in the image analysis computer of FIG. 5. FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating the structure of a node processing element in the neural network of FIG. 9. FIG. 11 illustrates the use of a Precise Positioning System employing three micropower impulse radar transmitters, two or three radar reflectors or three RFID tags in a configuration to allow a vehicle to accurately determine its position. FIG. 12a is a flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention for preventing run off the road accidents. FIG. 12b is a flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention for preventing center (yellow) line crossing accidents. FIG. 12c is a flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention for preventing stoplight running accidents. FIG. 13 illustrates an intersection with stop signs on the lesser road where there is a potential for a front to side impact and a rear end impact. FIG. 14 illustrates a blind intersection with stoplights where there is a potential for a front side to front side impact. FIG. 15 illustrates an intersection where there is a potential for a front-to-front impact as a vehicle turns into oncoming traffic. FIG. 16A is a side view of a vehicle equipped with a road-mapping arrangement in accordance with the invention. FIG. 16B is a front perspective view of a vehicle equipped with the road-mapping arrangement in accordance with the invention. FIG. 17 is a schematic perspective view of a data acquisition module in accordance with the invention. FIG. 17A is a schematic view of the data acquisition module in accordance with the invention. FIG. 18 shows the view of a road from the video cameras in both of the data acquisition modules. FIG. 19 shows a variety of roads and vehicles operating on those roads that are in communication with a vehicle that is passing through a Precise Positioning Station. FIG. 20 is a schematic of the manner in which communications between a vehicle and a transmitter are conducted according to some embodiments of the invention. FIGS. 21A and 21B illustrate a preferred embodiment of a laser radar system mounted at the four corners of a vehicle above the headlights and tail lights. FIGS. 22A and 22B illustrate the system of FIGS. 21A and 21B for vehicles on a roadway. FIGS. 23A and 23B illustrate an alternative mounting location for laser radar units. FIG. 24 is a schematic illustration of a typical laser radar device showing the scanning or pointing system with simplified optics. FIG. 25 is a schematic showing a method for avoiding collisions in accordance with the invention. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS 1. Vehicle Collision Warning and Control According to U.S. Pat. No. 05,506,584, the stated goals of the US DOT IVHS system are: improving the safety of surface transportation increasing the capacity and operational efficiency of the surface transportation system enhancing personal mobility and the convenience and comfort of the surface transportation system reducing the environmental and energy impacts of the surface transportation system The RtZF™ system in accordance with the present invention satisfies all of these goals at a small fraction of the cost of prior art systems. The safety benefits have been discussed above. The capacity increase is achieved by confining vehicles to corridors where they are then permitted to travel at higher speeds. This can be achieved immediately where carrier phase DGPS is available or with the implementation of the highway-located precise location systems as shown in FIG. 11. An improvement is to add the capability for the speed of the vehicles to be set by the highway or highway control system. This is a simple additional few bytes of information that can be transmitted along with the road edge location map, thus, at very little initial cost. To account for the tolerances in vehicle speed control systems, the scanning laser radar, or other technology system, which monitors for the presence of vehicles without RtZF™ is also usable as an adaptive cruise control system. Thus, if a faster moving vehicle approaches a slower moving vehicle, it will automatically slow down to keep a safe separation distance from the leading, slower moving vehicle. Although the system is not planned for platooning, that will be the automatic result in some cases. The maximum packing of vehicles is automatically obtained and thus the maximum vehicle flow rate is also achieved with a very simple system. For the Intelligent Highway System (ITS) application, some provision is required to prevent unequipped vehicles from entering the restricted lanes. In most cases, a barrier will be required since if an errant vehicle did enter the controlled lane, a serious accident could result. Vehicles would be checked while traveling down the road or at a tollbooth, or similar station, that the RtZF™ system was in operation without faults and with the latest updated map for the region. Only those vehicles with the RtZF™ system in good working order would be permitted to enter. The speed on the restricted lanes would be set according to the weather conditions and fed to the vehicle information system automatically, as discussed above. Automatic tolling based on the time of day or percentage of highway lane capacity in use can also be easily implemented. For ITS use, there needs to be a provision whereby a driver can signal an emergency, for example, by putting on the hazard lights. This would permit the vehicle to leave the roadway and enter the shoulder when the vehicle velocity is below a certain level. Once the driver provides such a signal, the roadway information system, or the network of vehicle-based control systems, would then reduce the speed of all vehicles in the vicinity until the emergency has passed. This roadway information system need not be actually associated with the particular roadway and also need not require any roadway infrastructure. It is a term used here to represent the collective system as operated by the network of nearby vehicles and the inter-vehicle communication system. Eventually, the occurrence of such emergency situations will be eliminated by vehicle-based failure prediction systems such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 05,809,437. Emergency situations will develop on intelligent highways. It is difficult to access the frequency or the results of such emergencies. The industry has learned from airbags that if a system is developed which saves many lives but causes a few deaths, the deaths will not be tolerated. The ITS system, therefore, must operate with a very high reliability, that is approaching “zero fatalities”™. Since the brains of the system will reside in each vehicle, which is under the control of individual owners, there will be malfunctions and the system must be able to adapt without causing accidents. An alternative is for the brains to reside on the network providing that the network connection is reliable. The spacing of the vehicles is the first line of defense. Secondly, each vehicle with a RtZF™ system has the ability to automatically communicate to all adjacent vehicles and thus immediately issue a warning when an emergency event is occurring. Finally, with the addition of a total vehicle diagnostic system, such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 05,809,437 (Breed), “On Board Vehicle Diagnostic System”, potential emergencies can be anticipated and thus eliminated with high reliability. Although the application for ITS envisions a special highway lane and high speed travel, the potential exists in the invention to provide a lower measure of automatic guidance where the operator can turn control of the vehicle over to the RtZF™ system for as long as the infrastructure is available. In this case, the vehicle would operate in normal lanes but would retain its position in the lane and avoid collisions until a decision requiring operator assistance is required. At that time, the operator would be notified and if he or she did not assume control of the vehicle, an orderly stopping of the vehicle, e.g., on the side of the road, would occur. For all cases where vehicle steering control is assumed by the RtZF™ system, an algorithm for controlling the steering should be developed using neural networks or neural fuzzy systems. This is especially true for the emergency cases discussed herein where it is well known that operators frequently take the wrong actions and at the least, they are slow to react. Algorithms developed by other non-pattern recognition techniques do not, in general, have the requisite generality or complexity and are also likely to make the wrong decisions (although the use of such systems is not precluded in the invention). When the throttle and breaking functions are also handled by the system, an algorithm based on neural networks or neural fuzzy systems is even more important. For the ITS, the driver will enter his or her destination so that the vehicle knows ahead of time where to exit. Alternately, if the driver wishes to exit, he merely turns on his turn signal, which tells the system and other vehicles that he or she is about to exit the controlled lane. Neural networks have been mentioned above and since they can play an important role in various aspects of the invention, a brief discussion is now presented here. FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram illustrating a neural network of the type useful in image analysis. Data representing features from the images from the CMOS cameras 60 are input to the neural network circuit 63, and the neural network circuit 63 is then trained on this data (see FIG. 6). More specifically, the neural network circuit 63 adds up the feature data from the CMOS cameras 60 with each data point multiplied by an associated weight according to the conventional neural network process to determine the correlation function. In this embodiment, 141 data points are appropriately interconnected at 25 connecting points of layer 1, and each data point is mutually correlated through the neural network training and weight determination process. In some implementations, each of the connecting points of the layer 1 has an appropriate threshold value, and if the sum of measured data exceeds the threshold value, each of the connecting points will output a signal to the connecting points of layer 2. In other cases, an output value or signal will always be outputted to layer 2 without thresholding. The connecting points of the layer 2 comprises 20 points, and the 25 connecting points of the layer 1 are appropriately interconnected as the connecting points of the layer 2. Similarly, each data value is mutually correlated through the training process and weight determination as described above and in the above referenced neural network texts. Each of the 20 connecting points of the layer 2 can also have an appropriate threshold value, if thresholding is used, and if the sum of measured data exceeds the threshold value, each of the connecting points will output a signal to the connecting points of layer 3. The connecting points of the layer 3 comprises 3 points in this example, and the connecting points of the layer 2 are interconnected at the connecting points of the layer 3 so that each data is mutually correlated as described above. The value of each connecting point is determined by multiplying weight coefficients and summing up the results in sequence, and the aforementioned training process is to determine a weight coefficient Wj so that the value (ai) is a previously determined output. ai=ΣWj·Xj(j=1 to N)+W0 wherein Wj is the weight coefficient, Xj is the data N is the number of samples and W0 is bias weight associated with each node. Based on this result of the training, the neural network circuit 63 generates the weights and the bias weights for the coefficients of the correlation function or the algorithm. At the time the neural network circuit 63 has learned from a suitable number of patterns of the training data, the result of the training is tested by the test data. In the case where the rate of correct answers of the object identification unit based on this test data is unsatisfactory, the neural network circuit 63 is further trained and the test is repeated. Typically, about 200,000 feature patterns are used to train the neural network 63 and determine all of the weights. A similar number is then used for the validation of the developed network. In this simple example chosen, only three outputs are illustrated. These can represent another vehicle, a truck and a pole or tree. This might be suitable for an early blind spot detector design. The number of outputs depends on the number of classes of objects that are desired. However, too many outputs can result in an overly complex neural network and then other techniques such as modular neural networks can be used to simplify the process. When a human looks at a tree, for example, he or she might think “what kind of tree is that?” but not “what kind of tiger is that”. The human mind operates with modular or combination neural networks where the object to be identified is first determined to belong to a general class and then to a subclass etc. Object recognition neural networks can frequently make use of this principle with a significant simplification resulting. In the above example, the image was first subjected to a feature extraction process and the feature data was input to the neural network. In other cases, especially as processing power continues to advance, the entire image is input to the neural network for processing. This generally requires a larger neural network. Alternate approaches use data representing the difference between two frames and the input data to the neural network. This is especially useful when a moving object of interest is in an image containing stationary scenery that is of no interest. This technique can be used even when everything is moving by using the relative velocity as a filter to remove unwanted pixel data. Any variations are possible and will now be obvious to those skilled in the art. Alternately, this image can be filtered based on range, which will also significantly reduce the number of pixels to be analyzed. In another implementation, the scenes are differenced based on illumination. If infrared illumination is used, for example, the illumination can be turned on and off and images taken and then differenced. If the illumination is known only to illuminate an object of interest then such an object can be extracted from the background by this technique. A particularly useful method is to turn the illumination on and off for alternate scan lines in the image. Adjacent scan lines can then be differenced and the resulting image sent to the neural network system for identification. The neural network can be implemented as an algorithm on a general-purpose microprocessor or on a dedicated parallel processing DSP, neural network ASIC or other dedicated parallel or serial processor. The processing speed is generally considerably faster when parallel processors are used and this can also permit the input of the entire image for analysis rather than using feature data. A combination of feature and pixel data can also be used. Neural networks have certain known potential problem areas that various researchers have attempted to eliminate. For example, if data representing an object that is totally different from those objects present in the training data is input to the neural network, an unexpected result can occur which, in some cases, can cause a system failure. To solve this and other neural network problems, researchers have resorted to adding in some other computational intelligence principles such as fuzzy logic resulting in a neural-fuzzy system, for example. As the RtZF™ system evolves, such refinements will be implemented to improve the accuracy of the system. Thus, although pure neural networks are currently being applied to the problem, hybrid neural networks such as modular, combination, ensemble and fuzzy neural networks will undoubtedly evolve. A typical neural network processing element known to those skilled in the art is shown in FIG. 10 where input vectors, (X1, X2 . . . Xn) are connected via weighing elements 120 (W1, W2 . . . Wn) to a summing node 130. The output of node 130 is passed through a nonlinear processing element 140, typically a sigmoid function, to produce an output signal, Y. Offset or bias inputs 125 can be added to the inputs through weighting circuit 128. The output signal from summing node 130 is passed through the nonlinear element 140 which has the effect of compressing or limiting the magnitude of the output Y. Neural networks used in the accident avoidance system of this invention are trained to recognize roadway hazards including automobiles, trucks, animals and pedestrians. Training involves providing known inputs to the network resulting in desired output responses. The weights are automatically adjusted based on error signal measurements until the desired outputs are generated. Various learning algorithms may be applied with the back propagation algorithm with the Delta Bar rule as a particularly successful method. 2. Accurate Navigation 2.1 GPS FIG. 1 shows the current GPS satellite system associated with the earth and including 24 satellites 2, each satellite revolving in a specific orbital path 4 around the earth. By means of such a GPS satellite system, the position of any object can be determined with varying degrees of precision as discussed in detail herein. A similar system will appear when the European Galileo system is launched perhaps doubling the number of satellites. 2.2 DGPS, WAAS, LAAS and Pseudolites FIG. 2 shows an arrangement of four satellites 2 designated SV1, SV2, SV3 and SV4 of the GPS satellite system shown in FIG. 1 transmitting position information to receiver means of a base station 20, such as an antenna 22, which in turn transmits a differential correction signal via transmitter means associated with that base station, such as a second antenna 16, to a vehicle 18. Additional details relating to FIGS. 1 and 2 can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 05,606,506 to Kyrtsos, which is incorporated by reference herein. FIG. 3 shows an arrangement of four satellites 2 designated SV1, SV2, SV3 and SV4 of the GPS satellite system as in FIG. 2 transmitting position information to receivers of base stations 20 and 21, such as an antenna 22, which in turn transmit a differential correction signal via transmitter means associated with that base stations, such as a second antenna 16, to a geocentric or low earth orbiting (LEO) satellite 30 which in turn transmits the differential correction signals to vehicle 18. In this case, one or more of the base stations 20,21 receives and performs a mathematical analysis on all of the signals received from a number of base stations that cover the area under consideration and forms a mathematical model of the errors in the GPS signals over the entire area. For the CONUS, for example, a group of 13 base stations are operated by OmniStar that are distributed around the country. By considering data from the entire group of such stations, the errors in the GPS signals for the entire area can be estimated resulting in a position accuracy of about 6-10 cm over the entire area. The corrections are then uploaded to the geocentric or low earth orbiting satellite 30 for retransmission to vehicles on the roadways. In this way, such vehicles are able to determine their absolute position to within about 6-10 centimeters. This is known as Wide Area Deferential GPS or WADGPS. It is important to note that future GPS and Galileo satellite systems plan for the transmission of multiple frequencies for civilian use. Like a lens, the ionosphere diffracts different frequencies by different amounts and thus the time of arrival of a particular frequency will depend on the value of that frequency. This fact can be used to determine the amount that each frequency is diffracted and thus the delay or error introduced by the ionosphere. Thus with more than one frequency being emitted by a particular satellite, the equivalent of the DGPS corrections can be determined be each receiver and there in no longer a need for DGPS, WADGPS, WAAS, LAAS and similar systems. The WAAS system is another example of WADGPS for use with airplanes. The U.S. Government estimates that the accuracy of the WAAS system is about 1 meter in three dimensions. Since the largest error is in the vertical direction, the horizontal error is much less. 2.3 Carrier Phase Measurements If a receiver can receive signals by two paths from a satellite it can measure the phase difference between the two paths and, provided that there are not any extra cycles in one of the paths, the path difference can be determined to less than one centimeter. The fact that there may be an integer number of extra cycles in one path and not in the other is what is called the integer ambiguity problem and a great deal of attention has been paid in the literature to resolving this ambiguity. Using the Precise Positioning System (PPS) described in detail below where a vehicle becomes its own DGPS system, the carrier phase ambiguity problem also disappears since the number of additional cycles can be determined as the vehicle travels away from the PPS. In other words, there are no extra cycles when the vehicle is at the PPS and as it moves away, it will still know the state of the cycles at the PPS and can then calculate the increase or decrease in the cycles at the host vehicle as it moves relatively away from or closer to the transmitting satellite. There is no ambiguity when the vehicle is at the PPS station and that is maintained as long as the lock on a satellite is not lost for more than a few minutes providing that there is an accurate clock within the vehicle. There are other sources of information that can be added to increase the accuracy of position determination. The use of GPS with four satellites provides the three-dimensional location of the vehicle plus time. Of the dimensions, the vertical position is the least accurately known, yet, if the vehicle knows where it is on the roadway, the vertical dimension is not only the least important but it is also already accurately known from the roadmap information plus the inertial guidance system. 2.4 Inertial Navigation System In the system of the inventions herein, the vehicle will generally have an inertial measurement unit, inertial reference unit or an inertial navigation system which for the purposes herein will be treated as identical. Such a device typically has three accelerometers and three gyroscopes that are held together in a single housing. Typically, these 6 devices are MEMS devices and inherently are very inexpensive. Some companies then proceed to carefully test each component to determine the repeatable effects that various environmental factors and aging has on the performance of each device and then associates with each device, a calibration or constitute equation that translates the readings of the device to actual values based on the environmental variable values and time. This process adds significantly to the cost and in fact may be the dominant cost. The problem is that age, for example, may affect a device differently based on how the aging takes place, at high or low temperatures, for example. Also shock or some other unexpected event can change the properties of a device. In the present invention, on the other hand, this complicated and expensive calibration process is not performed and thus a calibration equation is not frozen into the device. Since the IMU will be part of a vehicle system and that system will periodically, either from the GPS-DGPS type system or from the PPS, know its exact location, that fact will be used to derive a calibration equation for each device and since other information such as temperature etc. will also be known that parameter can also be part of the equation. The equation can thus be a changing part of the system that automatically adjusts to actual experience of the vehicle in the field. Thus, not only is the IMU more accurate than the prior art but it is considerably less expensive. One method for handling this change and recalculation of the calibration equations would be to use an adaptive neural network that has a forgetting function. Properly designed, this network can allow the calibration equations to adjust and slowly change over time always providing the most accurate values regardless of how the devices are changing in their sensitivity to temperature, for example. The fact that the IMU resident devices are continuously calibrated using external measurements renders the IMU an extremely accurate device comparable with military grade IMUs costing thousands of dollars. The IMU is far more accurate, for example, than the crash sensor or chassis control accelerometers and gyroscopes that are currently being deployed on a vehicle. Thus, when mounting location considerations permit, the IMU can take over the functions currently performed by these other devices. This will not only increase the accuracy of these other functions but reduce the total cost by eliminating the need for redundant parts and permitting economies in the electronic circuits and processors to be realized. The airbag SDM can now be housed with the IMU, for example, and similarly for the chassis control electronics. If the IMU has the full complement of three gyros and three accelerometers, then this additional information can be used to substantially improve the crash sensing algorithms or the chassis control algorithms. The sensing and predicting or a rollover event, for example, and the subsequent control of the throttle, brakes and steering systems as well as the timely deployment of the side and curtain airbags. Thus, the use of the IMU for these functions, particularly for the rollover prediction, mitigation and restraint deployment functions, are a key teaching of this invention. As discussed below, many sensors can be used to correct the errors in the IMU in addition to the GPS and PPS based systems. A gravity meter can determine the direction of vertically down and can especially be used when the vehicle is not moving. A magnetic flux gate compass and/or declinometer values can be included in the map database and compared by the host vehicle as it passes mapped areas. Doppler radar or other velocity measurements from the exterior vehicle monitoring system can provide valuable velocity information. Vision systems can be used to correct for position if such data is stored on the map database. If, for example a stored picture shows a signpost at a particular location that can be viewed by a resident vision system, then this can also be useful information for correcting errors in the IMU. In many cases, especially before the system implementation becomes mature and the complete infrastructure is in place, there will be times when a particular vehicle system is not operational. This could be due to obstructions hiding a clear view of a sufficient number of GPS satellites, such as when a vehicle enters a tunnel. It could also be due to a lack of road boundary information, due to construction or the fact that the road has not been surveyed and the information recorded and made available to the vehicle, or a variety of other causes. It is contemplated, therefore, that each equipped vehicle will contain a warning light or other system that warns the driver or the vehicle control system when the system is not operational. If this occurs on one of the specially designated highway lanes, the vehicle speed will be reduced until the system again becomes operational. When the system is non-operational for a short distance, the vehicle will still accurately know its position if there is, in addition, one or more laser gyroscopes, micromachined angular rate sensors or equivalent, and one or more accelerometers that together are referred to as an Inertial Navigation System (INS, IMU) or inertial measurement unit (IMU). Generally, such an INS will have three gyroscopes and three accelerometers and frequently there may be more than one IMU in a vehicle. Although current versions of the IMU use MEMS devices, progress is being made on fiber optic-based gyroscopes. Thus, the present invention is not limited to MEMS devices but will make use of the best cost effective devices that are available at a particular time. As more sensors which are capable of providing information on the vehicle position, velocity and acceleration are added onto the vehicle, the system can become sufficiently complicated as to require a Kalman filter, neural network, or neural-fuzzy, system to permit the optimum usage of the available information. This becomes even more important when information from outside the vehicle other than the GPS related systems becomes more available. For example, a vehicle may be able to communicate with other vehicles that have similar systems and learn their estimated location. If the vehicle can independently measure the position of the other vehicle, for example through the use of the scanning laser radar system described below, the differential GPS readings as discussed above, and thereby determine the relative position of the two or more vehicles, a further improvement of the position can be determined for all such vehicles. Adding all such additional information into the system would probably require a computational method such as Kalman filters, neural networks or a combination thereof and perhaps a fuzzy logic system. One way to imagine the system operation is to consider each car and roadway edge to behave as if it had a surrounding “force field” that would prevent it from crashing into another vehicle or an obstacle along the roadway. A vehicle operator would be prevented from causing his or her vehicle to leave its assigned corridor. This is accomplished with a control system that controls the steering, acceleration and perhaps the vehicle brakes based on its knowledge of the location of the vehicle, highway boundaries and other nearby vehicles. In a preferred implementation, the location of the vehicle is determined by first using the GPS L1 signal to determine its location within approximately 100 meters. Then, using DGPS and corrections which are broadcast, whether by FM or downloaded from geo-synchronous (GEO) or Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellites or obtained from another vehicle or road-based transmitters, to determine its location within less than about 10 centimeters. Finally, the use of a PPS, discussed below, periodically permits the vehicle to determine its exact location and thereby determine the GPS corrections, eliminate the carrier cycle ambiguity and correct the errors in the INS or IMU system. If this is still not sufficient, then the phase of the carrier frequency provides the required location information to less than a few centimeters. Dead reckoning, using vehicle speed, steering angle and tire rotation information and inertial guidance, can be used to fill in the gaps. Where satellites are out of view, pseudolites, or other systems, can be placed along the highway. A pulsed scanning infrared laser or terahertz radar system, or an equivalent system, can be used for obstacle detection. Communication to other vehicles is by short distance radio or by spread spectrum time domain pulse radar or terahertz. 3. Maps and Mapping 3.1 Maps All information regarding the road, both temporary and permanent, should be part of the map database, including speed limits, presence of guard rails, width of each lane, width of the highway, width of the shoulder, character of the land beyond the roadway, existence of poles or trees and other roadside objects, exactly where the precise position location apparatus is located, etc. The speed limit associated with particular locations on the maps should be coded in such a way that the speed limit can depend upon the time of day and the weather conditions. In other words, the speed limit is a variable that will change from time to time depending on conditions. It is contemplated that there will be a display for various map information which will always be in view for the passenger and for the driver at least when the vehicle is operating under automatic control. Additional user information can thus also be displayed such as traffic conditions, weather conditions, advertisements, locations of restaurants and gas stations, etc. A map showing the location of road and lane boundaries can be easily generated using a specially equipped survey vehicle that has the most accurate position measurement system available. In some cases, it might be necessary to set up one or more temporary local DGPS base stations in order to permit the survey vehicle to know its position within a few centimeters. The vehicle would drive down the roadway while operators, using specially designed equipment, sight the road edges and lanes. This would probably best be done with laser pointers and cameras. Transducers associated with the pointing apparatus record the angle of the apparatus and then by triangulation determine the distance of the road edge or lane marking from the survey vehicle. Since the vehicle's position would be accurately known, the boundaries and lane markings can be accurately determined. It is anticipated that the mapping activity would take place continuously such that all roads in a particular state would be periodically remapped in order to record any changes which were missed by other monitoring systems and to improve the reliability of the maps by minimizing the chance for human error. Any roadway changes that were discovered would trigger an investigation as to why they were not recorded earlier thus adding feedback to the mapping part of the process. The above-described method depends on human skill and attention and thus is likely to result in many errors. A preferred approach is to carefully photograph the edge of the road and use the laser pointers to determine the location of the road lines relative to the pointers and to determine the slope of the roadway through triangulation. In this case, several laser pointers would be used emanating from above, below and to the sides of the camera. The reduction of the data is then done later using equipment that can automatically pick out the lane markings and the reflected spots from the laser pointers. One aid to the mapping process is to place chemicals in the line paint that could be identified by the computer software when the camera output is digitized. This may require the illumination of the area being photographed by an infrared or ultraviolet light, for example. In some cases where the roadway is straight, the survey vehicle could travel at moderate speed while obtaining the boundary and lane location information. In other cases, where the road in turning rapidly, more readings would be required per mile and the survey vehicle would need to travel more slowly. In any case, the required road information can be acquired semi-automatically with the survey vehicle traveling at a moderate speed. Thus, the mapping of a particular road would not require significant time or resources. It is contemplated that a few such survey vehicles could map all of the interstate highways in the U.S. in less than one year. The mapping effort could be supplemented and cross-checked though the use of accurate detailed digital photogrammetic systems which, for example, can determine the road altitude with an accuracy to <50 cm. Efforts are underway to map the earth with I-meter accuracy. The generated maps could be used to check the accuracy and for missing infrastructure or other roadside installations of the road-determined maps. Another improvement that can be added to the system based on the maps is to use a heads-up display for in-vehicle signage. As the vehicle travels down the road, the contents of roadside signs can be displayed on a heads up display, providing such a display is available in the vehicle, or on a specially installed LCD display. This is based on the inclusion in the map database of the contents of all highway signs. A further improvement would be to include signs having varying messages which would require that the message be transmitted by the sign to the vehicle and received and processed for in-vehicle display. This could be done either directly, by satellite, the Internet, cell phone etc. As the roadway is being mapped, the availability of GPS satellite view and the presence of multipath reflections from fixed structures can also be determined. This information can then be used to determine the advisability of locating a local precise location system (PPS), or other infrastructure, at a particular spot on the roadway. Cars can also be used as probes for this process and for continuous improvement to check the validity of the maps and report any errors. Multipath is the situation where more than one signal from a satellite comes to a receiver with one of the signals resulting from a reflection off of a building or the ground, for example. Since multipath is a function of geometry, the system can be designed to eliminate its effects based on highway surveying and appropriate antenna design. Multipath from other vehicles can also be eliminated since the location of the other vehicles will be known. 3.2 Mapping An important part of some embodiments of the invention is the digital map that contains relevant information relating to the road on which the vehicle is traveling. The digital map usually includes the location of the edge of the road, the edge of the shoulder, the elevation and surface shape of the road, the character of the land beyond the road, trees, poles, guard rails, signs, lane markers, speed limits, etc. as discussed in more detail elsewhere herein. Additionally, it can contain the signature as discussed above. This data or information is acquired in a unique manner for use in the invention and the method for acquiring the information and its conversion to a map database that can be accessed by the vehicle system is part of this invention. The acquisition of the data for the maps will now be discussed. It must be appreciated though that the method for acquiring the data and forming the digital map can also be used in other inventions. Local area differential GPS can be utilized to obtain maps with an accuracy of about 2 cm (one sigma). Temporary local differential stations are available from such companies as Trimble Navigation. These local differential GPS stations can be placed at an appropriate spacing for the road to be mapped, typically every 30 kilometers. Once a local differential GPS station is placed, it requires some time period such as an hour or more for the station to determine its precise location. Therefore, sufficient stations are required to cover the area that is to be mapped within, for example, four hours. This may require as many as 10 or more such differential stations for efficient mapping. With reference to FIGS. 16A, 16B, 17 and 17A, a mapping vehicle 200 is used and obtains its location from GPS satellites and its corrections from the local differential stations. Such a system is capable of providing the 2 cm accuracy desired for the map database. Typically, at least two GPS receivers 226 are mounted on the mapping vehicle 200. Each GPS receiver 226 is contained within or arranged in connection with a respective data acquisition module 202, which data acquisition modules 202 also contain a GPS antenna 204, an accurate inertial measurement unit (IMU) 206, a forward-looking video camera 208, a downward and outward looking linear array camera 210 and a scanning laser radar 212. The relative position of these components in FIG. 17 is not intended to limit the invention A processor including a printed circuit board 224 is coupled to the GPS receivers 226, the IMUs 206, the video cameras 208, the linear cameras 210 and the scanning laser radars 212 (see FIG. 17A). The processor 224 receives information regarding the position of the vehicle from the GPS receivers 226, and optionally the IMUs 206, and the information about the road from both linear cameras 210 or from both laser radars 212, or from all of the linear cameras 210 and laser radars 212, and forms the road map database. Information about the road can also come from one or both of the video cameras 208 and be incorporated into the map database. The map database can be of any desired structure or architecture. Preferred examples of the database structure are of the type discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 06,144,338 (Davies) and U.S. Pat. No. 06,247,019 (Davies), incorporated by reference herein. The data acquisition modules 202 are essentially identical and each mounts to the vehicle roof on an extension assembly 214 which extends forward of the front bumper. Extension assembly 214 includes a mounting bracket 216 from the roof of the vehicle 200 forward to each data acquisition module 210, a mounting bracket 218 extending from the front bumper upward to each data acquisition module 202 and a cross mounting bracket 220 extending between the data acquisition modules 202 for support. Since all of the data acquisition equipment is co-located, its precise location is accurately determined by the IMU, the mounting location on the vehicle and the differential GPS system. The forward-looking video cameras 208 provide views of the road as shown in FIG. 18. These cameras 208 permit the database team to observe the general environment of the road and to highlight any anomalies. They also permit the reading of traffic signs and other informational displays all of which can be incorporated into the database. The cameras 208 can be ordinary color video cameras, high-speed video cameras, wide angle or telescopic cameras, black and white video cameras, infrared cameras, etc. or combinations thereof. In some cases, special filters are used to accentuate certain features. For example, it has been found that lane markers frequently are more readily observable at particular frequencies, such as infrared. In such cases, filters can be used in front of the camera lens or elsewhere in the optical path to block unwanted frequencies and pass desirable frequencies. Polarizing lenses have also been found to be useful in many cases. Normally, natural illumination is used in the mapping process, but for some particular cases, particularly in tunnels, artificial illumination can also be used in the form of a floodlight or spotlight that can be at any appropriate frequency of the ultraviolet, visual and infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum or across many frequencies. Laser scanners can also be used for some particular cases when it is desirable to illuminate some part of the scene with a bright spot. In some cases, a scanning laser rangemeter can be used in conjunction with the forward-looking cameras 204 to determine the distance to particular objects in the camera view. The video camera system can be used by itself with appropriate software as is currently being done by Lamda Tech International Inc. of Waukesha, Wis., to obtain the location of salient features of a road. However, such a method to obtain accurate maps is highly labor intensive and therefore expensive. The cameras and associated equipment in the present invention are therefore primarily used to supplement the linear camera and laser radar data acquisition systems to be described now. The mapping vehicle data acquisition modules will typically contain both a linear camera and a scanning laser radar, however, for some applications one or the other may be omitted. The linear camera 210 is a device that typically contains a linear CCD, CMOS or other light sensitive array of, for example, four thousand pixels. An appropriate lens provides a field of view to this camera that typically extends from approximately the center of the vehicle out to the horizon. This camera records a one-dimensional picture covering the entire road starting with approximately the center of the lane and extending out to the horizon. This linear array camera 210 therefore covers slightly more than 90 degrees. Typically, this camera operates using natural illumination and produces effectively a continuous picture of the road since it obtains a linear picture, or column of pixels, for typically every one-inch of motion of the vehicle. Thus, a complete two-dimensional panoramic view of the road traveled by the mapping vehicle is obtained. Since there are two such linear cameras units, a 180 degree view is obtained. This camera will typically record in full color thus permitting the map database team to have a complete view of the road looking perpendicular from the vehicle. The view is recorded in a substantially vertical plane. This camera will not be able to read text on traffic signs, thus the need for the forward-looking cameras 208. Automated software can be used with the images obtained from these cameras 208, 210 to locate the edge of the road, lane markers, the character of land around and including the road and all areas that an errant vehicle may encounter. The full color view allows the characterization of the land to be accomplished automatically with minimal human involvement. The scanning laser radar 212 is typically designed to cover a 90 degree or less scan thus permitting a rotating mirror to acquire at least four such scans per revolution. The scanning laser radar 212 can be coordinated or synchronized with the linear camera 210 so that each covers the same field of view with the exception that the camera 210 typically will cover more than 90 degrees. Scanning laser radar 212 can be designed to cover more or less than 90 degrees as desired for a particular installation. The scanning laser radar 212 can operate in any appropriate frequency from above ultraviolet to the terahertz. Typically, it will operate in the eye-safe portion of the infrared spectrum for safety reasons. The scanning laser radar 212 can operate either as a pulse-modulated or a tone-modulated laser as is known in the art. If operating in the tone-modulated regime, the laser light will be typically modulated with three or more frequencies in order to eliminate distance ambiguities. Noise or code modulated radar can also be used. For each scan, the laser radar 212 provides the distance from the scanner to the ground for up to several thousand points in a vertical plane extending from approximately the center of the lane out to near the horizon. This device therefore provides precise distances and elevations to all parts of the road and its environment. The precise location of signs that were observed with the forward-looking cameras 204, for example, can now be easily and automatically retrieved. The scanning laser radar therefore provides the highest level of mapping automation. Scanning laser radars have been used extensively for mapping purposes from airplanes and in particular from helicopters where they have been used to map portions of railway lines in the U.S. Use of the scanning laser radar system for mapping roadways where the radar is mounted onto a vehicle that is driving the road is believed to be novel to the current assignee. Ideally, all of the above-described systems are present on the mapping vehicle. Although there is considerable redundancy between the linear camera and the scanning laser radar, the laser radar operates at one optical frequency and therefore does not permit the automatic characterization of the roadway and its environment. As with the forward-looking cameras, it is frequently desirable to use filters and polarizing lenses for both the scanning laser radar and the linear camera. In particular, reflections from the sun can degrade the laser radar system unless appropriate filters are used to block all frequencies except frequency chosen for the laser radar. Laser radars are frequently also referred to as ladars and lidars. All such devices that permit ranging to be accomplished from a scanning system, including radar, are considered equivalent for the purposes of this invention. 3.3 Map Enhancements Once the road edge and lane locations, and other roadway information, are transmitted to the operator, it requires very little additional bandwidth to include other information such as the location of all businesses that a traveler would be interested in such as gas stations, restaurants etc. which could be done on a subscription basis. This concept was partially disclosed in the '482 patent discussed above and partially implemented in existing map databases. Communication of information to the operator could be done either visually or orally as described in U.S. Pat. No. 05,177,685 or U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/645,709 filed Aug. 14, 2000. Finally, the addition of a route guidance system as described in other patents becomes even more feasible since the exact location of a destination can be determined. The system can be configured so that a vehicle operator could enter a phone number, for example, or an address and the vehicle would be automatically and safely driven to that location. Since the system knows the location of the edge of every roadway, very little, if any, operator intervention would be required. Even a cell phone number can be used if the cell phone has the SnapTrack GPS location system as soon to be provided by Qualcomm. Very large may databases can now reside on a vehicle as the price of memory continues to drop. Soon it may be possible to store the map database of an entire country on the vehicle and to update it as changes are made. The area that is within, for example, 1000 miles from the vehicle can certainly be stored and as the vehicle travels from place to place the remainder of the database can be updated as needed though a connection to the Internet, for example. 4. Precise Positioning Another important aid as part of some of the inventions disclosed herein is to provide markers along the side(s) of roadways which can be either visual, passive or active transponders, reflectors, or a variety of other technologies including objects that are indigenous to or near the roadway, which have the property that as a vehicle passes the marker it can determine the identity of the marker and from a database it can determine the exact location of the marker. The term “marker” is meant in the most general sense. The signature determined by a continuous scan of the environment, for example, would be a marker if it is relatively invariant over time such as, for example, buildings in a city. Basically, there is a lot of invariant information in the environment surrounding a vehicle as it travels down a road toward its destination. From time to time, a view of this invariant landscape or information may be obstructed but it is unlikely that all of it will be during the travel of a mile, for example. Thus, a vehicle should be able to match the signature sensed with the expected one in the map database and thereby obtain a precise location fix. This signature can be obtained through the use of radar or laser radar technologies as reported elsewhere herein. See in particular Section 5 below and for example, Wang Yanli, Chen Zhe, “Scene matching navigation based on multisensor image fusion” SPIE Vol. 5286 p. 788-793, 2003. For the case of specific markers placed on the infrastructure, if three or more of such markers are placed along a side of the roadway, a passing vehicle can determine its exact location by triangulation. Note that even with two such markers using radar with distance measuring capability, the precise position of a vehicle can be determined as discussed below in reference to the Precise Positioning System. In fact, if the vehicle is only able to observe a single radar reflector and take many readings as the reflector is passed, it can determine quite accurately its position based on the minimum distance reading that is obtained during the vehicle's motion past the reflector. Although it may be impractical to initially place such markers along all roadways, it would be reasonable to place them in particularly congested areas or places where it is known that a view of one or more of the GPS satellites is blocked. A variation of this concept will be discussed below. Although initially it is preferred to use the GPS navigational satellites as the base technology, the invention is not limited thereby and contemplates using all methods by which the location of the vehicle can be accurately determined relative to the earth surface. The location of the roadway boundaries and the location of other vehicles relative to the earth surface are also to be determined and all relevant information used in a control system to substantially reduce and eventually eliminate vehicle accidents. Only time and continued system development will determine the mix of technologies that provide the most cost effective solution. All forms of information and methods of communication to and between vehicles are contemplated including direct communication with stationary and moving satellites, communication with fixed earth-based stations using infrared, optical, terahertz, radar, radio and other segments of the electromagnetic spectrum and inter-vehicle communication. Some additional examples follow: A pseudo-GPS can be delivered from cell phone stations, in place of or in addition to satellites. In fact, the precise location of a cell phone tower need not initially be known. If it monitors the GPS satellites over a sufficiently long time period, the location can be determined as the calculated location statistically converges to the exact location. Thus, every cell phone tower could become an accurate DGPS base station for very little cost. DGPS corrections can be communicated to a vehicle via FM radio via a sub-carrier frequency for example. An infrared or radar transmitter along the highway can transmit road boundary location information. A CD-ROM or other portable mass storage can be used at the beginning of a controlled highway to provide road boundary information to the vehicle. Finally, it is contemplated that eventually a satellite will broadcast periodically, perhaps every five minutes, a table of dates covering the entire CONUS that provides the latest update date of each map segment. If a particular vehicle does not have the latest information for a particular region where it is operating, it will be able to use its cell phone or other communication system to retrieve such road maps perhaps through the Internet or from an adjacent vehicle. Emergency information would also be handled in a similar manner so that if a tree fell across the highway, for example, all nearby vehicles would be notified. One of the possible problems with the RtZF™ system described herein is operation in certain areas of large cities such as lower Manhattan, N.Y. In such locations, unless there are a plurality of local pseudolites or precise position location system installations or the environment signature system is invoked such as with adaptive associative memories as described above, the signals from the GPS satellites can be significantly blocked. Also there is frequently a severe multipath problem in cities. A solution is to use the LORAN system as a backup for such locations. The accuracy of LORAN can be comparable to DGPS. Use of multiple roadway-located Precise Positioning Systems would be a better solution or a complementary solution. Additionally, some location improvement can result from application of the SnapTrack system as described in U.S. Pat. No. 05,874,914 and other patents to Krasner of SnapTrack. The use of geo-synchronous satellites as a substitute for earth bound base stations in a DGPS system, with carrier phase enhancements for sub-meter accuracies, is also a likely improvement to the RtZF™ system that can have a significant effect in urban areas. Another enhancement that would be possible with dedicated satellites and/or earth bound pseudolites results from the greater control over the information transmitted than is available from the present GPS system. Recognizing that this system could save in excess of 40,000 lives per year in the U.S. alone, the cost of deploying such special purpose stations can easily be justified. For example, say there exists a modulated wave that is 10000 kilometers long, another one which is 1000 km long etc. down to 1 cm. It would then be easy to determine the absolute distance from one point to the other. The integer ambiguity of RTK DGPS would be eliminated. Other types of modulation are of course possible to achieve the desired result of simply eliminating the carrier integer uncertainty that is discussed in many U.S. patents and other literature. This is not meant to be a recommendation but to illustrate that once the decision has been made to provide information to every vehicle that will permit it to always know its location within 10 cm, many technologies will be there to make it happen. The cost savings resulting from eliminating fatalities and serious injuries will easily cover the cost of such technologies many times over. The provision of additional frequencies can also enhance the system and render differential corrections unnecessary. Each frequency from a satellite is diffracted differently by the ionosphere. The properties of the ionosphere can thus be determined if multiple frequencies are transmitted. This will partially be achieved with the launch of the European Galileo GPS satellite system in combination with the U.S. GPS system. It is expected, especially initially, that there will be many holes in the DGPS or GPS and their various implementations that will leave the vehicle without an accurate means of determining its location. The inertial navigation system described above will help in filling these holes but its accuracy is limited to a time period significantly less than an hour and a distance of less than 50 miles before it needs correcting. That may not be sufficient to cover the period between DGPS availability. It is therefore contemplated that the RtZF™ system will also make use of low cost systems located along the roadways that permit a vehicle to accurately determine its location. One example of such a system would be to use a group of three Micropower Impulse Radar (MIR) units such as developed by Lawrence Livermore Laboratory. A MIR operates on very low power and periodically transmits a very short spread spectrum radar pulse. The estimated cost of a MIR is less than $10 even in small quantities. If three such MIR transmitters, 151, 152 and 153, as shown in FIG. 11, are placed along the highway and triggered simultaneously or with a known delay, and if a vehicle has an appropriate receiver system, the time of arrival of the pulses can be determined and thus the location of the vehicle relative to the transmitters determined. The exact location of the point where all three pulses arrive simultaneously would be the point that is equidistant from the three transmitters 151, 152, 153 and would be located on the map information. Only three devices are required since only two dimensions need to be determined and it is assumed that the vehicle in on the road and thus the vertical position is known, otherwise four MIRs would be required. Thus it would not even be necessary to have the signals contain identification information since the vehicle would not be so far off in its position determination system to confuse different locations. By this method, the vehicle would know exactly where it was whenever it approached and passed such a triple-MIR installation. The MIR triad PPS or equivalent could also have a GPS receiver and thereby determine its exact location over time as described above for cell phone towers. After the location has been determined, the GPS receiver can be removed. In this case, the MIR triad PPS or equivalent could be placed at will and they could transmit their exact location to the passing vehicles. An alternate method would be to leave the GPS receiver with the PPS time of arrival of the GPS data from each satellite so that the passing vehicles that do not go sufficiently close to the PPS can still get an exact location fix. A similar system using RFID tags is discussed below. Several such readings and position determinations can be made with one approach to the MIR installation, the vehicle need not wait until they all arrive simultaneously. Also the system can be designed so that the signals never arrive at the same time and still provide the same accuracy as long as there is a sufficiently accurate clock on board the vehicle. One way at looking at FIG. 1I is that transmitters 151 and 152 fix the lateral position of the vehicle while transmitters 151 and 153 fix the location of the vehicle longitudinally. The three transmitters 151,152,153 need not be along the edges on one lane but could span multiple lanes and they need not be at ground level but could be placed sufficiently in the air so that passing trucks would not block the path of the radiation from an automobile. Particularly in congested areas, it might be desirable to code the pulses and to provide more than three transmitters to further protect against signal blockage or multipath. The power requirements for the MIR transmitters are sufficiently low that a simple photoelectric cell array can provide sufficient power for most if not all CONUS locations. With this exact location information, the vehicle can become its own DGPS station and can determine the corrections necessary for the GPS. It can also determine the integer ambiguity problem and thereby know the exact number of wave lengths between the vehicle and the satellites or between the vehicle and the MIR station. These calculations can be done on vehicle if there is a connection to a network, for example. This would be particularly efficient as the network, once it had made the calculations for one vehicle, would have a good idea of the result for another nearby vehicle and for other vehicles passing the same spot at a different time. MIR is one of several technologies that can be used to provide precise location determination. Others include the use of an RFID tag that is designed in cooperation with its interrogator to provide a distance to the tag measurement. Such as RFID can be either an active device with an internal battery or solar charger or a passive device obtaining its power from an RF interrogation signal to charge a capacitor or a SAW-based tag operating without power. An alternate and preferred system uses radar or other reflectors where the time of flight can be measured, as disclosed in more detail elsewhere herein. Once a vehicle passes a Precise Positioning Station (PPS) such as the MIR triad described above, the vehicle can communicate this information to surrounding vehicles. If the separation distance between two communicating vehicles can also be determined by the time-of-flight or equivalent method, then the vehicle that has just passed the triad can, in effect, become a satellite equivalent or moving pseudolite. That is, the vehicle sends (such as by reflection so as not to introduce a time delay) its GPS data from the satellite and the receiving vehicle then gets the same message from two sources and the time difference is the time of flight. Finally, if many vehicles are communicating their positions to many other vehicles along with an accuracy of position assessment, each vehicle can use this information along with the calculated separation distances to improve the accuracy of its position determination. In this manner, as the number of such vehicles increases, the accuracy of the entire system increases until an extremely accurate positioning system for all vehicles results. Such a system, since it combines many sources of position information, is tolerant of the failure of any one or even several such sources. Thus, the RtZF™ system becomes analogous to the Internet in that it can't be shut down and the goal of perfection is approached. Some of the problems associated with this concept will be discussed in more detail below. Precise Positioning was described in detail above and relates to methods of locating a vehicle independently of GPS within sub meter accuracy. This can be done using an MIR triads; barcodes painted on the roadway; radar, laser radar or terahertz radar and infrastructure mounted reflectors; RFID markets; or through the use of matching a signature obtained from the environment with a stored signature using, for example, Adaptive Associative Memories (AAS) based on Cellular Neural Networks (CNN). AAS is a type of neural network that is distinguished in that it can do precise identification from poor and sparse data in contrast to ordinary back propagation neural networks discussed elsewhere herein that generalize and always give an approximate answer. Applications for AAS include: (I) Occupant recognition (face, iris, voice print, fingerprints etc.), and (2) Vehicle location recognition for the RtZF™ Precise Positioning System, which is the focus here. In contrast to other PPS systems described above, AAS permits the precise location of a vehicle on a roadway within centimeters without the use of additions to the infrastructure. A radar, laser scanner, or terahertz radar continuously is projected from the vehicle toward the environment, such as the roadway to the side of the vehicle, and from the returned reflected waves it obtains a signature of the passing environment and compares it with a recorded signature using ASM. This signature, for example, can be the distance from the vehicle to the infrastructure which has been normalized for the purpose of signature matching with some method such as the average or some other datum. Thus it is the relative distance signature that can be compared with a stored signature thus removing the position of the vehicle on the roadway as a variable. When a match is found the distance to a precise object can be determined placing the vehicle precisely on the road in both the longitudinal and lateral dimensions. As discussed above, this can make the vehicle a DGPS station for correction of the GPS errors but it also can be used as the primary location system without GPS. Other methods can be used to precisely locate a vehicle using the infrastructure and only one preferred method has been described herein. For example, the vertical motion signature of the vehicle can in some cases be used. This could involve determining this signature from the natural road or a pattern of disturbances similar to a rubble strip can be placed in the roadway and sensed by an accelerometer, microphone or other sensor. Even the signature of the magnetic or reflective properties of the roadway or the environment at the side of road can be candidates with the appropriate sensors. Basically, any system that provides a signature indication location that is derived from the infrastructure with appropriate sensors would qualify. Another method, for example, is to match camera images where again an AAM can be used. Since the vehicle knows approximately where it is, the recorded signature used in the AAM will change as the vehicle moves and thus only a small amount of data need be used at a particular time. The AAM system is fast and relatively simple. Typically twenty data points will be used to determine the match, for example. What follows is a general description of AAM Associative (context-addressable) memory is frequently dedicated to data search and/or restoration from available fragments. Associative retrieval requires minimal information on sought objects, so such a machine might be used for most complicated tasks of data identification for partially destroyed or corrupted images. It can be applied to authenticity attribution, document falsification detection, message fragment identification in the Internet etc. as well as signature matching with the environment for PPS. Neural associative memory works due to multi-stability of strong feedback systems. Common models like Hopfield networks and bi-directional associative memory provide memorization by means of computation network weights. It does not corrupt previously stored images. Unfortunately, these networks cannot be widely used because of their low capacity and inefficient physical memory usage. A number M of vectors memorized does not exceed 14% of the number of neurons in the network N. Since a network contains N2 connections, it needs storage of at least 25M2 real weight values. Cellular architecture can exhaustively solve the problem of physical memory usage. Cellular memories have band-like synaptic matrix. The volume (number of elements) grows linearly with respect to neuron number. This is why cellular neural networks (CNNs) can be useful for very large data processing problems. Pioneering models of associative memories via CNNs were proposed in some earlier works. However, more detailed studies showed some fundamental limitations. Indeed, it has now been shown that the number of images stored is restricted by a cell size. Hence, it does not depend on the number of neurons. A more efficient way of redundancy reduction has also been found due to connection selection after training. This results in the use of only a small part of physical memory without corruption of memorized data. The network after weight selection looks like the cellular one; so by combining cellular training algorithms and weight selection, a novel network paradigm has resulted. It is an adaptive neural paradigm with great memorizing capacity. At present, some breakthrough associative memories have been implemented in a software package available from the current assignee. The results can be applied for processing of large databases, real-time information retrieval, PPS etc. Other applications for this technology include face, iris, fingerprint, voiceprint, character, signature, etc. recognition. FIG. 11 shows the implementation of the invention using the Precise Positioning System (PPS) 151, 152, 153, in which a pair of vehicles 18, 26 are traveling on a roadway each in a defined corridor delineated by lines 14 and each is equipped with a system in accordance with the invention and in particular, each is equipped with PPS receivers. Four versions of the PPS system will now be described. This invention is not limited to these examples but they will serve to illustrate the principals involved. Vehicle 18 contains two receivers 160,161 for the micropower impulse radar (MIR) implementation of the invention. MIR transmitter devices are placed at locations 151,152 and 153 respectively. They are linked together with a control wire, not shown, or by a wireless connection such that each device transmits a short radar pulse at a precise timing relative to the others. These pulses can be sent simultaneously or at a precise known delay. Vehicle 18 knows from its map database the existence and location of the three MIR transmitters. The transmitters 151,152 and 153 can either transmit a coded pulse or non-coded pulse. In the case of the coded pulse, the vehicle PPS system will be able to verify that the three transmitters 151, 512, 153 are in fact the ones that appear on the map database. Since the vehicle will know reasonably accurately its location and it is unlikely that other PPS transmitters will be nearby or within range, the coded pulse may not be necessary. Two receivers 160 and 161 are illustrated on vehicle 18. For the MIR implementation, only a single receiver is necessary since the position of the vehicle will be uniquely determined by the time of arrival of the three MIR pulses. A second receiver can be used for redundancy and also to permit the vehicle to determine the angular position of the MIR transmitters as a further check on the system accuracy. This can be done since the relative time of arrival of a pulse from one of the transmitters 151, 152, 153 can be used to determine the distance to each transmitter and by geometry, its angular position relative to the vehicle 18. If the pulses are coded, then the direction to the MIR transmitters 151,152,153 will also be determinable. The micropower impulse radar units require battery power or another power mechanism to operate. Since they may be joined together with a wire in order to positively control the timing of the three pulses, a single battery can be used to power all three units. This battery can also be coupled with a solar panel to permit maintenance free operation of the system. Since the MIR transmitters use very small amounts of power, they can operate for many years on a single battery. Although the MIR systems are relatively inexpensive, on the order of ten dollars each, the installation cost of the system will be significantly higher than the RFID and radar reflector solutions discussed next. The MIR system is also significantly more complex than the RFID system; however, its accuracy can be checked by each vehicle that uses the system. Tying the MIR system to a GPS receiver and using the accurate clock on the GPS satellites as the trigger for the sending of the radar pulses can add additional advantages and complexity. This will permit vehicles passing by to additionally accurately set their clocks to be in synchronization with the GPS clocks. Since the MIR system will know its precise location, all errors in the GPS signals can be automatically corrected and in that case, the MIR system becomes a differential GPS base station. For most implementations, this added complexity is not necessary since the vehicle themselves will be receiving GPS signals and they will also know precisely their location from the triad of MIR transmitters 151, 152, 153. A considerably simpler alternate approach to the MIR system described above utilizes reflective RFID tags. These tags, when interrogated by an interrogator type of receiver 160, 161, reflect a modified RF signal with the modification being the identification of the tag. Such tags are described in many patents on RFID technology and can be produced for substantially less than one dollar each. The implementation of the RFID system would involve the accurate placement of these tags on known objects on or in connection with infrastructure. These objects could be spots on the highway, posts, signs, sides of buildings, poles, or structures that are dedicated specifically for this purpose. In fact, any structure that is rigid and unlikely to change position can be used for mounting RFID tags. In downtown Manhattan, building sides, street lights, stoplights, or other existing structures are ideal locations for such tags. A vehicle 18 approaching a triad of such RFID tags represented by 151, 152, 153 would transmit an interrogation pulse from interrogator 160 and/or 161. The pulse would reflect off of each tag within range and the reflected signal would be received by the same interrogator(s) 160, 161 or other devices on the vehicle. Once again, a single interrogator is sufficient. It is important to note that the range to RFID tags is severely limited unless a source of power is provided. It is very difficult to provide enough power from RF radiation from the interrogator for distances much greater than a few feet. For longer distances, a power source must be provided which can be a battery, connection to a power line, solar power, energy harvested from the environment via vibration, for example, unless the RFID is based on SAW technology. For SAW technology reading ranges may extend to tens of meters. Greater distances can be achieved using reflectors or reflecting antennas. Electronic circuitry, not shown, associated with the interrogator 160 and/or 161 would determine the precise distance from the vehicle to the RFID tag 151, 152, 153 based on the round trip time of flight. This will provide the precise distance to the three RFID tags 151, 152, 153. Once again, a second interrogator 161 can also be used, in which case, it could be a receiver only and would provide redundancy information to the main interrogator 160 and also provide a second measure of the distance to each of the RFID tags. Based on the displacement of the two receivers 160, 161, the angular location of each RFID tag relative into the vehicle can be determined providing further redundant information as to the position of the vehicle relative to the tags. Radar corner reflectors can be placed on poles or other convenient places such that a radar beam pointed upwards at an angle, such as 30 to 45 degrees from the vehicle, will cause the beam to illuminate the reflector and thereby cause a reflection to return to the vehicle. Through well-known methods, the distance to the reflector can be accurately measured with pulse radar, modulated radar and phase measurements or noise radar and correlations measurements. In such a manner, the host vehicle can determine its position relative to one or more such reflectors and if the location of the reflector(s) is known and recorded on the map database, the vehicle can determine its position to within about 2 centimeters. The more reflectors that are illuminated, the better the accuracy of vehicle location determination. The reflectors can be simple corner reflectors or a group of reflectors can be provided giving a return code to the host vehicle. Using the PPS system, a vehicle can precisely determine its location within two centimeters or better relative to the MIR, RFID tags or radar and reflectors and since the precise location of these devices has previously been recorded on the map database, the vehicle will be able to determine its precise location on the surface of the earth. With this information, the vehicle will thereafter be able to use the carrier wave phase to maintain its precise knowledge of its location, as discussed above, until the locks on the satellites are lost. Similarly, the vehicle 18 can broadcast this information to vehicle 26, for example, permitting a vehicle that has not passed through the PPS triad to also greatly improve the accuracy with which it knows its position. Each vehicle that has recently passed through a PPS triad now becomes a differential GPS station for as long as the satellite locks are maintained. Therefore, through inter-vehicle communications, all vehicles in the vicinity can also significantly improve their knowledge of their position accuracy resulting in a system which is extremely redundant and therefore highly reliable and consistent with the “Road to Zero Fatalities”™ process. Once this system is operational, it is expected that the U.S. government and other governments will launch additional GPS type satellites, each with more civilian readable frequencies, or other similar satellite systems, further strengthening the system and adding further redundancy eventually resulting in a highly interconnected system that approaches 100% reliability and, like the Internet, cannot be shut down. As the system evolves, the problems associated with urban canyons, tunnels, and other obstructions to satellite view will be solved by the placement of large numbers of PPS stations, or other devices providing similar location information. The final PPS system uses reflected energy from the environment to create a signature that can be matched with a recorded signature using a technology such as adaptive associative memories (AAM), or equivalent including correlation. Since the AAM was discussed above, the correlation system will be discussed here. As the mapping vehicle traverses the roadway, it can record the distance to various roadside objects as a continuous signal having peaks and valleys. In fact, several such signatures can economically be recorded such that regardless of where on the roadway a subsequent vehicle appears, it will record a similar signature. The signature can be enhanced if dual frequency terahertz is used since the reflectance from an object can vary significantly from one terahertz frequency to another depending on the composition of the object. Thus for one frequency, a metal and a wood object may both be highly reflective while at another frequency, there can be a significant difference. Significantly more information is available when more than one frequency is used. Using the correlation system, a vehicle will continuously be comparing its received signature at a particular location to the previously recorded signature and shifting the two relative to each other until the best match occurs. Since this will be done continuously and since we will know the velocity of the vehicle, it should never deviate significantly from the recorded position and thus the vehicle will always have a non-GPS method of determining its exact location. There are certain areas where the signature matching may be problematic such as going by a wheat field or the ocean. Fortunately, such wide open spaces are precisely where the GPS satellite system should work best and similarly the places where the signature method works best is where the GPS has problems. Thus, the systems are complementary. In most places, both systems will work well providing a high degree of redundancy. Many mathematical methods exist for determining the best shift of the two signatures (the previously recorded one and a new one) and therefore the various correlation methods will not be presented here. Although the system has been illustrated for use with automobiles, the same system would apply for all vehicles including trucks, trains an even airplanes taxing on runways. It also would be useful for use with cellular phones and other devices carried by humans. The combination of the PPS system and cellular phones permits the precise location of a cellular phone to be determined within centimeters by an emergency operator receiving a 911 call, for example. Such RFID tags can be inexpensively placed both inside and outside of buildings, for example. The range of RFID tags is somewhat limited to approximately 10 meters for current technology. If there are obstructions preventing a clear view of the RFID tag by the interrogator, the distance becomes less. For some applications where it is desirable to use larger distances, battery power can be provided to the RFID tags. In this case, the interrogator would send a pulse to the tag that would turn on the tag and at a precise, subsequent time the tag would transmit an identification message. In some cases, the interrogator itself can provide the power to drive the RFID circuitry, in which case the tag would again operate in the transponder mode as opposed to the reflective mode. The RFID tags discussed herein can be either the electronic circuit or SAW designs. From the above discussion, those skilled in the art will understand that other devices can be interrogated by a vehicle traveling down the road. Such devices might include various radar types or designs of reflectors, mirrors, other forms of transponders, or other forms of energy reflectors. All such devices are contemplated by this invention and the invention is not limited to be specific examples described. In particular although various frequencies including radar, terahertz and infrared have been discussed, this invention is not limited to those portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In particular, the X-ray band of frequencies may have some particular advantages for some external and interior imaging applications. Any communication device can be coupled with an interrogator that utilizes the MIR, radar or RFID PPS system described above. Many devices are now being developed that make use of the Bluetooth communication specification. All such Bluetooth enabled devices can additionally be outfitted with a PPS system permitting the location of the Bluetooth device to be positively determined. This enabling technology will permit a base station to communicate with a Bluetooth-enabled device whose location is unknown and have the device transmit back its precise location on the surface of the earth. As long as the Bluetooth-enabled device is within the range of the base station, its location can be precisely determined. Thus, the location of mobile equipment in a factory, packages within the airplane cargo section, laptop computers, cell phones, PDAs, and eventually even personal glasses or car keys or any device upon which a Bluetooth-enabled device can be attached can be determined. Actually, this invention is not limited to Bluetooth devices but encompasses any device that can communicate with any other devices. Once the location of an object can be determined, many other services can be provided. These include finding the device, or the ability to provide information to that device or to the person accompanying that device such as the location of the nearest bathroom, restaurant, or the ability to provide guided tours or other directions to people traveling to other cities, for example. A particularly important enhancement to the above-described system uses precise positioning technology independent of GPS. The precise positioning system, also known as the calibration system, generally permits a vehicle to precisely locate itself independently of the IMU or DGPS systems. One example of this technology involves the use of a radar and reflector system wherein radar transceivers are placed on the vehicle that send radar waves to reflectors that are mounted at the side of road. The location of reflectors either is already precisely known or is determined by the mapping system during data acquisition process. The radar transceivers transmit a pulse, code or frequency or noise modulated radar signal to the road-mounted reflectors, typically corner reflectors, which reflect a signal back to the radar transceiver. This permits the radar system to determine the precise distance from the transceiver to the reflector by either time-of-flight or phase methods. Note that although radar will be used below in the illustrations, terahertz can also be used and thus the word “radar” will be used to cover both parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. In one possible implementation, each vehicle is equipped with two radar devices operating in the 24-77 GHz portion of the spectrum. Each radar unit will be positioned on the vehicle and aimed outward, slightly forward and up toward the sides of the roadway. Poles would be positioned along the roadway at appropriate intervals and would have multiple corner cube radar reflectors mounted thereon to thereto, possibly in a vertical alignment. The lowest reflector on the pole would be positioned so that the vehicle radar will illuminate the reflector when the vehicle is in the lane closest to the pole. The highest reflector on the pole would be positioned so that the vehicle radar will illuminate the reflector when the vehicle is in the lane most remote from the pole. The frequency of the positioning of the poles will be determined by such considerations as the availability of light poles or other structures currently in place, the probability of losing access to GPS satellites, the density of vehicle traffic, the accuracy of the IMU and other similar considerations. Initially, rough calculations have found that a spacing of about ¼ mile would likely be acceptable. If the precise location of the reflectors has been previously determined and is provided on a road map database, then the vehicle can use this information to determine its precise location on the road. In a more typical case, the radar reflectors are installed and the mapping vehicle knows its location precisely from the differential GPS signals and the IMU, which for the mapping vehicle is typically of considerably higher accuracy than will be present in the vehicles that will later use the system. As a result, the mapping vehicle can also map a tunnel, for example, and establish the locations of radar reflectors that will later be used by non-mapping vehicles to determine their precise location when the GPS and differential GPS signals are not available. Similarly, such radar reflectors can be located for an appropriate distance outside of the tunnel to permit an accurate location determination to be made by a vehicle until it acquires the GPS and differential GPS signals. Such a system can also be used in urban canyons and at all locations where the GPS signals can be blocked or are otherwise not available. Since the cost of radar reflectors is very low, it is expected that eventually they will be widely distributed on roads in the U.S. The use of radar and reflectors for precise positioning is only one of many systems being considered for this purpose. Others include markings on roadway, RFID tags, laser systems, laser radar and reflectors, magnetic tags embedded in the roadway, magnetic tape, etc. The radar and reflector technology has advantages over some systems in that it is not seriously degraded by bad weather conditions, is not affected if covered with snow, does not pose a serious maintenance problem, and other cost and durability features. Any movement in the positioning of the reflectors can be diagnosed from vehicle PPS-mounted systems. The radar transceivers used are typically mounted on either side of vehicle and pointed upward at between 30 and 60 degrees. They are typically aimed so that they project across the top of the vehicle so that several feet of vertical height can be achieved prior to passing over adjacent lanes where the signal could be blocked by a truck, for example. Other mounting and aiming systems can be used. The radar reflectors are typically mounted onto a pole, building, overpass, or other convenient structure. They can provide a return code by the placement of several such reflectors such that the reflected pulse contains information that identifies this reflector as a particular reflector on the map database. This can be accomplished in numerous ways including the use of a collection of radar reflectors in a spaced-apart geometric configuration on a radius from the vehicle. The presence or absence of a reflector can provide a returned binary code, for example. The operation of the system is as follows. A vehicle traveling down a roadway in the vicinity of the reflector poles would transmit radar pulses at a frequency of perhaps once per microsecond. These radar pulses would be encoded, perhaps with noise or code modulation, so that each vehicle knows exactly what radar returns are from its transmissions. As the vehicle approaches a reflector pole, it will begin to receive reflections based on the speed of the vehicle. By observing a series of reflections, the vehicle software can select either the maximum amplitude reflection or the average or some other scheme to determine the proper reflection to consider. The radar pulse will also be modulated to permit a distance to the reflector calculation to be made based on the phase of the returned signal or through correlation. Thus, as a vehicle travels down the road and passes a pair of reflector poles, it will be able to determine its longitudinal position on the roadway based on the pointing angle of the radar devices and the selected maximum return as described above. It will also be able to determine its lateral position on the roadway based on the measured distance from the radar to the reflector. Each reflector pole will have multiple reflectors determined by intersections of the radar beam from the vehicle traveling in the closest and furthest lanes. The spacing of reflectors on the pole would be determined by the pixel diameter of the radar beam. For example, a typical situation may require radar reflectors beginning at 4 m from the ground and ending at 12 m with a reflector every one-meter. For the initial demonstrations, it is expected that existing structures will be used. The corner cube radar reflectors are very inexpensive so therefore the infrastructure investment will be small as long as existing structures can be used. In the downtown areas of cities, buildings etc. can also be used as reflector locations. To summarize this aspect of the invention, an inexpensive infrastructure installation concept is provided which will permit a vehicle to send a radar pulse and receive a reflection wherein the reflection is identifiable as the reflection from the vehicle's own radar and contains information to permit an accurate distance measurement. The vehicle can thus locate itself accurately longitudinally and laterally along the road. A variation of the PPS system using a signature from a continuously reflected laser or radar has been discussed above and will not be repeated here. FIG. 19 shows a variety of roads and vehicles operating on those roads that are in communication with a vehicle that is passing through a Precise Positioning Station. The communication system used is based on noise modulated spread spectrum technologies such as described in the above-listed papers by Lukin et al. FIG. 20 shows a schematic of the operation of a communication and/or information system and method in accordance with the invention. Transmitters are provided, for example at fixed locations and/or in vehicles or other moving objects, and data about each transmitter, such as its location and an identification marker, is generated at 240. The location of the transmitter is preferably its GPS coordinates as determined, for example, by a GPS-based position determining system (although other position determining systems can alternatively or additionally be used). The data may include, when the transmitter is a moving vehicle, the velocity, the direction of travel, the estimated travel path and the destination of the vehicle. The data is encoded at 242 using coding techniques such as those described above, e.g., phase modulation of distance or time between code transmissions, phase or amplitude modulation of the code sequences themselves, changes of the polarity of the entire code sequence or the individual code segments, or bandwidth modulation of the code sequence. The coded data is transmitted at 244 using, e.g., noise or pseudo-noise radar. Instead of data about each transmitter being generated at 240, general data for transmission could also be generated such as road condition information or traffic information. A vehicle 246 includes an antenna 248 coupled to a control module, control unit, processor or computer 250. The antenna 248 receives transmissions (waves) including transmissions 252 when in range of the transmitters. The processor 250 analyzes the transmissions 252. Such analysis may include a determination whether any transmissions are from transmitters within a pre-determined area relative to the vehicle, transmitters situated within a pre-determined distance from the vehicle, from transmitters traveling in a direction toward the vehicle's current position, transmitters traveling in a direction toward the vehicle's projected position based on its current position and velocity, the angle between the transmitter and the vehicle, and any combinations of such determinations. Other analyses could be whether any are from particular transmitters which might be dedicated to the transmission of road conditions data, traffic data, map data and the like. Once the processor 250 ascertains a particular transmission of interest (for operation of the vehicle, or for any other pre-determined purpose), it extracts the information coded in the transmission, but does not extract information coded in transmission from transmitters which are not of interest, e.g., those from a location outside of the pre-determined area. It knows the code because the code is provided by the transmission, i.e., the initial part of the transmission 252a contains data on the location of the transmitter and the code is based on the location of the transmitter. As such, once the initial part of the transmission is received and the location of the transmitter extracted, the code for the remainder of the transmission 252b can be obtained. In this manner, the extraction of information from radio frequency wave transmission is limited based on a threshold determination (a filter of sorts) as to whether the transmission is of potential interest, e.g., to the operation of the vehicle based on its position. To enable this threshold determination from the analysis of the waves or filtering of information, the initial part of the transmission 252a can be provided with positional information about the transmitter and information necessitated by the information transferring arrangement (communication protocol data) and the remainder of the transmission 252b provided with additional information of potential interest for operation of the vehicle. The information contained in initial part of each transmission (or set of waves) is extracted to determine whether the information in the final part of the transmission is of interest. If not, the information in the final part of the transmission is not extracted. This reduces processing time and avoids the unnecessary extraction of mostly if not totally irrelevant information. An information filter is therefore provided. Further, the antenna 248 serves as a transmitter for transmitting signals generated by the processor 250. The processor 248 is constructed or programmed to generate transmissions or noise signals based on its location, determined by a position determining device 254 in any known manner including those disclosed herein, and encode information about the vehicle in the signals. The information may be an identification marker, the type of vehicle, its direction, its velocity, its proposed course, its occupancy, etc. The processor 248 can encode the information in the signals in a variety of methods as disclosed above in the same manner that the data about the transmitter is encoded. Thus, the processor 248 not only interprets the signals and extracts information, it also is designed to generate appropriate noise or otherwise coded signals which are then sent from the antenna 248. Consider the case where the automobile becomes a pseudolite or a DGPS equivalent station since it has just determined its precise location from the PPS. Thus the vehicle can broadcast just like a pseudolite. As the vehicle leaves the PPS station, its knowledge of its absolute position will degrade with time depending on the accuracy of its clock and inertial guidance system and perhaps its view of the satellites or other pseudolites. In some cases, it might even be possible to eliminate the need for satellites if sufficient PPS positions exist. Another point is that the more vehicles that are in the vicinity of a PPS, the higher the likelihood that one of the vehicles will know precisely where it is by being at or close to the PPS and thus the more accurately every vehicle in the vicinity would know its own location. Thus, the more vehicles on the road, the accuracy with which every vehicle knows its location increases. When only a single vehicle is on the road, then it really doesn't need to know its position nearly as accurately at least with regard to other vehicles. It may still need to know its accuracy to a comparable extent with regard to the road edges. 5. Radar and Laser Radar Detection and Identification of Objects External to the Vehicle 5.1 Sensing of Non-RtZF™ Equipped Objects Vehicles with the RtZF™ system in accordance with the invention must also be able to detect those vehicles that do not have the system as well as pedestrians, animals, bicyclists, and other hazards that may cross the path of the equipped vehicle. Systems based on radar have suffered from the problem of being able to sufficiently resolve the images which are returned to be able to identify the other vehicles, bridges, etc. except when they are close to the host vehicle. One method used for adaptive cruise control systems is to ignore everything that is not moving. This, of course, leads to accidents if this were used with the instant invention. The problem stems from the resolution achievable with radar unless the antenna is made very large or the object is close. Since this is impractical for use with automobiles, only minimal collision avoidance can be obtained using radar. Optical systems can provide the proper resolution but may require illumination with a bright light or laser. If the laser is in the optical range, there is a danger of causing eye damage to pedestrians or vehicle operators. At a minimum, it will be distracting and annoying to other vehicle operators. A laser operating in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum avoids the eye danger problem, provided the frequency is sufficiently far from the visible, and, since it will not be seen, it will not be annoying. If the IR light is sufficiently intense to provide effective illumination for the host vehicle, it might be a source of blinding light for the system of another vehicle. Therefore a method of synchronization may be required. This could take the form of an Ethernet protocol, for example, where when one vehicle detects a transmission from another then it backs off and transmits at a random time later. The receiving electronics would then only be active when the return signal is expected. Another problem arises when multiple vehicles are present that transmit infrared at the same time if there is a desire to obtain distance information from the scene. In this case, each vehicle needs to be able to recognize its transmission and not be fooled by transmissions from another vehicle. This can be accomplished, as discussed above, through the modulation scheme. Several such schemes would suffice with a pseudo-noise or code modulation as the preferred method for the present invention. This can also be accomplished if each vehicle accurately knows its position and controls its time of transmission according to an algorithm that time multiplexes transmissions based on the geographical location of the vehicle. Thus if multiple vehicles are sensed in a given geographical area, they each can control their transmissions based on a common algorithm that uses the GPS coordinates of the vehicle to set the time slot for transmission so as to minimize interference between transmissions from different vehicles. Other multiplexing methods can also be used such as FDMA, CDMA or TDMA, any of which can be based on the geographical location of the vehicles. Infrared and terahertz also have sufficient resolution so that pattern recognition technologies can be employed to recognize various objects, such as vehicles, in the reflected image as discussed above. Infrared has another advantage from the object recognition perspective. All objects radiate and reflect infrared. The hot engine or tires of a moving vehicle in particular are recognizable signals. Thus, if the area around a vehicle is observed with both passive and active infrared, more information can be obtained than from radar, for example. Infrared is less attenuated by fog than optical frequencies, although it is not as good as radar. Infrared is also attenuated by snow but at the proper frequencies it has about five times the range of human sight. Terahertz under some situations has an effective range of as much as several hundred times that of human sight. Note, as with radar, infrared and terahertz can be modulated with noise, pseudonoise, or other distinctive signal to permit the separation of various reflected signals from different transmitting vehicles. An example of such an instrument is made by Sumitomo Electric and is sufficient for the purpose here. The Sumitomo product has been demonstrated to detect leaves of a tree at a distance of about 300 meters. The product operates at a 1.5 micron wavelength. This brings up a philosophical discussion about the trade-offs between radar with greater range and infrared laser radar, or lidar, with more limited range but greater resolution. At what point should driving during bad weather conditions be prohibited? If the goal of Zero Fatalities™ is to be realized, then people should not be permitted to operate their vehicles during dangerous weather conditions. This may require closing roads and highways prior to the start of such conditions. Under such a policy, a system which accurately returns images of obstacles on the roadway that are two to five times the visual distance should be adequate. In such a case, radar would not be necessary. 5.2 Laser and Terahertz Radar Scanning System Referring to FIG. 25, a digital map (116) can be provided and when the vehicle's position is determined (118), e.g., by a GPS-based system, the digital map can be used to define the field (122) that the laser or terahertz radar scanner (102) will interrogate. Note, when the term scanner is used herein, it is not meant to imply that the beam is so narrow as to require a back and forth motion (a scan) in order to completely illuminate an object of interest. To the contrary, the inventions herein are not limited to a particular beam diameter other than that required for eye safety. Also a scanner may be limited to an angular motion that just covers a vehicle located 100 meters, for example, from the transmitting vehicle, which may involve no angular motion of the scanner at all, or to an angular motion that covers 90 or more degrees of the space surrounding the transmitting vehicle. Through the use of high-powered lasers and appropriate optics, an eye safe laser beam can be created that is 5 cm in diameter, for example, with a divergence angle less than one degree. Such an infrared spotlight requires very little angular motion to illuminate a vehicle at 100 meters, for example. Generally herein, when laser radar, or lidar, is used it will also mean a system based on terahertz where appropriate. The laser radar or lidar scanner will return information as to distance to an object in the scanned field, e.g., laser beam reflections will be indicative of presence of object in path of laser beam (104) and from these reflections, information such as the distance between the vehicle and the object can be obtained. This will cover all objects that are on or adjacent to the highway. The laser pulse can be a pixel that is two centimeters or 1 meter in diameter at 50 meters, for example and that pixel diameter can be controlled by the appropriate optical system that can include adaptive optics and liquid lenses (such as described in “Liquid lens promises cheap gadget optics”, NewScientist.com news service, Mar. 8, 2004). The scanner must scan the entire road at such a speed that the motion of the car can be considered insignificant. Alternately, a separate aiming system that operates at a much lower speed, but at a speed to permit compensation for the car angle changes, may be provided. Such an aiming system is also necessary due to the fact that the road curves up and down. Therefore two scanning methods, one a slow, but for large angle motion and the other fast but for small angles may be required. The large angular system requires a motor drive while the small angular system can be accomplished through the use of an acoustic wave system, such as Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3), which is used to drive a crystal which has a large refractive index such as Tellurium dioxide. Other acoustic optical systems can also be used as scanners. For these systems, frequently some means is needed to stabilize the image and to isolate it from vehicle vibrations. Several such stabilization systems have been used in the past and would be applicable here including a gyroscopic system that basically isolates the imaging system from such vibrations and keeps it properly pointed, a piezoelectric system that performs similarly, or the process can be accomplished in software where the image is collected regardless of the vibration but where the image covers a wider field of view then is necessary and software is used to select the region of interest. Alternately, two systems can be used, a radar system for interrogating large areas and a laser radar for imaging smaller areas. Either or both systems can be range gated and noise or pseudonoise modulated. The laser radar scanner can be set up in conjunction with a range gate (106) so that once it finds an object, the range can be narrowed so that only that object and other objects at the same range, 65 to 75 feet for example, are allowed to pass to the receiver. In this way, an image of a vehicle can be separated from the rest of the scene for identification by pattern recognition software (108). Once the image of the particular object has been captured, the range gate is broadened, to about 20 to 500 feet for example, and the process repeated for another object. In this manner, all objects in the field of interest to the vehicle can be separated and individually imaged and identified. Alternately, a scheme based on velocity can be used to separate a part of one object from the background or from other objects. The field of interest, of course, is the field where all objects with which the vehicle can potentially collide reside. Particular known and mapped features on the highway can be used as aids to the scanning system so that the pitch and perhaps roll angles of the vehicle can be taken into account. Once the identity of the object is known, the potential for a collision between the vehicle and that object and/or consequences of a potential collision with that object are assessed, e.g., by a control module, control unit or processor (112). If collision is deemed likely, countermeasures are effected (114), e.g., activation of a driver alert system and/or activation of a vehicle control system to alter the travel of the vehicle (as discussed elsewhere herein). Range gates can be achieved as high speed shutters by a number of devices such as liquid crystals, garnet films, Kerr and Pockel cells or as preferred herein as described in patents and patent applications of 3DV Systems Ltd., Yokneam, Israel including U.S. Pat. No. 06,327,073, U.S. Pat. No. 06,483,094, U.S. 2002/0185590, WO98/39790, WO97/01111, WO97/01112 and WO97/01113. Prior to the time that all vehicles are equipped with the RtZF™ system described above, roadways will consist of a mix of vehicles. In this period, it will not be possible to totally eliminate accidents. It will be possible to minimize the probability of having an accident however, if a laser radar or Lidar system similar to that described in Shaw (U.S. Pat. No. 05,529,138), or more recently in various patents and patent applications of Ford Global Technologies such as U.S. Pat. No. 06,690,017, U.S. Pat. No. 06,730,913, U.S. 2003/0034462, U.S. 2003/0036881 and U.S. 2003/0036881, with some significant modifications is used. It is correctly perceived by Shaw that the dimensions of a radar beam are too large to permit distinguishing various objects which may be on the roadway in the path of the instant vehicle. Laser radar provides the necessary resolution that is not provided by radar. Laser radar as used in the present invention however would acquire significantly more data than anticipated by Shaw. Sufficient data in fact would be attained to permit the acquisition of a three-dimensional image of all objects in the field of view. The X and Y dimensions of such objects would, of course, be determined knowing the angular orientation of the laser radar beam. The longitudinal or Z dimension can be obtained by such methods as time-of-flight of the laser beam to a particular point on the object and reflected back to the detector, by phase methods or by range gating. All such methods are described elsewhere herein and in the patents listed above. At least two methods are available for resolving the longitudinal dimension for each of the pixels in the image. In one method, a laser radar pulse having a pulse width of one to ten nanoseconds, for example, can be transmitted toward the area of interest and as soon as the reflection is received and the time-of-flight determined, a new pulse would be sent at a slightly different angular orientation. The laser, therefore, would be acting as a scanner covering the field of interest. A single detector could then be used, if the pixel is sufficiently small, since it would know which pixel was being illuminated. The distance to the reflection point could be determined by time-of-flight thus giving the longitudinal distance to all points in view on the object. Alternately, the entire area of interest can be illuminated and an image focused on a CCD or CMOS array. By checking the time-of-flight to each pixel, one at a time, the distance to that point on the vehicle would be determined. A variation of this would be to use a garnet crystal as a pixel shutter and only a single detector. In this case, the garnet crystal would permit the illumination to pass through one pixel at a time through to a detector. A preferred method, however, for this invention is to use range gating as described elsewhere herein. Other methods of associating a distance to a particular reflection point, of course, can now be performed by those skilled in the art including variations of the above ideas using a pixel mixing device (such as described in Schwarte, R. “A New Powerful Sensory Tool in Automotive Safety Systems Based on PMD-Technology”, S-TEC GmbH Proceedings of the AMAA 2000) or variations in pixel illumination and shutter open time to determine distance through comparison of range gated received reflected light. In the laser scanning cases, the total power required from the laser is significantly less than in the area illumination design. However, the ability to correctly change the direction of the laser beam in a sufficiently short period of time complicates the scanning design. The system can work approximately as follows: The entire area in front of the instant vehicle, perhaps as much as a full 180 degree arc in the horizontal plane can be scanned for objects using either radar or laser radar. Once one or more objects had been located, the scanning range can be severely limited to basically cover that particular object and some surrounding space using laser radar. Based on the range to that object, a range gate can be used to eliminate all background and perhaps interference from other objects. In this manner, a very clear picture or image of the object of interest can be obtained as well as its location and, through the use of a neural network, combination neural network or optical correlation or other pattern of recognition system, the identity of the object can be ascertained as to whether it is a sign, a truck, an animal, a person, an automobile or other object. The identification of the object will permit an estimate to be made of the object's mass and thus the severity of any potential collision. Once a pending collision is identified, this information can be made available to the driver and if the driver ceases to heed the warning, control of the vehicle could be taken from him or her by the system. The actual usurpation of vehicle control, however, is unlikely initially since there are many situations on the highway where the potential for a collision cannot be accurately ascertained. Consequently, this system can be thought of as an interim solution until all vehicles have the RtZF™ system described above. To use the laser radar in a scanning mode requires some mechanism for changing the direction of the emitted pulses of light. One acoustic-optic method of using an ultrasonic wave to change the diffraction angle of a Tellurium dioxide crystal is disclosed elsewhere herein. This can also be done in a variety of other ways such as through the use of a spinning multifaceted mirror, such as is common with laser scanners and printers. This mirror would control the horizontal scanning, for example, with the vertical scanning controlled though a stepping motor or the angles of the different facets of the mirror can be different to slightly alter the direction of the scan, or by other methods known in the art. Alternately, one or more piezoelectric materials can be used to cause the laser radar transmitter to rotate about a pivot point. A rotating laser system, such as described in Shaw is the least desirable of the available methods due to the difficulty in obtaining a good electrical connection between the laser and the vehicle while the laser is spinning at a very high angular velocity. Another promising technology is to use MEMS mirrors to deflect the laser beam in one or two dimensions. Although the system described above is intended for collision avoidance or at least the notification of a potential collision, when the roadway is populated by vehicles having the RtZF™ system and vehicles which do not, its use is still desirable after all vehicles are properly equipped. It can be used to search for animals or other objects which may be on or crossing the highway, a box dropping off of a truck for example, a person crossing the road who is not paying attention to traffic. Motorcycles, bicycles, and other non-RtZF equipped vehicles can also be monitored. One significant problem with all previous collision avoidance systems which use radar or laser radar systems to predict impacts with vehicles, is the inability to know whether the vehicle that is being interrogated is located on the highway or is off the road. In at least one system of the present invention, the location of the road at any distance ahead of the vehicle would be known precisely from the sub-meter accuracy maps, so that the scanning system can ignore, for example, all vehicles on lanes where there is a physical barrier separating the lanes from the lane on which the subject vehicle is traveling. This, of course, is a common situation on super highways. Similarly, a parked vehicle on the side of the road would not be confused with a stopped vehicle that is in the lane of travel of the subject vehicle when the road is curving. This permits the subject invention to be used for automatic cruise control. In contrast with radar systems, it does not require that vehicles in the path of the subject vehicle be moving, so that high speed impacts into stalled traffic can be avoided. If a system with a broader beam to illuminate a larger area on the road in front of the subject vehicle is used, with the subsequent focusing of this image onto a CCD or CMOS array, this has an advantage of permitting a comparison of the passive infrared signal and the reflection of the laser radar active infrared. Metal objects, for example appear cold to passive infrared. This permits another parameter to be used to differentiate metallic objects from non-metallic objects such as foliage or animals such as deer. The breadth of the beam can be controlled and thereby a particular object can be accurately illuminated. With this system, the speed with which the beam steering is accomplished can be much slower. Both systems can be combined into the maximum amount of information to be available to the system. Through the use of range gating, objects can be relatively isolated from the environment surrounding it other than for the section of highway which is at the same distance. For many cases, a properly trained neural network or other pattern recognition system can use this data and identify the objects. An alternate approach is to use the Fourier transform of the scene as input to the neural network or other pattern recognition system. The advantages of this latter approach are that the particular location of the vehicle in the image is not critical for identification. Note that the Fourier transform can be accomplished optically and optically compared with stored transforms using a garnet crystal or garnet films, for example, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 05,473,466. At such time when the system can take control of the vehicle, it will be possible to have much higher speed travel. In such cases, all vehicles on the controlled roadway will need to have the RtZF™ or similar system as described above. Fourier transforms of the objects of interest can be done optically though the use of a diffraction system. The Fourier transform of the scene can then be compared with the library of the Fourier transforms of all potential objects and, through a system used in military target recognition, multiple objects can be recognized and the system then focused onto one object at time to determine the degree of threat that it poses. Of particular importance is the use of a high powered laser radar such as a 30 to 100 watt laser diode in an expanded beam form to penetrate fog, rain and snow through the use of range gating. If a several centimeter diameter bean is projected from the vehicle in the form of pulses of from 1 to 10 nanoseconds long, for example, and the reflected radiation is blocked except that from the region of interest, an image can still be captured even though it cannot be seen by the human eye. This technique significantly expands the interrogation range of the system and, when coupled with the other imaging advantages of laser radar, offers a competitive system to radar and may in fact render the automotive use or radar unnecessary. One method is to use the techniques described in the patents to 3DV listed above. In one case, for example, if the vehicle wishes to interrogate an area 250 feet ahead, a 10 nanosecond square wave signal can be used to control the shutter which is used both for transmission and reception and where the off period can be 480 nanoseconds. This can be repeated until sufficient energy has been accumulated to provide for a good image. In this connection, a high dynamic range camera may be used such as that manufactured by IMS chips of Stuttgart, Germany as mentioned above. Such a camera is now available with a dynamic range of 160 db. These advantages are also enhanced when the laser radar system described herein is used along with the other features of the RtZF™ system such as accurate maps and accurate location determination. The forward looking laser radar system can thus concentrate its attention to the known position of the roadway ahead rather than on areas where there can be no hazardous obstacles or threatening vehicles. 5.3 Blind Spot Detection The RtZF™ system of this invention also can eliminate the need for blind spot detectors such as discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 05,530,447 to Henderson. Alternately, if a subset of the complete RtZF™ system is implemented, as is expected in the initial period, the RtZF™ system can be made compatible with the blind spot detector described in the '447 patent. One preferred implementation for blind spot monitoring as well as for monitoring other areas near the vehicle is the use of range gated laser radar using a high power laser diode and appropriate optics to expand the laser beam to the point where the transmitted infrared energy per square millimeter is below eye safety limits. Such a system is described above. 5.4 Anticipatory Sensing—Smart Airbags, Evolution of the System A key to anticipating accidents is to be able to recognize and categorize objects that are about to impact a vehicle as well as their relative velocity. As set forth herein and in current assignee's patents and patent applications referenced above, this can best be done using a pattern recognition system such as a neural network, combination neural network, optical correlation system, sensor fusion and related technologies. The data for such a pattern recognition system can be derived from a camera image but such an image can be overwhelmed by reflected light from the sun. In fact, lighting variations in general plague camera-based images resulting in false classifications or even no classification. Additionally, camera-based systems are defeated by poor visibility conditions and, additionally, have interference problems when multiple vehicles have the same system which may require a synchronization, taking time away from the critical anticipatory sensing function. To solve these problems imaging systems based of millimeter wave radar, laser radar (lidar) and more recently terahertz radar can be used. All three systems generally work for anticipatory sensors since the objects are near the vehicle where even infrared scanning laser radar in a non-range gated mode has sufficient range in fog. Millimeter wave radar is expensive and to obtain precise images, a narrow beam is required resulting in large scanning antennas. Laser radar systems are less expensive and since the beams are formed using optic technology, they are smaller and easier to manipulate. When computational power is limited, it is desirable to determine the minimum number of pixels that are required to identify an approaching object with sufficient accuracy to make the decision to take evasive action or to deploy a passive restraint such as an airbag. In one military study for anti-tank missiles, it was found that a total of 25 pixels are all that is required to identify a tank on a battlefield. For optical occupant detection within a vehicle, thousands of pixels are typically used. Experiments indicate that by limiting the number of horizontal scans to three to five, with on the order of 100 to 300 pixels per scan that sufficient information is available to find an object near to the vehicle and in most cases to identify the object. Once the object has been located, then the scan can be confined to the position of the object and the number of pixels available for analysis substantially increases. There are obviously many algorithms that can be developed and applied to this problem and it is therefore left to those skilled in the art. At least one invention herein is based on the fact that a reasonable number of pixels can be obtained from the reflections of electromagnetic energy from an object to render each of the proposed systems practical for locating, identifying and determining the relative velocity of an object in the vicinity of a vehicle that poses a threat to impact the vehicle so that evasive action can be taken or a passive restraint deployed. See the discussion in section 5.5 below for a preferred implementation. The RtZF™ system is also capable of enhancing other vehicle safety systems. In particular, by knowing the location and velocity of other vehicles, for those cases where an accident cannot be avoided, the RtZF™ system will in general be able to anticipate a crash and make an assessment of the crash severity using, for example, neural network technology. Even with a limited implementation of the RtZF™ system, a significant improvement in smart airbag technology results when used in conjunction with a collision avoidance system such as described in Shaw (U.S. Pat. No. 05,314,037 and U.S. Pat. No. 05,529,138) and a neural network anticipatory sensing algorithm such as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 06,343,810 to Breed. A further enhancement would be to code a vehicle-to-vehicle communication signal from RtZF™ system-equipped vehicles with information that includes the size and approximate weight of the vehicle. Then, if an accident is inevitable, the severity can also be accurately anticipated and the smart airbag tailored to the pending event. Information on the size and mass of a vehicle can also be implemented as an RFID tag and made part of the license plate. Recent developments by Mobileye (www.mobileye.com) illustrate a method of obtaining the distance to an object and thus the relative velocity. Although this technique has many limitations, it may be useful in some implementations of one or more of the current inventions. A further recent development is reported in U.S. patent application publication No. 20030154010, as well as other patents and patent publications assigned to Ford Global Technologies including U.S. Pat. Nos. 06,452,535, 06,480,144, 06,498,972, 06,650,983, 06,568,754, 06,628,227, 06,650,984, 06,728,617, 06,757,611, 06,775,605, 06,801,843, 06,819,991, 20030060980, 20030060956, 20030100982, 20030154011, 20040019420, 20040093141, 20040107033, 20040111200, and 20040117091. In the disclosures herein, emphasis has been placed on identifying a potentially threatening object and once identified, the properties of the object such as its size and mass can be determined. An inferior system can be developed as described in U.S. patent application publication No. 20030154010 where only the size is determined. In the inventions described herein, the size is inherently determined during the process of imaging the object and identifying it. Also, the Ford patent publications mention the combined use of a radar or a lidar and a camera system. The combined use of radar and a camera are of course anticipated herein and in assignee's patents cross-referenced above. Another recent development by the U.S. Air Force uses a high powered infrared laser operating at wavelengths greater than 1.5 microns and a focal plane array as is reported in “Three-Dimensional Imaging” in AFRL Technology Horizons, April 2004. Such a system is probably too expensive at this time for automotive applications. This development illustrates the fact that it is not necessary to limit the lidar to the near infrared part of the spectrum and in fact, the further that the wavelength is away from the visible spectrum, the higher the power permitted to be transmitted. Also, nothing prevents the use of multiple frequencies as another method of providing isolation from transmissions from vehicles in the vicinity. As mentioned above for timing transmissions, the GPS system can also be used to control the frequency of transmission thus using frequency as a method to prevent interference. The use of polarizing filters to transmit polarized infrared is another method to provide isolation between different vehicles with the same or similar systems. The polarization angle can be a function of the GPS location of the vehicle. It is the intention of some of the inventions herein to provide a system that can be used both in daytime and at night. Other systems are intended solely for night vision such as those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 06,730,913, U.S. Pat. No. 06,690,017 and U.S. Pat. No. 06,725,139. Note that the use of the direction of travel as a method of determining when to transmit infrared radiation, as disclosed in these and other Ford Global patents and patent applications, can be useful but it fails to solve the problem of the transmissions from two vehicles traveling in the same vicinity and direction from receiving reflections from each others' transmissions. If the directional approach is used, then some other method is required such as coding the pulses, for example. U.S. Pat. No. 60,730,913 and U.S. Pat. No. 06,774,367 are representative of a series of patents awarded to Ford Global Technologies as discussed above. This patent uses range gating as taught by assignee's earlier patents. The intent is to supplement the headlights with a night vision system for illuminating objects on the roadway in the path of the vehicle but are not seen by the driver and displaying these objects in a heads up display. No attempt is made to locate the eyes of the driver and therefore the display cannot place the objects where they would normally be located in the driver's field of view as taught in the current assignee's other patents. Experiments have shown that without this feature, the night vision system is of little value and may even distract the driver to where his or her ability to operate the motor vehicle is degraded. Other differences in the '913 and '367 system is an attempt to compensate for falloff in illumination due to distance, neglecting a similar and potentially more serious falloff due to scattering due to fog etc. In at least one of the inventions disclosed herein, no attempt is made to achieve this compensation in a systematic manner but rather the exposure is adjusted so that a sufficiently bright image is achieved to permit object identification regardless of the cause of the attenuation. Furthermore, in at least one embodiment, a high dynamic range camera is used which automatically compensates for much of the attenuation and thus permits the minimum exposure requirements for achieving an adequate image. In at least one of the inventions disclosed herein, the system is used both at night and in the daytime of locating and identifying objects and, in some cases, initiating an alarm or even taking control of the vehicle to avoid accidents. None of these objects are disclosed in the '913 or '367 and related patents. Additionally, U.S. 20030155513, also part of this series of Ford Global patents and applications, describes increasing the illumination intensity based on distance to the desired field of view. In at least one of the inventions disclosed herein, the illumination intensity is limited by eye safety considerations rather than distance to the object of interest. If insufficient illumination is not available on one pulse, additional pulses are provided until sufficient illumination to achieve an adequate exposure is achieved. If the laser beam diverges, then the amount of radiation per square centimeter illuminating a surface will be a function of the distance of that surface from the transmitter. If that distance can be measured, then the transmitted power can be increased while keeping the radiation per square centimeter below the eye safe limits. Using this technique, the amount of radiated power can be greatly increased thus enhancing the range of the system in daylight and in bad weather. A lower power pulse would precede a high power pulse transmitted in a given direction and the distance measured to a reflective object would be measured and the transmitted power adjusted appropriately. If a human begins to intersect the path of transmission, the distance to the human would be measured before he or she could put his or her eye into the transmission path and the power can be reduced to remain within the safety standards. It is also important to point out that the inventions disclosed herein that use lidar (laser radar or ladar) can be used in a scanning mode when the area to be covered is larger that the beam diameter or in a pointing mode when the beam diameter is sufficient to illuminate the target of interest, or a combination thereof. It can be seen from the above discussion that the RtZF™ system will evolve to solve many safety, vehicle control and ITS problems. Even such technologies as steering and drive by wire will be enhanced by the RtZF™ system in accordance with invention since it will automatically adjust for failures in these systems and prevent accidents. 5.5 A preferred Implementation FIGS. 21A and 21B illustrate a preferred embodiment of a laser radar system having components mounted at the four corners of a vehicle above the headlights and tail lights. Laser radar units or assemblies 260 and 261 have a scan angle of approximately 150 degrees; however, for some applications a larger or smaller scanning angle can of course be used. The divergence angle for the beam for one application can be one degree or less when it is desired to illuminate an object at a considerable distance from the vehicle such as from less than fifty meters to 200 meters or more. In other cases, where objects are to be illuminated that are closer to the vehicle, a larger divergence angle can be used. Generally, it is desirable to have a field of illumination (FOI) approximately equal to the field of view (FOV) of the camera or other optical receiver. FIGS. 22A and 22B illustrate the system of FIGS. 21A and 21B for vehicles on a roadway. Note that the divergence angle in the horizontal plane and vertical plane are not necessarily equal. FIGS. 23A and 23B illustrate an alternative mounting location for laser radar units on or near the roof of a vehicle. They can be either inside or outside of the vehicle compartment. The particular design of the laser radar assemblies 262 and 263 are similar to those used in FIGS. 21A, 21B, 22A and 22B. Although not shown, other geometries are of course possible such as having the laser radar assemblies mounted on or near the roof for the rear assemblies and above the headlights for the frontal assemblies or vice versa. Also, although assemblies mounted on the corners of the vehicle are illustrated, in some cases it may be desirable to mount laser radar assemblies in the center of the front, back and sides of the vehicle or a combination or center and corner-mounted laser radar assemblies can be used. FIG. 24 is a schematic illustration of a typical laser radar assembly showing the scanning or pointing system with simplified optics for illustration only. In an actual design, the optics will typically include multiple lenses. Also, the focal point will typically not be outside of the laser radar assembly. In this non-limiting example, a common optical system 267 is used to control a laser light 265 and an imager or camera 266. The laser source transmits, usually infrared, light through its optical sub-system 271 which collimates the radiation. The collimated radiation is then reflected off mirror 273 to mirror 274 which reflects the radiation to the desired direction through lens system 267. The direction of the beam is controlled by motor 272 which rotates both mirror 274 and optical system 267 to achieve the desired scanning or pointing angle. The radiation leaves the optical system 267 and illuminates the desired object or target 276. The radiation reflected from object 276 can pass back through lens 267, reflects off mirror 274 pass through semitransparent mirror 273 through optic subsystem 268 and onto optical sensitive surface 266. Many other configurations are possible. The transmission of the radiation is controlled by optical shutter 270 via controller 275. Similarly, the light that reaches the imager 266 is controlled by controller 275 and optical shutter 269. These optical shutters 269, 270 can be liquid crystal devices, Kerr or Pockel cells, garnet films, other spatial light monitors or, preferably, high speed optical shutters such as described in patents and patent applications of the 3DV Systems Ltd., of Yokneam, Israel, as set forth above or equivalent. Since much of the technology used in this invention related to the camera and shutter system is disclosed in the 3DV patents and patent applications, it will not be repeated here, by is incorporated by reference herein. In some embodiments, it may be important to assure that the lens through which the laser radar radiation passes is clean. As a minimum, a diagnostic system is required to inform the RtZF™ or other system that the lens are soiled and therefore the laser radar system can not be relied upon. Additionally, in some applications, means are provided to clean one or more of the lens or to remove the soiled surface. In the latter case, a roll of thin film can be provided which, upon the detection of a spoiled lens, rolls up a portion of the film and thereby provides a new clean surface. When the roll is used up it can be replaced. Other systems provide one or more cleaning methods such as a small wiper or the laser radar unit can move the lens into a cleaning station. Many other methods are of course possible and the invention here is basically concerned with ascertaining that the lens is clean and if not informing the system of this fact and, in some cases, cleaning or removing the soiled surface. Note that although laser radar and radar have been discussed separately, in some implementations, it is desirable to use both a radar system and a laser radar system. Such a case can be where the laser radar system is not capable to achieve sufficient range in adverse weather whereas the radar has the requisite range but insufficient resolution. The radar unit can provide a warning that a potentially dangerous situation exists and thus the vehicle speed should be reduced until the laser radar device and obtain an image with sufficient resolution to permit an assessment of the extent of the danger and determine whether appropriate actions should be undertaken. 5.6 Antennas When the interrogation system makes use of radar such as systems in use at 24 GHz and 77 GHz, a key design issue is the antenna. The inventions herein contemplate the use of various types of antennas such as dipole and monopole designs, yagi, steerable designs such as solid state phased array and so called smart antennas. All combinations of antennas for radar surveillance around a vehicle are within the scope if the inventions disclosed herein. In particular, the Rotman lens offers significant advantages as disclosed in L. Hall, H. Hansen and D. Abbott “Rotman lens for mm-wavelengths”, Smart Structures, Devices, and Systems, SPIE Vol. 4935 (2002). Other antenna designs can be applicable. In some cases, one radar source can be used with multiple antennas. 6. Smart Highways The theme of the inventions disclosed herein is that automobile accidents can be eliminated and congestion substantially mitigated through the implementation thereof. After sufficient implementations have occurred, the concept of a smart highway becomes feasible. When a significant number of vehicles have the capability of operating in a semi-autonomous manner, then dedicated highway lanes (like the HOV lanes now in use) can be established where use of the lanes is restricted to properly equipped vehicles. Vehicles operating on these lanes can travel in close packed high speed formations since each of them will know the location of the road, their location on the road and the location of every other vehicle in such a lane. Accidents on these lanes will not occur and the maximum utilization of the roadway infrastructure will have been obtained. Vehicle owners will be highly motivated to own equipped vehicles since their travel times will be significantly reduced and while traveling on such lanes, control of the vehicle can be accomplished by the system and they are then free to talk on the telephone, read or whatever. 7. Weather and Road Condition Monitoring The monitoring of the weather conditions and the control of the vehicle consistent with those conditions has been discussed herein. The monitoring of the road conditions and in particular icing has also been discussed elsewhere herein and in other patents and patent applications of the current assignee. Briefly, a vehicle will be controlled so as to eliminate accidents under all weather and road conditions. This in some cases will mean that the vehicle velocity will be controlled and, in some cases, travel will be prohibited until conditions improve. 8. Communication with Other Vehicles—Collision Avoidance 8.1 Requirements MIR might also be used for vehicle-to-vehicle communication except that it is line of sight. An advantage is that we can know when a particular vehicle will respond by range gating. Also, the short time of transmission permits many vehicles to communicate at the same time. The preferred system is to use spread spectrum carrier-less coded channels. One problem which will require addressing as the system becomes mature is temporary blockage of a satellite by large trucks or other movable objects whose location cannot be foreseen by the system designers. Another concern is to prevent vehicle owners from placing items on the vehicle exterior that block the GPS and communication antennas. The first problem can be resolved if the host vehicle can communicate with the blocking trucks and can also determine its relative location, perhaps through using the vehicle exterior monitoring system. Then the communication link will provide the location of the adjacent truck and the monitoring system will provide the relative location and thus the absolute location of the host vehicle can be determined. The communication between vehicles for collision avoidance purposes cannot solely be based on line-of-sight technologies as this is not sufficient since vehicles which are out of sight can still cause accidents. On the other hand, vehicles that are a mile away from one another but still in sight, need not be part of the communication system for collision avoidance purposes. Messages sent by each vehicle, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, can contain information indicating exactly where it is located and perhaps information as to what type of vehicle it is. The type of vehicle can include emergency vehicles, construction vehicles, trucks classified by size and weight, automobiles, and oversized vehicles. The subject vehicle can therefore eliminate all vehicles that are not potential threats, even if such vehicles are very close, but on the other side of the highway barrier. The use of a wireless Ethernet protocol can satisfy the needs of the network, consisting of all threatening vehicles in the vicinity of the subject vehicle. Alternately, a network where the subject vehicle transmits a message to a particular vehicle and waits for a response could be used. From the response time, assuming that the clocks of both vehicles are or can be synchronized, the relative position of other vehicles can be ascertained which provides one more method of position determination. Thus, the more vehicles that are on the road with the equipped system, the greater accuracy of the overall system and the safer the system becomes. To prevent accidents caused by a vehicle leaving the road surface and impacting a roadside obstacle requires only an accurate knowledge of the position of the vehicle and the road boundaries. To prevent collisions with other vehicles requires that the position of all nearby automobiles must be updated continuously. Just knowing the position of a threatening vehicle is insufficient. The velocity, size and/or orientation of the vehicle are also important in determining what defensive action or reaction may be required. Once all vehicles are equipped with the system of this invention, the communication of all relevant information will take place via a communication link, e.g., a radio link. In addition to signaling its absolute position, each vehicle will send a message identifying the approximate mass, velocity, orientation, and/or other relevant information. This has the added benefit that emergency vehicles can make themselves known to all vehicles in their vicinity and all such vehicles can then take appropriate action to allow passage of the emergency vehicle. The same system can also be used to relay accident or other hazard information from vehicle to vehicle through an ad-hoc or mesh network. 8.2 A Preferred System One preferred method of communication between vehicles uses that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that permits only line of sight communication. In this manner, only those vehicles that are in view can communicate. In most cases, a collision can only occur between vehicles that can see each other. This system has the advantage that the “communications network” only contains nearby vehicles. This would require that when a truck, for example, blocks another stalled vehicle that the information from the stalled vehicle be transmitted via the truck to a following vehicle. An improvement in this system would use a rotating aperture that would only allow communication from a limited angle at a time further reducing the chance for multiple messages to interfere with each other. Each vehicle transmits at all angles but receives at only one angle at a time. This has the additional advantage of confirming at least the direction of the transmitting vehicle. An infrared rotating receiver can be looked at as similar to the human eye. That is, it is sensitive to radiation from a range of directions and then focuses in on the particular direction, one at a time, from which the radiation is coming. It does not have to scan continuously. In fact, the same transmitter which transmits 360 degrees could also receive from 360 degrees with the scanning accomplished using software. An alternate preferred method is to use short distance radio communication so that a vehicle can receive position information from all nearby vehicles such as the DS/SS system. The location information received from each vehicle can then be used to eliminate it from further monitoring if it is found to be on a different roadway or not in a potential path of the subject vehicle. Many communications schemes have been proposed for inter-vehicle and vehicle-to-road communication. At this time, a suggested approach utilizes DS/SS communications in the 2.4 GHz INS band. Experiments have shown that communications are 100 percent accurate at distances up to 200 meters. At a closing velocity of 200 KPH, at 0.5 g deceleration, it requires 30 meters for a vehicle to stop. Thus, communications accurate to 200 meters is sufficient to cover all vehicles that are threatening to a particular vehicle. A related method would be to use a MIR system in a communications mode. Since the width of the pulses typically used by MIR is less than a nanosecond, many vehicles can transmit simultaneously without fear of interference. Other spread spectrum methods based on ultra wideband or noise radar are also applicable. In particular, as discussed below, a communication system based on correlation of pseudorandom or other codes is preferred. With either system, other than the MIR system, the potential exists that more than one vehicle will attempt to send a communication at the same time and there will then be a ‘data collision’. If all of the communicating vehicles are considered as being part of a local area network, the standard Ethernet protocol can be used to solve this problem. In that protocol, when a data collision occurs, each of the transmitting vehicles which was transmitting at the time of the data collision would be notified that a data collision had occurred and that they should retransmit their message at a random time later. When several vehicles are in the vicinity and there is the possibility of collisions of the data, each vehicle can retain the coordinates last received from the surrounding vehicles as well as their velocities and predict their new locations even though some data was lost. If a line of sight system is used, an infrared, terahertz or MIR system would be good choices. In the infrared case, and if an infrared system were also used to interrogate the environment for non-equipped vehicles, pedestrians, animals etc., as discussed below, both systems could use some of the same hardware. If point-to-point communication can be established between vehicles, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 05,528,391 to Elrod, then the need for a collision detection system like Ethernet would not be required. If the receiver on a vehicle, for example, only has to listen to one sender from one other vehicle at a time, then the bandwidth can be considerably higher since there will not be any interruption. When two vehicles are communicating their positions to each other, it is possible through the use of range gating or the sending of a “clear to send signal” and timing the response to determine the separation of the vehicles. This assumes that the properties of the path between the vehicles are known which would be the case if the vehicles are within view of each other. If, on the other hand, there is a row of trees, for example, between the two vehicles, a false distance measurement would be obtained if the radio waves pass through a tree. If the communication frequency is low enough that it can pass through a tree in the above example, it will be delayed. If it is a much higher frequency such that is blocked by the tree, then it still might reach the second vehicle through a multi-path. Thus, in both cases, an undetectable range error results. If a range of frequencies is sent, as in a spread spectrum pulse, and the first arriving pulse contains all of the sent frequencies, then it is likely that the two vehicles are in view of each other and the range calculation is accurate. If any of the frequencies are delayed, then the range calculation can be considered inaccurate and should be ignored. Once again, for range purposes, the results of many transmissions and receptions can be used to improve the separation distance accuracy calculation. Alternate methods for determining range can make use of radar reflections, RFID tags etc. 8.3 Enhancements In the accident avoidance system of the present invention, the information indicative of a collision could come from a vehicle that is quite far away from the closest vehicles to the subject vehicle. This is a substantial improvement over the prior art collision avoidance systems, which can only react to a few vehicles in the immediate vicinity. The system described herein also permits better simultaneous tracking of several vehicles. For example, if there is a pileup of vehicles down the highway, then this information can be transmitted to control other vehicles that are still a significant distance from the accident. This case cannot be handled by prior art systems. Thus, the system described here has the potential to be used with the system of the U.S. Pat. No. 05,572,428 to Ishida, for example. The network analogy can be extended if each vehicle receives and retransmits all received data as a single block of data. In this way, each vehicle is assured in getting all of the relevant information even if it gets it from many sources. Even with many vehicles, the amount of data being transmitted is small relative to the bandwidth of the infrared optical or radio technologies. In some cases, a receiver and re-transmitter can be part of the highway infrastructure. Such a case might be on a hairpin curve in the mountains where the oncoming traffic is not visible. In some cases, it may be necessary for one vehicle to communicate with another to determine which evasive action each should take. This could occur in a multiple vehicle situation when one car has gone out of control due to a tire failure, for example. In such cases, one vehicle may have to tell the other vehicle what evasive actions it is planning. The other vehicle can then calculate whether it can avoid a collision based on the planned evasive action of the first vehicle and if not, it can inform the first vehicle that it must change its evasive plans. The other vehicle would also inform the first vehicle as to what evasive action it is planning. Several vehicles communicating in this manner can determine the best paths for all vehicles to take to minimize the danger to all vehicles. If a vehicle is stuck in a corridor and wishes to change lanes in heavy traffic, the operator's intention can be signaled by the operator activating the turn signal. This could send a message to other vehicles to slow down and let the signaling vehicle change lanes. This would be particularly helpful in an alternate merge situation and have a significant congestion reduction effect. 8.4 Position-Based Code Communication In conventional wireless communication such as between cell phones and a cell phone station or computers in a local area network, a limited number of clients are provided dedicated channels of communication with a central server. The number of channels is generally limited and the data transfer rate is maximized. The situation of communication between vehicles (cars, trucks, buses, boats, ships, airplanes) is different in that devices are all peers and the communication generally depends on their proximity. In general, there is no central server and each vehicle must be able to communicate with each other vehicle without going through a standard server. Another distinguishing feature is that there may be a large number of vehicles that can potentially communicate with a particular vehicle. Thus, there needs to be a large number of potential channels of communication. One method of accomplishing this is based on the concept of noise radar as developed by Lukin et al. and described in the following (all of which are incorporated by reference herein): 1. K. A. Lukin. Noise Radar Technology for Short Range Applications, Proc of the. 5th Int. Conference and Exhibition on Radar Systems, (RADAR'99), May 17-21, Brest, France, 1999, 6 pages; 2. K. A. Lukin. Advanced Noise Radar Technology. Proc. of the PIERS Workshop on Advances in Radar Methods. Apr. 20-22, 1998, Hotel Dino, Baveno, Italy, JRC-Ispra 1998, pp. 137-140; 3. W. Keydel and K. Lukin. Summary of Discussion in working Group V: Unconventional New Techniques and Technologies for Future Radar, Proc. of the PIERS Workshop in Radar Methods. Apr. 20-22, 1998, Hotel Dino, Baveno, Italy, 1998, pp. 28-30; 4. Lukin K. A., Hilda A. Cerdeira and Colavita A. A. Chaotic instability of currents in reverse biased multilayered structure. Appl. Physics Letter, v. 77(17), 27 Oct. 1997, pp. 2484-2496; 5. K. A. Lukin. Noise Radar Technology for Civil Application. Proc. of the 1 st EMSL User Workshop. 23-24 Apr. 1996, JRC-Ispra, Italy, 1997, pp. 105-112; 6. A. A. Mogyla. Adaptive signal filtration based on the two-parametric representation of random processes. Collective Volume of IRE NASU, Vol. 2, No. 2 pp. 137-141, 1997, (in Russian); 7. A. A. Mogyla, K. A. Lukin. Two-Parameter Representation of Non-Stationary Random Signals with a Finite Weighted Average Value of Energy. The Collective Volume of IRE NASU, No. 1, pp. 118-124, 1996, (in Russian); 8. K. A. Lukin. Noise Radar with Correlation Receiver as the Basis of Car Collision Avoidance System. 25th European Microwave Conference, Bologna; Conference Proceedings, UK, Nexus, 1995, pp. 506-507, 1995; 9. K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Dynamic chaos in microwave oscillators and its applications for Noise Radar development, Proc. 3rd Experimental Chaos Conference, Edinburg, Scotland, UK, 21-23 Aug., 1995; 10. V. A. Rakityansky, K. A. Lukin. Excitation of the chaotic oscillations in millimeter BWO, International Journal of Infrared and Millimeter Waves, vol. 16, No. 6, June, pp. 1037-1050, 1995; 11. K. A. Lukin. Ka-band Noise Radar. Proc. of the Millimeter and Submillimeter Waves, Jun. 7-10 1994, Kharkov, Ukraine; Vol. 2, pp. 322-324, 1994; 12. K. A. Lukin, Y. A. Alexandrov, V. V. Kulik, A. A. Mogila, V. A. Rakityansky. Broadband millimeter noise radar, Proc. Int. Conf on Modern Radars, Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 30-31, 1994 (in Russian); 13. K. A. Lukin. High-frequency chaotic oscillations from Chua's circuit. Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers, Vol. 3, No. 2, June 1993, pp. 627-643; In the book: Chua's Circuit Paradigma for Chaos, World Scientific, Singapore, 1993; 14. K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Application of BWO for excitation of the intensive chaotic oscillations of millimeter wave band. 23-rd European Microwave Conference. September 6-9, Madrid, Spain. Conf. Proceed. pp. 798-799, 1993; 15. K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Excitation of intensive chaotic oscillations of millimetre wave band. Proc. of ISSSE, Paris, September 1-4, pp. 454-457, 1992; 16. V. V. Kulik, K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Non-Coherent Reflectometry Method for Measurement of Plasma Cut-Off Layer Position, Proc. of the Int. Conference on Millimeter Wave and Far-Infrared. Technology, Beijing, China, 17-21 Aug., 1992; 17. V. V. Kulik, K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Autodyne effect in BWO with chaotic dynamic. Collective Volume of IRE NASU, pp. 95-100, 1992, (in Russian); 18. V. V. Kulik, K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Application of noncoherent reflectometry method for fusion plasma dyagnostic. Collective Volume of IRE NASU, pp. 13-18, 1992, (in Russian); 19. B. P. Efimov, K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Chaotic interaction of modes in the electron-wave auto-oscillator with two feedback channels, Letters in Journal of Technical Physics, v. 15, No. 18, pp. 9-12, 1989, (in Russian); 20. B. P. Efimov, K. A. Lukin, V. A. Rakityansky. Transformation of chaotic oscillation power spectrum by reflections. Journal of Technical Physics, vol. 58, No. 12, pp. 2388-2400, 1988 (in Russian)). The concept of noise radar is discussed in detail in the Lukin references listed above. A description of noise radar is included elsewhere herein and the discussion here will be limited to the use of pseudo random noise in a spread spectrum or Ultra-wideband spectrum environment for communication purposes. Generally, a particular segment or band of the electromagnetic spectrum which is compatible with FCC regulations will be selected for vehicle-to-vehicle communication purposes. Such a band could include, for example 5.9 GHz to 5.91 GHz. The noise communication device will therefore transmit information in that band. Each vehicle will transmit a pseudorandom noise signal in a carrier-less fashion composed of frequencies within the chosen band. The particular code transmitted by a particular vehicle should be unique. Generally, the vehicle will transmit its code repetitively with a variable or fixed spacing between transmissions. The information which the vehicle wishes to transmit is encoded using the vehicle's code by any of a number of different techniques including phase modulation of distance or time between code transmissions, phase or amplitude modulation of the code sequences themselves, changes of the polarity of the entire code sequence or the individual code segments, or bandwidth modulation of the code sequence. Other coding technologies would also applicable and this invention is not limited to any particular coding method. For example, a vehicle can have a 64 bit code which is a combination of a vehicle identification number and the GPS coordinates of the vehicle location. The vehicle would continuously transmit this 64 bit code using frequencies within the selected band. The 64 bit code could include both positive and negative bits in addition to 0 bits. When identifying the vehicle, the receiver could rectify the bits resulting in a 64 bit code of 0's and 1's. The information which the transmitting vehicle wishes to send could be represented by the choice of polarity of each of the code bits. Once a particular vehicle begins communicating with another particular vehicle, the communication channel must remain intact until the entire message has been transmitted. Since there may be as many as 100 to 1000 vehicles simultaneously transmitting within radio range of the receiving vehicle, a transmitting vehicle must have a code which can be known to the receiving vehicle. One preferred technique is to make this identification code a function of the GPS coordinate location of transmitting vehicle. The code would need to be coarse enough so that information to be transmitted by the transmitting vehicle is accomplished before the transmitting vehicle changes its identification. If this information includes a position and velocity of the transmitting vehicle, then the receiving vehicle can determine the new transmitting code of the transmitting vehicle. For example, the transmitting vehicle determines its location within one meter. It is unlikely that any other vehicle will be located within the same meter as the transmitting vehicle. Thus, the transmitting vehicle will have a unique code which it can send as a pseudorandom sequence in the noise communication system. A nearby vehicle can search all information received by its antenna for a sequence which represents each space within 30 meters of the receiving vehicle. If it detects such a sequence, it will know that there are one or more vehicles within 30 meters of the receiving vehicle. The search can now be refined to locate vehicles based on their direction since again the receiving vehicle can calculate the sequences that would be transmitted from a vehicle from any particular location within the 30 meter range. Once a particular vehicle has been identified, the receiving vehicle can begin to receive information from the transmitting vehicle through one or more of the coding schemes listed above. Since the information will preferably contain at least the velocity of transmitting vehicle, the receiving vehicle can predict any code sequence changes that take place and thus maintain communication with a particular vehicle even as the vehicle's code changes due to its changing position. The information being transmitted can also contain additional information about the vehicle and/or its occupants. In this manner, a receiving vehicle can selectively receive information from any vehicle within its listenable range. Such range may be limited to 100 meters for a highly congested area or extend to 5000 meters in a rural environment. In this manner, each vehicle becomes a node on the temporary local area network and is only identified by its GPS location. Any vehicle can communicate with any other vehicle and when many vehicles are present, a priority scheme can be developed based on the urgency of the message, the proximity of vehicle, the possibility of a collision, or other desired prioritizing scheme. The code transmitted by a particular vehicle will begin with a sequence that indicates, for example, the largest GPS segment that locates the vehicle which may be a segment 100 km square, for example. The next bits in the sequence would indicate which of next lower subsections which, for example, could be 10 km square. The next set of bits could further refine this to a 1 km square area and so on down to the particular square meter where the vehicle is located. Other units, such as angles, degrees, minutes, seconds etc., could be more appropriate for locating a vehicle on the surface of spherical earth. By using this scheme, a receiving vehicle can search for all vehicles located within its 1 km or square segment and then when a vehicle is found, the search can be continuously refined until the exact location of the transmitting vehicle has been determined. This is done through correlation. The 100 or so vehicles transmitting with a range would all transmit low level signals which would appear as noise to the receiving vehicle. The receiving vehicle would need to know the code a particular vehicle was transmitting before it could identify whether that code was present in the noise. The code derived by the vehicle to be transmitted must be sufficiently unique that only one vehicle can have a particular code at a particular time. Since the messages from different vehicles are separated through correlation functions, all vehicles must have unique transmission codes which are not known beforehand by the receiving vehicle yet must be derivable by the receiving vehicle. The communication need not be limited to communication between moving vehicles. This same technology permits communication between a vehicle and an infrastructure-based station. There is no limit to the types of information that can be exchanged between vehicles or between vehicles and infrastructure-based stations. For example, if an event occurs such as an accident or avalanche, road erosion, fallen tree, or other event which temporarily changes the ability to travel safely on a section of a lane on a highway, an authorized agent can place the transmitting sign near the affected section of roadway which would transmit information using the noise communication technique to all oncoming vehicles within a 1 km range, for example. Prior to the placement of such a sign, a police vehicle could transmit a similar message to adjacent vehicles. Even an ordinary driver who first appears on the scene and identifies a potential hazard can send this message to vehicles within range of the hazard and can tag this message as a high priority message. An infrastructure-based receiving station can receive such a message and notify the emergency crews that attention is immediately required at a particular location on the highway. In this manner, all vehicles that could be affected by such an event as well as urgency response organizations can be immediately notified as soon as a hazard, such as an accident, occurs thereby greatly reducing the response time and minimizing the chance of vehicles engaging the hazardous location. If a vehicle passes through a precise positioning location as described elsewhere herein, that vehicle (the vehicle's processor or computer) momentarily knows or can calculate the errors in the GPS signals and thus becomes a differential correction station. The error corrections can then be transmitted to nearby vehicles plus enhancing their knowledge of their position. If the PPS vehicle also has an onboard accurate clock, then the carrier phase of the satellite signals at the PPS location can be predicted and thus, as the vehicle leaves the PPS station, it can operate on carrier phase RTK differential GPS and thus know its position within centimeters or less. Similarly, if the phase of the carrier waves at PPS station is transmitted to adjacent vehicles, each vehicle also can operate on RTK carrier phase differential GPS. Thus, as many cars pass the PPS the accuracy with which each vehicle knows its position is continuously upgraded and at the time when the likelihood of collision between vehicles is a maximum, that is when many vehicles are traveling on a roadway, the accuracy with which each vehicle knows its location is also maximized. The RtZF™ system automatically improves as the danger of collision increases. Other information which a vehicle can transmit relates to the GPS signals that it is receiving. In this manner, another form of differential GPS can occur called relative differential GPS. Without necessarily improving the accuracy with which a given vehicle precisely knows its position, by comparing GPS signals from one vehicle to another, the relative location of two vehicles can again be very accurately determined within centimeters. This of course is particularly important for collision avoidance. Other information that can be readily transmitted either from vehicle to vehicle or from infrastructure-based stations to vehicles includes any recent map updates. Since a vehicle will generally always be listening, whenever a map update occurs this information can be received by a vehicle provided it is within range of a transmitter. This could occur overnight while the vehicle is in the garage, for example. Each vehicle would have a characteristic time indicating the freshness of the information in its local map database. As the vehicle travels and communicates with other vehicles, this date can be readily exchanged and if a particular vehicle has a later map version than the other vehicle, it would signal the first vehicle requesting that the differences between the two map databases be transmitted from the first to the second vehicle. This transmission can also occur between an infrastructure-based station and a vehicle. Satellites, cell phone towers, etc. can also be used for map updating purposes. If the operator of a particular vehicle wishes to send a text or voice message to another identified vehicle, this information can also be sent through the vehicle-to-vehicle communication system described herein. Similarly, interaction with the Internet via an infrastructure-based station can also be accomplished. In some cases, it may be desirable to access the Internet using communication channels with other vehicles. Perhaps, one vehicle has the satellite, Wi-Fi, Wimax or other link to the Internet while a second vehicle does not. The second vehicle could still communicate with the Internet through the first Internet-enabled vehicle. Through the communication system based on noise or pseudonoise communication as described above is ubiquitous, the number of paths through which information can be transmitted to and from a vehicle is substantially increased which also greatly increases the reliability of the system since multiple failures can occur without affecting the overall system operation. Thus, once again the goal of zero fatalities™ is approached through this use of vehicle-to-vehicle communication. By opening this new paradigm for communication between vehicles, and through the use of message relay from one vehicle to another, occupants of one vehicle can communicate with any other vehicle on a road. Similarly, through listening to infrastructure-based stations, the occupants can communicate with non-vehicle occupants. In many ways, this system supplements the cell phone system but is organized under totally different principles. In this case, the communication takes place without central stations or servers. Although servers and central stations can be attached to the system, the fundamental structure is one of independent nodes and temporary connections based on geographic proximity. The system is self limiting in that the more vehicles communicating, the higher the noise level and the more difficult it will be to separate more distant transmitters. When a vehicle is traveling in a rural environment, for example, where there are few sparsely located transmitters, the noise level will be low and communication with more distant vehicles facilitated. On the other hand, during rush hour, there will be many vehicles simultaneously communicating thus raising the noise level and limiting the ability of a receiver to receive distant transmissions. Thus, the system is automatically adjusting. There are several collision avoidance-based radar systems being implemented on vehicles on the highways today. The prominent systems include ForeWarn™ by Delco division of the Delphi Corporation and the Eaton Vorad systems. These systems are acceptable as long as few vehicles on the roads have such system. As the number of radar-equipped vehicles increases, the reliability of each system decreases as radar transmissions are received that originate from other vehicles. This problem can be solved through the use of noise radar as described in the various technical papers by Lukin et al. listed above. Noise radar typically operates in a limited band of frequencies similarly to spread spectrum technologies. Whereas spread spectrum utilizes a form of carrier frequency modulation, noise radar does not. It is carrier-less. Typically, a noise-generating device is incorporated into the radar transmitter such that the signal transmitted appears as noise to any receiver. A portion of the noise signal is captured as it is transmitted and fed to a delay line for later use in establishing a correlation with a reflected pulse. In the manner described in the Lukin et al. papers, the distance and velocity of a reflecting object relative to the transmitter can be readily determined and yet be detectable by any other receiver. Thus, a noise radar collision avoidance system such as discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 06,121,915, U.S. Pat. No. 05,291,202, U.S. Pat. No. 05,719,579, and U.S. Pat. No. 05,075,863 becomes feasible. Lukin et al. first disclosed this technology in the above-referenced papers. Although noise radar itself is not new, the utilization of noise radar for the precise positioning system described herein is not believed to have been previously disclosed by others. Similarly, the use of noise radar for detecting the presence of an occupant within a vehicle or of any object within a particular range of a vehicle is also not believed to have been previously disclosed by others. By setting the correlation interval, any penetration or motion of an object within that interval can be positively detected. Thus, if interval is sent at 2 meters, for example, the entire interior of a vehicle can be monitored with one simple device. If any object is moving within the vehicle, then this can readily detected. Similarly, the space being monitored can be limited to a portion of the interior of the vehicle such as the right passenger seat or the entire rear seat. In this manner, the presence of any moving object within that space can be determined and thus problems such as a hiding assailant or a child or animal left in a parked car can be addressed. A device placed in the trunk can monitor the motion of any object that has been trapped within the trunk thereby eliminating that well-known problem. The radar system to be used for the precise positioning system can also be used for monitoring the space around a vehicle. In this case, a simple structure involving the placement of four antennas on the vehicle roof, for example, can be used to locate and determine the velocity of any object approaching or in the vicinity of the vehicle. Using neural networks and the reflection received from the four antennas, the location and velocity of an object can be determined and by observing the signature using pattern recognition techniques such as neural networks, the object can be identified. Each antenna would send and receive noise radar waves from an angle of, for example, 180 degrees. One forward and one rear antenna could monitor the left side of the vehicle and one forward and one rear antenna could monitor the right side. Similarly, the two rear antennas could monitor the rear of the vehicle and the two forward antennas could monitor the forward part of the vehicle. In this manner, one simple system provides rear impact anticipatory sensing, automatic cruise control, forward impact anticipatory sensing, blind spot detection, and side impact anticipatory sensing. Since the duty cycle of the precise positioning system is small, most of the time would be available for monitoring the space surrounding the vehicle. Through the choice of the correlation interval and coding scheme (CDMA, noise, etc.), the distance monitored can also be controlled. In addition to the position-based code, an ID related to the type of vehicle could also be part of the code so that an interested vehicle may only wish to interrogate vehicles of a certain class such as emergency vehicles. Also having information about the vehicle type communicated to the host vehicle can quickly give an indication of the mass of the oncoming vehicle which, for example, could aid an anticipatory sensor in projecting the severity of an impending crash. Although it has been generally assumed that vehicle-to-vehicle communication will take place through a direct link or through an ad-hoc or mesh network, when Internet access becomes ubiquitous for vehicles, this communication could also take place via the Internet through a Wi-Fi or Wimax or equivalent link. Additionally, the use of an ad-hoc or mesh network for vehicle-to-vehicle communication especially to sending: relative location, velocity and vehicle mass information for collision avoidance purposes; GPS, DGPS, PPS related information for location determination and error correction purposes; traffic congestion or road condition information; weather or weather related information; and, vehicle type information particularly for emergency vehicle identification so that the host vehicle can take appropriate actions to allow freedom of passage for the emergency vehicle, are considered important parts of the present inventions. In fact, a mesh or ad-hoc network can greatly improve the working of an ubiquitous WI-Fl, Wimax or equivalent Internet system thereby extending the range of the wireless Internet system. This system also supports emergency vehicles sending warnings to vehicles that are in its path since it, and only it, will know its route from its present location to its destination. Such a system will permit significant advanced warning to vehicles on the route and also allow for the control of traffic lights based on its planned route long before it arrives at the lights. In this regard, see “Private Inventor Files Patent Application For Telematics-Based Public and Emergency First Responders Safety Advisory System”, ITS America News Release Feb. 13, 2004, for a discussion of a primitive but similar system. An alternate approach to using the code based on location system is to use a vehicle ID system in connection with an easily accessible central database that relates the vehicle ID to its location. Then communication can take place via a code based in the vehicle ID, or some equivalent method. 9. Infrastructure-to-Vehicle Communication Initial maps showing roadway lane and boundary location for the CONUS can be installed within the vehicle at the time of manufacture. The vehicle thereafter would check on a section-by-section basis whether it had the latest update information for the particular and surrounding locations where it is being operated. One method of verifying this information would be achieved if a satellite or Internet connection periodically broadcasts the latest date and time or version that each segment had been most recently updated. This matrix would amount to a small transmission requiring perhaps a few seconds of airtime. Any additional emergency information could also be broadcast in between the periodic transmissions to cover accidents, trees falling onto roads etc. If the periodic transmission were to occur every five minutes and if the motion of a vehicle were somewhat restricted until it had received a periodic transmission, the safety of the system can be assured. If the vehicle finds that it does not have the latest map information, vehicle-to-vehicle communication, vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, Internet communication (Wi-Fi, Wi-max or equivalent), or the cell phone in the vehicle can be used to log onto the Internet, for example, and the missing data downloaded. An alternate is for the GEOs, LEOs, or other satellites, to broadcast the map corrections directly. It is also possible that the map data could be off-loaded from a transmitter on the highway itself or at a gas station, for example, as discussed above. In that manner, the vehicles would only obtain that map information which is needed and the map information would always be up to the minute. As a minimum, temporary data communication stations can be placed before highway sections that are undergoing construction or where a recent blockage has occurred, as discussed above, and where the maps have not yet been updated. Such an emergency data transfer would be signaled to all approaching vehicles to reduce speed and travel with care. Such information could also contain maximum and minimum speed information which would limit the velocity of vehicles in the area. There is other information that would be particularly useful to a vehicle operator or control system, including in particular, the weather conditions, especially at the road surface. Such information could be obtained by road sensors and then transmitted to all vehicles in the area by a permanently installed system as disclosed above and in the current assignee's U.S. Pat. No. 06,662,642. Alternately, there have been recent studies that show that icing conditions on road surfaces, for example, can be accurately predicted by local meteorological stations and broadcast to vehicles in the area. If such a system is not present, then the best place to measure road friction is at the road surface and not on the vehicle. The vehicle requires advance information of an icing condition in order to have time to adjust its speed or take other evasive action. The same road-based or local meteorological transmitter system could be used to warn the operators of traffic conditions, construction delays etc. and to set the local speed limit. Once one vehicle in an area has discovered an icing condition, for example, this information can be immediately transmitted to all equipped vehicles through the vehicle-to-vehicle communication system discussed above. A number of forms of infrastructure-to-vehicle communication have been discussed elsewhere herein. These include map and differential GPS updating methods involving infrastructure stations which may be located at gas stations, for example. Also communications with precise positioning stations for GPS independent location determination have been discussed. Communications via the Internet using either satellite Internet services with electronic steerable antennas such as are available from KVH, Wi-Fi or Wimax which will undoubtedly become available ubiquitously throughout the CONUS, for example. All of the services that are now available on the Internet plus may new services will thus be available to vehicle operators and passengers. The updating of vehicle resident software will also become automatic via such links. The reporting of actual (diagnostics) and forecasted (prognostics) vehicle failures will also able to be communicated via one of these links to the authorities, the smart highway monitoring system, vehicle dealers and manufacturers (see U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/701,361). This application along with the inventions herein provide a method of notifying interested parties of the failure or forecasted failure of a vehicle component using a vehicle-to-infrastructure communication system. Such interested parties can include, but are not limited to: a vehicle manufacturer so that early failures on a new vehicle model can be discovered so as to permit an early correction of the problem; a dealer so that it can schedule fixing of the problem so as to provide for the minimum inconvenience of their customer and even, in some cases, dispatching a service vehicle to the location of the troubled vehicle; NHTSA so that they can track problems (such as for Firestone tire problem) before they become a national issue; the police, EMS, fire department and other emergency services so that they can prepare for a potential emergency etc. For example in “Release of Auto Safety Data Is Disputed”, New York Times Dec. 13, 2002 it is written “After Firestone tire failures on Ford Explorers led to a national outcry over vehicle safety, Congress ordered a watchdog agency to create an early-warning system for automotive defects that could kill or injure people.” The existence of the system disclosed herein would provide an automatic method for such a watchdog group to monitors all equipped vehicles on the nation's highways. As a preliminary solution, it is certainly within the state of the art today to require all vehicles to have an emergency locator beacon or equivalent that is impendent of the vehicle's electrical system and is activated on a crash, rollover or similar event. Although the '361 application primarily discusses diagnostic information for the purpose of reporting present or forecasted vehicle failures, there is of course a wealth of additional data that is available on a vehicle related to the vehicle operation, its location, its history etc. where an interested party may desire that such data be transferred to a site remote from the vehicle. Interested parties could include the authorities, parents, marketing organizations, the vehicle manufacturer, the vehicle dealer, stores or companies that may be in the vicinity of the vehicle, etc. There can be significant privacy concerns here which have not yet been addressed. Nevertheless, with the proper safeguards the capability described herein is enabled partially by the teachings of this invention. For critical functions where a software-induced system failure cannot be tolerated, even the processing may occur on the network achieving what pundits have been forecasting for years that “the network is the computer”. Vehicle operators will also have all of the functions now provided by specialty products such as PDAs, the Blackberry, cell phones etc. available as part of the infrastructure-to-vehicle communication systems disclosed herein. There are of course many methods of transferring data wirelessly in addition to the CDMA system described above. Methods using ultra wideband signals were first disclosed by the current assignee in previous patents and are reinforced here. Much depends of the will of the FCC as to what method will eventually prevail. Ultra wideband within the frequency limits set by the FCC is certainly a prime candidate and lends itself to the type of CDMA system where the code is derivable from the vehicle's location as determined, for example, by the GPS that this is certainly a preferred method for practicing the teachings disclosed herein. Note that different people may operate a particular vehicle and when a connection to the Internet is achieved, the Internet may not know the identity of the operator or passenger, for the case where the passenger wishes to operate the Internet. One solution is for the operator or passenger to insert a smart card, plug in their PDA or cell phone or otherwise electronically identify themselves. Transponders are contemplated by the inventions disclosed herein including SAW, RFID or other technologies that can be embedded within the roadway or on objects beside the roadway, in vehicle license plates, for example. An interrogator within the vehicle transmits power to the transponder and receives a return signal. Alternately, as disclosed above, the responding device can have its own source of power so that the vehicle located interrogator need only receive a signal in response to an initiated request. The source of power can be a battery, connection to an electric power source such as an AC circuit, solar collector, or in some cases the energy can be harvested from the environment where vibrations, for example, are present. The range of a license-mounted transponder, for example, can be greatly increased if such a vibration-based energy harvesting system is incorporated. Some of the systems disclosed herein make use of an energy beam that interrogates a reflector or retransmitting device. Such a device can be a sign as well as any pole with a mounted reflector, for example. In some cases, it will be possible for the infrastructure device to modify its message so that when interrogated it can provide information in addition to its location. A speed limit sign, for example, can return a variable code indicating the latest speed limit that then could have been set remotely by some responsible authority. Alternately, construction zones frequently will permit one speed when workers are absent and another when workers are present. The actual permitted speed can be transmitted to the vehicle when it is interrogated or as the vehicle passes. Thus, a sign or reflector could also be an active sign and this sign could be an active matrix organic display and solar collector that does not need a connection to a power line and yet provides both a visual message and transmits that message to the vehicle for in-vehicle signage. Each of these systems has the advantage that since minimal power is required to operate the infrastructure-based sign, it would not require connection to a power line. It would only transmit when asked to do so either by a transmission from the vehicle or by sensing that a vehicle is present. A key marketing point for OnStar® is their one button system. This idea can be generalized in that a vehicle operator can summon help or otherwise send a desired message to a remoter site by pushing a single button. The message sent can just be a distress message or it can perform a particular function selected by the vehicle depending on the emergency or from a menu selected by the operator. Thus, the OnStar® one button concept is retained but the message can be different for different situations. 10. The RtZF™ System 10.1 Technical Issues From the above discussion, two conclusions should be evident. There are significant advantages in accurately knowing where the vehicle, the roadway and other vehicles are and that possession of this information is the key to reducing fatalities to zero. Second, there are many technologies that are already in existence that can provide this information to each vehicle. Once there is a clear, recognized direction that this is the solution, then many new technologies will emerge. There is nothing inherently expensive about these technologies and once the product life cycle is underway, the added cost to vehicle purchasers will be minimal. Roadway infrastructure costs will be minimal and system maintenance costs almost non-existent. Most importantly, the system has the capability of reducing fatalities to zero! The accuracy of DGPS has been demonstrated numerous times in small controlled experiments, most recently by the University of Minnesota and SRI. The second technical problem is the integrity of the signals being received and the major cause of the lack of integrity is the multi-path effect. Considerable research has gone into solving the multi-path effect and Trimble, for example, claims that this problem is no longer an issue. The third area is availability of GPS and DGPS signals to the vehicle as it is driving down the road. The system is designed to tolerate temporary losses of signal, up to a few minutes. That is the prime function of the inertial navigation system (INS or IMU). Prolonged absence of the GPS signal will significantly degrade system performance. There are two primary causes of lack of availability, namely, temporary causes and permanent causes. Temporary causes result from a car driving between two trucks for an extended period of time, blocking the GPS signals. The eventual solution to this problem is to change the laws to prevent trucks from traveling on both sides of an automobile. If this remains a problem, a warning will be provided to the driver that he/she is losing system integrity and therefore he/she should speed up or slow down to regain a satellite view. This could also be done automatically. Additionally, the vehicle can obtain its location information through vehicle-to-vehicle communication plus a ranging system so that if the vehicle learns the exact location of the adjacent vehicle and its relative location, then it can determine its absolute location. Of course, if the precise positioning system is able to interrogate the environment, then the problem is also solved via the PPS system. Permanent blockage of the GPS signals, as can come from operating the vehicle in a tunnel or downtown of a large city, can be corrected through the use of pseudolites or other guidance systems such as the SnapTrack system or the PPS described here. This is not a serious problem since very few cars run off the road in a tunnel or in downtown areas. Eventually, it is expected that the PPS will become ubiquitous thereby rendering GPS as the backup system. Additional methods for location determine to aid in reacquiring the satellite lock include various methods based on cell phones and other satellite systems such as the Skybitz system that can locate a device with minimal information. The final technical impediment is the operation of the diagnostic system that verifies that the system is operating properly. This requires an extensive failure mode and effect analysis and the design of a diagnostic system that answers all of the concerns of the FMEA. 10.2 Cost Issues The primary cost impediment is the cost of the DGPS hardware. A single base station and roving receiver that will give an accuracy of 2 centimeters (1 σ) currently costs about $25,000. This is a temporary situation brought about by low sales volume. Since there is nothing exotic in the receiving unit, the cost can be expected to follow typical automotive electronic life-cycle costs and therefore the projected high volume production cost of the electronics for the DGPS receivers is below $100 per vehicle. In the initial implementation of the system, an OmniSTAR™ DGPS system will be used providing an accuracy of 6 cm. The U.S. national DGPS system is now coming on line and thus the cost of the DGPS corrections will soon approach zero. A similar argument can be made for the inertial navigation system. Considerable research and development effort is ongoing to reduce the size, complexity and cost of these systems. Three technologies are vying for this rapidly growing market: laser gyroscopes, fiber-optic lasers, and MEMS systems. The cost of these units today range from a few hundred to ten thousand dollars each, however, once again this is due to the very small quantity being sold. Substantial improvements are being made in the accuracies of the MEMS systems and it now appears that such a system will be accurate enough for RtZF™ purposes. The cost of these systems in high-volume production is expected to be on the order of ten dollars each. This includes at least a yaw rate sensor with three accelerometers and probably three angular rate sensors. The accuracy of these units is currently approximately 0.003 degrees per second. This is a random error which can be corrected somewhat by the use of multiple vibrating elements. A new laser gyroscope has recently been announced by Intellisense Corporation which should provide a dramatic cost reduction and accuracy improvement. One of the problems keeping the costs high is the need in the case of MEMS sensors to go through an extensive calibration process where the effects of all influences such as temperature, pressure, vibration, and age is determined and a constitute equation is derived for each device. A key factor in the system of the inventions here is that this extensive calibration process is eliminated and the error corrections for the IMU are determined after it is mounted on the vehicle through the use of a Kalman filter, or equivalent, coupled with input from the GPS and DGPS system and the precise positioning system. Other available sensors are also used depending on the system. These include a device for measuring the downward direction of the earth's magnetic field, a flux gage compass, a magnetic compass, a gravity sensor, the vehicle speedometer and odometer, the ABS sensors including wheel speed sensors, and whatever additional appropriate sensors that are available. Over time, the system can learn of the properties of each component that makes up the IMU and derive the constituent equation for that component which, although it will have little effect on the instantaneous accuracy of the component, it will affect the long term accuracy and speed up the calculations. Eventually, when most vehicles on the road have the RtZF™ system, communication between the vehicles can be used to substantially improve the location accuracy of each vehicle as described above. The cost of mapping the CONUS is largely an unknown at this time. OmniSTAR® has stated that they will map any area with sufficient detail at a cost of $300 per mile. They have also indicated the cost will drop substantially as the number of miles to be mapped increases. This mapping would be done by helicopter using cameras and their laser ranging system. Another method is to outfit a ground vehicle with equipment that will determine the location of the lane and shoulder boundaries of road and other information. Such a system has been used for mapping a Swedish highway. One estimate is that the mapping of a road will be reduced to approximately $50 per mile for major highways and rural roads and a somewhat higher number for urban areas. The goal is to map the country to an accuracy of 2 to 10 centimeters (1 σ). Related to the costs of mapping is the cost of converting the raw data acquired either by helicopter or by ground vehicle into a usable map database. The cost for manually performing this vectorization process has been estimated at $100 per mile by OmniSTAR®. This process can be substantially simplified through the use of raster-to-vector conversion software. Such software is currently being used for converting hand drawings into CAD systems, for example. The Intergraph Corp. provides hardware and software for simplifying this task. It is therefore expected that the cost for vectorization of the map data will follow proportionately a similar path to the cost of acquiring the data and may eventually reach $10 to $20 per mile for the rural mapping and $25 to a $50 per mile for urban areas. Considering that there are approximately four million miles of roads in the CONUS, and assuming we can achieve an average of $150 for acquiring the data and converting the data to a GIS database can be achieved, the total cost for mapping all of the roads in U.S. will amount to $600 million. This cost would obviously be spread over a number of years and thus the cost per year is manageable and small in comparison to the $215 billion lost every year due to death, injury and lost time from traffic congestion. Another cost factor is the lack of DGPS base stations. The initial analysis indicated that this would be a serious problem as using the latest DGPS technology requires a base station every 30 miles. Upon further research, however, it has been determined that the OmniSTAR company has now deployed a nationwide WADGPS system with 6 cm accuracy. The initial goal of the RtZF™ system was to achieve 2 cm accuracy for both mapping and vehicle location. The 2 cm accuracy can be obtained in the map database since temporary differential base stations will be installed for the mapping purposes. By relaxing the 2 cm requirement to 6 cm, the need for base stations every 30 miles disappears and the cost of adding a substantial number of base stations is no longer a factor. The next impediment is the lack of a system for determining when changes are planned for the mapped roads. This will require communication with all highway and road maintenance organizations in the mapped area. A similar impediment to the widespread implementation of this RtZF™ system is the lack of a communication system for supplying map changes to the equipped vehicles. 10.3 Educational Issues A serious impediment to the implementation of this system that is related to the general lack of familiarity with the system, is the belief that significant fatalities and injuries on U.S. highways are a fact of life. This argument is presented in many forms such as “the perfect is the enemy of the good”. This leads to the conclusion that any system that portends to reduce injury should be implemented rather than taking the viewpoint that driving an automobile is a process and as such it can be designed to achieve perfection. As soon as it is admitted that perfection cannot be achieved, then any fatality gets immediately associated with this fact. This of course was the prevailing view among all manufacturing executives until the zero defects paradigm shift took place. The goal of the “Zero Fatalities”™ program is not going to be achieved in a short period of time. Nevertheless, to plan anything short of zero fatalities is to admit defeat and to thereby allow technologies to enter the market that are inconsistent with a zero fatalities goal. 10.4 Potential Benefits when the System is Deployed. 10.4.1 Assumptions for the Application Benefits Analysis The high volume incremental cost of an automobile will be $200. The cost of DGPS correction signals will be a onetime charge of $50 per vehicle. The benefits to the vehicle owner from up-to-date maps and to the purveyors of services located on these maps. will cover the cost of updating the maps as the roads change. The cost of mapping substantially all roads in the CONUS will be $600 million. The effects of phasing in the system will be ignored. There are 15 million vehicles sold in the U.S. each year. Of the 40,000 plus people killed on the roadways, at least 10% are due to road departure, yellow line infraction, stop sign infraction, excessive speed and other causes which will be eliminated by the Phase Zero deployment. $165 billion are lost each year due to highway accidents. The cost savings due to secondary benefits will be ignored. 10.4.2 Analysis Methods Described. The analysis method will be quite simple. Assume that 10% of the vehicles on the road will be equipped with RtZF™ systems in the first year and that this will increase by 10% each year. Ten percent or 4000 lives will be saved and a comparable percentage of injuries. Thus, in the first year, one percent of $165 billion dollars will be saved or $1.65 billion. In the second year, this saving will be $3.3 billion and the third year $4.95 billion. The first-year cost of implementation of the system will be $600 million for mapping and $3.75 billion for installation onto vehicles. The first year cost therefore will be $4.35 billion and the cost for the second and continuing years will be $3.75 billion. Thus, by the third year, the benefits exceed the costs and by the 10th year, the benefits will reach $16.5 billion compared with costs of $3.75 billion yielding a benefits-to-cost ratio of more than 4. Before the fifth year of deployment, it is expected that the other parts of the RtZF™ system will begin to be deployed and that the benefits therefore are substantially understated. It is also believed that the $250 price for the Phase Zero system on a long-term basis is high and it is expected that the price to drop substantially. No attempt has been made to estimate the value of the time saved in congestion or efficient operation of the highway system. Estimates that have been presented by others indicate that as much as a two to three times improvement in traffic through flow is possible. Thus, a substantial portion of the $50 billion per year lost in congestion delays will also be saved when the full RtZF™ system is implemented. It is also believed that the percentage reduction of fatalities and injuries has been substantially understated. For the first time, there will be some control over the drunk or otherwise incapacitated driver. If the excessive speed feature is implemented, then gradually the cost of enforcing the nation's speed limits will begin to be substantially reduced. Since it is expected that large trucks will be among first vehicles to be totally covered with the system, perhaps on a retrofit basis, it is expected that the benefits to commercial vehicle owners and operators will be substantial. The retrofit market may rapidly develop and the assumptions of vehicles with deployed systems may be low. None of these effects have been taken into account in the above analysis. The automated highway systems resulting from RtZF™ implementation is expected to double or even triple in effective capacity by increasing speeds and shortening distances between vehicles. Thus, the effect on highway construction cost could be significant. 10.5 Initial System Deployment The initial implementation of the RtZF™ system would include the following services: 1. A warning is issued to the driver when the driver is about to depart from the road. 2. A warning is issued to the driver when the driver is about to cross a yellow line or other lane boundary. 3. A warning is provided to the driver when the driver is exceeding a safe speed limit for the road geometry. 4. A warning is provided to the driver when the driver is about to go through a stop sign without stopping. 5. A warning is provided to the driver when the driver is about to run the risk of a rollover. 6. A warning will be issued prior to a rear end impact by the equipped vehicle. 7. In-vehicle signage will be provided for highway signs (perhaps with a multiple language option). 8. A recording will be logged whenever a warning is issued. 10.6 Other Uses The RtZF™ system can replace vehicle crash and rollover sensors for airbag deployment and other sensors now on or being considered for automobile vehicles including pitch, roll and yaw sensors. This information is available from the IMU and is far more accurate than these other sensors. It can also be found by using carrier phase GPS by adding more antennas to the vehicle. Additionally, once the system is in place for land vehicles, there will be many other applications such as surveying, vehicle tracking and aircraft landing which will benefit from the technology and infrastructure improvements. The automobile safety issue and ITS will result in the implementation of a national system which provides any user with low cost equipment the ability to know precisely where he is within centimeters on the face of the earth. Many other applications will undoubtedly follow. 10.7 Road Departure FIG. 4 is a logic diagram of the system 50 in accordance with the invention showing the combination 40 of the GPS and DGPS processing systems 42 and an inertial reference unit (IRU) or inertial navigation system (INS) or Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) 44. The GPS system includes a unit for processing the received information from the satellites 2 of the GPS satellite system, the information from the satellites 30 of the DGPS system and data from the inertial reference unit 44. The inertial reference unit 44 contains accelerometers and laser or MEMS gyroscopes. The system shown in FIG. 4 is a minimal RtZF™ system that can be used to prevent road departure, lane crossing and intersection accidents, which together account for more than about 50% of the fatal accidents in the U.S. Map database 48 works in conjunction with a navigation system 46 to provide a warning to the driver when he or she is about to run off the road, cross a center (yellow) line, run a stop sign, or run a red stoplight. The map database 48 contains a map of the roadway to an accuracy of 2 cm (1 σ), i.e., data on the edges of the lanes of the roadway and the edges of the roadway, and the location of all stop signs and stoplights and other traffic control devices such as other types of road signs. Another sensor, not shown, provides input to the vehicle indicating that an approaching stoplight is red, yellow or green. Navigation system 46 is coupled to the GPS and DGPS processing system 42. For this simple system, the driver is warned if any of the above events is detected by a driver warning system 45 coupled to the navigation system 46. The driver warning system 45 can be an alarm, light, buzzer or other audible noise, or, preferably, a simulated rumble strip for yellow line and “running off of road” situations and a combined light and alarm for the stop sign and stoplight infractions. 10.8 Accident Avoidance FIG. 5 is a block diagram of the more advanced accident avoidance system of this invention and method of the present invention illustrating system sensors, transceivers, computers, displays, input and output devices and other key elements. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the vehicle accident avoidance system is implemented using a variety of microprocessors and electronic circuits 100 to interconnect and route various signals between and among the illustrated subsystems. GPS receiver 52 is used to receive GPS radio signals as illustrated in FIG. 1. DGPS receiver 54 receives the differential correction signals from one or more base stations either directly or via a geocentric stationary or LEO satellite, an earth-based station or other means. Inter-vehicle communication subsystem 56 is used to transmit and receive information between various nearby vehicles. This communication will in general take place via broad band or ultra-broad band communication techniques, or on dedicated frequency radio channels, or in the preferred mode, noise communication system as described above. This communication may be implemented using multiple access communication methods including FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA, or noise communication system, in a manner to permit simultaneous communication with and between a plurality of vehicles. Other forms of communication between vehicles are possible such as through the Internet. This communication may include such information as the precise location of a vehicle, the latest received signals from the GPS satellites in view, other road condition information, emergency signals, hazard warnings, vehicle velocity and intended path, and any other information which is useful to improve the safety of the vehicle road system. Infrastructure communication system 58 permits bidirectional communication between the host vehicle and the infrastructure and includes such information transfer as updates to the digital maps, weather information, road condition information, hazard information, congestion information, temporary signs and warnings, and any other information which can improve the safety of the vehicle highway system. Cameras 60 are used generally for interrogating environment nearby the host vehicle for such functions as blind spot monitoring, backup warnings, anticipatory crash sensing, visibility determination, lane following, and any other visual information which is desirable for improving the safety of the vehicle highway system. Generally, the cameras will be sensitive to infrared and/or visible light, however, in some cases a passive infrared camera will the used to detect the presence of animate bodies such as deer or people on the roadway in front of the vehicle. Frequently, infrared or visible illumination will be provided by the host vehicle. Radar 62 is primarily used to scan an environment close to and further from the vehicle than the range of the cameras and to provide an initial warning of potential obstacles in the path of the vehicle. The radar 62 can also be used when conditions of a reduced visibility are present to provide advance warning to the vehicle of obstacles hidden by rain, fog, snow etc. Pulsed, continuous wave, noise or micropower impulse radar systems can be used as appropriate. Also, Doppler radar principles can be used to determine the object to host vehicle relative velocity. Laser or terahertz radar 64 is primarily used to illuminate potential hazardous objects in the path of the vehicle. Since the vehicle will be operating on accurate mapped roads, the precise location of objects discovered by the radar or camera systems can be determined using range gating and scanning laser radar as described above or by phase techniques. The driver warning system 66 provides visual and/or audible warning messages to the driver or others that a hazard exists. In addition to activating a warning system within the vehicle, this system can activate sound and/or light systems to warn other people, animals, or vehicles of a pending hazardous condition. In such cases, the warning system could activate the vehicle headlights, tail lights, horn and/or the vehicle-to-vehicle, Internet or infrastructure communication system to inform other vehicles, a traffic control station or other base station. This system will be important during the early stages of implementation of RtZF™, however as more and more vehicles are equipped with the system, there will be less need to warn the driver or others of potential problems. Map database subsystem 68, which could reside on an external memory module, will contain all of the map information such as road edges up to 2 cm accuracy, the locations of stop signs, stoplights, lane markers etc. as described in detail above. The fundamental map data can be organized on read-only magnetic or optical memory with a read/write associated memory for storing map update information. Alternatively, the map information can be stored on rewritable media that can be updated with information from the infrastructure communication subsystem 58. This updating can take place while the vehicle is being operated or, alternatively, while the vehicle is parked in a garage or on the street. Three servos are provided for controlling the vehicle during the later stages of implementation of the RtZF™ product and include a brake servo 70, a steering servo 72, and a throttle servo 74. The vehicle can be controlled using deterministic, fuzzy logic, neural network or, preferably, neural-fuzzy algorithms. As a check on the inertial system, a velocity sensor 76 based on a wheel speed sensor, or ground speed monitoring system using lasers, radar or ultrasonics, for example, can be provided for the system. A radar velocity meter is a device which transmits a noise modulated radar pulse toward the ground at an angle to the vertical and measures the Doppler velocity of the returned signal to provide an accurate measure of the vehicle velocity relative to the ground. Another radar device can be designed which measures the displacement of the vehicle. Other modulation techniques and other radar systems can be used to achieve similar results. Other systems are preferably used for this purpose such as the GPS/DGPS or precise position systems. The inertial navigation system (INS), sometimes called the inertial reference unit or IRU, comprises one or more accelerometers 78 and one or more gyroscopes 80. Usually, three accelerometers would be required to provide the vehicle acceleration in the latitude, longitude and vertical directions and three gyroscopes would be required to provide the angular rate about the pitch, yaw and roll axes. In general, a gyroscope would measure the angular rate or angular velocity. Angular acceleration may be obtained by differentiating the angular rate. A gyroscope 80, as used herein in the IRU, includes all kinds of gyroscopes such as MEMS-based gyroscopes, fiber optic gyroscopes (FOG) and accelerometer based gyroscopes. Accelerometer-based gyroscopes encompass a situation where two accelerometers are placed apart and the difference in the acceleration is used to determine angular acceleration and a situation where an accelerometer is placed on a vibrating structure and the Coriolis effect is used to obtain the angular velocity. The possibility of an accelerometer-based gyroscope 80 in the IRU is made possible by construction of a suitable gyroscope by Interstate Electronics Corporation (IEC). IEC manufactures IMUs in volume based on PSCIRAS (micro-machined Silicon Coriolis Inertial Rate and Acceleration Sensor) accelerometers. Detailed information about this device can be found at the IEC website at iechome.com. There are two ways to measure angular velocity (acceleration) using accelerometers. The first way involves installing the accelerometers at a distance from one another and calculating the angular velocity by the difference of readings of the accelerometers using dependencies between the centrifugal and tangential accelerations and the angular velocity/acceleration. This way requires significant accuracy of the accelerometers. The second way is based on the measurement of the Coriolis acceleration that arises when the mass of the sensing element moves at a relative linear speed and the whole device performs a transportation rotation about the perpendicular axis. This principle is a basis of all mechanical gyroscopes, including micromachined ones. The difference of this device is that the micromachined devices aggregate the linear oscillation excitation system and the Coriolis acceleration measurement system, while two separate devices are used in the proposed second method. The source of linear oscillations is the mechanical vibration suspension, and the Coriolis acceleration sensors are the micromachined accelerometers. On one hand, the presence of two separate devices makes the instrument bigger, but on the other hand, it enables the use of more accurate sensors to measure the Coriolis acceleration. In particular, compensating accelerometer systems could be used which are more accurate by an order of magnitude than open structures commonly used in micromachined gyroscopes. Significant issues involved in the construction of an accelerometer-based gyroscope are providing a high sensitivity of the device, a system for measuring the suspension vibration, separating the signals of angular speed and linear acceleration; filtering noise in the output signals of the device at the suspension frequency, providing a correlation between errors in the channels of angular speed and linear acceleration, considering the effect of nonlinearity of the accelerometers and the suspension on the error of the output signals. A typical MEMS-based gyroscope uses a quartz tuning fork. The vibration of the tuning fork, along with applied angular rotation (yaw rate of the car), creates Coriolis acceleration on the tuning fork. An accelerometer or strain gage attached to the tuning fork measures the minute Coriolis force. Signal output is proportional to the size of the tuning fork. To generate enough output signal, the tuning fork must vibrate forcefully. Often, this can be accomplished with a high Q structure. Manufacturers often place the tuning fork in a vacuum to minimize mechanical damping by air around the tuning fork. High Q structures can be fairly fragile. The gyroscope often experiences shock and vibration because it must be rigidly connected to the car to accurately measure yaw rate. This mechanical noise can introduce signals to the Coriolis pick-off accelerometer that is several orders of magnitude higher than the tuning-fork-generated Coriolis signal. Separating the signal from the noise is not easy. Often, the shock or vibration saturates the circuitry and makes the gyroscope output unreliable for a short time. Conventional MEMS-based gyroscopes are usually bulky (100 cm3 or more is not uncommon). This is partly the result of the addition of mechanical antivibration mounts, which are incorporated to minimize sensitivity to external vibration. New MEMS-based gyroscopes avoid these shortcomings, though. For example, Analog Devices' iMEMS gyro is expected to be 7 by 7 by 3 mm (0.15 cm3). Rather than quartz, it uses a resonating polysilicon beam structure, which creates the velocity element that produces the Coriolis force when angular rate is presented to it. At the outer edges of the polysilicon beam, orthogonal to the resonating motion, a capacitive accelerometer measures the Coriolis force. The gyroscope has two sets of beams in antiphase that are placed next to each other, and their outputs are read differentially, attenuating external vibration sensitivity. An accelerometer 78, as used herein in the IRU, includes conventional piezoelectric-based accelerometers, MEMS-based accelerometers (such as made by Analog Devices) and the type as described in US06182509 entitled “Accelerometer without proof mass”. Display subsystem 82 includes an appropriate display driver and either a heads-up or other display system for providing system information to the vehicle operator. The information can be in the form of non-critical information such as the location of the vehicle on a map, as selected by the vehicle operator and/or it can include warning or other emergency messages provided by the vehicle subsystems or from communication with other vehicles or the infrastructure. An emergency message that the road has been washed out ahead, for example, would be an example of such a message. Generally, the display will make use of icons when the position of the host vehicle relative to obstacles or other vehicles is displayed. Occasionally, as the image can be displayed especially when the object cannot be identified. A general memory unit 84 which can comprise read-only memory or random access memory or any combination thereof, is shown. This memory module, which can be either located at one place or distributed throughout the system, supplies the information storage capability for the system. For advanced RtZF™ systems containing the precise positioning capability, subsystem 86 provides the capability of sending and receiving information to infrastructure-based precise positioning tags or devices which may be based on noise or micropower impulse radar technology, radar reflector or RFIR technology or equivalent. Once again, the PPS system can also be based on a signature analysis using the adaptive associative memory technology or equivalent. In some locations where weather conditions can deteriorate and degrade road surface conditions, various infrastructure-based sensors can be placed either in or adjacent to the road surface. Subsystem 88 is designed to interrogate and obtained information from such road-based systems. An example of such a system would be an RFID tag containing a temperature sensor. This device may be battery-powered or, preferably, would receive its power from the vehicle-mounted interrogator, or other host vehicle-mounted source, as the vehicle passes nearby the device. In this manner, the vehicle can obtain the temperature of the road surface and receive advanced warning when the temperature is approaching conditions which could cause icing of the roadway, for example. An RFID based on a surface acoustic wave (SAW) device is one preferred example of such a sensor, see U.S. Pat. No. 06,662,642. An infrared sensor on the vehicle can also be used to determine the road temperature and the existence of ice or snow. In order to completely eliminate automobile accidents, a diagnostic system is required on the vehicle that will provide advanced warning of any potential vehicle component failures. Such a system is described in U.S. Pat. No. 05,809,437 (Breed). For some implementations of the RtZF™ system, stoplights will be fitted with transmitters which will broadcast a signal when the light is red. Such a system could make use of the vehicle noise communication system as described above. This signal can be then received by a vehicle that is approaching the stoplight provided that vehicle has the proper sensor as shown as 92. Alternatively, a camera can be aimed in the direction of stoplights and, since the existence of the stoplight will be known by the system, as it will have been recorded on the map, the vehicle will know when to look for a stoplight and determine the color of the light. An alternative idea is for the vehicle to broadcast a signal to the stoplight if, via a camera or other means, it determines that the light is red. If there are no vehicles coming from the other direction, the light can change permitting the vehicle to proceed without stopping. Similarly, if the stoplight has a camera, it can look in all directions and control the light color depending on the number of vehicles approaching from each direction. A system of phasing vehicles can also be devised whereby the speed of approaching vehicles is controlled so that they interleave through the intersection and the stoplight may not be necessary. Although atomic clocks are probably too expensive to the deployed on automobiles, nevertheless there has been significant advances recently in the accuracy of clocks to the extent that it is now feasible to place a reasonably accurate clock as a subsystem 94 to this system. Since the clock can be recalibrated from each DGPS transmission, the clock drift can be accurately measured and used to predict the precise time even though the clock by itself may be incapable of doing so. To the extent that the vehicle contains an accurate time source, the satellites in view requirement can temporarily drop from 4 to 3. An accurate clock also facilitates the carrier phase DGPS implementations of the system as discussed above. Additionally, as long as a vehicle knows approximately where it is on the roadway, it will know its altitude from the map and thus one less satellite is necessary. Power must be supplied to the system as shown by power subsystem 96. Certain operator controls are also permitted as illustrated in subsystem 98. The control processor or central processor and circuit board subsystem 100 to which all of the above components 52-98 are coupled, performs such functions as GPS ranging, DGPS corrections, image analysis, radar analysis, laser radar scanning control and analysis of received information, warning message generation, map communication, vehicle control, inertial navigation system calibrations and control, display control, precise positioning calculations, road condition predictions, and all other functions needed for the system to operate according to design. A display could be provided for generating and displaying warning messages which is visible to the driver and/or passengers of the vehicle. The warning could also be in the form of an audible tone, a simulated rumble strip and light and other similar ways to attract the attention of the driver and/or passengers. Vehicle control also encompasses control over the vehicle to prevent accidents. By considering information from the map database 48 of the navigation system 46, and the position of the vehicle obtained via GPS systems, a determination can be made whether the vehicle is about to run off the road, cross a yellow line and run a stop sign, as well as the existence or foreseen occurrence of other potential crash situations. The color of an approaching stoplight can also be factored in the vehicle control. FIG. 5A shows a selected reduced embodiment of the accident avoidance system shown in FIG. 5. The system includes an inertial reference unit including a plurality of accelerometers and gyroscopes, namely accelerometers 78A, preferably three of any type disclosed above, and gyroscopes 80A, preferably three of any type disclosed above. A clock 94A is provided to obtain a time base or time reference. This system will accurately determine the motion (displacement, acceleration and/or velocity) of the vehicle in 6 degrees of freedom (3 displacements (longitudinal, lateral and vertical) via the accelerometers 78A and three rotations (pitch, yaw and roll) via the gyroscopes 80A. As such, along with a time base from clock 94A, the processor 100A can determine that there was an accident and precisely what type of accident it was in terms of the motion of the vehicle (frontal, side, rear and rollover). This system is different from a crash sensor in that this system can reside in the passenger compartment of the vehicle where it is protected from actually being in the accident crush and/or crash zones and thus it does not have to forecast the accident severity. It knows the resulting vehicle motion and therefore exactly what the accident was and what the injury potential is. A typical crash sensor can get destroyed or at least rotated during the crash and thus will not determine the real severity of the accident. Processor 100A is coupled to the inertial reference unit and also is capable of performing the functions of vehicle control, such as via control of the brake system 70A, steering system 72A and velocity sensor 74A, crash sensing, rollover sensing, cassis control sensing, navigation functions and accident prevention as discussed herein. Preferably, a Kalman filter is used to optimize the data from the inertial reference unit as well as other input sources of data, signals or information. Also, a neural network, fuzzy logic or neural-fuzzy system could be used to reduce the data obtained from the various sensors to a manageable and optimal set. The actual manner in which a Kalman filter can be constructed and used in the invention would be left to one skilled in the art. Note that in the system of the inventions disclosed herein, the extensive calibration process carried on by other suppliers of inertial sensors is not required since the system periodically corrects the errors in the sensors and revises the calibration equation. This in some cases can reduce the manufacturing cost on the IMU by a factor of ten. Further, the information from the accelerometers 78A and gyroscopes 80A in conjunction with the time base or reference is transmittable via the communication system 56A,58A to other vehicles, possibly for the purpose of enabling other vehicles to avoid accidents with the host vehicle, and/or to infrastructure. One particularly useful function would be for the processor to send data from, or data derived from, the accelerometers and gyroscopes relating to a crash, i.e., indicative of the severity of the accident with the potential for injury to occupants, to a monitoring location for the dispatch of emergency response personnel, i.e., an EMS facility or fire station. Other telematics functions could also be provided. 10.9 Exterior Surveillance System FIG. 6 is a block diagram of the host vehicle exterior surveillance system. Cameras 60 are primarily intended for observing the immediate environment of the vehicle. They are used for recognizing objects that could be most threatening to the vehicle, i.e., closest to the vehicle. These objects include vehicles or other objects that are in the vehicle blind spot, objects or vehicles that are about to impact the host vehicle from any direction, and objects either in front of or behind the host vehicle which the host vehicle is about to impact. These functions are normally called blind spot monitoring and collision anticipatory sensors. As discussed above, the cameras 60 can use naturally occurring visible or infrared radiation, or other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum including terahertz and x-rays, or they may be supplemented with sources of visible or infrared illumination from the host vehicle. Note that there generally is little naturally occurring terahertz radiation other than the amount that occurs in black body radiation from all sources. The cameras 60 used are preferably high dynamic range cameras that have a dynamic range exceeding 60 db and preferably exceeding 100 db. Such commercially available cameras include those manufactured by the Photobit Corporation in California and the IMS Chips Company in Stuttgart Germany. Alternately, various other means exist for increasing the effective dynamic range through shutter control or illumination control using a Kerr or Pockel cell, modulated illumination, external pixel integration etc. These cameras are based on CMOS technology and can have the important property that pixels are independently addressable. Thus, the control processor may decide which pixels are to be read at a particular time. This permits the system to concentrate on certain objects of interest and thereby make more effective use of the available bandwidth. Video processor printed circuit boards or feature extractor 61 can be located adjacent and coupled to the cameras 60 so as to reduce the information transferred to the control processor. The video processor feature extractor 61 can also perform the function of feature extraction so that all values of all pixels do not need to be sent to the neural network for identification processing. The feature extraction includes such tasks as determining the edges of objects in the scene and, in particular, comparing and subtracting one scene from another to eliminate unimportant background images and to concentrate on those objects which had been illuminated with infrared or terahertz radiation, for example, from the host vehicle. By these and other techniques, the amount of information to be transferred to the neural network is substantially reduced. The neural network 63 receives the feature data extracted from the camera images by the video processor feature extractor 61 and uses this data to determine the identification of the object in the image. The neural network 63 has been previously trained on a library of images that can involve as many as one million such images. Fortunately, the images seen from one vehicle are substantially the same as those seen from another vehicle and thus the neural network 63 in general does not need to be trained for each type of host vehicle. As the number of image types increases, modular or combination neural networks can be used to simplify the system. Although the neural network 63 has in particular been described, other pattern recognition techniques are also applicable. One such technique uses the Fourier transform of the image and utilizes either optical correlation techniques or a neural network trained on the Fourier transforms of the images rather than on the image itself. In one case, the optical correlation is accomplished purely optically wherein the Fourier transform of the image is accomplished using diffraction techniques and projected onto a display, such as a garnet crystal display, while a library of the object Fourier transforms is also displayed on the display. By comparing the total light passing through the display, an optical correlation can be obtained very rapidly. Although such a technique has been applied to scene scanning by military helicopters, it has previously not been used in automotive applications. The laser radar system 64 is typically used in conjunction with a scanner 65. The scanner 65 typically includes two oscillating mirrors, or a MEMS mirror capable of oscillating in two dimensions, which cause the laser light to scan the two-dimensional angular field. Alternately, the scanner can be a solid-state device utilizing a crystal having a high index of refraction which is driven by an ultrasonic vibrator as discussed above or rotating mirrors. The ultrasonic vibrator establishes elastic waves in the crystal which diffracts and changes the direction of the laser light. The laser beam can be frequency, amplitude, time, code or noise modulated so that the distance to the object reflecting the light can be determined. The laser light strikes an object and is reflected back where it is guided onto a pin diode, or other high speed photo detector. Since the direction of laser light is known, the angular location of the reflected object is also known and since the laser light is modulated the distance to the reflected point can be determined. By varying modulation frequency of the laser light, or through noise or code modulation, the distance can be very precisely measured. Alternatively, the time-of-flight of a short burst of laser light can be measured providing a direct reading of the distance to the object that reflected the light. By either technique, a three-dimensional map can be made of the surface of the reflecting object. Objects within a certain range of the host vehicle can be easily separated out using the range information. This can be done electronically using a technique called range gating, or it can be accomplished mathematically based on the range data. By this technique, an image of an object can be easily separated from other objects based on distance from the host vehicle. Since the vehicle knows its position accurately and in particular it knows the lane on which it is driving, a determination can be made of the location of any reflective object and in particular whether or not the reflective object is on the same lane as the host vehicle. This fact can be determined since the host vehicle has a map and the reflective object can be virtually placed on that map to determine its location on the roadway, for example. The laser radar system will generally operate in the near infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The laser beam will be of relatively high intensity compared to the surrounding radiation and thus even in conditions of fog, snow, and heavy rain, the penetration of the laser beam and its reflection will permit somewhat greater distance observations than the human driver can perceive. Under the RtZF™ plan, it is recommended that the speed of the host vehicle be limited such that vehicle can come to a complete stop in one half or less of the visibility distance. This will permit the laser radar system to observe and identify threatening objects that are beyond the visibility distance, apply the brakes to the vehicle if necessary causing the vehicle to stop prior to an impact, providing an added degree of safety to the host vehicle. Radar system 62 is mainly provided to supplement laser radar system. It is particularly useful for low visibility situations where the penetration of the laser radar system is limited. The radar system, which is most probably a noise or pseudonoise modulated continuous wave radar, can also be used to provide a crude map of objects surrounding the vehicle. The most common use for automotive radar systems is for adaptive cruise control systems where the radar monitors the distance and, in some cases, the velocity of the vehicle immediately in front of the host vehicle. The radar system 62 is controlled by the control processor 100. The display system 82 was discussed previously and can be either a heads up or other appropriate display. The control processor 100 can be attached to a vehicle special or general purpose bus 110 for transferring other information to and from the control processor to other vehicle subsystems. In interrogating other vehicles on the roadway, a positive identification of the vehicle and thus its expected properties such as its size and mass can sometimes be accomplished by laser vibrometry. By this method, a reflected electromagnetic wave can be modulated based on the vibration that the vehicle is undergoing. Since this vibration is caused at least partially by the engine, and each class of engine has a different vibration signature, this information can be used to identify the engine type and thus the vehicle. This technique is similar to one used to identify enemy military vehicles by the U.S. military. It is also used to identify ships at sea using hydrophones. In the present case, a laser beam is directed at the vehicle of interest and the returned reflected beam is analyzed such as with a Fourier transform to determine the frequency makeup of the beam. This can then be related to a vehicle to identify its type either through the use of a look-up table or neural network or other appropriate method. This information can then be used as information in connection with an anticipatory sensor as it would permit a more accurate estimation of the mass of a potentially impacting vehicle. Once the vehicle knows where it is located, this information can be displayed on a heads-up display and if an occupant sensor has determined the location of the eyes of the driver, the road edges, for example, and other pertinent information from the map database can be displayed exactly where they would be seen by the driver. For the case of driving in dense fog or on a snow covered road, the driver will be able to see the road edges perhaps exactly or even better than the real view, in some cases. Additionally, other information gleaned by the exterior monitoring system can show the operator the presence of other vehicles and whether they represent a threat to the host vehicle (see for example “Seeing the road ahead”, GPS World Nov. 1, 2003, which describes a system incorporating many of the current assignee's invention ideas described herein). 10.10 Corridors FIG. 7 shows the implementation of the invention in which a vehicle 18 is traveling on a roadway in a defined corridor in the direction X. Each corridor is defined by lines 14. If the vehicle is traveling in one corridor and strays in the direction Y so that it moves along the line 22, e.g., the driver is falling asleep, the system on board the vehicle in accordance with the invention will activate a warning. More specifically, the system continually detects the position of the vehicle, such as by means of the GPS, DGPS and/or PPS, and has the locations of the lines 14 defining the corridor recorded in its map database. Upon an intersection of the position of the vehicle and one of the lines 14 as determined by a processor, the system may be designed to sound an alarm to alert the driver to the deviation or possibly even correct the steering of the vehicle to return the vehicle to within the corridor defined by lines 14. FIG. 8 shows the implementation of the invention in which a pair of vehicles 18, 26 are traveling on a roadway each in a defined corridor defined by lines 14 and each equipped with a system in accordance with the invention. The system in each vehicle 18, 26 will receive data informing it of the position of the other vehicle and prevent accidents from occurring, e.g., if vehicle 18 moves in the direction of arrow 20. This can be accomplished via direct wireless broadband communication or any of the other communication methods described above, or through another path such as via the Internet or through a base station, wherein each vehicle transmits its best estimate of its absolute location on the earth along with an estimate of the accuracy of this location. If one vehicle has recently passed a precise positioning station, for example, then it will know its position very accurately to within a few centimeters. Each vehicle can also send the latest satellite messages that it received, permitting each vehicle to precisely determine its relative location to the other since the errors in the signals will be the same for both vehicles. To the extent that both vehicles are near each other, even the carrier phase ambiguity can be determined and each vehicle will know its position relative to the other to within better than a few centimeters. As more and more vehicles become part of the community and communicate their information to each other, each vehicle can even more accurately determine its absolute position and especially if one vehicle knows its position very accurately, if it recently passed a PPS for example, then all vehicles will know their position with approximately the same accuracy and that accuracy will be able to be maintained for as long as a vehicle keeps its lock on the satellites in view. If that lock is lost temporarily, the INS system will fill in the gaps and, depending on the accuracy of that system, the approximate 2 centimeter accuracy can be maintained even if the satellite lock is lost for up to approximately five minutes. A five minute loss of satellite lock is unlikely expect in tunnels or in locations where buildings or geological features interfere with the signals. In the building case, the problem can be eliminated through the placement of PPS stations, or through environmental signature analysis, and the same would be true for the geological obstruction case except in remote areas where ultra precise positioning accuracy is probably not required. In the case of tunnels, for example, the cost of adding PPS stations is insignificant compared with the cost of building and maintaining the tunnel. 10.11 Vehicle Control FIG. 12a is a flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention. The absolute position of the vehicle is determined at 130, e.g., using a GPS, DGPS PPS system, and compared to the edges of the roadway at 134, which is obtained from a memory unit 132. Based on the comparison at 134, it is determined whether the absolute position of the vehicle is approaching close to or intersects an edge of the roadway at 136. If not, then the position of the vehicle is again obtained, e.g., at a set time interval thereafter, and the process continues. If yes, an alarm and/or warning system will be activated or the system will take control of the vehicle (at 140) to guide it to a shoulder of the roadway or other safe location. FIG. 12b is another flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention similar to FIG. 12a. Again the absolute position of the vehicle is determined at 130, e.g., using a GPS, DGPS PPS system, and compared to the location of a roadway yellow line at 142 (or possibly another line which indicates an edge of a lane of a roadway), which is obtained from a memory unit 132. Based on the comparison at 144, it is determined whether the absolute position of the vehicle is approaching close to or intersects the yellow line 144. If not, then the position of the vehicle is again obtained, e.g., at a set time interval thereafter, and the process continues. If yes, an alarm will sound and/or the system will take control of the vehicle (at 146) to control the steering or guide it to a shoulder of the roadway or other safe location. FIG. 12c is another flow chart of the method in accordance with the invention similar to FIG. 12a. Again the absolute position of the vehicle is determined at 130, e.g., using a GPS, DGPS PPS system, and compared to the location of a roadway stoplight at 150, which is obtained from a memory unit 132. Based on the comparison at 150, it is determined whether the absolute position of the vehicle is approaching close to a stoplight. If not, then the position of the vehicle is again obtained, e.g., at a set interval thereafter, and the process continues. If yes, a sensor determines whether the stoplight is red (e.g., a camera) and if so, an alarm will sound and/or the system will take control of the vehicle (at 154) to control the brakes or guide it to a shoulder of the roadway or other safe location. A similar flow chart can be now drawn by those skilled in the art for other conditions such as stop signs, vehicle speed control, collision avoidance etc. 10.12 Intersection Collision Avoidance FIG. 13 illustrates an intersection of a major road 170 with a lesser road 172. The road 170 has the right of way and stop signs 174 have been placed to control the traffic on the lesser road 172. Vehicles 18 and 26 are proceeding on road 172 and vehicle 25 is proceeding on road 170. A very common accident is caused when vehicle 18 ignores the stop sign 174 and proceeds into the intersection where it is struck on the side by vehicle 25 or strikes vehicle 25 on the side. Using the teachings of this invention, vehicle 18 will know of the existence of the stop sign and if the operator attempts to proceed without stopping, the system will sound a warning and if that warning is not heeded, the system will automatically bring the vehicle 18 to a stop preventing it from intruding into the intersection. Another common accident is where vehicle 18 does in fact stop but then proceeds forward without noticing vehicle 25 thereby causing an accident. Since in the fully deployed RtZF™ system, vehicle 18 will know through the vehicle-to-vehicle communication the existence and location of vehicle 25 and can calculate its velocity, the system can once again take control of vehicle 18 if a warning is not heeded and prevent vehicle 18 from proceeding into the intersection and thereby prevent the accident. In the event that the vehicle 25 is not equipped with the RtZF™ system, vehicle 18 will still sense the presence of vehicle 25 through the laser radar, radar and camera systems. Once again, when the position and velocity of vehicle 25 is sensed, appropriate action can be taken by the system in vehicle 18 to eliminate the accident. In another scenario where vehicle 18 properly stops at the stop sign, but vehicle 26 proceeds without observing the presence of the stopped vehicle 18, the laser radar, radar and camera systems will all operate to warn the driver of vehicle 26 and if that warning is not heeded, the system in vehicle 26 will automatically stop the vehicle 26 prior to its impacting vehicle 18. Thus, in the scenarios described above the “Road to Zero Fatalities”™ system and method of this invention will prevent common intersection accidents from occurring. FIG. 14 is a view of an intersection where traffic is controlled by stoplights 180. If the vehicle 18 does not respond in time to a red stoplight, the system as described above will issue a warning and if not heeded, the system will take control of the vehicle 18 to prevent it from entering the intersection and colliding vehicle 25. In this case, the stoplight 180 will emit a signal indicating its color, such as by way of the communication system, and/or vehicle 18 will have a camera mounted such that it can observe the color of the stoplight. There are of course other information transfer methods such as through the Internet. In this case, buildings 182 obstruct the view from vehicle 18 to vehicle 25 thus an accident can still be prevented even when the operators are not able to visually see the threatening vehicle. If both vehicles have the RtZF™ system, they will be communicating and their presence and relative positions will be known to both vehicles. FIG. 15 illustrates the case where vehicle 18 is about to execute a left-hand turn into the path of vehicle 25. This accident will be prevented if both cars have the RtZF™ system since the locations and velocities of both vehicles 18, 25 will be known to each other. If vehicle 25 is not equipped and vehicle 18 is, then the camera, radar, and laser radar subsystems will operate to prevent vehicle 18 from turning into the path of vehicle 25. Once again, common intersection accidents are prevented by this invention. The systems described above can be augmented by infrastructure-based sensing and warning systems. Camera, laser or terahertz radar or radar subsystems such as placed on the vehicle can also be placed at intersections to warn the oncoming traffic if a collision is likely to occur. Additionally, simple sensors that sense the signals emitted by oncoming vehicles, including radar, thermal radiation, etc., can be used to operate warning systems that notify oncoming traffic of potentially dangerous situations. Thus, many of the teachings of this invention can be applied to infrastructure-based installations in addition to the vehicle-resident systems. 10.13 Privacy People do not necessarily want the government to know where they are going and therefore will not want information to be transmitted that can identify the vehicle. The importance of this issue may be overestimated. Most people will not object to this minor infraction if they can get to their destination more efficiently and safely. On the other hand, it has been estimated that there are 100,000 vehicles on the road, many of them stolen, where the operators do not want the vehicle to be identified. If an identification process that positively identifies the vehicle were made part of this system, it could thus cut down on vehicle theft. Alternately, thieves might attempt to disconnect the system thereby defeating the full implementation of the system and thus increasing the danger on the roadways and defeating the RtZF™ objective. The state of the system would therefore need to be self-diagnosed and system readiness must be a condition for entry onto the restricted lanes. 11. Other Features 11.1 Incapacitated Driver As discussed herein, the RtZF™ system of this invention also handles the problem of the incapacitated driver thus eliminating the need for sleep sensors that appear in numerous U.S. patents. Such systems have not been implemented because of their poor reliability. The RtZF™ system senses the result of the actions of the operator, which could occur for a variety of reasons including inattentiveness cause by cell phone use, old age, drunkenness, heart attacks, drugs as well as falling asleep. 11.2 Emergencies—Car Jacking, Crime Another enhancement that is also available is to prevent car jacking in which case the RtZF™ system can function like the Lojack™ system. In the case where a car-jacking occurs, the location of the vehicle can be monitored and if an emergency button is pushed, the location of the vehicle with the vehicle ID can be transmitted. 11.3 Headlight Dimmer The system also solves the automatic headlight dimmer problem. Since the RtZF™ system equipped vehicle knows where all other RtZF™ system equipped vehicles are located in its vicinity, it knows when to dim the headlights. Since it is also interrogating the environment in front of the vehicle, it also knows the existence and approximate location of all non-RtZF™ system equipped vehicles. This is one example of a future improvement to the system. The RtZF™ system is a system which lends itself to continuous improvement without having to change systems on an existing vehicle. 11.4 Rollover It should be obvious from the above discussion that rollover accidents should be effectively eliminated by the RtZF™ system. In the rare case where one does occur, the RtZF™ system has the capability to sense that event since the location and orientation of the vehicle is known. For large trucks that have varying inertial properties depending on the load that is being hauled, sensors can be placed on the vehicle that measure angular and linear acceleration of a part of the vehicle. Since the geometry of the road is known, the inertial properties of the vehicle with load can be determined and thus the tendency of the vehicle to roll over can be determined. Since the road geometry is known the speed of the truck can be limited based partially on its measured inertial properties to prevent rollovers. The IMU can play a crucial role here in that the motion of the vehicle is now accurately known to a degree previously not possible before the Kalman filter error correction system was employed. This permits more precise knowledge and thus the ability to predict the motion of the vehicle. The IMU can be input to the chassis control system and, through appropriate algorithms, the throttle, steering and brakes can be appropriately applied to prevent a rollover. When the system described herein is deployed, rollovers should disappear as the causes such as road ice, sharp curves and other vehicles are eliminated. If a truck or other vehicle is driving on a known roadway where the vertical geometry (height and angle) has been previously determined and measured then one or more accelerometers and gyroscopes can be placed at appropriate points on the truck and used to measure the response of the vehicle to the disturbance. From the known input and measured response, the inertial properties of the vehicle can readily be determined by one skilled in the art. Similarly, if instead of a knowledge of the road from the map database, the input to the vehicle from the road can be measured by accelerometers and gyroscopes placed on the chassis, for example, and then the forcing function into the truck body is known and by measuring the motion (accelerations and angular accelerations) the inertial properties once again can be determined. Finally, the input from the road can be treated statistically and again the inertial properties of the truck estimated. If a truck tractor is hauling a trailer then the measuring devices can be placed at convenient locations of the trailer such inside the trailer adjacent to the roof at the front and rear of the trailer. If the map contains the information, then as the vehicle travels the road and determines that there has been a change in the road properties this fact can be communicated via telematics or other methods to the map maintenance personnel, for example. In this manner, the maps are kept current and pothole or other evidence of road deterioration can be sent to appropriate personnel for attention. Once the system determines that the vehicle is in danger or a rollover situation; the operator can be notified with an audible or visual (via a display or light) so that he or she can take corrective action. Additionally or alternately the system can take control of the situation and prevent the rollover through appropriate application of brakes (either on all wheels or selectively on particular wheels), throttle or steering. 11.5 Vehicle Enhancements The RtZF™ system can now be used to improve the accuracy of other vehicle based instruments. The accuracy of the odometer and yaw rate sensors can be improved over time, for example, by regression, or through the use of a Kalman filter, against the DGPS data. The basic RtZF™ system contains an IMU which comprises three accelerometers and three gyroscopes. This system is always being updated by the DGPS system, odometer, vehicle speed sensor, magnetic field and field vector sensors, PPS and other available sensors through a Kalman filter and in some cases a neural network. 11.6 Highway Enhancements Enhancements to the roadways that result from the use of the RtZF™ system include traffic control. The timing of the stoplights can now be automatically adjusted based on the relative traffic flow. The position of every vehicle within the vicinity of the light can be known from the communication system discussed above. When all vehicles have the RtZF™ system, many stoplights will no longer be necessary since the flow of traffic through an intersection can be accurately controlled to avoid collisions. Since the road conditions will now be known to the system, an enhanced RtZF™ system will be able to advise an operator not to travel or, alternately, it can pick an alternate route if certain roads have accidents or have iced over, for example. Some people may decide not drive if there is bad weather or congestion. The important point here is that sensors will be available to sense the road condition as to both traffic and weather, this information will be available automatically and not require reporting from weather stations which usually have only late and inaccurate information. Additionally, pricing for the use of certain roads can be based on weather, congestion, time of day, etc. That is, pricing can by dynamically controlled. The system lends itself to time and congestion based allocation of highway facilities. A variable toll can automatically be charged to vehicles based on such considerations since the vehicle can be identified. In fact, automatic toll systems now being implemented will likely become obsolete as will all toll booths. Finally, it is important to recognize that the RtZF™ system is not a “sensor fusion” system. Sensor fusion is based on the theory that you can take inputs from different sensors and combine them in such a way as to achieve more information from the combined sensors than from treating the sensor outputs independently in a deterministic manner. The ultimate sensor fusion system is based on artificial neural networks, sometimes combined with fuzzy logic to form a neural fuzzy system. Such systems are probabilistic. Thus there will always be some percentage of cases where the decision reached by the network will be wrong. The use of such sensor fusion, therefore, is inappropriate for the “Zero Fatalities” goal of the invention, although several of the sub-parts of the system may make use of neural networks. 11.7 Speed Control Frequently a driver is proceeding down a road without knowing the allowed speed limit. This can happen if he or she recently entered a road and a sign has not been observed or perhaps the driver just was not paying attention or the sign was hidden from view by another vehicle. If the allowed speed was represented in the map database then it could be displayed on an in vehicle display since the vehicle would know its location. 12. Summary In sum, disclosed above is a computer controlled vehicle and obstacle location system and method which includes the steps of receiving continuously from a network of satellites on a first communication link at one of a plurality of vehicles, GPS ranging signals for initially accurately determining, in conjunction with centimeter accurate maps, the host vehicle's position on a roadway on a surface of the earth; receiving continuously at the host vehicle on a second communication link from a station, another vehicle or satellite, DGPS auxiliary range correction signals for correcting propagation delay errors in the GPS ranging signals; determining continuously at the host vehicle from the GPS, DGPS, and accurate map database signals host vehicle's position on the surface of the earth with centimeter accuracy; communicating the host vehicle's position to another one of the plurality of vehicles, and receiving at the host vehicle, location information from at least one of a plurality of other vehicles; determining whether the other vehicle represents a collision threat to the host vehicle based on its position relative to the roadway and the host vehicle and generating a warning or vehicle control signal response to control the vehicles motion laterally or longitudinally to prevent a collision with the other vehicle. In some implementations, the detecting step includes detecting objects by scanning with one or more cameras, radars or laser radars located on the host vehicle. The analyzing step includes processing and analyzing digital signals indicative of video images detected by the one or more cameras, radars or laser radars, and processing and analyzing the digital signals using pattern recognition and range determination algorithms. The objects detected may include fixed or moving, or known or unknown obstacles, people, bicycles, animals, or the like. An optional feature of this embodiment of the invention is to operate one or more of the following systems depending on the kind of response determined by the neural fuzzy logic control system: a brake pedal, accelerator pedal, steering system (e.g., steering wheel), horn, light, mirror, defogger and communication systems. The first phase of implementation of this invention can be practiced with only minor retrofit additions to the vehicle. These include the addition of a differential GPS system, an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and appropriate circuitry, and an accurate map database. In this first phase, the driver will only be warned when he or she is about to depart from the road surface. During the second phase of practicing this invention, the system will be augmented with a system that will prevent the operator from leaving the assigned corridor and in particular leaving the road at high speed. In further phases of the implementation of this invention, additional systems will be integrated which will scan the roadway and act to prevent accidents with vehicles that do not have the system installed. Also communication systems will be added to permit the subject vehicle to communicate its position, velocity, etc., to other nearby vehicles that are also equipped with a system. This communication system is the main focus herein. A primary preferred embodiment of the system, therefore, is to equip a vehicle with a DGPS system, an inertial guidance system (or IMU), vehicle steering, throttle and brake control apparatus, a sub-meter accurate digital map system with the relevant maps (or ability to access the relevant maps), a scanning pulsed infrared laser radar, a system for sensing or receiving signals from a highway-based precise position determination system, and communications systems for (1) sending and receiving data from similarly equipped vehicles, (2) receiving updated maps and map status information, and (3) receiving weather and road condition information. A preferred embodiment for the infrastructure enhancements includes a DGPS system, a radar reflector based, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) based or equivalent precise position determining system and local weather and road condition determination and transmission system. Also disclosed above are methods and apparatus for preventing vehicle accidents. To this end, a vehicle is equipped with a differential GPS (DGPS) navigational system as well as an inertial navigation subsystem. Part of the system can be an array of infrastructure stations that permit the vehicle to exactly determine its position at various points along its path. Such stations would typically be located at intervals such as every 50 miles along the roadway, or more or less frequently depending on requirements as described below. These stations permit the vehicle to become its own DGPS station and thus to correct for the GPS errors and to set the position of the vehicle based initial guidance system. It also provides sufficient information for the vehicle to use the carrier frequency to determine its absolute position to within a few centimeters or better for as long as satellite locks are maintained. Data is also available to the vehicle that provides information as to the edges of the roadway, and edges of the lanes of the roadway, at the location of the vehicle so that the vehicle control system can continuously determine its location relative to the roadway edges and/or lane edges. In the initial implementation, the operator operates his or her vehicle and is unaware of the presence of the accident avoidance system. If, however, the operator falls asleep or for some other reason attempts to drive off the roadway at high speed, the system will detect that the vehicle is approaching an edge of the roadway and will either sound an alarm or prevent the vehicle from leaving the roadway when doing so would lead to an accident. In some cases, the system will automatically reduce the speed of the vehicle and stop it on the shoulder of the roadway. It is important to note that the invention as described in the above paragraph is in itself a significant improvement to automotive safety. Approximately half of all fatal accidents involve only a single vehicle that typically leaves the roadway and impacts with a roadside obstacle, cross a yellow line or run a red light or stop sign. This typically happens when the driver in under the influence of alcohol or drugs, has a medical emergency or simply falls asleep. If this cause of accidents could be eliminated, the potential exists for saving many thousands of deaths per year when all vehicles are equipped with the system of this invention. This would make this the single greatest advance in automotive safety surpassing both seatbelts and airbags in lifesaving potential. A first improvement to this embodiment of the invention is to provide the vehicle with a means using radar, laser radar, optical or infrared imaging, or a similar technology, to determine the presence, location and velocity of other vehicles on the roadway that are not equipped with the accident avoidance system. The accident avoidance system (RtZF™) of this invention will not be able to avoid all accidents with such vehicles for the reasons discussed above, but will be able to provide a level of protection which is believed to surpass all known prior art systems. Some improvement over prior art systems will result from the fact that the equipped vehicle knows the location of the roadway edges, as well as the lane boundaries, not only at the location of the equipped vehicle but also at the location of the other nearby vehicles. Thus, the equipped vehicle will be able to determine that an adjacent vehicle has already left its corridor and warn the driver or initiate evasive action. In prior art systems, the location of the roadway is not known leading to significantly less discrimination ability. A second improvement is to provide communication ability to other nearby similarly equipped vehicles permitting the continuous transmission and reception of the locations of all equipped vehicles in the vicinity. With each vehicle knowing the location, and thus the velocity, of all potential impacting vehicles which are equipped with the RtZF, collisions between vehicles can be reduced and eventually nearly eliminated when all vehicles are equipped with the RtZF. One such communication system involves the use of spread spectrum carrier less communication channels that make efficient use of the available bandwidth and permit the simultaneous communication of many vehicles. A third improvement comprises the addition of software to the system that permits vehicles on specially designated vehicle corridors for the operator to relinquish control of the vehicle to the vehicle-based system, and perhaps to a roadway computer system. This then permits vehicles to travel at high speeds in a close packed formation thereby substantially increasing the flow rate of vehicles on a given roadway. Naturally, in order to enter the designated corridors, a vehicle would be required to be equipped with the RtZF. Similarly, this then provides an incentive to vehicle owners to have their vehicles so equipped so that they can enter the controlled corridors and thereby shorten their travel time. Close packed or platooning travel is facilitated in the invention and thus supportive of the drag reduction advantages of such travel. But, such travel, although it can be automatically achieved through implementation of the proper algorithms in a very simple manner, is not required. Prior art systems require expensive modifications to highways to permit such controlled high speed close packed travel. Such modifications also require a substantial infrastructure to support the system. The RtZF™ of the present invention, in its simplest form, does not require any modification to the roadway but rather relies primarily on the GPS or similar satellite system or other precise locating system. The edge and lane boundary information is either present within the vehicle RtZF™ memory or transmitted to the vehicle as it travels along the road. The permitted speed of travel is also communicated to the vehicles on the restricted corridor and thus each vehicle travels at the appointed speed. Since each vehicle knows the location of all other vehicles in the vicinity, should one vehicle slow down, due to an engine malfunction, for example, appropriate action can be taken to avoid an accident. Vehicles do not need to travel in groups as suggested and required by some prior art systems. Rather, each vehicle may independently enter the corridor and travel at the system defined speed until it leaves, which may entail notifying the system of a destination. Another improvement involves the transmission of additional data concerning weather conditions, road conditions traffic accidents etc. to the equipped vehicle so that the speed of that vehicle can be limited to a safe speed depending on road conditions, for example. If moisture is present on the roadway and the temperature is dropping to the point that ice might be building up on the road surface, the vehicle can be notified by the roadway information system and prevented from traveling at an unsafe speed. In contrast to some prior art systems, with the RtZF™ system in accordance with the invention, especially when all vehicles are appropriately equipped, automatic braking of the vehicle should rarely be necessary and steering and throttle control should in most cases be sufficient to prevent accidents. In most cases, braking means the accident wasn't anticipated. It is important to understand that this is a process control problem. The process is designed so that it should not fail and thus all accidents should be eliminated. Events that are troublesome to the system include a deer running in front of the vehicle, a box falling off of a truck, a rock rolling onto the roadway and a catastrophic failure of a vehicle. Continuous improvement to the process is thus required before these events are substantially eliminated. Each vehicle, individual driver and vehicle control system is part of the system and upon observing that such an event has occurred, he or she should have the option of stopping the process to prevent or mitigate an emergency. All equipped vehicles therefore have the capability of communicating that the process is stopped and therefore that the vehicle speed, for example, should be substantially reduced until the vehicle has passed the troubled spot or until the problem ceases to exist. In other words, each vehicle and each driver is part of the process. In one manner, each vehicle is a probe vehicle. The RtZF™ system in accordance with the invention will thus start simple by reducing single vehicle accidents and evolve. The system has the capability to solve the entire problem by eliminating automobile accidents. Furthermore, disclosed above are methods and apparatus for eliminating accidents by accurately determining the position of a vehicle, accurately knowing the position of the road and communicating between vehicles and between the vehicle and the infrastructure supporting travel. People get into accidents when they go too fast for the conditions and when they get out of their corridor. This embodiment eliminates these and other causes of accidents. In multilane highways, this system prevents people from shifting lanes if there are other vehicles in the blind spot, thus, solving the blind spot problem. The vehicle would always be traveling down a corridor where the width of the corridor may be a lane or the entire road width or something in between depending on road conditions and the presence of other vehicles. This embodiment is implemented through the use of both an inertial navigation system (INS) and a DGPS, in some cases with carrier frequency enhancement. Due to the fact that the signals from at least four GPS or GLONASS satellites are not always available and to errors caused by multiple path reception from a given satellite, the DGPS systems cannot be totally relied upon. Therefore the INS is a critical part of the system. This will improve as more satellites are launched and additional ground stations are added. It will also significantly improve when the WAAS and LAAS systems are implemented and refined to work with land vehicles as well as airplanes. It will also be improved with the implementation of PPS. Also disclosed above is a method for transferring information between a vehicle and a transmitter which comprises the steps of transmitting a unique pseudorandom noise signal by the transmitter in a carrier-less fashion composed of frequencies within a pre-selected band, encoding information in the noise or pseudo-noise signal relating to an identification of the transmitter and a position of the transmitter and providing the vehicle with means for extracting the information from the noise or pseudo-noise signal. The code to use for encoding the noise or pseudo-noise signal may be selected based on the position of the transmitter so that analysis of the code, or a portion thereof, provides an indication of the position of the transmitter. Information about accidents, weather conditions, road conditions, map data and traffic control devices and about errors in a GPS signal can also be encoded in the noise or pseudo-noise signals. The information may be encoded in the noise or pseudo-noise signal in various ways, including but not limited to phase modulation of distance or time between code transmissions, phase or amplitude modulation of the code sequences, changes of the polarity of the entire code sequence or the individual code segments, or bandwidth modulation of the code sequence. The information may be encoded in the noise or pseudo-noise signal sequentially from general information to specific information about the position of the transmitter, e.g., from the country in which the transmitter is positioned to the actual square meter in which the transmitter is located. The transmitter may be arranged in a moving object such as a vehicle to provide vehicle-to-vehicle communications, in which case, the velocity and optionally direction of travel of the vehicle is also encoded in the noise or pseudo-noise signal, or at a fixed location. In the latter case, the location can be used to correct GPS signals. In this regard, the information encoded in the noise or pseudo-noise signal may be the GPS coordinate location of the transmitter. In a related arrangement, an antenna is arranged on the vehicle to receive noise or pseudo-noise signals and a processor is coupled to the antenna. The processor may be constructed or programmed to analyze the received noise or pseudo-noise signals in order to determine whether any received noise or pseudo-noise signals originate from transmitters within a pre-determined distance from the vehicle. Such analysis can be based on an initial portion of the noise or pseudo-noise signals, i.e., the processor can scan through multiple the noise or pseudo-noise signals reading only the initial part of each to assess which noise or pseudo-noise signal(s) is/are particularly important and then obtain and process only those of interest. While the invention has been illustrated and described in detail in the drawings and the foregoing description, the same is to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive in character, it being understood that only the preferred embodiments have been shown and described and that all changes and modifications that come within the spirit of the invention are desired to be protected. This application is one in a series of applications covering safety and other systems for vehicles and other uses. The disclosure herein goes beyond that needed to support the claims of the particular invention that is claimed herein. This is not to be construed that the inventors are thereby releasing the unclaimed disclosure and subject matter into the public domain. Rather, it is intended that patent applications have been or will be filed to cover all of the subject matter disclosed above. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>All of the patents, patent applications, technical papers and other references referenced below are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Various patents, patent applications, patent publications and other published documents are discussed below as background of the invention. No admission is made that any or all of these references are prior art and indeed, it is contemplated that they may not be available as prior art when interpreting 35 U.S.C. §102 in consideration of the claims of the present application. There are numerous components described and disclosed herein. Many combinations of these components are described but to conserve space, the inventors have not described all combinations and permutations of these components but the inventors intend that each such combination and permutation is an invention to be considered disclosed by this disclosure. The inventors further intend to file continuation and continuation-inpart applications to cover many of these combinations and permutations. Automobile accidents are one of the most serious problems facing society today, both in terms of deaths and injuries, and in financial losses suffered as a result of accidents. The suffering caused by death or injury from such accidents is immense. The costs related to medical treatment, permanent injury to accident victims and the resulting loss of employment opportunities, and financial losses resulting from damage to property involved in such accidents are staggering. Providing the improved systems and methods to eventually eliminate these deaths, injuries and other losses deserves the highest priority. The increase in population and use of automobiles worldwide with the concomitant increased congestion on roadways makes development of systems for collision avoidance and elimination even more urgent. While many advances have been made in vehicle safety, including, for example, the use of seatbelts, airbags and safer automobile structures, much room for improvement exists in automotive safety and accident prevention systems. There are two major efforts underway that will significantly affect the design of automobiles and highways. The first is involved with preventing deaths and serious injuries from automobile accidents. The second involves the attempt to reduce the congestion on highways. In the first case, there are approximately forty two thousand (42,000) people killed each year in the United States by automobile accidents and another several hundred thousand are seriously injured. In the second case, hundreds of millions of man-hours are wasted every year by people stuck in traffic jams on the world's roadways. There have been many attempts to solve both of these problems; however, no single solution has been able to do so. When a person begins a trip using an automobile, he or she first enters the vehicle and begins to drive, first out of a parking space and then typically onto a local or city road and then onto a highway. In leaving the parking space, he or she may be at risk from an impact of a vehicle traveling on the road. The driver must check his or her mirrors to avoid such an event and several electronic sensing systems have been proposed which would warn the driver that a collision is possible. Once on the local road, the driver is at risk of being impacted from the front, side and rear, and electronic sensors are under development to warn the driver of such possibilities. Similarly, the driver may run into a pedestrian, bicyclist, deer or other movable object and various sensors are under development that will warn the driver of these potential events. These various sensors include radar, optical, terahertz or other electromagnetic frequencies, infrared, ultrasonic, and a variety of other sensors, each of which attempts to solve a particular potential collision event. It is important to note that as yet, in none of these cases is there sufficient confidence in the decision that the control of the vehicle is taken away from the driver. Thus, action by the driver is still invariably required. In some proposed future Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) designs, hardware of various types is embedded into the highway and sensors which sense this hardware are placed onto the vehicle so that it can be accurately guided along a lane of the highway. In various other systems, cameras are used to track lane markings or other visual images to keep the vehicle in its lane. However, for successful ITS, additional information is needed by the driver, or the vehicle control system, to take into account weather, road conditions, congestion etc., which typically involves additional electronic hardware located on or associated with the highway as well as the vehicle. From this discussion, it is obvious that a significant number of new electronic systems are planned for installation ontovehicles. However, to date, no product has been proposed or designed which combines all of the requirements into a single electronic system. This is one of the intents of some embodiments of this invention. The safe operation of a vehicle can be viewed as a process in the engineering sense. To achieve safe operation, first the process must be designed and then a vehicle control system must be designed to implement the process. The goal of a process designer is to design the process so that it does not fail. The fact that so many people are being seriously injured and killed in traffic accidents and the fact that so much time is being wasted in traffic congestion is proof that the current process is not working and requires a major redesign. To design this new process, the information required by the process must be identified, the source of that information determined and the process designed so that the sources of information can communicate effectively with the user of the information, which will most often be a vehicle control system. Finally, the process must have feedback that self-corrects the process when it is tending toward failure. Although it is technologically feasible, it is probably socially unacceptable at this time for a vehicle safety system to totally control the vehicle. An underlying premise of embodiments of this invention, therefore, is that people will continue to operate their vehicle and control of the vehicle will only be seized by the control system when such an action is required to avoid an accident or when such control is needed for the orderly movement of vehicles through potentially congested areas on a roadway. When this happens, the vehicle operator will be notified and given the choice of exiting the road at the next opportunity. In some cases, especially when this invention is first implemented on a trail basis, control will not be taken away from the vehicle operator but a warning system will alert the driver of a potential collision, road departure or other infraction. Let us consider several scenarios and what information is required for the vehicle control process to prevent accidents. In one case, a driver is proceeding down a country road and falls asleep and the vehicle begins to leave the road, perhaps heading toward a tree. In this case, the control system would need to know that the vehicle was about to leave the road and for that, it must know the position of the vehicle relative to the road. One method of accomplishing this would be to place a wire down the center of the road and to place sensors within the vehicle to sense the position of the wire relative to the vehicle, or vice versa. An alternate approach would be for the vehicle to know exactly where it is on the surface of the earth and to also know exactly where the edge of the road is. These approaches are fundamentally different because in the former solution every road in the world would require the placement of appropriate hardware as well as the maintenance of this hardware. This is obviously impractical. In the second case, the use of the global positioning satellite system (GPS), augmented by additional systems to be described below, will provide the vehicle control system with an accurate knowledge of its location. While it would be difficult to install and maintain hardware such as a wire down the center of the road for every road in the world, it is not difficult to survey every road and record the location of the edges, and the lanes for that matter, of each road. This information must then be made available through one or more of a variety of techniques to the vehicle control system. Another case might be where a driver is proceeding down a road and decides to change lines while another vehicle is in the driver's blind spot. Various companies are developing radar, ultrasonic or optical sensors to warn the driver if the blind spot is occupied. The driver may or may not heed this warning, perhaps due to an excessive false alarm rate, or he or she may have become incapacitated, or the system may fail to detect a vehicle in the blind spot and thus the system will fail. Consider an alternative technology where again each vehicle knows precisely where it is located on the earth surface and additionally can communicate this information to all other vehicles within a certain potential danger zone relative to the vehicle. Now, when the driver begins to change lanes, his or her vehicle control system knows that there is another vehicle in the blind spot and therefore will either warn the driver or else prevent him or her from changing lanes thereby avoiding the accident. Similarly, if a vehicle is approaching a stop sign, other traffic marker or red traffic light and the operator fails to bring the vehicle to a stop, if the existence of this traffic light and its state (red in this example) or stop sign has been made available to the vehicle control system, the system can warn the driver or seize control of the vehicle to stop the vehicle and prevent a potential accident. Additionally, if an operator of the vehicle decides to proceed across an intersection without seeing an oncoming vehicle, the control system will once again know the existence and location and perhaps velocity of the oncoming vehicle and warn or prevent the operator from proceeding across the intersection. Consider another example where water on the surface of a road is beginning to freeze. Probably the best way that a vehicle control system can know that the road is about to become slippery, and therefore that the maximum vehicle speed must be significantly reduced, is to get information from some external source. This source can be sensors located on the highway that are capable of determining this condition and transmitting it to the vehicle. Alternately, the probability of icing occurring can be determined analytically from meteorological data and a historical knowledge of the roadway and communicated to the vehicle over a LEO or GEO satellite system, the Internet or an FM sub-carrier or other means. A combination of these systems can also be used. Studies have shown that a combination of meteorological and historic data can accurately predict that a particular place on the highway will become covered with ice. This information can be provided to properly equipped vehicles so that the vehicle knows to anticipate slippery roads. For those roads that are treated with salt to eliminate frozen areas, the meteorological and historical data will not be sufficient. Numerous systems are available today that permit properly equipped vehicles to measure the coefficient of friction between the vehicle's tires and the road. It is contemplated that perhaps police or other public vehicles will be equipped with such a friction coefficient measuring apparatus and can serve as probes for those roadways that have been treated with salt. Information from these probe vehicles will be fed into the information system that will then be made available to control speed limits in those areas. Countless other examples exist; however, from those provided above, it can be seen that for the vehicle control system to function without error, certain types of information must be accurately provided. These include information permitting the vehicle to determine its absolute location and means for vehicles near each other to communicate this location information to each other. Additionally, map information that accurately provides boundary and lane information of the road must be available. Also, critical weather or road-condition information is necessary. The road location information need only be generated once and changed whenever the road geometry is altered. This information can be provided to the vehicle through a variety of techniques including prerecorded media such as CD-ROM or DVD disks or through communications from transmitters located in proximity to the vehicle, satellites, radio and cellular phones. Consider now the case of the congested highway. Many roads in the world are congested and are located in areas where the cost of new road construction is prohibitive or such construction is environmentally unacceptable. It has been reported that an accident on such a highway typically ties up traffic for a period of approximately four times the time period required to clear the accident. Thus, by eliminating accidents, a substantial improvement of the congested highway problem is obtained. This of course is insufficient. On such highways, each vehicle travels with a different spacing, frequently at different speeds and in the wrong lanes. If the proper spacing of the vehicles could be maintained, and if the risk of an accident could be substantially eliminated, vehicles under automatic control could travel at substantially higher velocities and in a more densely packed configuration thereby substantially improving the flow rate of vehicles on the highway by as much as a factor of 3 to 4 times. This not only will reduce congestion but also improve air pollution. Once again, if each vehicle knows exactly where it is located, can communicate its location to surrounding vehicles and knows precisely where the road is located, then the control system in each vehicle has sufficient information to accomplish this goal. Again, an intention of the system and process described here is to totally eliminate automobile accidents as well as reduce highway congestion. This process is to be designed to have no defective decisions. The process employs information from a variety of sources and utilizes that information to prevent accidents and to permit the maximum vehicle throughput on highways. The information listed above is still insufficient. The geometry of a road or highway can be determined once and for all, until erosion or construction alters the road. Properly equipped vehicles can know their location and transmit that information to other properly equipped vehicles. There remains a variety of objects whose location is not fixed, which have no transmitters and which can cause accidents. These objects include broken down vehicles, animals such as deer which wander onto highways, pedestrians, bicycles, objects which fall off of trucks, and especially other vehicles which are not equipped with location determining systems and transmitters for transmitting that information to other vehicles. Part of this problem can be solved for congested highways by restricting access to these highways to vehicles that are properly equipped. Also, these highways are typically in urban areas and access by animals can be effectively eliminated. Heavy fines can be imposed on vehicles that drop objects onto the highway. Finally, since every vehicle and vehicle operator becomes part of the process, each such vehicle and operator becomes a potential source of information to help prevent catastrophic results. Thus, each vehicle should also be equipped with a system of essentially stopping the process in an emergency. Such a system could be triggered by vehicle sensors detecting a problem or by the operator strongly applying the brakes, rapidly turning the steering wheel or by activating a manual switch when the operator observes a critical situation but is not himself in immediate danger. An example of the latter case is where a driver witnesses a box falling off of a truck in an adjacent lane. To solve the remaining problems, therefore, each vehicle should also be equipped with an anticipatory collision sensing system, or collision forecasting system, which is capable of identifying or predicting and reacting to a pending accident. As the number of vehicles equipped with the control system increases, the need for the collision forecasting system will diminish. Once again, the operator will continue to control his vehicle provided he or she remains within certain constraints. These constraints are like a corridor. As long as the operator maintains his vehicle within this allowed corridor, he or she can operate that vehicle without interference from the control system. That corridor may include the entire width of the highway when no other vehicles are present or it may be restricted to all eastbound lanes, for example. In still other cases, that corridor may be restricted to a single line and additionally, the operator may be required to keep his vehicle within a certain spacing tolerance from the preceding vehicle. If a vehicle operator wishes to exit a congested highway, he could operate his turn signal that would inform the control system of this desire and permit the vehicle to safely exit from the highway. It can also inform other adjacent vehicles of the operator's intent, which could then automatically cause those vehicles to provide space for lane changing, for example. The highway control system is thus a network of individual vehicle control systems rather than a single highway resident computer system. Considering now the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) policy, in the DOT FY 2000 Budget in Brief Secretary Rodney Slater states that “Historic levels of federal transportation investment . . . are proposed in the FY 2000 budget.” Later, Secretary Slater states that “Transportation safety is the number one priority.” DOT has estimated that $165 billion per year are lost in fatalities and injuries on U.S. roadways. Another $50 billion are lost in wasted time of people on congested highways. Presented herein is a plan to eliminate fatalities and injuries and to substantially reduce congestion. The total cost of implementing this plan is minuscule compared to the numbers stated above. This plan has been named the “Road to Zero Fatalities™”, or RtZF™ for short. The DOT Performance Plan FY 2000 , Strategic Goal: Safety , states that “The FY 2000 budget process proposes over $3.4 billion for direct safety programs to meet this challenge.” The challenge is to “Promote the public health and safety by working toward the elimination of traffic related deaths, injuries and property damage”. The goal of the RtZF™, as described below and which is a part of the present invention, is the same and herein a plan is presented for accomplishing this goal. The remainder of the DOT discussion centers around wishful thinking to reduce the number of transportation-related deaths, injuries, etc. However, the statistics presented show that in spite of this goal, the number of deaths is now increasing. As discussed below, this is the result of a failed process. Reading through the remainder of the DOT Performance Plan FY 2000 , one is impressed by the billions of dollars that are being spent to solve the highway safety problem coupled with the enormous improvement that has been made until the last few years. It can also be observed that the increase in benefits from these expenditures has now disappeared. For example, the fatality rate per 100 million vehicle miles traveled fell from 5.5 to 1.7 in the period from the mid-1960s to 1994. But this decrease has now substantially stopped! This is an example of the law of diminishing returns and signals the need to take a totally new approach to solving this problem. The U.S. Intelligent Vehicle Initiative ( IVI ) policy states that significant funds have been spent on demonstrating various ITS technologies. It is now time for implementation. With over 40,000 fatalities and almost four million people being injured every year on U.S. roadways, it is certainly time to take affirmative action to stop this slaughter. The time for studies and demonstrations is past. However, the deployment of technologies that are inconsistent with the eventual solution of the problem will only delay implementation of the proper systems and thereby result in more deaths and injuries. A primary goal of the Intelligent Vehicle Initiative was to reduce highway related fatalities per 100 million vehicle miles traveled from 1.7 in 1996 to 1.6 in 2000. Of course, the number of fatalities may still increase due to increased road use. If this reduction in fatalities comes about due to slower travel speeds, because of greater congestion, then has anything really been accomplished? Similar comments apply to the goal of reducing the rate of injury per 100 million vehicle miles from 141 in 1996 to 128 in 2000. An alternate goal, as described herein, is to have the technology implemented on all new vehicles by the year 2010 that will eventually eliminate all fatalities and injuries. As an intermediate milestone, it is proposed to have the technology implemented on all new vehicles by 2007 to reduce or eliminate fatalities caused by road departure, center (yellow) line crossing, stop sign infraction, rear end and excessive speed accidents. Inventions described herein will explain how these are goals can be attained. In the IVI Investment Strategy Critical Technology Elements And Activities of the DOT, it says “The IVI will continue to expand these efforts particularly in areas such as human factors, sensor performance, modeling and driver acceptance”. An alternate, more effective, concentration for investments would be to facilitate the deployment of those technologies that will reduce and eventually eliminate highway fatalities. Driver acceptance and human factors will be discussed below. Too much time and resources have already been devoted to these areas. Modeling can be extremely valuable and sensor performance is in a general sense a key to eliminating fatalities. On Jul. 15, 1998, the IVI light vehicle steering committee met and recommended that the IVI program should be conducted as a government industry partnership like the PNGV. This is believed to be quite wrong and it is believed that the IVI should now move vigorously toward the deployment of proven technology. The final recommendations of the committee was “In the next five years, the IVI program should be judged on addressing selected impediments preventing deployment, not on the effect of IVI services on accident rates.” This is believed to be a mistake. The emphasis for the next five years should be to deploy proven technologies and to start down the Road to Zero Fatalities™. Five years from now technology should be deployed on production vehicles sold to the public that have a significant effect toward reducing fatalities and injuries. As described in the paper “Preview Based Control of A Tractor Trailer Using DGPS For Preventing Road Departure Accidents” the basis of the technology proposed has been demonstrated. | <SOH> OBJECTS AND SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide a new and improved method for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a new and improved method and system for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object, such as another vehicle or infrastructure. In order to achieve these objects and others, a method for obtaining information about objects in the environment outside of and around a vehicle includes directing a laser beam from the vehicle into the environment, receiving from an object in the path of the laser beam a reflection of the laser beam at a location on the vehicle, and analyzing the received laser beam reflections to obtain information about the object from which the laser beam is being reflected. Analysis of the laser beam reflections preferably entails range gating the received laser beam reflections to limit analysis of the received laser beam reflections to only those received from an object within a defined (distance) range such that objects at distances within the range are isolated from surrounding objects. In this manner, data gathering is optimized in that data about only objects in the distance range is obtained. To optimize the method, the direction of the laser beam can be controlled to cover only a desired operating sector. Also, so that objects that cannot potentially impact the vehicle are not considered, thereby reducing wasted processing time for the processor and false alerts, a digital map may be provided including information relating to roads on which the vehicle can travel or is traveling. In this manner, objects which cannot impact the vehicle, such as those traveling on the same road but in an opposite direction and when a concrete barrier separates the lanes, are not considered potentially dangerous. A field into which the laser beam will be directed is defined based on the map and the laser beam is directed primarily only into the defined field. To cover possible situations with curved roads causing the vehicle to curve, two laser beams can be directed into the environment. The laser beams can have different scanning speeds. Analysis of the laser beam reflections may also entail analyzing the received laser beam reflections to detect the presence of objects potentially affecting operation of the vehicle, e.g., which would require the vehicle to alter its travel path to avoid a collision with the vehicle. Range gating is performed once the presence of each object is detected and the range is determined to encompass any objects whose presence has been detected. The range can be narrowed such that laser beam reflections from only the object whose presence is detected and other objects in the same range are analyzed and processed to obtain identification or identity information about them. Pattern recognition algorithms can be used to process the received laser beam reflections, e.g., to ascertain the identity of or identity the objects. If an object is identified and the potential for a collision between the vehicle and that object is determined to be present, the driver can be alerted about the potential collisions, e.g., visually and/or audibly, and/or a vehicle control system can be activated to alter the vehicle's travel path to avoid the collision. A method for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object includes mounting a laser beam projector on the vehicle, directing a laser beam from the projector outward from the vehicle, determining whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam based on reception of reflections of the laser beam caused by the presence of the object in the path of the laser beam, and when an object is determined to be present, setting a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object, processing only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle, and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, effecting a countermeasure with a view toward preventing the collision. The same enhancements to the method described above can be applied here as well, e.g., the use of a digital map to limit the number of objects considered as potentially dangerous and the countermeasures effected to avoid collisions. A system for avoiding collisions between a vehicle and another object includes a laser beam projector arranged on the vehicle to directing a laser beam outward from the vehicle, a receiving unit for receiving reflections of the laser beam which reflect off of objects in the path of the laser beam, and a control unit, module or processor arranged to process any received reflections to determine whether an object is present in the path of the laser beam. When an object is determined to be present, the processor sets a distance range including a distance between the vehicle and the object, processes only received reflections of the laser beam emanating from objects in the set distance range to determine whether each object may impact the vehicle, and if a determination is made that the object may impact the vehicle, causes a countermeasure to be effected with a view toward preventing the collision. Optionally, the processor includes a pattern recognition algorithm which ascertains the identity of or identifies each object in the set distance range and assesses the potential for and consequences of a collision between the vehicle and the object based on the identity or identification of the object. The countermeasures can be activation of a driver notification system to alert the driver of the impending collision or activation of a vehicle control system to vary the travel of the vehicle to avoid the impending collision. Other objects and advantages of disclosed inventions include: 1. To provide a system based partially on the global positioning system (GPS) or equivalent that permits an onboard electronic system to determine the position of a vehicle with an accuracy of 1 meter or less. 2. To provide a system which permits an onboard electronic system to determine the position of the edges and/or lane boundaries of a roadway with an accuracy of 1 meter or less in the vicinity of the vehicle. 3. To provide a system which permits an onboard vehicle electronic system to determine the position of the edges and/or lane boundaries of a roadway relative to the vehicle with an accuracy of less than about 10 centimeters, one sigma. 4. To provide a system that substantially reduces the incidence of single vehicle accidents caused by the vehicle inappropriately leaving the roadway at high speed. 5. To provide a system which does not require modification to a roadway which permits high speed controlled travel of vehicles on the roadway thereby increasing the vehicle flow rate on congested roads. 6. To provide a collision avoidance system comprising a sensing system responsive to the presence of at least one other vehicle in the vicinity of the equipped vehicle and means to determine the location of the other vehicle relative to the lane boundaries of the roadway and thereby determine if the other vehicle has strayed from its proper position on the highway thereby increasing the risk of a collision, and taking appropriate action to reduce that risk. 7. To provide a means whereby vehicles near each other can communicate their position and/or their velocity to each other and thereby reduce the risk of a collision. 8. To provide a means for accurate maps of a roadway to be transmitted to a vehicle on the roadway. 9. To provide a means for weather, road condition and/or similar information can be communicated to a vehicle traveling on a roadway plus means within the vehicle for using that information to reduce the risk of an accident. 10. To provide a means and apparatus for a vehicle to precisely know its location at certain positions on a road by passing through or over an infrastructure based local subsystem thereby permitting the vehicle electronic systems to self correct for the satellite errors making the vehicle for a brief time a DGPS station and facilitate carrier phase DGPS for increased location accuracy. Such a subsystem may be a PPS including one based on the signature of the environment. 11. To utilize government operated navigation aid systems such as the WAAS and LAAS as well as other available or to become available systems to achieve sub-meter vehicle location accuracies. 12. To utilize the OpenGIS™ map database structure so as to promote open systems for accurate maps for the RtZF™ system. 13. To eliminate intersection collisions caused by a driver running a red light or stop sign. 14. To eliminate intersection collisions caused by a driver executing a turn into oncoming traffic. 15. To provide a method of controlling the speed of a vehicle based on may information or information transmitted to the vehicle from the infrastructure. Such speed control may be based on information as to the normal legal speed limit or a variable peed limit set by weather or other conditions. Other improvements will now be obvious to those skilled in the art. The above features are meant to be illustrative and not definitive. The preferred embodiments of the inventions are shown in the drawings and described in the detailed description below. Unless specifically noted, it is applicants' intention that the words and phrases in the specification and claims be given the ordinary and accustomed meaning to those of ordinary skill in the applicable art(s). If applicants intend any other meaning, they will specifically state they are applying a special meaning to a word or phrase. Likewise, applicants' use of the word “function” in the detailed description is not intended to indicate that they seek to invoke the special provisions of 35 U.S.C. §112, ¶6 to define their invention. To the contrary, if applicants wish to invoke the provision of 35 U.S.C. § 112, ¶6, to define their invention, they will specifically set forth in the claims the phrases “means for” or “step for” and a function, without also reciting in that phrase any structure, material or act in support of the function. Moreover, even if applicants invoke the provisions of 35 U.S.C. § 112, ¶6, to define their invention, it is applicants' intention that their inventions not be limited to the specific structure, material or acts that are described in their preferred embodiments. Rather, if applicants claim their invention by specifically invoking the provisions of 35 U.S.C. §112, ¶6, it is nonetheless their intention to cover and include any and all structures, materials or acts that perform the claimed function, along with any and all known or later developed equivalent structures, materials or acts for performing the claimed function. For example, the present inventions make use of GPS satellite location technology, including the use of MIR or RFID triads or radar and reflectors, to derive kinematic vehicle location and motion trajectory parameters for use in a vehicle collision avoidance system and method. The inventions described herein are not to be limited to the specific GPS devices or PPS devices disclosed in the preferred embodiments, but rather, are intended to be used with any and all such applicable satellite and infrastructure location devices, systems and methods, as long as such devices, systems and methods generate input signals that can be analyzed by a computer to accurately quantify vehicle location and kinematic motion parameters in real time. Thus, the GPS and PPS devices and methods shown and referenced generally throughout this disclosure, unless specifically noted, are intended to represent any and all devices appropriate to determine such location and kinematic motion parameters. Likewise, for example, the present inventions generate surveillance image information for analysis by scanning using any applicable image or video scanning system or method. The inventions described herein are not to be limited to the specific scanning or imaging devices or to a particular electromagnetic frequency or frequency range or part of the electromagnetic spectrum disclosed in the preferred embodiments, but rather, are intended to be used with any and all applicable electronic scanning devices, as long as the device can generate an output signal that can be analyzed by a computer to detect and categorize objects. Thus, the scanners or image acquisition devices are shown and referenced generally throughout this disclosure, and unless specifically noted, are intended to represent any and all devices appropriate to scan or image a given area. Accordingly, the words “scan” or “image” as used in this specification should be interpreted broadly and generically. Further, there are disclosed several processors or controllers, that perform various control operations. The specific form of processor is not important to the invention. In its preferred form, applicants divide the computing and analysis operations into several cooperating computers or microprocessors. However, with appropriate programming well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, the inventions can be implemented using a single, high power computer. Thus, it is not applicants' intention to limit their invention to any particular form or location of processor or computer. For example, it is contemplated that in some cases the processor may reside on a network connected to the vehicle such as one connected to the Internet. Further examples exist throughout the disclosure, and it is not applicants' intention to exclude from the scope of his invention the use of structures, materials, or acts that are not expressly identified in the specification, but nonetheless are capable of performing a claimed function. The above and other objects are achieved in the present invention which provides motor vehicle collision avoidance, warning and control systems and methods using GPS satellite location systems augmented with Precise Positioning Systems to provide centimeter location accuracy, and to derive vehicle attitude and position coordinates and vehicle kinematic tracking information. GPS location and computing systems being integrated with vehicle video scanning, radar, laser radar, terahertz radar and onboard speedometer and/or accelerometers and gyroscopes to provide accurate vehicle location information together with information concerning hazards and/or objects that represent impending collision situations for each vehicle. Advanced image processing techniques are used to quantify video information signals and to derive vehicle warning and control signals based upon detected hazards. Outputs from multiple sensors as described above are used in onboard vehicle neural network and neural-fuzzy system computing algorithms to derive optimum vehicle warning and control signals designed to avoid vehicle collisions with other vehicles or with other objects or hazards that may be present on given roadways. In a preferred embodiment, neural fuzzy control algorithms are used to develop coordinated braking, acceleration and steering control signals to control individual vehicles, or the individual wheels of such vehicles, in an optimal manner to avoid or minimize the effects of potential collisions. Video, radar, laser radar, terahertz radar and GPS position and trajectory information are made available to each individual vehicle describing the movement of that vehicle and other vehicles in the immediate vicinity of that vehicle. In addition, hazards or other obstacles that may represent a potential danger to a given vehicle are also included in the neural fuzzy calculations. Objects, obstacles and/or other vehicles located anywhere to the front, rear or sides of a given vehicle are considered in the fuzzy logic control algorithms in the derivation of optimal control and warning signals. The above and other objects and advantages of the present invention are achieved by the preferred embodiments that are summarized and described in detail below. | 20050112 | 20070410 | 20050623 | 70708.0 | 3 | MULLEN, THOMAS J | METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR DETECTING OBJECTS EXTERNAL TO A VEHICLE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,462 | ACCEPTED | AMBIENT LIGHT COLLECTING SIGHT PIN FOR A BOW SIGHT | Ambient light collecting sight pins for a bow sight, wherein the sight pins comprise coiled fiber optic filaments for effectively harnessing diminutive amounts of ambient light and magnifying same to a useable light source capable of assisting hunters in sighting their targets in low-light environments. | 1. A sight pin for use with a bow sight, said sight pin comprising: a body comprising a housing, a medial portion, and a pin shaft, wherein said housing, said medial portion, and said pin shaft are linearly aligned, and wherein a channel is formed through said medial portion of said body, proximal a base portion of said pin shaft; and, a light collecting mechanism carried by said body, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions. 2. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions within said housing of said body. 3. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions within said housing of said body, and wherein said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism exits through an aperture formed through said housing. 4. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is disposed over said medial portion of said body. 5. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extends through said channel of said medial portion of said body. 6. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is disposed over said pin shaft of said body, and wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is removably secured within a retaining tube formed on said pin shaft. 7. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions within said housing, said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism exiting through an aperture formed through said housing, said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extending from said aperture over said medial portion and extending through said channel of said medial portion, and wherein said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extending from said channel, further extends over said pin shaft and is removably secured within a retaining tube formed on said pin shaft. 8. The sight pin of claim 7, wherein said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extending from said aperture of said housing, over said medial portion and through said channel thereof, and thereafter over said pin shaft and removably secured within a retaining tube formed on said pin shaft, results in said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism comprising a substantially S-shaped configuration. 9. The sight pin of claim 1, wherein said light collecting mechanism is a fiber optic filament. 10. A sight pin for use with a bow sight, said sight pin comprising: a spool-shaped body; a base, wherein said base resides independent of said spool-shaped body; a pin shaft extending from said base; and, a light collecting mechanism carried by said spool-shaped body, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions. 11. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions around said spool-shaped body. 12. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extends through and is carried by a retaining tube, said retaining tube formed on said spool-shaped body. 13. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extends through a channel formed through said base. 14. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extends through said pin shaft, and wherein a terminal end of said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism sits flush with a terminal aperture of said pin shaft. 15. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism is coiled a plurality of revolutions around said spool-shaped body, and further extends through a retaining tube formed on said spool-shaped body, and wherein said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism extends through a channel formed through said base and thereafter through said pin shaft, and wherein a terminal end of said at least a portion of said light collecting mechanism sits flush with a terminal aperture of said pin shaft. 16. The sight pin of claim 10, wherein said light collecting mechanism is a fiber optic filament. 17. A method of providing an ambient light collecting sight pin for use with a bow sight, said method comprising the steps of: a. coiling at least a portion of a fiber optic filament; b. removably securing said at least a portion of fiber optic filament to a sight pin; and, c. positioning a terminal end of said at least a portion of fiber optic filament proximal to a terminal end of said sight pin. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein said step b. further comprises the step of: guiding said at least a portion of fiber optic filament out from an aperture formed through a housing of said sight pin. 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising the step of guiding said at least a portion of fiber optic filament through a channel formed through a medial portion of said sight pin, wherein said medial portion is integrally formed with said housing and with a sight pin shaft of said sight pin. 20. The method of claim 17, further comprising the step of: exposing said fiber optic filament to a light source to enable said terminal end of said at least a portion of fiber optic filament to emit light. | TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates generally to bow sights, and more specifically to an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight. The present invention is particularly useful in, although not limited to, assisting hunters and/or competition shooters equipped with bows and/or firearms to target game or objects in low-light environments. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Effective and successful use of a bow is dependent upon a multitude of variables, including establishment of proper trajectory, string tension, drawback and even the weight of the bow. More importantly, however, the precision of a bowshot is largely dependent upon proper targeting or aiming and the ability to sight one's target. As such, many archers/hunters have employed the use of bow sights to assist in such targeting. Unfortunately, however, because most hunting expeditions are usually conducted in low-level light conditions/environments, such as a dense forest, most conventionally available bow sights are unable to effectively assist the hunter in sighting his target. Although attempts have been made to cure the deficiencies and inadequacies of conventional sighting pins and/or crosshairs, simple bow sights of this sort are of limited use because they fail to provide the archer/hunter with the requisite amount of light needed to sight a target within the bow sight. Furthermore, while bow sights with small light collecting filaments are known, they too serve limited use as they are typically unable to harness enough ambient light to make use of the bow sight worthwhile. Therefore, it is readily apparent that there is a need for an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, wherein the present invention effectively harnesses diminutive amounts of ambient light and magnifies same to a useable light source capable of assisting hunters in sighting their targets in low-light environments. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Briefly described, in a preferred embodiment, the present invention overcomes the above-mentioned disadvantage, and meets the recognized need for such a device by providing ambient light collecting sight pins for a bow sight, wherein the sight pins comprise coiled fiber optic filaments for effectively harnessing diminutive amounts of ambient light and magnifying same to a useable light source capable of assisting hunters in sighting their targets in low-light environments. According to its major aspects and broadly stated, the present invention in its preferred form is an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, wherein the sight pin generally comprises a light collecting filament and a translucent spool or housing integrally formed with, or otherwise adapted to, the sight pin. More specifically, the present invention is an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, comprising a light collecting filament preferably in the form of a scintillating fiber optic filament of sufficient length to enable extensive wrapping or winding of the filament around or within a preferably translucent spool or housing, wherein the spool or housing is preferably integrally formed with, or otherwise adapted to, the sight pin. Moreover, a portion of the fiber optic filament retained on or within the spool or housing is guided around and removably secured to the sight pin, such that the terminal end of the filament resides at the tip of the sight pin. Preferably, the repeated wrapping or winding of the lengthy strand of fiber optic filament configures the filament to provide an enhanced surface area over which to harness ambient light. The translucent material from which the spool or housing is constructed further enables ambient light to pass therethrough, and thus be harnessed by the wrapped filament. Accordingly, the terminal end of the portion of filament removably secured to the tip of the sight pin is preferably illuminated as a result of the harnessed ambient light. In use, a plurality of such lit sight pins, each having filaments of differing color, may be removable secured to a bow sight generally adapted to receive sight pins. Additionally, the bow sight may be constructed from a translucent material to assist in the overall light-harnessing process of each fiber optic filament. Accordingly, a feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to provide a bow sight having interchangeable, light-harnessing sight pins. Another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to be utilized in extremely low-level light environments. Still another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to effectively harness ambient low-level light and magnify it to a useable light source. Yet another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to allow the archer/hunter to sight targets in low-level light environments. Still yet another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to provide a large, multi-coiled ambient light collecting surface area. These and other features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent to one skilled in the art from the following description and claims when read in light of the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be better understood by reading the Detailed Description of the Preferred and Alternate Embodiments with reference to the accompanying drawing figures, in which like reference numerals denote similar structure and refer to like elements throughout, and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an ambient light collecting sight pin according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an ambient light collecting sight pin according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, shown in use; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an ambient light collecting sight pin according to an alternate embodiment of the present invention; and, FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an ambient light collecting sight pin according to an alternate embodiment of the present invention, shown in use. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED AND ALTERNATIVE EMBODIMENTS In describing the preferred and alternate embodiments of the present invention, as illustrated in FIGS. 1-4, specific terminology is employed for the sake of clarity. The invention, however, is not intended to be limited to the specific terminology so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific element includes all technical equivalents that operate in a similar manner to accomplish similar functions. Referring now to FIGS. 1-2, the present invention in its preferred embodiment is an ambient light collecting sight pin 10 generally comprising body 20 and light collecting mechanism 80. Specifically, body 20 preferably comprises integrally formed housing 30, medial portion 40 and pin shaft 60, wherein body 20 is generally preferably formed from a translucent acrylic substrate, so as to enable ambient light to pass therethrough, and thus be harnessed by light collecting mechanism 80, as more fully described below. Additionally, and as further described below, housing 30 is preferably substantially cylindrical-shaped so as to facilitate the multiple coiling or windings of light collecting mechanism 80 therewithin; thereby, promoting a greater surface area in which to capture ambient light passing through housing 30. Although body 20 is formed from a translucent acrylic substrate, it should be recognized that other suitable translucent plastic substrates may be utilized. Light collecting mechanism 80 is preferably a substantially long strand of scintillating ambient light collecting fiber optic filament 82, preferably substantially wrapped a plurality of times around the circumference of inner wall 32 of housing 30, wherein housing 30 preferably comprises peripheral retaining lips 34, 36 and floor 37 to prevent coiled fiber optic filament 82 from dislodging or sliding out from housing 30. Preferably formed through peripheral wall 31 of housing 30 is aperture 31a, wherein leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 preferably extends therethrough and tensionally over forward wall 42 of medial portion 40. Thereafter, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 preferably extends and exists through channel 50, preferably formed through forward wall 42 of medial portion 40 and exiting from rear wall 44 thereof, and further residing substantially proximal to base 62 of pin shaft 60. Accordingly, following exit through rear wall 44 of medial portion 40, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 preferably tensionally extends over rear edge 62 of generally blade-like or plate-like pin shaft 60, and continues over upper edge or apex 64 of pin shaft 60, wherein terminal end 82b of leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 is preferably inserted through and removably secured within retaining tube 66 disposed atop apex 64 and proximal to forward edge 68 of pin shaft 60. Preferably, the plurality of coils and/or wrappings of fiber optic filament 82 within housing 30 promote a greater surface area in which to capture ambient light passing through housing 30, or directly striking fiber optic filament 82. Additionally, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 further assists in capturing ambient light and contributing to the overall light harnessing process of the preset invention. As such, light from all directions is generally harnessed by fiber optic filament 82, thus increasing, magnifying and generally enhancing the output of useful light from terminal end 82b of light collecting mechanism 80. As best illustrated in FIG. 2, in use, a plurality of sight pins 10, each having fiber optic filaments 82 of differing color, may be removable secured to, and slidably adjusted within, sight pin retaining slot S formed on bow sight/scope B generally adapted to receive sight pins 10, wherein each sight pin 10 may be secured to slot S of bow sight B via application of set screw or bolt-and-washer assembly 90 adapted to be threadably received by threaded hole 44a formed on rear wall 44 of medial portion 40 of sight pin 10. In such an arrangement, a plurality of lit terminal ends 82b of filaments 82 function as lit sight pins 10. It is contemplated that bow sight B may be constructed from a translucent material to assist in the overall light-harnessing process of each fiber optic filament 82. Referring now more specifically to FIGS. 3-4, the present invention in an alternate embodiment is an ambient light collecting sight pin 100 comprising light collecting mechanism 80, spool 120, pin base 130, and pin shaft 140. Specifically, spool 120 is generally formed from a translucent acrylic substrate, so as to enable ambient light to pass therethrough, and thus be harnessed by light collecting mechanism 80. Light collecting mechanism 80 is a substantially long strand of scintillating ambient light collecting fiber optic filament 82, substantially wrapped a plurality of times around the outer circumference of spool stem 122 of spool 120, wherein spool 120 comprises exterior retaining plates 124, 126 integrally formed with spool stem 122, each comprising a diameter dimensionally larger than spool stem 122; thereby, preventing coiled fiber optic filament 82 from dislodging or sliding off from spool stem 122. Formed on exterior retaining plate 124 is retaining tube 128, wherein leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 is inserted and extended therethrough. Thereafter, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 80 is extended through channel 132 formed through substantially L-shaped base 130, wherein channel 132 is in communication with hollow, tube-like pin shaft 140, securely affixed to base 130. Accordingly, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 extends through pin shaft 140 and through arcuate-shaped head 144 thereof, wherein terminal end 82b of leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 is brought flush with aperture 146 of pin shaft 144. Accordingly, the plurality of coils and/or wrappings of fiber optic filament 82 around spool stem 122 promote a greater surface area in which to capture ambient light passing through spool 120, or directly striking fiber optic filament 82. Additionally, leading end 82a of fiber optic filament 82 further assists in capturing ambient light and contributing to the overall light harnessing process of the preset invention. As such, light from all directions is generally harnessed by fiber optic filament 82, thus increasing, magnifying and generally enhancing the output of useful light from terminal end 82b of light collecting mechanism 80. As best illustrated in FIG. 4, in use, a plurality of sight pins 100, each having fiber optic filaments 82 of differing color, may be removable secured to, and slidably adjusted on, bracket BR of bow sight/scope BB generally adapted to receive sight pins 100, wherein each sight pin 100 may be secured to bracket BR of bow sight BB via application of set screw 190, or the like, adapted to be received by threaded throughhole 134 formed through base 130 of sight pin 100. Additionally, sight pin 100 may be secured to bow sight BB via securing tab 127 formed on retaining plate 124, wherein securing tab 127 could be received within a suitably dimensioned slot or groove formed within generally cylindrical-shaped bow housing BH integrally formed with bow sight/scope BB, or, alternatively, could be frictionally received therewithin. It is further contemplated that bow sight BB may also be constructed from a translucent material to assist in the overall light-harnessing process of each fiber optic filament 82. It is contemplated in another alternate embodiment that a plurality of sight pins 10 or sight pins 100 may be integrally formed. It is contemplated in still another alternate embodiment that fiber optic filaments 82 could be integrally formed with sight pins 10 or sight pins 100. Having thus described exemplary embodiments of the present invention, it should be noted by those skilled in the art that the within disclosures are exemplary only, and that various other alternatives, adaptations, and modifications may be made within the scope of the present invention. Accordingly, the present invention is not limited to the specific embodiments illustrated herein, but is limited only by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Effective and successful use of a bow is dependent upon a multitude of variables, including establishment of proper trajectory, string tension, drawback and even the weight of the bow. More importantly, however, the precision of a bowshot is largely dependent upon proper targeting or aiming and the ability to sight one's target. As such, many archers/hunters have employed the use of bow sights to assist in such targeting. Unfortunately, however, because most hunting expeditions are usually conducted in low-level light conditions/environments, such as a dense forest, most conventionally available bow sights are unable to effectively assist the hunter in sighting his target. Although attempts have been made to cure the deficiencies and inadequacies of conventional sighting pins and/or crosshairs, simple bow sights of this sort are of limited use because they fail to provide the archer/hunter with the requisite amount of light needed to sight a target within the bow sight. Furthermore, while bow sights with small light collecting filaments are known, they too serve limited use as they are typically unable to harness enough ambient light to make use of the bow sight worthwhile. Therefore, it is readily apparent that there is a need for an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, wherein the present invention effectively harnesses diminutive amounts of ambient light and magnifies same to a useable light source capable of assisting hunters in sighting their targets in low-light environments. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Briefly described, in a preferred embodiment, the present invention overcomes the above-mentioned disadvantage, and meets the recognized need for such a device by providing ambient light collecting sight pins for a bow sight, wherein the sight pins comprise coiled fiber optic filaments for effectively harnessing diminutive amounts of ambient light and magnifying same to a useable light source capable of assisting hunters in sighting their targets in low-light environments. According to its major aspects and broadly stated, the present invention in its preferred form is an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, wherein the sight pin generally comprises a light collecting filament and a translucent spool or housing integrally formed with, or otherwise adapted to, the sight pin. More specifically, the present invention is an ambient light collecting sight pin for a bow sight, comprising a light collecting filament preferably in the form of a scintillating fiber optic filament of sufficient length to enable extensive wrapping or winding of the filament around or within a preferably translucent spool or housing, wherein the spool or housing is preferably integrally formed with, or otherwise adapted to, the sight pin. Moreover, a portion of the fiber optic filament retained on or within the spool or housing is guided around and removably secured to the sight pin, such that the terminal end of the filament resides at the tip of the sight pin. Preferably, the repeated wrapping or winding of the lengthy strand of fiber optic filament configures the filament to provide an enhanced surface area over which to harness ambient light. The translucent material from which the spool or housing is constructed further enables ambient light to pass therethrough, and thus be harnessed by the wrapped filament. Accordingly, the terminal end of the portion of filament removably secured to the tip of the sight pin is preferably illuminated as a result of the harnessed ambient light. In use, a plurality of such lit sight pins, each having filaments of differing color, may be removable secured to a bow sight generally adapted to receive sight pins. Additionally, the bow sight may be constructed from a translucent material to assist in the overall light-harnessing process of each fiber optic filament. Accordingly, a feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to provide a bow sight having interchangeable, light-harnessing sight pins. Another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to be utilized in extremely low-level light environments. Still another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to effectively harness ambient low-level light and magnify it to a useable light source. Yet another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to allow the archer/hunter to sight targets in low-level light environments. Still yet another feature and advantage of the present invention is its ability to provide a large, multi-coiled ambient light collecting surface area. These and other features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent to one skilled in the art from the following description and claims when read in light of the accompanying drawings. | 20050113 | 20060801 | 20060713 | 97260.0 | F41G1467 | 0 | JOHNSON, AMY COHEN | AMBIENT LIGHT COLLECTING SIGHT PIN FOR A BOW SIGHT | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | F41G | 2,005 |
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11,034,609 | ACCEPTED | Device for producing a coating on printed products from a printing press | A device for producing a coating on printed products from a printing press is provided. The coating device can be actuated digitally via printing image data thereby allowing the coating motif to be designed in a variable manner The coating device can include an inkjet printer in the form of an inkjet head array or an inkjet head bar acting as a varnishing unit that operates line-by-line on large-format printing material. The coating device can also be integrated in a rotary press having a varnishing unit for coating a printing material that has been processed in the printing press. The coating device can also be integrated with a dryer. The printing material can be passed under the outlet openings of the inkjet heads and the dryer can be arranged directly after the inkjet printer in the transport direction of the printing material in order to dry the liquid coating material on the printing material after the application. | 1. A device for producing a coating on a printed material that has been processed in a printing press, the coating device comprising a separate inkjet printer for discharging a coating material on the printed material, the inkjet printer including a plurality of inkjet outlet openings arranged to act in a line-by-line manner on the printed material which is passed under the inkjet outlet openings. 2. The coating device according to claim 1, further including a dryer arranged directly after the inkjet printer in a transport direction of the printed material for drying the coating material on the printed material after the coating material is applied by the inkjet printer. 3. The coating device according to claim 2, wherein the inkjet printer is adapted to apply a UV varnish as the coating material and the dryer is a UV dryer. 4. The coating device according to claim 2, wherein the inkjet printer is adapted to apply an aqueous material as the coating material and the dryer is a hot-air or infrared dryer. 5. The coating device according claim 1, wherein discharge of coating material through the inkjet outlet openings of the inkjet printer is actuated by a control unit using digital image data such that distribution of the coating material on the printed material can be varied in terms of a surface area of the printed material and in terms of a layer profile. 6. The coating device according to claim 5, wherein the control unit can vary the droplet characteristics of the coating material discharged through the inkjet outlet openings such that the coating material applied on the printed material can be varied between complete area coverage on the printed material and the absence of any coating material. 7. The coating device according to claim 1, wherein the printing press is a rotary press. 8. The coating device according to claim 1, wherein the printing press is a digital, image data-oriented printing press. 9. The coating device according to claim 1, wherein the inkjet printer includes an array of inkjet heads. 10. The coating device according to claim 1, wherein the inkjet printer includes an inkjet head bar. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention generally relates to printing presses and, more particularly to devices for producing a coating on printed products from a printing press. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Rotary printing presses including varnishing devices and dryers that are arranged after the varnishing devices are known from the prior art. The dryers dry the printing material that has been varnished in the varnishing devices is dried, are known from the prior art. Thus, for example, in sheet-fed rotary offset presses, the sheets that have been printed in the printing units are covered with a varnish layer in a varnishing unit that is connected after or downstream of the printing units. The sheets are subsequently guided past a known dryer device in the form of an infrared, hot-air or UV dryer, in which the varnished sheets are dried before being deposited on a deliverer stack. The purpose of known varnishing units is increasing the rubbing resistance and the gloss of printed products or preventing ink from being deposited in the stack in the event of a very thin application of varnish. The varnishing is usually performed in the final printing units. A free inking unit can be the simplest way to varnish printed products. In such a case, as is known, a special heat-set ink is used that can be processed like a normal heat-set ink. The special heat-set ink is transferred onto the surface of the paper wet-on-wet together with the printing ink and then dried in heat-set dryers. Special varnishing units are also available to meet the ever-increasing quality requirements associated with web-fed offset printing. The special varnishing units are positioned between the final printing unit and the heat-set dryer. Varnishing operations can be performed with aqueous emulsion varnishes. Most emulsion varnishes are dried through physical evaporation of the water. However, in web-fed offset printing, a special UV drying system (UV radiant heater) can be used that is capable of performing not only the drying of the printing ink, but also partial UV varnishing. Special UV varnishes that are applied to 100% polymerizable binder constituents are used. Inkjet technology is in widespread use in both home PC printers as well as industrial applications such as digital proof systems that use the data of an ESP system directly with digital printers. For the home and office, a wide variety of printer manufacturers are known that are capable of producing relatively high-quality (generally >1200 dpi), multi-color prints. Such printers are usually designed for personal use. In other words, the printers are actuated by a PC and can be used with a variety of printing materials. The disadvantages of home and office printers generally include slow printing speeds (low number of printed copies per unit time) and the relatively high cost of the printing inks. As will be appreciated, home/office inkjet printers are not suitable for industrial applications. Inkjet printing systems for industrial printing applications are also known. For example, inkjet systems can be used to produce proofs, to set images on printing plates or printing forms. Inkjet systems can also be used for digitally printing small special runs (for example, printing structural shapes) and special formats (for example, large-format posters or textiles). In a similar manner to home/office inkjet printing applications, industrial applications predominantly use inkjet printing systems for very small print runs and that the costs for printing inks are very high. As compared to conventional printing methods such as offset and gravure, inkjet printing is not economical for printing large runs, as inkjet printing is very slow at high print resolutions (>1200 dpi). At low print resolutions (<300 dpi), inkjet printing is capable of providing a relatively high number of printed copies per unit time, but at the expense of satisfactory print quality. Up to now, coating, varnishing or finishing of conventionally printed products (for example, offset or gravure printed products) or of digitally printed products (for example, photo-electric printing) has been performed using conventional coating, varnishing or finishing methods, as has been described above. These can be methods for flexographic printing, gravure printing or offset printing. Additionally, there are coating methods that are performed by means of lamination (for example, adhesive bonding of films or other carrier materials). These methods are likewise used predominantly for finishing and to protect the surface of the printed products. As also discussed above, water-based varnishes and UV varnishes are mainly used when varnishing printed products. The varnishing procedures can be performed over the entire area or only on sub-areas. In such a case, conventional coating methods are particularly suitable for large print runs and high quality requirements. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing, an object of the invention is providing a device for producing a coating on printed products from a printing press that advantageously can be actuated digitally via so-called printing image data thus allowing the coating motif to be designed in a variable manner. Inkjet printing is a printing technology that is categorized as a non-impact printer. This is understood to mean a contact-less printing method, in which a minuscule amount of ink is fired onto the printing material from one or more extremely small nozzles in an electronically controlled manner (as is described, for example, in DE 27 04 514 C2). The inkjet printing techniques are subdivided into “continuous jet” and “drop on demand” techniques. The advantage of contact-less printing methods is that if required it is possible to omit upstream drying methods, thereby saving energy and material costs. Furthermore, as has already been mentioned, the inkjet printing method can be actuated digitally via what is known as printing image data. Thus, it is possible to design the printed image or the coating motif in a variable manner. In conventional coating methods (for example, flexographic printing, gravure printing or laminating methods), the coating motif is predefined in a fixed manner and can not be varied. Once a motif has been defined, it cannot be changed from what is known as a master form. These conventional master forms are usually very expensive and defined only for a specific printing or coating application. The use of conventional master forms is often not economical for small job sizes or printing or coating jobs that change frequently, as the one-off costs for the forms are very high with regard to the small job size. Smaller and special print runs (for example, personalized or individualized print runs) are characteristic of digital printing. In the majority of such digital printing applications have a print-run range of between 10 and 500 copies. A further characteristic of digital printing is short production times. In particular, the time for processing printed products is greatly reduced as compared with conventional printing processes. The long manufacturing times associated with conventional coating forms cannot be justified for digital printing applications. The inkjet coating method of the present invention is thus specifically suitable for every type of digital printing and for every printing method. More specifically, the present invention can be used advantageously both in every rotary press and in digital, image data-oriented printing presses, in particular inkjet printing presses. The inkjet printing method does not require a master form in order to perform printing or coating. The inkjet nozzles can be actuated variably by means of digital data, with the result that a coating motif can be changed flexibly and on demand. With the inkjet printing method, the printing or coating motifs can be changed by changing any forms “online”, that is to say through direct interaction with a control unit without any time loss. No costs are incurred for the manufacture and the exchange of forms for printing or for coating. Further advantages of using the inkjet printing method for printing or coating are achieved through the ability of the inkjet to distribute the amount of liquid coating material (for example, varnish) variably. In addition to a variable, motif-based distribution on the substrates that are to be coated, it is also possible to vary the amount of coating material distributed by means of the inkjet and digital image data. This additional property enables the production of what are known as layer profiles having different coating thicknesses. For example, coatings can be differentiated according to text, images and backgrounds not only by the motif, but they can also be differentiated in profile. This also extends the usefulness of inkjet coating processes to the impression and aesthetics of printed products, in addition to the actual functions (surface protection and gloss). Special inks (for example, luminescent inks) or functional materials (for example, electronic polymer materials for electrical conduction functions) can be transferred by the inkjet coating method of the present invention, in addition to varnishes with a protective action (for example, abrasion protection) and finishing action (for example, gloss). Such special inks or materials can be applied by means of an inkjet over the whole area or advantageously only partially (for example, text, codes, symbols) in accordance with their function. The special inks or functional materials can be used, for example, for labeling products in the security or packaging sectors by coating the products themselves or by coating labels. For example, invisible inks can be printed that are visible only under UV light thereby fulfilling a security function. Conductive elements that can serve for registration functions can be transferred by the application of electronic polymer materials. The inkjet printing or coating unit for coating printed products can be integrated into existing printing presses or into newly designed printing presses. The inkjet printing or coating unit can be used with both sheet-fed printing presses and web-fed printing presses. The use of the inkjet method for coating printed products is not dependent on the printing methods used to manufacture the printed products which are to be coated. It is possible to coat both printed products that are manufactured by means of conventional printing methods (for example, offset, flexographic or gravure printing) and products which are manufactured by means of digital printing (for example, photoelectric printing, xerography). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic view of an exemplary coating unit according to the present invention including an inkjet head array. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of an exemplary coating unit according to the present invention including an inkjet print head bar. FIG. 3 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention incorporated into a sheet-fed offset printing press. FIG. 4 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention incorporated into a web-fed printing press. FIG. 5 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention incorporated into a sheet-fed coating press. FIG. 6 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention incorporated into a web-fed digital printing press. FIG. 7 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention incorporated into a sheet-fed digital printing press. FIG. 8 is a schematic view illustrating an inkjet coating applied by a coating unit according to the present invention with a variable amount of metering. FIG. 9 is a schematic view illustrating an inkjet coating applied by a coating unit according to the present invention with a layer profile on the printed material. FIG. 10 is a schematic view illustrating an inkjet coating applied by a coating unit according to the present invention with variable layer profiles on the printed material. FIG. 11 is a schematic view of a coating unit according to the present invention wherein the coating unit is incorporated with a drying unit. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Referring now to the drawings, an inkjet coating unit according to the invention can be arranged in the form of an inkjet head array (a multiple head arrangement) such as shown in FIG. 1 or an inkjet head bar such as shown in FIG. 2. The inkjet head array or the inkjet head bar should be arranged to ensure the complete coverage of the printed product which is to be coated. Thus, it should be possible to coat the entire area of the printed product. The printed product which is to be coated is passed under the outlet openings of the inkjet heads in the arranged configuration. As a result, the printed product is able to receive and be coated by the liquid coating material (for example, varnish). In a preferred embodiment, the inkjet coating unit can comprise a combination of the inkjet head arrays or the inkjet head bar and a drying unit that dries the liquid coating material (for example, UV varnish) on the printed product after it is applied(see, e.g., FIG. 11). As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the drying unit can be omitted if special varnishes are used that do not have to be dried. However, in a typical case, the drying process is intended to enable the further processing of the coated printed products. The drying unit can be a UV dryer if, for example, UV varnish is used as coating material. The drying unit should be adapted to the particular coating material being used or be suitable for drying the liquid material. For example, hot-air or infrared dryers are suitable for the use of aqueous materials. The inkjet coating unit of the present invention can be integrated into a variety of different printing machines. For example, the inkjet coating unit of the present invention can be integrated into sheet-fed offset printing presses. In such a case, the inkjet coating unit can be arranged at the sheet delivery end of the sheet-fed printing press as shown in FIG. 3. The inkjet coating unit of the present invention also can be integrated into web-fed offset printing presses. In particular, the coating unit can be arranged at the web delivery end of the web-fed printing press as shown in FIG. 4. In addition, the inkjet coating unit can be integrated into sheet-fed coating presses. For example, the coating unit can be arranged at the sheet delivery end of the sheet-fed printing press as shown in FIG. 5. The inkjet coating unit can be limited to applications involving the coating of printed products. The inkjet coating unit of the present invention also can be integrated into web-fed digital printing presses. In such a case, the coating unit can be arranged at the web delivery end of the web-fed digital printing press as shown in FIG. 6. Additionally, the inkjet coating unit can be integrated into sheet-fed digital printing presses. In such a case, the coating unit should be arranged at the sheet delivery at the end of the sheet-fed digital printing press as shown in FIG. 7. The inkjet heads of the inkjet coating unit of the present invention can be actuated via a control unit (for example, an image data computer) by means of digital image data. The distribution of the coating material (for example, varnish) can be varied both in terms of the area (for example, image motifs, text or backgrounds) as shown in FIG. 10 and in terms of the layer profile (for example, the varnish film thickness or layer thickness of the medium). Moreover, it is possible to modify the droplet characteristics of the inkjet heads of the coating unit of the present invention. The coating result can be both complete area coverage having the greatest layer thickness and the absence of any coating (for example, no varnish application or spot coating). The distribution of the coating medium (for example, varnish) can be varied in an infinitely adjustable manner as desired in terms of the area and layer profile as illustrated in FIGS. 8 and 9. All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein. The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention. Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Rotary printing presses including varnishing devices and dryers that are arranged after the varnishing devices are known from the prior art. The dryers dry the printing material that has been varnished in the varnishing devices is dried, are known from the prior art. Thus, for example, in sheet-fed rotary offset presses, the sheets that have been printed in the printing units are covered with a varnish layer in a varnishing unit that is connected after or downstream of the printing units. The sheets are subsequently guided past a known dryer device in the form of an infrared, hot-air or UV dryer, in which the varnished sheets are dried before being deposited on a deliverer stack. The purpose of known varnishing units is increasing the rubbing resistance and the gloss of printed products or preventing ink from being deposited in the stack in the event of a very thin application of varnish. The varnishing is usually performed in the final printing units. A free inking unit can be the simplest way to varnish printed products. In such a case, as is known, a special heat-set ink is used that can be processed like a normal heat-set ink. The special heat-set ink is transferred onto the surface of the paper wet-on-wet together with the printing ink and then dried in heat-set dryers. Special varnishing units are also available to meet the ever-increasing quality requirements associated with web-fed offset printing. The special varnishing units are positioned between the final printing unit and the heat-set dryer. Varnishing operations can be performed with aqueous emulsion varnishes. Most emulsion varnishes are dried through physical evaporation of the water. However, in web-fed offset printing, a special UV drying system (UV radiant heater) can be used that is capable of performing not only the drying of the printing ink, but also partial UV varnishing. Special UV varnishes that are applied to 100% polymerizable binder constituents are used. Inkjet technology is in widespread use in both home PC printers as well as industrial applications such as digital proof systems that use the data of an ESP system directly with digital printers. For the home and office, a wide variety of printer manufacturers are known that are capable of producing relatively high-quality (generally >1200 dpi), multi-color prints. Such printers are usually designed for personal use. In other words, the printers are actuated by a PC and can be used with a variety of printing materials. The disadvantages of home and office printers generally include slow printing speeds (low number of printed copies per unit time) and the relatively high cost of the printing inks. As will be appreciated, home/office inkjet printers are not suitable for industrial applications. Inkjet printing systems for industrial printing applications are also known. For example, inkjet systems can be used to produce proofs, to set images on printing plates or printing forms. Inkjet systems can also be used for digitally printing small special runs (for example, printing structural shapes) and special formats (for example, large-format posters or textiles). In a similar manner to home/office inkjet printing applications, industrial applications predominantly use inkjet printing systems for very small print runs and that the costs for printing inks are very high. As compared to conventional printing methods such as offset and gravure, inkjet printing is not economical for printing large runs, as inkjet printing is very slow at high print resolutions (>1200 dpi). At low print resolutions (<300 dpi), inkjet printing is capable of providing a relatively high number of printed copies per unit time, but at the expense of satisfactory print quality. Up to now, coating, varnishing or finishing of conventionally printed products (for example, offset or gravure printed products) or of digitally printed products (for example, photo-electric printing) has been performed using conventional coating, varnishing or finishing methods, as has been described above. These can be methods for flexographic printing, gravure printing or offset printing. Additionally, there are coating methods that are performed by means of lamination (for example, adhesive bonding of films or other carrier materials). These methods are likewise used predominantly for finishing and to protect the surface of the printed products. As also discussed above, water-based varnishes and UV varnishes are mainly used when varnishing printed products. The varnishing procedures can be performed over the entire area or only on sub-areas. In such a case, conventional coating methods are particularly suitable for large print runs and high quality requirements. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the foregoing, an object of the invention is providing a device for producing a coating on printed products from a printing press that advantageously can be actuated digitally via so-called printing image data thus allowing the coating motif to be designed in a variable manner. Inkjet printing is a printing technology that is categorized as a non-impact printer. This is understood to mean a contact-less printing method, in which a minuscule amount of ink is fired onto the printing material from one or more extremely small nozzles in an electronically controlled manner (as is described, for example, in DE 27 04 514 C2). The inkjet printing techniques are subdivided into “continuous jet” and “drop on demand” techniques. The advantage of contact-less printing methods is that if required it is possible to omit upstream drying methods, thereby saving energy and material costs. Furthermore, as has already been mentioned, the inkjet printing method can be actuated digitally via what is known as printing image data. Thus, it is possible to design the printed image or the coating motif in a variable manner. In conventional coating methods (for example, flexographic printing, gravure printing or laminating methods), the coating motif is predefined in a fixed manner and can not be varied. Once a motif has been defined, it cannot be changed from what is known as a master form. These conventional master forms are usually very expensive and defined only for a specific printing or coating application. The use of conventional master forms is often not economical for small job sizes or printing or coating jobs that change frequently, as the one-off costs for the forms are very high with regard to the small job size. Smaller and special print runs (for example, personalized or individualized print runs) are characteristic of digital printing. In the majority of such digital printing applications have a print-run range of between 10 and 500 copies. A further characteristic of digital printing is short production times. In particular, the time for processing printed products is greatly reduced as compared with conventional printing processes. The long manufacturing times associated with conventional coating forms cannot be justified for digital printing applications. The inkjet coating method of the present invention is thus specifically suitable for every type of digital printing and for every printing method. More specifically, the present invention can be used advantageously both in every rotary press and in digital, image data-oriented printing presses, in particular inkjet printing presses. The inkjet printing method does not require a master form in order to perform printing or coating. The inkjet nozzles can be actuated variably by means of digital data, with the result that a coating motif can be changed flexibly and on demand. With the inkjet printing method, the printing or coating motifs can be changed by changing any forms “online”, that is to say through direct interaction with a control unit without any time loss. No costs are incurred for the manufacture and the exchange of forms for printing or for coating. Further advantages of using the inkjet printing method for printing or coating are achieved through the ability of the inkjet to distribute the amount of liquid coating material (for example, varnish) variably. In addition to a variable, motif-based distribution on the substrates that are to be coated, it is also possible to vary the amount of coating material distributed by means of the inkjet and digital image data. This additional property enables the production of what are known as layer profiles having different coating thicknesses. For example, coatings can be differentiated according to text, images and backgrounds not only by the motif, but they can also be differentiated in profile. This also extends the usefulness of inkjet coating processes to the impression and aesthetics of printed products, in addition to the actual functions (surface protection and gloss). Special inks (for example, luminescent inks) or functional materials (for example, electronic polymer materials for electrical conduction functions) can be transferred by the inkjet coating method of the present invention, in addition to varnishes with a protective action (for example, abrasion protection) and finishing action (for example, gloss). Such special inks or materials can be applied by means of an inkjet over the whole area or advantageously only partially (for example, text, codes, symbols) in accordance with their function. The special inks or functional materials can be used, for example, for labeling products in the security or packaging sectors by coating the products themselves or by coating labels. For example, invisible inks can be printed that are visible only under UV light thereby fulfilling a security function. Conductive elements that can serve for registration functions can be transferred by the application of electronic polymer materials. The inkjet printing or coating unit for coating printed products can be integrated into existing printing presses or into newly designed printing presses. The inkjet printing or coating unit can be used with both sheet-fed printing presses and web-fed printing presses. The use of the inkjet method for coating printed products is not dependent on the printing methods used to manufacture the printed products which are to be coated. It is possible to coat both printed products that are manufactured by means of conventional printing methods (for example, offset, flexographic or gravure printing) and products which are manufactured by means of digital printing (for example, photoelectric printing, xerography). | 20050113 | 20081118 | 20050908 | 62730.0 | 1 | NGUYEN, ANTHONY H | DEVICE FOR PRODUCING A COATING ON PRINTED PRODUCTS FROM A PRINTING PRESS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,620 | ACCEPTED | Systems and methods for rule inheritance | Systems and methods for automating and increasing the efficiency of business processes using inheritance of access/approval rules within an organization based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. In one embodiment, a role structure is used in conjunction with a hierarchical organization structure to allow access/approval rules to be inherited by some of the positions from other positions based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. Access/approval rules can be applied across equivalent or similar positions, yet differentiated between distinct portions of the organization and the distinct roles associated with the positions. Consequently, particular access/approval rules are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions subordinate to a particular position with which the rule originates, and are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions that are associated with a particular role. | 1. A method comprising: defining a hierarchical organizational structure of positions within an organization; associating one of a plurality of roles with each of the positions; defining one or more business processes; a first position within the hierarchical organizational structure associating one or more access/approval rules with a first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a first subset of the roles; and automatically associating the one or more access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the first position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the first subset of roles. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function and a selected specialty. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function, a selected specialty and a selected skill. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: for a second position subordinate to the first position, associating one or more additional access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a second subset of the roles, and automatically associating the one or more additional access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the second position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the second subset of roles. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein each position in the hierarchical organizational structure inherits the access/approval rules that are associated with all of the superior positions in the hierarchical organizational structure and that are applicable to the role associated with the position. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more access/approval rules define access rights of the corresponding roles with respect to the first one of the business processes. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the one or more access/approval rules define restrictions of the corresponding roles with respect to the first one of the business processes. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the first one of the business processes comprises accessing a company's information. 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising enabling the first position to modify access/approval rules implemented by the first position and positions subordinate to the first position in the hierarchical organizational structure. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising preventing the first position from modifying access/approval rules implemented by positions superior to the first position in the hierarchical organizational structure. 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising automatically making the first one of the business processes available to all positions subordinate to the first role within the hierarchical organizational structure. 13. A system comprising: software executable by a computer system to perform the method including defining a hierarchical organizational structure of positions within an organization; associating one of a plurality of roles with each of the positions; defining one or more business processes; a first position within the hierarchical organizational structure associating one or more access/approval rules with a first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a first subset of the roles; and automatically associating the one or more access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the first position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the first subset of roles. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function. 15. The system of claim 13, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function and a selected specialty. 16. The system of claim 13, wherein the first subset of roles comprises ones of the roles that have a selected major function, a selected specialty and a selected skill. 17. The system of claim 13, further comprising: for a second position subordinate to the first position, associating one or more additional access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a second subset of the roles, and automatically associating the one or more additional access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the second position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the second subset of roles. 18. The system of claim 13, wherein each position in the hierarchical organizational structure inherits the access/approval rules that are associated with all of the superior positions in the hierarchical organizational structure and that are applicable to the role associated with the position. 19. The system of claim 13, further comprising enabling the first position to modify access/approval rules implemented by the first position and positions subordinate to the first position in the hierarchical organizational structure. 20. The system of claim 19, further comprising preventing the first position from modifying access/approval rules implemented by positions superior to the first position in the hierarchical organizational structure. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/990,954, entitled “Signature Loop Authorizing Method and Apparatus”, by Paul Morinville, filed on Nov. 21, 2001, which is a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/770,163, entitled “Signature Loop Authorizing Method and Apparatus”, by Paul Morinville, filed on Jan. 26, 2001, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/179,555, by Paul Morinville, filed on Feb. 1, 2000, all of which are incorporated by reference as if set forth herein in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates generally to systems and methods for automating business processes, and more specifically to systems and methods for providing inheritance of access/approval rules within an organization, where the inheritance is based upon both the relationship of positions within the organizational hierarchy and the roles associated with the positions. BACKGROUND Market conditions have driven companies to leverage employees, partners, suppliers, customers and information to reduce costs. To successfully accomplish this, organizations must efficiently control the way people, resources and information technology interact. This can be referred to as Business Process Management (BPM). Business processes are used to control costs, to speed production, to increase resource efficiency and to control information that is shared among internal and external participants. Thousands of business processes permeate such areas as engineering, manufacturing, distribution, sales, branding, marketing, advertising, purchasing, corporate communications, legal, customer relations, finance, staffing, payroll, benefits, training, employee records and more. Most business processes are manual, paper-based systems. Some are managed in software applications. As companies grow, they will generally employ 15 to 100 different software applications, each of which governs its own set of business processes. Applications typically secure information by controlling access, which is done by setting up accounts and then manually entering (typing in) employee information (e.g., names). The applications also control business processes by assigning certain employees to approve certain business processes. Again, this information is manually entered. When an employee is hired, promoted, transferred or leaves the company, a cascade of manual changes must be made in every affected application. This is illustrated in FIG. 1. Administrators, shown at the bottom of the figure, perform these changes. When a company reorganizes, it can take weeks to make all the necessary changes. Similar changes must be made when the company modifies its business processes or the responsibilities of people within the company. Most applications capture information necessary to project the outcome and cost of each business process. Companies use Analysts to pull information into spreadsheets and then feed this information into financial and reporting systems. This can delay management access to critical information by days or weeks and often yields erroneous information. If management finds it necessary to change a specific business process, the people who can access the business process, or the people who approve the process can be changed. This is normally done through e-mails, meetings, and phone calls to functional and departmental heads who determine which employees should be added or deleted from the access and authorization rolls. Typically, when a business process is changed, management gives to system administrators a list of applications that are affected. The system administrators must then type in the new information and delete the old information. This process can take weeks. During this time, employees may or may not know what has changed, and the change has not been completely implemented, so it may be very difficult to enforce the modified business process. Incredible inefficiencies and hard cash losses can be directly associated with poor business process management. Companies must employ extra people to manage, drive, audit and report on business processes. It is not unusual for new employees to start 30 days before their phones are turned on, for computers to get “lost”, for payroll, credit cards, phones and building access to remain valid after employees terminate, for bureaucracy to build, for employees to become confused and dissatisfied, for management's span of control to become restricted, for the security of information to break down, and more. Market Landscape. Paper Systems and Simple Applications. In small businesses, the vast majority of business processes are managed on paper systems, although simple applications may be used to manage highly administrative functions like payroll, finance and benefits. Most business processes are either verbal, or forms are filled out and forwarded (by hand or e-mail) to approvers and administrators. In small companies this method is effective and keeps associated costs down. Workflow Applications. Generally, as companies grow past 250-300 employees, manual business processes break down and the companies begin to purchase specialized workflow applications for business processes involving staffing, HRIS, purchasing, inventory, expense reporting, CRM, sales, etc. These applications are generally available as “shrink wrap” software installed on company hardware (or rented as an application service). Annual costs for each application can range from $50 to $1200 per employee. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). ERP systems (SAP, PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Baan, Great Plains and others) are first and foremost financial systems. They are designed to seamlessly integrate legacy applications and their own applications into a single financial application. An ERP implementation is an enormous undertaking that integrates all the backend systems and maps and builds business processes. The integration of information has great value, but business processes are “hard-wired” and require administration of access and approval. This results in an extremely rigid system that is like a house of cards that has to be reconstructed every time the something changes. Signature Looping. Signature looping is the process of identifying people within the company that are involved in a business process, notifying them that their participation is required for a particular process that has been initiated, and possibly obtaining their approvals of the process. Most competitive systems which are capable of automating signature looping do so by traversing the company's organizational structure directly up the chain of command as illustrated in FIG. 2. The customer defines the number of levels of management that the business process requires and the system will automatically find the requester's superiors and forward information to them. These systems can identify the direct reporting manager, the second level manager and any others up to the CEO, but they cannot identify functional approvers like Finance or HR employees who are not directly above the requester in the organization. In a small organization, this type of approval may be manageable, but in complex, fast changing or geographically distributed organizations, it becomes very difficult. This difficulty arises from a number of factors. For example, in a larger organization, approval functions may be assigned to a position which, because of the complex organizational structure, is not directly above the requesting position. Further, in most systems, lists of functional approvers are manually maintained for each employee with access to a particular business process. While some products allow signature looping to be based on the roles of employees rather than simply their positions, these products also normally require manual maintenance of lists which identify specific approvers for specific employees and specific business processes. A software platform that can bridge business process gaps between people, resources and systems is therefore necessary to increase the amount of information which is available, to increase control and to increase efficiency. SUMMARY One or more of the problems outlined above may be solved by the various embodiments of the invention. Broadly speaking, the invention comprises systems and methods for automating and increasing the efficiency of business processes using inheritance of access/approval rules within an organization based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. A hierarchical role structure defines a plurality of roles within several hierarchical levels. Various rights (e.g., access rights or authorization rights) are associated with the different roles or levels to enable positions which are associated with the roles to have access to particular business processes (e.g., purchasing or hiring). In this way, access rights can be administered across more than one position at a time, and can be consistently applied across equivalent or similar positions. In one embodiment, the role structure is used in conjunction with a hierarchical organization structure to allow access/approval rules to be inherited by some of the positions from other positions based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. As a result, access/approval rules can be applied across equivalent or similar positions, but can nevertheless be differentiated between distinct portions of the organization and the distinct roles associated with the positions. Thus, particular access/approval rules are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions subordinate to a particular position with which the rule originates, and are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions that are associated with a particular role. In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a method including defining a hierarchical organizational structure of positions within an organization, associating one of a plurality of roles with each of the positions, defining one or more business processes, a first position within the hierarchical organizational structure associating one or more access/approval rules with a first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a first subset of the roles, and automatically associating the one or more access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the first position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the first subset of roles. Various alternative embodiments of the invention are possible, as will be described below, and as will be evident to persons of skill in the art of the invention upon reading this disclosure. The descriptions here and are therefore intended to be illustrative, rather than limiting of the invention which is claimed below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other objects and advantages of the invention may become apparent upon reading the following detailed description and upon reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating the manual changes which must be made to a company's applications and data when a change occurs in the structure or business processes of the company. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating the limitation of prior art systems that only positions directly upward in a person's chain of command can be identified as participants in a business process associated with that person. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the structure of a system for the administration of business processes in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a hierarchical organizational structure which comprises a series of positions reporting to other positions. FIG. 5 is a hierarchical role structure in which the roles of people in the company are broken down into smaller and smaller subsets or specializations within a given role. FIG. 6 is a hierarchical content structure which breaks down business information (content) into a plurality of subsets within a higher-level content category. FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating an approval matrix and the use of trip points therein in one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating the building of a request in one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating the selection of participants in a business process of a request in one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating the execution or performance of a request in one embodiment of the invention. While the invention is subject to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and the accompanying detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description are not intended to limit the invention to the particular embodiment which is described. This disclosure is instead intended to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A preferred embodiment of the invention is described below. It should be noted that this and any other embodiments described below are exemplary and are intended to be illustrative of the invention rather than limiting. Broadly speaking, the invention comprises systems and methods for automating and increasing the efficiency of business processes using a hierarchical role structure. The hierarchical role structure defines a plurality of roles within several hierarchical levels. Various rights (e.g., access rights or authorization rights) are associated with the different roles or levels to enable positions which are associated with the roles to have particular access to certain business processes (e.g., purchasing or hiring). In this way, access rights can be administered across more than one position at a time, and can be consistently applied across equivalent or similar positions. In one embodiment, the hierarchical role structure is used in conjunction with a hierarchical organization structure to allow the organization structure to be searched for positions which are associated with a particular role. As a result, automatic authorization loops (signature loops) which are not restricted to direct superiors within the organization can be implemented. The hierarchical role structure can also be used in conjunction with a hierarchical content structure to enable employees having different roles within the organization to access different information, based upon rights which are associated with those roles. In one embodiment, the present systems and methods are implemented in an enterprise-class business process management application. This application provides a business processor engine which can draw information from both internal and external sources, use this information in the management of business processes, and communicate resulting information to users which may include employees, management, partners, vendors, consultants, customers and the like. The application enables the analysis and reporting of real-time information and thereby allows users to make timely and accurate business decisions. The application also provides a central point for management of business processes and thereby enables the implementation of management decisions quickly and consistently across a company's entire workforce. The application of the preferred embodiment is built on three hierarchical data structures: an organizational structure; a role structure; and a content structure. The organizational structure comprises a hierarchical organization of the positions within the company. Each position can be uniquely identified. The positions can be used as a mechanism for tracking people (employees) and assets which are assigned to the respective positions, as well as services and business processes which are associated with the positions. The role structure comprises a hierarchical organization of roles within the company. Each role is a subset or specialization of the roles which are superior to it in the role structure. Each role can be associated with one or more of the company's employees and used as the basis for controlling those employees' access to particular business processes. The content structure comprises a hierarchical organization of subsets of the company's data (e.g., business process content). Access to each of the subsets of data can be controlled independently, so that certain types of data are accessible only to certain roles within the company. Referring to FIG. 3, a diagram illustrating the structure of a system for the administration of business processes in accordance with one embodiment of the invention is shown. The system comprises a business processor engine 21 which is coupled to internal data sources 22 and external data sources 23, as well as users 24. Business processor engine 21 is configured to control requests submitted by users 24 to access business processes. Business processor 21 determines whether the requesting user is authorized to access the requested process based on information such as organizational data (e.g., the department, workgroup or project of the user), functional data (e.g., security, routing or approval information) or other data which is available to the system. If the requested business process is authorized to proceed, business processor engine 21 may access data such as ERP/financial data, HR/benefits/payroll data, manufacturing data, sales/CRM data engineering data or e-commerce data from internal sources 22. Likewise, business processor engine 21 may access data such as partner lists, supplier lists, staffing information, purchasing data or ASP information from the external data sources 23. The business processor engine makes use of three hierarchical data structures: an organizational structure; a role structure; and a content structure. These data structures provide a basis for the distinctive capabilities of the system. These capabilities relate to, among other things, the manner in which automated signature looping and information routing is performed, the manner in which acquisition maintenance and termination of positions, roles, people and inventory is accomplished, and the manner in which metrics are used and reporting is performed by the system. Hierarchical Organizational Structure. Referring to FIG. 4, the organizational structure is a hierarchical data structure of positions reporting to positions. Each position has an associated role which is used to control access to business processes and information. (In some embodiments, there may be more than one role associated with each position.) The role is also used as the basis for identifying employees, contingent workers, vendors and partners for collaboration during business processes. Each position contains its own functional job description, functional title and mailing address. Each position can be identified from all other position by its place in the organizational structure. Each position is a tracking location for people, fixed assets, services and business processes. In a preferred embodiment, the highest-level position in the organizational structure is “Org 0” (the organization). Org 0 is the only position in the organizational structure without a superior position. All positions ultimately report to Org 0. Org 0 serves as a repository for corporate information and as the location to track unassigned assets and services. In a preferred embodiment, the position of Org 0 in the organizational structure is defined in the system by the following rules: Org 0 cannot be created by the user, but is already programmed into the system when it is distributed to customers; Org 0 can only be the top position of the organizational structure; Org 0 cannot have a superior position; Org 0 is the only position containing corporate information like billing address, banking information, etc.; Org 0 cannot have people tracked to it; Org 0 cannot be an approver; Org 0 must have one subordinate position (usually the CEO); and Org 0 cannot have more than one directly subordinate position. In the preferred embodiment, positions other than Org 0 are defined by the following rules: they must have a superior position; they cannot have more than one superior position; they can have n direct subordinate positions; they must have a role; they cannot have more than one role; they can have an active user; they cannot have more than one active user (a user is normally an employee or contractor, but can be a vendor, partner or consultant); when a position is transferred, its role and all tracked people, assets, services and business processes as well as all direct and indirect subordinate positions transfer with it; and a position cannot be terminated with active people, assets, services, business processes, or subordinate positions. Hierarchical Role Structure. Referring to FIG. 5, the role structure comprises a hierarchical organization of roles within the company. Each role is a subset or specialization of the roles which are superior to it in the role structure. Each role can be associated with one or more of the positions in the organizational structure, and is used as the basis for controlling the access of those employees associated with the corresponding organizational positions to particular business processes. In a preferred embodiment, the hierarchical role structure comprises nine levels in three categories: functional role, superiority and legal. Each role in the organization can be related to the other roles in terms of these categories. For example, in FIG. 5, role 31 (Test) is a skill within the Mechanical specialty 32, which is in turn a subset of the Engineering function 33. It should be noted that the roles within each category may be independent of the roles in other categories. In other words, the levels associated with superiority roles or legal roles do not necessarily have a predetermined relationship to the levels associated with the functional roles. The functional, superiority and legal hierarchies may be coincident only at the organization (Org 0) level. The role structure is used to provide the position, and thereby the user, with access to information and business processes; to identify positions in the organizational structure for collaboration on business processes (e.g., requesters and approvers); and to administer job related information through libraries containing information such as legal documentation, job descriptions, performance plan templates and compensation information. As a result of the hierarchical function structure, access rights to business processes are inherited from one level of the hierarchy to another. A particular function has the access rights assigned to that function, as well as access rights to any function about it in the hierarchy. This enables the administration of large groups of employees at the same time, rather than forcing it to be done for individual employees. For example, if the hierarchy includes: workforce/HR/recruiters/exempt recruiters, executive recruiters, it is possible to freeze exempt hiring by taking away from the exempt recruiters access to an offer-letter business process. Then, no offers can be made to prospective employees. If this process is initially accessible to all recruiters, moving the access down a level to the executive recruiters results in a situation in which executives can be hired, but exempt employees cannot. There are several rules relating to the role structure of the preferred embodiment: a role can be associated with many positions; a role is associated with a role is a specialization of the roles which are above it in the hierarchical role structure; a role cannot have more than one superior role; a role can have n direct subordinate roles; a role must be associated with at least one position; and a role can be associated with more than one position. Functional Role. The first of the three categories to which roles may belong in the preferred embodiment is the category of functional roles. In this embodiment, there are four levels of functional roles. These roles comprise a hierarchical structure starting with “workforce”, which is the first level of all roles. Subsets of workforce include major functional skills or roles (such as Finance, Human Resources, Engineering, Sales, Marketing, etc.) These are further broken down into subsets of specialties. The specialty level is then broken down into subsets of skills. Each level of the functional roles can be linked to page, purchasing or business process content. This allows the company to administer access across all employees, vendors, consultants and partners at the workforce level, to specific groups by function, to specialties within a function, and to skills within a specialty. This enables the company to easily and simultaneously manage access to sensitive information and business processes by participants across the entire company. Functional roles are linked to approval matrixes so that business process approvers can be identified, thereby enabling automated business process collaboration between participants, and enforcement of approval requirements. Superiority. Superiority is the title or the grade associated with a role. The title identifies the management level (e.g., CEO, SVP, VP, Director, Senior Manager, Manager, Senior Consultant, Consultant, etc.) Title is useful because in most companies, it represents a level of access and decision-making authority that is constant across functions. Title can be linked to business processes in the same manner as the functional role. Grade identifies the compensation band and is linked directly to the compensation library. Grade is not linked to business processes. Legal. Legal levels consist of class (exempt or non-exempt), EEO classification (professional, skilled, unskilled, management or executive), and employment (full-time, part-time, contingent, vendor, partner, etc.) These levels are primarily useful in metrics and reporting, job description administration, legal job requirements and performance planning. Libraries. A Library contains information that is linked to role hierarchies. This allows the company to administer information at various levels of the role, and thereby apply broad changes across the entire workforce, function, skill or specialty, or across titles, grades and legal categories from a single location. There may be a number of different libraries, each containing a set of related types of information which are generally administered in the same manner. In the preferred embodiment, the libraries include a compensation library, a setup library, a content library, and a business process library. Other libraries (e.g., a job description library or a performance library) may also be implemented. Descriptions of the libraries and of the types of information which may be found in them follow. Compensation Library. The role compensation library houses compensation ranges and types for each role. This allows the company to dynamically build and administer the compensation matrix. The compensation matrix is linked the grade level of the role. Each grade level may contain such information as: pay Type (Salary, Hourly, Commission, etc); Pay Range (Minimum, First Quartile, Mid-Point, Third Quartile, Maximum); Bonus (As a % of pay, Target $); Commission Target (%=1-[Base/Annual Target Compensation]); Estimated Annual Compensation (Mid-Point+[Bonus or Commission]); and Hiring Budget Estimates (Agency fee estimated dollars, Relocation type and estimated dollars). Job Description Library. The job description library houses legal requirements and job descriptions for each level of the role. This allows the company to dynamically build and administer job descriptions, and legal requirements to varying levels of the role. Performance Library. The Performance Library houses legal requirements and job descriptions for each level of the Role. This allows the company to dynamically build and administer job descriptions, and legal requirements to varying levels of the Role. Setup Library. The Setup Library houses all of the Product, Services and Business Process Requests necessary to setup a new employee with all of the things necessary to do their job on the first day of work. This allows companies to dynamically manage setup configurations for new employees. Content Library. The content library houses all of the page content necessary for each role to perform day-to-day business. This information is used to dynamically build pages based on the employee's logged in position. Business Process Library. The business processes library houses all of the business processes that are necessary for each role to perform day-to-day business. This information is used to allow employee access to business processes and purchases. Hierarchical Content Structure. Referring to FIG. 6, the hierarchical content structure is a hierarchical breakdown of business information (content). The hierarchical content structure can be used in conjunction with the hierarchical role structure to enable employees having different roles within the organization to access different information, based upon rights which are associated with those roles. In a preferred embodiment, the content is broken down into subsets of page content, purchasing content and business process content. Page content is a systematic breakdown of each page starting with the page, breaking down each group of data and breaking down each group of data into individual fields to 4 levels. Purchasing content is a systematic breakdown of assets and services items. business process content is a systematic breakdown of business processes. In the preferred embodiment, page content is broken down into major data groups. Major data groups are then broken down into minor data groups and minor data groups are broken down into fields. Following is an example of page content 1. Employee Page a. Employee Information i. Employee Name 1. First Name 2. Middle Name 3. Last Name ii. Personal Contact 1. Home Phone Information 2. Personal Cell 3. Personal Pager 4. Personal Fax 5. Home e-mail iii. Work Contact 1. Work Phone Information 2. Work Cell 3. Work Pager 4. Work Fax 5. Work e-mail iv. Address 1. Street 2. Mailing 3. City 4. State 5. Zip 6. Country v. Personal 1. Employment Status 2. Gender 3. Ethnicity 4. Veterans Status 5. Marital Status 6. SSN 7. DOB 8. Visa Status b. Links i. Personal 1. Benefits Information 2. Payroll 3. Dependants 4. Performance Plan ii. Personal History 1. Training 2. Education 3. Experience 4. References iii. Administrative 1. Compensation Information 2. Internal Job History iv. Administrative 1. Transfer Business 2. Training Processes 3. Change Pay 4. Create Performance Plan 5. Change Information 6. Terminate Following is an example of purchasing content. 1. Office a. Supplies i. Paper 1. White Printer 2. White Letterhead 3. Legal Pads ii. Pens 1. Papermate 101 2. Bic retractable b. Equipment i. Desk 1. Executive 2. Engineer 3. Sales 4. Staff 2. Computer a. Supplies i. Printer 1. HP Office Jet 1150C Color 2. HP Office Jet 1150C Black b. Peripherals i. Printer 1. Department 2. Workgroup 3. Individual Automated Signature Looping. Signature looping is the process of identifying people within the company that are involved in a business process and notifying them that their participation is required for a particular process that has been initiated. For example, if one employee requests the purchase of a certain item, it may be necessary for another employee to approve the purchase before it can proceed. In the present system, the signature looping process is based upon the roles that exist within the company rather than lists of specific people who are associated with each process. When a business process is initiated by a person having a first role, one or more other roles may be identified as being necessary for the completion of the process. The organization is then searched to find the identified role(s). These roles may be associated with different positions, depending upon the role and/or position of the initiator of the process. In other words, if the same role is associated with two different positions, one of these positions might be identified if a first person initiated the business process, while the other might be identified if a second person initiated the process. The purpose of automated signature looping is to identify the right participants in a business process (e.g., a request) without the need to manually maintain participant lists. The appropriate participants in the process can then view information associated with the process. This eliminates the need to administer IT accounts (database access and approver accounts) as new participants are brought into the company, moved around or otherwise changed. It also allows for secure collaboration, both across the workforce and with vendors and partners. Two primary methods of identifying participants are used in a preferred embodiment of the invention: management levels and functional roles. Management levels are the number of levels up from a starting position in the organizational structure. The identification of management levels is accomplished by climbing the organizational structure one position (one level) at a time. This can go on until reaching the final level, which is usually the CEO. If it is necessary to get approval from one management level for a business process, the direct reporting manager (who could hold the title of manager, director, etc.) would be identified. This person could also be referred to as the first level manager. If two management levels are necessary for approval, the first level manager and the second level manager would be identified. The same process is used to identify however any levels of management are necessary. Functional roles essentially comprise the function of a particular job or position. In the hierarchical role structure, the functional roles and are the first four levels of the structure. Identification of the appropriate functional role is accomplished by climbing the organizational structure one level and looking down through subordinate positions to find the necessary role. This downward search is normally performed in a predetermined manner (e.g., searching one subordinate position and its subordinates before searching the next position at that level). If the role is not found, it is necessary to climb to the next higher level of the organizational structure and look down through the subordinate positions to identify the necessary role. This methodology allows the identification of approvers that are not in the direct chain of command above the initiator of a request. It should also be noted that the identification of approvers (and/or other participating roles) in a business process may also be based on superiority roles. Superiority Roles are essentially the Titles which correspond to the roles. Identification of roles based on superiority is accomplished in the same manner as Management Levels, except it is not inclusive of the positions between the requesting position and the identified position. In other words, it may be necessary to obtain approval of a director or n-level manager without also getting the approval of the intermediate (n−1-level) managers. There is no association between role A and role B, except to say that role a gets access to specific things because it is role A. That specific thing might be a request to purchase. The authorization of the request to purchase might then be associated with role B. It doesn't matter where that role (B) resides within the organizational hierarchy—the search will go up a level, then check everything below that position (i.e., subordinate positions). Then up another level and check everything below that position. This is repeated until role B is found. Using this search method, you can, for example, be a field salesperson on one side of the organization reporting up through 10 levels of management to get to the CEO. On the other side of the organization is manufacturing. Ten levels down is the person who determines what the production capability is. If the salesperson wants 5000 computers in two weeks, someone in manufacturing has to provide that information. The only way to find that person is to go up a level in a the organizational hierarchy and search down, go up another level and search down, and so on until the person is found. In the example of the salesperson and the manufacturing person, the search will go all the way up to the CEO to reach the top of the manufacturing hierarchy, then search all the way back down. This type of search can find anybody in the entire company. The selected role may be narrowly defined so that only a single person satisfies the selected role, or it may be broadly defined so that several people may satisfy the selected role. If there are several people who have roles which satisfy the search, then, in one embodiment, the first one to be found it is selected. The connection between the roles may be based on any of a number of relationships. For example, as described above, one role might be authorized to make a purchase request while the other role is authorized to approve the request. As another example, one role might be authorized to interview candidates for employment, while the other role is authorized to send out offer letters to selected candidates. Approval Matrix. A preferred embodiment of the present invention employs approval matrices to identify the roles which need to be selected for participation in a particular business process. The purpose of the Approval Matrix is to define the participating roles for the business process (possibly based upon one or more conditions relating to the business process) so that the positions corresponding to these roles can be identified. These positions can then be contacted to obtain their participation. In the preferred embodiment, an approval matrix is associated with every request process. If no approvals are required (i.e., if the requester is authorized to complete the request with no further authorization), the approval matrix will indicate a null approver set (i.e., no approvers are required). Each approval matrix includes an indication of the order in which approvers need to approve the request. It should be noted that, in some embodiments, the approval matrixes may be implemented in a hierarchical structure similar to that of the roles, where each approval matrix would inherit the approval requirements, trip points, etc. of the higher levels of the hierarchy. Trip Points. A trip point is a condition which can affect the approvers/participants which are identified in connection with a business process. If the condition is met, the corresponding trip point is triggered, altering the identification of approvers. In the preferred embodiment, each trip point has a corresponding set of approvers in the approval matrix. (The trip points may also be contained in a matrix.) The purpose of the trip points is to compare specific request data against predefined data (the trip points) to determine which set of approvers should be used for the request. Trip points may comprise a variety of different data types. For example, they may comprise quantities, prices, the number of days between two dates, shipping methods, reasons for requests, status of concurrent requests in the business process, or administrator defined conditions. In a preferred embodiment, the trip points are configured according to the following rules: every request process has a trip point matrix; trip points can be null, but they are still needed so they can be changed on the fly; a trip point is inactive if the trip value is null; a trip point is active if the trip value is not null; and a trip point can be set to greater than, less than, or equal to the trip value. Although the approval matrices and trip points are described herein primarily with respect to request processes, similar approvals may be required for other types of business processes. In these instances, the approval matrices and trip points are implemented in the same manner. Referring to FIG. 7, a diagram illustrating an approval matrix and the use of trip points therein is shown. The upper portion of the diagram corresponds to a trip point matrix and the lower portion corresponds to an approval matrix. The matrix controls the selection of approvers for a corresponding business process under a variety of scenarios. For example, in a “normal” scenario, the shipping type is not “overnight”, the cost of the computer is less than $1000 and the quantity is one. Consequently, the system selects the “normal” set of approvers from column 41. The right side of the column identifies the number of management levels that must approve the process (one), as well as specifying that the controller must approve it (as indicated by the “X” in the corresponding row). The numbers on the left side of the column indicate the order in which the approvals must be obtained. Since both approvals are 1's, they can be concurrently obtained. Other scenarios may include situations in which one of the conditions specified by the trip points (shipping type, cost, quantity or date) is met. For instance, if the price is greater than $1000 and all other trip points are unmet, the matrix identifies the approvers (in column 42) as a director, one level of management, a controller, and a procurement person. The numbers on the left side of the column indicate that the first level manager, controller, and procurement can approve concurrently, then director approval is obtained last. If the quantity is greater than 1 and all other trip points are unmet, the first level manager and Controller are identified for simultaneous approval, followed by the first Director directly up the organizational structure, and finally the vice president (see column 43). If multiple trip points are met, the system accumulates the approvers and the approval order from each affected trip point. Request Process. The purpose of the request process is to capture information from various sources and allow the requestor to change information without affecting the source application, then attain approval for the change and allow the requestor to execute the change. The request process also captures information necessary for reporting. The process can generally be described as comprising accessing the request process, triggering the request if no approvals are required, otherwise building a request, summarizing the request, approving the request and executing the request. Access. Access to the request process is triggered automatically by a user. If the users' role is authorized to initiate the request (a specific business process), the user can see the request option. Otherwise, if the process is not available to the user, it is not even displayed to the user. If no approvals are required for the request to proceed, it is automatically triggered. If no approvals are necessary and the request requires a completed predecessor, the request process engages automatically upon completion of the predecessor. This allows the company to seamlessly daisy chain requests in an automated series and/or parallel format. Build. The request is built by pulling information from data sources which are available to the system. This is illustrated in FIG. 8. These sources may include internal sources of information such as position or employee data, ERP, financial, sales or MRP data. Data may also be pulled from external sources such as ASPs or vendors. The information pulled from the sources is used to populate predetermined data sets within the request. The user can then make changes to the information contained in the request. Changes made by the user may cause further data to be pulled from the internal and external sources. The building of the request also involves identification of trip points, selection of approvers based on the appropriate approval matrix, and identification of employees associated with the approving positions. Summarize. After the request is built, it is summarized. Information associated with the request (e.g., the employees identified for approval of the request) is displayed, and the requester can update or add to the information before the request is submitted for approval. In some cases, this may occur automatically without the need for user input. In other instances, the user may enter data such as justification notes. When the request is summarized, the necessary approval roles are determined from the corresponding approval matrix. If no approvers are required, the request may be automatically approved. If approvers are required, automated signature looping is triggered. This may occur automatically, or in response to the user submitting the request for approval. Approval. After the request has been submitted for approval, the request is directed to each of the identified approvers. This is illustrated in FIG. 9. The status of the approval can be viewed by the requesting user, as well as the approving roles. As the request is approved (or as other actions are taken by the requester or approvers), this information is made available to the participants in the approval process. The approval process is complete when either all of the approvers have approved the request, or one of the necessary approvers has declined the request. Notifications can be sent to the participants at the end of the approval process. Notifications may also be sent to the participants after a predetermined aging period as reminders that the request is still pending. Execute. After the request has been approved, it can be completed. Completion of the request may consist of performing the requested action, placing the request on hold, or canceling the request. This is illustrated in FIG. 10. Performance of the request may result in creation of new records in the system, modification of existing records, or other actions. Request Template. A request template as used in one particular embodiment is shown below. Underlined information is fixed in this embodiment and is the same in all request processes. All non-underlined information is variable in this embodiment and is specific to each individual request process. 1. Access - Method and Location of Access 1.1. Predecessor Name or No Predecessor 2. Build 2.1. Description of Request Record 2.1.1. Source of Data (n) 2.1.1.1. Data Description 2.1.2. Request State = Build 2.1.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 2.1.3. Request Status = Active 2.1.3.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 2.2. Description of Data Change/Add 2.2.1. Specific Action (n) 2.2.1.1.1. Editable/Non-editable 2.3. Secondary Pull of Data 2.3.1. Source of Data (n) 2.3.1.1. Data Description 2.3.1.1.1. Editable/Non-editable 2.4. User Selects Reason for Request 2.5. User inputs justification 2.6. User summarizes request 2.6.1. Request State = Summarize 2.6.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 2.6.2. Request Status = Active 2.7. User holds request 2.7.1. Request State = Build 2.7.2. Request Status = Hold 2.7.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 2.8. User cancels request 2.8.1. Request State = Build 2.8.2. Request Status = Cancel 2.8.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 3. Summarize 3.1. Engages Automated Signature Looping to select Approvers 3.1.1. Lists approving position and approver names & contact information 3.2. Lists Original Information 3.3. Lists New/Changed Information 3.4. Ability for User to select additional approver by name 3.4.1. Can be null 3.5. Ability for User to select courtesy notification by name 3.5.1. Can be null 3.6. User sends for approval 3.6.1. Request State = Approval 3.6.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 3.6.2. Request Status = Active 3.6.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 3.7. User holds request 3.7.1. Request State = Summarize 3.7.2. Request Status = Hold 3.7.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 3.8. User cancels request 3.8.1. Request State = Summarize 3.8.2. Status = Cancel 3.8.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 3.9. Notification 4. Approve 4.1. All Approvers approves Request 4.1.1. Request State = Execute 4.1.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 4.1.2. Request Status = Active 4.1.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 4.2. Any Approver declines Request 4.2.1. Request State = Approval 4.2.2. Request Status = Decline 4.2.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 4.3. Any Approver Holds Request 4.3.1. Request State = Approval 4.3.2. Request Status = Hold 4.3.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 4.4. Requestor Cancels Request 4.4.1. Request State = Approval 4.4.2. Request Status = Cancel 4.4.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 4.5. Approver inputs decision notes 4.6. Notifications 4.6.1. Can be resent to participants at a preset number of aging days. 4.6.2. Can be sent to the approver's next level of management at preset aging days. 5. Execute 5.1. Requestor Completes approved request 5.1.1. Request State = Complete 5.1.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 5.1.2. Request Status = Active 5.1.3. Performs Requested Action 5.1.3.1. Data Source description 5.1.3.2. Description of information to Change/Add 5.2. Requestor rebuilds declined request 5.2.1. Request State = Build 5.2.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 5.2.2. Request Status = Active 5.3. Requestor cancels approved request. 5.3.1. Request State = Execute 5.3.2. Request Status = Cancel 5.3.2.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 5.4. Requestor Cancel declined request 5.4.1. Request State = Execute 5.4.1.1. Time/Date and user ID stamped 5.4.2. Request Status = Declined Request Variable Information. The preferred embodiment includes a number of built-in requests. In this embodiment, only the steps shown below are included in the built-in requests. 1. Access - How: What is the triggering mechanism? 1.1. Predecessor: Name Predecessor if any 1.2. Access Parameter: Role Access or No Access 2. Build 2.1. Request type: All/Business Processes/Organization/ 2.1.1. Initial data Source: Where is the information coming from? 2.1.1.1. Data: What information is being pulled? 2.1.2. User Action: 2.1.3. Secondary data Source: Where is the information coming from? 2.1.3.1. Data: What information is being pulled? 2.1.4. User selects: What does the User select from dropdown menus? 2.1.5. User enters: What does the User fill in? 2.1.6. User edits: What does the User Change? 3. Summarize 4. Approve 5. Execute 5.1. Request Action: What does the Request do? 5.1.1. Data Destination: Where is the information going? 5.1.2. Description: What information is going? Information and Reporting. The system provides metrics and reporting for each business process. The company knows what is being requested, what is being approved, what is about to execute and what is complete. Metrics can be rolled up across the entire organization or any business unit. Information can further be analyzed by function or role. Work-in-process, backlogs, cost, estimated completion, cycle time, and much more can be instantly generated to view trends, comparisons, and projections, and can be isolated for root cause analysis. Information is captured systematically at each step of the Request Process. This provides a template for universal business process reporting through watershed and static reporting methods. Canned static reports pertaining to general organizational structure, people, purchasing, inventory and workforce issues are built in. Database queries can be run for additional analysis. Business Objects or Crystal Reports is available for advanced reporting and modeling. Watershed reporting is the method of reporting volume, speed and falloff rates for each request process in a business process. This methodology is used to determine where a business process is inefficient or bottlenecked, and to project completion time and cost. Watersheds are often analyzed to find more efficient ways to process business. Built in Reports—All reporting can be cut by role at any level and/or by organizational structure at any level, projected, current and historic and if applicable, associated costs. Examples of some of the built-in reports that may be provided are listed below. This list is intended to be illustrative rather than limiting. Organizational Structure Role mix - % of one Role to total jobs or another Role FTE/Contingent mix Management span of control - how many direct and indirect subordinate positions per manager Requested, open, filled, terminated positions Movement and Transfers Workforce Workload—number of Business Process actions over time Watershed - Requested, Approved, Executed Headcount - FTE, PTE, Contingent, Partners, Vendors Compensation - Disparity, creep, etc. Diversity - Utilization Attrition - Why, Where, When Staffing Watershed - Reviews, Interviews, Offers, Accepts, Starts Employee Development - Movement, Training Performance - Planning, Results Experiences - Companies, Countries, Cultures Knowledge and skills - Languages, Certifications, Organizational Affiliations Inventory and Purchasing - granulated by Item Purchasing - Projections, Commitments Inventory - Losses, Movement, Location Business Processes Custom Report Builder Watershed Static Administration. The central business process management system allows companies to manage all business processes from a single location. This is accomplished by linking access to roles in each request process, and by administering trip points and approval matrixes. In a preferred embodiment, the administration of the system is controlled by several rules: each subordinate position takes on the business process rules of its superior position; a subordinate position cannot change, delete or override the rules set by a superior position; and a subordinate position can add approvers to the Approval Matrix. Administering Access. Each request process can be accessed by many Roles. A role must be associated with a specific request process to be able to access that request process. Access can be granted to a specific business process at any functional role level and/or at either title level. When linked, access to that request process is immediately available to all positions subordinate to the administrating position and containing that specific role. If the request process requires a predecessor and access is null, the request will automatically build upon completion of the predecessor. If access is not null, a user must engage the engagement device (subject to access rules). If access is null in a request process not requiring a predecessor, no user engage the request and the request if effectively turned off. Administering Approval. Each request has an approval matrix. The approval matrix is a selector of approver lists dependent on the selection made by trip points. The system selects the correct set of approvers through trip points preset against information in the request. Trip points are generally “quantity”, “price”, “date” or “days from a date”, but can also include status of concurrent requests or the reason for the request. For example, an employee should not need more than one of the same training classes. If the employee requests one class, the company could set the approver as the direct manager only. But, if the employee orders two of the same class or if the employee already has taken that class, the company could add the HR generalist to the list of approvers by setting the quantity trip to 1 and adding the HR generalist to quantity approval matrix. As another example, a termination request may only require a HR generalist and the first level manager unless it is “for cause”, which could require the outside counsel. Purchasing Administration. The purpose of Purchasing Administration is to provide the ability to select a vendor and the vendor's catalog number for each purchasing request. This enables information to be pulled from the vendor's catalog server on current product information and price. It also allows the company to standardize the set of items that can be purchased for the workforce. This can be done one vendor at a time. It should be possible to standardize on Rosetta Net or similar industry standards. Most communications can be done via XML through the Internet. It may be necessary to develop a routing server for orders so that consistency can be maintained across multiple customers and multiple vendors. Business Processor. In one embodiment of the present system, a closed loop business process engine or business processor is provided. The business processes on which the business processor operates can be a simple as a single request process, or a very complicated linking of request processes sequentially and in parallel triggering multiple internal company, and external partner and vendor actions. Each request process can automatically trigger multiple request processes in series or in parallel. This ability to link request processes allow companies to create a completely seamless business process for any purpose. In the preferred embodiment, a graphic interface is used to build Business Processes by constructing and linking Request Processes. The system's Business Processor enables companies to rapidly build, integrate and deploy custom business processes for any purpose no matter how complex through an intuitive graphical user interface. No programming is required, which saves thousands of programming hours. Custom business processes are mapped around the way employees do business, not around the way software does business. The present system's highly scalable architecture supports integration with any modern application: CRM, Sales, ERP, Engineering, Manufacturing, HR, Staffing, Training and Development, Finance, General Ledger and Accounting, Legal, Documentation, Purchasing, Public Relations, Corporate Communications and more. The system can integrate with internal applications, hosted applications and application services. The present system does not require back end integration of legacy applications and enables the click and point building of custom business processes, which dramatically decreases implementation and deployment time for ERP systems. Request Process Detail. In the preferred embodiment, the request process is a simple state machine. Access to information is governed by the state of the request. The states correspond to the basic functions of the request process: build; summarize; approval; execute; and complete. Each request state has a status: active; hold; cancel; or declined. Management Control Center. The system's management control center allows companies to add and remove access and approvers simply by point and click linking of roles to business processes. This capability can be permitted at any level within the organization, which enables companies to establish threshold business rules across the entire organization while allowing its business units to tighten business rules as required. The benefits and advantages which may be provided by the present invention have been described above with regard to specific embodiments. These benefits and advantages, and any elements or limitations that may cause them to occur or to become more pronounced are not to be construed as a critical, required, or essential features of any or all of the claims. As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” or any other variations thereof, are intended to be interpreted as non-exclusively including the elements or limitations which follow those terms. Accordingly, a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to the claimed process, method, article, or apparatus. While the present invention has been described with reference to particular embodiments, it should be understood that the embodiments are illustrative and that the scope of the invention is not limited to these embodiments. Many variations, modifications, additions and improvements to the embodiments described above are possible. It is contemplated that these variations, modifications, additions and improvements fall within the scope of the invention as detailed within the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Market conditions have driven companies to leverage employees, partners, suppliers, customers and information to reduce costs. To successfully accomplish this, organizations must efficiently control the way people, resources and information technology interact. This can be referred to as Business Process Management (BPM). Business processes are used to control costs, to speed production, to increase resource efficiency and to control information that is shared among internal and external participants. Thousands of business processes permeate such areas as engineering, manufacturing, distribution, sales, branding, marketing, advertising, purchasing, corporate communications, legal, customer relations, finance, staffing, payroll, benefits, training, employee records and more. Most business processes are manual, paper-based systems. Some are managed in software applications. As companies grow, they will generally employ 15 to 100 different software applications, each of which governs its own set of business processes. Applications typically secure information by controlling access, which is done by setting up accounts and then manually entering (typing in) employee information (e.g., names). The applications also control business processes by assigning certain employees to approve certain business processes. Again, this information is manually entered. When an employee is hired, promoted, transferred or leaves the company, a cascade of manual changes must be made in every affected application. This is illustrated in FIG. 1 . Administrators, shown at the bottom of the figure, perform these changes. When a company reorganizes, it can take weeks to make all the necessary changes. Similar changes must be made when the company modifies its business processes or the responsibilities of people within the company. Most applications capture information necessary to project the outcome and cost of each business process. Companies use Analysts to pull information into spreadsheets and then feed this information into financial and reporting systems. This can delay management access to critical information by days or weeks and often yields erroneous information. If management finds it necessary to change a specific business process, the people who can access the business process, or the people who approve the process can be changed. This is normally done through e-mails, meetings, and phone calls to functional and departmental heads who determine which employees should be added or deleted from the access and authorization rolls. Typically, when a business process is changed, management gives to system administrators a list of applications that are affected. The system administrators must then type in the new information and delete the old information. This process can take weeks. During this time, employees may or may not know what has changed, and the change has not been completely implemented, so it may be very difficult to enforce the modified business process. Incredible inefficiencies and hard cash losses can be directly associated with poor business process management. Companies must employ extra people to manage, drive, audit and report on business processes. It is not unusual for new employees to start 30 days before their phones are turned on, for computers to get “lost”, for payroll, credit cards, phones and building access to remain valid after employees terminate, for bureaucracy to build, for employees to become confused and dissatisfied, for management's span of control to become restricted, for the security of information to break down, and more. Market Landscape. Paper Systems and Simple Applications. In small businesses, the vast majority of business processes are managed on paper systems, although simple applications may be used to manage highly administrative functions like payroll, finance and benefits. Most business processes are either verbal, or forms are filled out and forwarded (by hand or e-mail) to approvers and administrators. In small companies this method is effective and keeps associated costs down. Workflow Applications. Generally, as companies grow past 250 - 300 employees, manual business processes break down and the companies begin to purchase specialized workflow applications for business processes involving staffing, HRIS, purchasing, inventory, expense reporting, CRM, sales, etc. These applications are generally available as “shrink wrap” software installed on company hardware (or rented as an application service). Annual costs for each application can range from $50 to $1200 per employee. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP). ERP systems (SAP, PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Baan, Great Plains and others) are first and foremost financial systems. They are designed to seamlessly integrate legacy applications and their own applications into a single financial application. An ERP implementation is an enormous undertaking that integrates all the backend systems and maps and builds business processes. The integration of information has great value, but business processes are “hard-wired” and require administration of access and approval. This results in an extremely rigid system that is like a house of cards that has to be reconstructed every time the something changes. Signature Looping. Signature looping is the process of identifying people within the company that are involved in a business process, notifying them that their participation is required for a particular process that has been initiated, and possibly obtaining their approvals of the process. Most competitive systems which are capable of automating signature looping do so by traversing the company's organizational structure directly up the chain of command as illustrated in FIG. 2 . The customer defines the number of levels of management that the business process requires and the system will automatically find the requester's superiors and forward information to them. These systems can identify the direct reporting manager, the second level manager and any others up to the CEO, but they cannot identify functional approvers like Finance or HR employees who are not directly above the requester in the organization. In a small organization, this type of approval may be manageable, but in complex, fast changing or geographically distributed organizations, it becomes very difficult. This difficulty arises from a number of factors. For example, in a larger organization, approval functions may be assigned to a position which, because of the complex organizational structure, is not directly above the requesting position. Further, in most systems, lists of functional approvers are manually maintained for each employee with access to a particular business process. While some products allow signature looping to be based on the roles of employees rather than simply their positions, these products also normally require manual maintenance of lists which identify specific approvers for specific employees and specific business processes. A software platform that can bridge business process gaps between people, resources and systems is therefore necessary to increase the amount of information which is available, to increase control and to increase efficiency. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>One or more of the problems outlined above may be solved by the various embodiments of the invention. Broadly speaking, the invention comprises systems and methods for automating and increasing the efficiency of business processes using inheritance of access/approval rules within an organization based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. A hierarchical role structure defines a plurality of roles within several hierarchical levels. Various rights (e.g., access rights or authorization rights) are associated with the different roles or levels to enable positions which are associated with the roles to have access to particular business processes (e.g., purchasing or hiring). In this way, access rights can be administered across more than one position at a time, and can be consistently applied across equivalent or similar positions. In one embodiment, the role structure is used in conjunction with a hierarchical organization structure to allow access/approval rules to be inherited by some of the positions from other positions based upon the relationship of positions within the organization and the roles associated with the positions. As a result, access/approval rules can be applied across equivalent or similar positions, but can nevertheless be differentiated between distinct portions of the organization and the distinct roles associated with the positions. Thus, particular access/approval rules are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions subordinate to a particular position with which the rule originates, and are not necessarily inherited by all of the positions that are associated with a particular role. In one embodiment, the present invention comprises a method including defining a hierarchical organizational structure of positions within an organization, associating one of a plurality of roles with each of the positions, defining one or more business processes, a first position within the hierarchical organizational structure associating one or more access/approval rules with a first one of the business processes, wherein the access/approval rules are applicable to a first subset of the roles, and automatically associating the one or more access/approval rules with the first one of the business processes for all positions that are subordinate to the first position within the hierarchical organizational structure and that are associated with the first subset of roles. Various alternative embodiments of the invention are possible, as will be described below, and as will be evident to persons of skill in the art of the invention upon reading this disclosure. The descriptions here and are therefore intended to be illustrative, rather than limiting of the invention which is claimed below. | 20050113 | 20070227 | 20050714 | 61261.0 | 3 | RIMELL, SAMUEL G | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR RULE INHERITANCE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,651 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus to diagnose mechanical problems in machinery | A method and apparatus for detecting mechanical problems in machinery used in a process. A model of the process is developed using a modeling technique such as advanced pattern recognition and the model is used to generate predicted values for a predetermined number of the operating parameters of the process and vibration parameters of the machinery. Statistical process control methods are used to determine if the difference between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit. A rule set is used to indicate an actual or probable fault in the machinery. | 1. A method for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process, comprising: developing a model of said process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of said process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of said machine using said model; comparing the value predicted by said model for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of said vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising determining when said numerical methods is a Statistical Process Control (SPC) method whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters meets a predetermined SPC data pattern test. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein said model is selected from an Advanced Pattern Recognition (APR) empirical model, a first principles model or a neural network empirical model. 4. The method of claim 3 further comprising calculating in said APR empirical model a Model Fit parameter from said differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters. 5. The method of claim 1 wherein said predetermined number of operating parameters of said process depends on said process and said predetermined number of vibration parameters of said machine depends upon said machine. 6. The method of claim 1 further comprising determining for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters a difference between said predicted values for said vibration and operating parameter and said actual measured value for said vibration and operating parameter. 7. The method of claim 6 wherein said difference for selected ones of said predetermined vibration and operating parameters are each compared to an associated three sigma limit. 8. The method of claim 7 further comprising indicating: a gross failure of an element in a machine in said process when said deviation for any three of said vibration and operating parameters are positive and statistically large for a predetermined period of time; and a probability of a mechanical failure in a machine in said process when said deviation for any two of said vibration and operating parameters are slightly positive for a predetermined period of time. 9. A process plant comprising: a computing device for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process operating in said plant, said computing device for developing a model of said process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of said process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of said machine using said model; comparing the value predicted by said model for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of said vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. 10. The process plant of claim 9 wherein said computing device is also for determining when said numerical methods is a Statistical Process Control (SPC) method whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters meets a predetermined SPC data pattern test. 11. The process plant of claim 9 wherein said computing device is also for determining for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters a difference between said predicted values for said vibration and operating parameters and said actual measured value for said vibration and operating parameter. 12. The process plant of claim 11 wherein said computing device is also for comparing said difference for selected ones of said predetermined vibration and operating parameters to an associated three sigma limit. 13. In a plant comprising: a process having one or more machines; a computing device for detecting a fault in said one or more machines of said process, said computing device for developing a model of said process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of said process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of said one or more machines using said model; comparing the value predicted by said model for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of said vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. 14. The plant of claim 13 wherein said computing device is also for determining when said numerical methods is a Statistical Process Control (SPC) method whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters meets a predetermined SPC data pattern test. 15. The plant of claim 13 wherein said computing device is also for determining for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters a difference between said predicted values for said vibration and operating parameter and said actual measured value for said vibration and operating parameter. 16. The plant of claim 15 wherein said computing device is also for comparing said difference for selected ones of said predetermined vibration and operating parameters to an associated three sigma limit. 17. A computer readable medium having instructions for performing a method for detecting a fault in a machine of a process operating in a plant, said instructions comprising: developing a model of said process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of said process and for a predetermined number of vibration parameters of said machine using said model; comparing the value predicted by said model for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of said vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. 18. The computer readable medium of claim 17 wherein said instructions further comprise determining when said numerical methods is a Statistical Process Control (SPC) method whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters meets a predetermined SPC data pattern test. 19. The computer readable medium of claim 17 wherein said instructions further comprise determining for each of said predetermined number of operating parameters a difference between said predicted values for said vibration and operating parameters and said actual measured value for said vibration and operating parameters. 20. The computer readable medium of claim 19 wherein said instructions further comprise comparing said difference for selected ones of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to an associated three sigma limit. 21. An apparatus comprising: a processing device for: developing a model of a process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of said process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of said machine using said model; comparing the value predicted by said model for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of said vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. 22. The apparatus of claim 21 wherein said process device is also for determining when said numerical methods is a Statistical Process Control (SPC) method whether differences between said predicted and actual measured values for one or more of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters meets a predetermined SPC data pattern test. 23. The apparatus of claim 21 wherein said process device is also for determining for each of said predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters a difference between said predicted values for said vibration and operating parameter and said actual measured value for said vibration and operating parameter. 24. The computer readable medium of claim 23 wherein said instructions further comprise comparing said difference for selected ones of said predetermined vibration and operating parameters to an associated three sigma limit. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the priority of U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/536,356 filed on Jan. 14, 2004, entitled “A Method To Diagnose The Onset Of Mechanical Problems In Rotating Equipment” the contents of which are relied upon and incorporated herein by reference in their entirety, and the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) is hereby claimed. 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to machinery and more particularly to the diagnosis of problems in such equipment. 2. Description of the Prior Art High-valued complex machinery often constitutes a major investment to its owner and is not easily replaced. Examples include consumer items such as automobiles and farm equipment, heavy equipment such as trains, cranes, drills and earthmovers, as well as special purpose factory installations such as power generators, assembly line equipment, and power train equipment, such as transmissions, for delivering power to assembly line equipment. Owners of such machinery desire to detect and correct small problems with individual components of such machinery before the small problem leads to catastrophic failure of the machine. However, it is often impractical to inspect each small component subject to failure on a frequent basis. The component may be buried deep in the machinery and require many person-hours to remove, inspect and re-install or replace. In addition to the costs of the person-hours, there is the cost of having the high-valued equipment non-operational for the duration of the inspection procedure. Such costs are only warranted when the part is sufficiently defective that failure to replace may lead to failure of the high-valued complex machine of which it is part. There is a clear need for systems that can monitor the high-valued complex machinery for failure of individual components while the machinery is operating for its intended purpose. One approach is to build-in special purpose sensors that detect the correct operation of each individual component, and have those sensors report when the associated component fails. This approach is impractical for many reasons and is not taken in practice. In many machines, there are so many moving components, some very small, that special purpose sensors attached to each one may interfere with required motions, violate required spatial tolerances, increase the cost of the machinery, and otherwise render the machinery unsuitable for its purpose. Another problem with this approach is that some failure modes are not determined until after the machine is built and operated, and it is impossible to guarantee a sensor that will detect such failure modes before they are discovered. Another approach is to attach vibration sensors to the machinery and analyze vibration data from such sensors. Changes in operation of one or more components of the machinery associated with failure of that component may change one or more characteristics of the vibration data. This approach has been taken by many conventional systems. However, the changes that can be detected depend on the characteristics of the vibration data and the processing of the vibration data. Some conventional systems process vibration data by measuring the shape and size of vibration amplitude with time. Such systems have been used to determine gross transient properties of machinery, such as a catastrophic bearing failure, or approach of a train on train rails. However, such systems have not been shown to detect small changes in minor components of the machinery. Such small changes are often dwarfed by the vibrations caused by larger, more energetic components, such as drive shafts. Some systems process vibration data by determining statistics of the vibration in the frequency domain. However, such systems have not been shown to detect small changes in minor components of complex machinery. Such small changes are often dwarfed by the vibrations caused by larger, more energetic components, in the same frequency band. Some small components may vary their frequency signature with time during normal operations, so that it is difficult, using fixed frequency bands, to distinguish normal variations from variations associated with an approaching failure of a minor component. Based on the foregoing, there is a clear need for a machinery monitoring system that can detect problems in minor components of complex machines, which warrant maintenance actions directed to those minor components. The past approaches described in this section could be pursued, but are not necessarily approaches that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated herein, the approaches described in this section are not to be considered prior art to the claims in this application merely due to the presence of these approaches in this background section. Some examples of the approaches used in the prior art are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,643,799; 6,574,613 and 6,502,018. Two of the three named inventors herein are also the inventors in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/962,150 entitled “Method and Apparatus for Detecting Faults In Steam Generator System Components and Other Continuous Processes” having a filing date of Oct. 7, 2004. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A method for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process. The method has the steps of: developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. A process plant that has: a computing device for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process operating in the plant, the computing device for developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. In a plant that has: a process having one or more machines; a computing device for detecting a fault in the one or more machines of the process, the computing device for developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the one or more machines using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. A computer readable medium having instructions for performing a method for detecting a fault in a machine of a process operating in a plant, the instructions are for: developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and for a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. An apparatus that has: a processing device for: developing a model of a process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 shows a diagram of a water/steam side process of a boiler/turbine power cycle. FIG. 2 shows a block diagram showing the real time deployment of the Advanced Pattern Recognition model of the process shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a system including a computing device which may be used to implement the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to FIG. 1, there is shown a diagram of a process 100 which is the water/steam side of a boiler/turbine power cycle. As is well known to those of ordinary skill in the art, the water/steam side process 100 includes a steam generator 102, a high pressure turbine 104, an intermediate pressure turbine 106, a low pressure turbine 108, a generator 110, a condenser 114, a low pressure feedwater heater 116, an intermediate pressure feedwater heater 118, a de-aerator feedwater heater 120, a high pressure feedwater heater 122, a condensate pump 124 and a boiler feed pump 126. While only one low pressure feedwater heater 116, one intermediate pressure feedwater heater 118 and one high pressure feedwater heater 122 are shown in FIG. 1, it should be appreciated that there are usually multiple heaters 116, 118 and 122 and that one heater is shown in FIG. 1 solely for convenience of illustration. It should also be appreciated that in some plants, heater 118 is located between heater 122 and boiler feed pump 126. There is also associated with process 100 several types of sensors such as pressure sensors, temperature sensors, flow sensors and vibration or miscellaneous sensors. One or more of these sensors are at the measurement locations 1 to 23 in process 100. The table below shows which of the sensors are typically at each of the locations 1 to 23. Measurement Sensor Type Vibration Location Pres. Temp. Flow Or Misc 1 Main Steam X X 2 HP Extraction Steam (1 to 4) X X 3 Cold Reheat Steam X X 4 Hot Reheat Steam X X 5 IP Turbine Extraction (1 to 4) X X 6 IP to LP Turbine crossover X X 7 LP Turbine Extraction (1 to 4) X X 8 LP FW Heater Inlet (1 to 8) X X X 9 LP FW Heater Outlet (1 to 8) X 10 IP FW Heater Outlet (1 to 8) X 11 HP FW Heater Inlet (1 to 8) X 12 HPFWH Outlet (1 to 8)/Feedwater X X X 13 HP Turbine Bearings X X 14 IP Turbine Bearings X X 15 LP Turbine Bearings X X 16 Generator X 17 HP Turbine 1st Stage X 18 HP Turbine Seals X 19 Boiler Feed Pump (1 to 3) X 20 Condenser X 21 HP FW Heater Drains (1 to 8) X 22 IP FW Heater Drains (1 to 8) X 23 LP FW Heater Drains (1 to 8) X In process 100, steam generator 102 generates high pressure steam. The high pressure steam, augmented by main steam spray, is fed to the high pressure turbine 104. Expanded steam from the high pressure turbine 104 is fed back to the steam generator 102 where it is reheated. The reheated steam, augmented by reheat spray, is fed to intermediate pressure turbine 106 and through that turbine to low pressure turbine 108. The steam from the low pressure turbine 108 is fed to condenser 114 where it is condensed into water. The water from condenser 114 flows through condensate pump 124 into the low pressure feedwater heater 116. Extraction steam from the low pressure turbine 108 is also fed into heater 116. The heated water from low pressure feedwater heater 116 is fed into intermediate pressure feedwater heater 118 which also receives extraction steam from intermediate pressure turbine 106. The heated water from intermediate pressure feedwater heater 118 is fed to de-aerator feedwater heater 120 which also receives water from high pressure turbine 104. The heated water from de-aerator feedwater heater 120 flows through a boiler feed pump 126 into high pressure feedwater heater 122. The heater 122 also receives water from high pressure turbine 104. The heated water from heater 122 flows to steam generator 102. The present invention uses a steady state predictive model of the machinery, such as for example the rotating equipment in the form of high pressure, medium pressure and low pressure turbines 104, 106 and 108, respectively, and boiler feed pump 126 of FIG. 1 of process 100 to detect the onset of mechanical problems in the machinery. There are numerous methods to build such a model for well-behaved machinery such as those shown in FIG. 1 for process 100. Several of these methods are: 1. First principles models—these can work well, but are expensive to build, and time consuming to calibrate to existing wear and tear conditions. Also, they tend to be intolerant of sensor drift or sensor failures and it is almost impossible to model vibration parameters using these models. 2. Neural network empirical models—these models are an improvement to the first principles models because they automatically factor in current wear and tear conditions. However, they are very time consuming to build, and are not tolerant of subsequent sensor drifts, failures, or input sets completely outside of the training range, as might be encountered during a failure that was not previously experienced. 3. Advanced Pattern Recognition empirical models also automatically factor in current wear and tear conditions. They have the added advantages of being quick and easy to build and are very tolerant of multiple sensor failures or drifting, or input sets completely outside of the training range, as might be encountered during a failure that was not previously experienced. The Advanced Pattern Recognition (APR) technology, as is described below, is used in one embodiment of the present invention to construct a model of the machinery such as for example the rotating equipment in the form of high pressure, medium pressure and low pressure turbines 104, 106 and 108, respectively, and boiler feed pump 126 shown in FIG. 1 for process 100. It should be appreciated that other techniques, including but not limited to the other methods described above, can also be used to construct models for use with the present invention. As is described in more detail below in connection with FIG. 2, after the APR model is constructed it is deployed in real time. One example of a software product that can be used to generate the APR model is the software, known as Optimax On-Target, available from the assignee of the present invention as of the earliest claimed filing date for this application. Although there is no practical upper limit on the number, the APR model can employ, for example, between 25 and 50 measured parameters (flows, temperatures, pressures, etc) of process 100, roughly an equal number of vibration parameters, and often times special parameters associated with a particular type of rotating equipment used in process 100. The exact number of measured process parameters used in a particular APR model is a function of the plant (e.g. the number of feedwater heaters, the number of turbine extraction points, the number of boiler feed pumps, etc.) and the instrumentation that is available in the plant. It is common practice to locate vibration probes in several locations and axes on large or process critical rotating devices. The resulting spectra (one to three per probe depending on the manufacturer of the probe) can be decomposed in process real time into elements for further analysis. These elements then become inputs to the APR model. Some of these elements include items such as amplitude, phase angle, eccentricity, and relative gap in the three orthogonal directions. These elements typically are measured both at frequencies that are specific multiples of shaft rotational speed and at frequencies that are not exact multiples of shaft rotational speed, and again in differing planes, that is, the three orthogonal directions, for each relative measurement location. Examples of the specialized parameter measurements, in the case of a large steam turbine, are, for example, case expansion, thrust, eccentricity, and differential expansion. The exact number of process parameters and vibration elements and specialized parameter measurements is a function of the process being monitored, the specific mechanical device and the instrumentation that is available in a specific plant. If some of the measurements are not available, the model fidelity will suffer slightly, but the method still functions (although false alarms may be more prevalent). The process parameters within the APR model serve to determine the state of the process, while the vibration parameters and the specialized parameter measurements serve to observe the state of the equipment in reaction to the state of the process. Referring now to FIG. 2, there is shown the real time deployment of the APR model 200 of process 100. The inputs to the APR model 200 are those of the about 25 to about 50 vibration parameters, that are either measured or computed values, three of which are identified in FIG. 2 as “Spectral Element #1” 202, “Spectral Element #2” 204 and “Spectral Element #3” 206 and the about 25 to about 50 process parameters which are collectively identified in FIG. 2 as “Process Sensors” 208. By reading in the current value of the parameters 202, 204, 206 and 208, the APR model 200 generates expected (or model predicted) values for each of these input parameters. The expected value for each of the parameters 202, 204, 206, 208 is compared to the actual measured value and the difference between the two values, known as the “DELTA”, is determined. For ease of illustration, FIG. 2 shows only the calculation 210 of the DELTA between the expected value and the actual measured value for the Spectral Element #1 202 parameter. When the DELTA has a positive value, the actual measured value is greater than the expected value. As is shown in FIG. 2 by block 212, statistical process control (SPC) methods can be applied to separate “normal” from “unusual” behavior for either a single point or groups of points. For ease of illustration, FIG. 2 shows only the SPC block 212 associated with the DELTA between the expected value and the actual measured value for the Spectral Element #1 202 parameter. In the case of a mechanical problem with machinery, for example, a problem with a bearing within boiler feed pump 126, it can be postulated that the DELTA for Spectral Elements 1, 2 and 3 and Process Sensors 202, 204, 206 and 208, respectively, should become “unusual” shortly after the start of a failure of a rolling element. Therefore SPC tools are applied to calculate standard deviations and test for exceeding the configured statistical limit. The use of SPC methods in combination with the APR empirical model will under most system operating conditions alert the plant operator to the onset of a mechanical problem in the machinery. In the case of power generation units and numerous other processes, most units cycle load or throughput, at least on a daily basis, and perhaps more often and thus during load and other transients (e.g. coal pulverizer trip), it is possible that the DELTA values may become large enough to trigger a statistical limit. However, a persistence time factor can be added to the limit so that the alarm will not trigger until the DELTA values are statistically large in the positive direction continuously for a configurable period of time. This eliminates the transient effects. As described above, the testing for statistical limits will alert the plant operator to the occurrence of gross bearing element failures, but most mechanical problems start out small and grow over time. In order to identify the onset of problems, the technique of the present invention can, as shown by block 214 of FIG. 2, apply SPC data pattern testing to the DELTA values. For ease of illustration, FIG. 2 shows only the block 214 for the SPC data pattern testing of the DELTA between the expected value and the actual measured value for the Spectral Element #1 202 parameter. The DELTA values can be tested for data patterns according to industry-accepted patterns, which may be the well known and accepted standard tests first developed by Western Electric, and/or patterns specifically created for use with the present invention or any combination of the industry standard and specially created patterns. The patterns are stored in block 214. While there are many generally accepted pattern tests, of interest is one of “n” points in a row or “n” out of “m” points with a positive value. The values of “n” and “m” are established based upon the overall persistence time described above and the frequency of performing calculations in general. Another pattern test can be implemented for a sustained increasing trend (e.g. 5 out of 6 points in a row increasing) on the DELTA values. Another parameter of great interest in determining the existence of a machine defect is the goodness of fit of the APR model 200 as a whole. All of the about 50 to about 100 Delta values are used by the APR Model 200 in calculating a “Model Fit” parameter which ranges between 0.0000 and 1.0000. The technique used by the APR Model 200 to calculate the Model Fit parameter is determined by the vendor of the software used to make the APR model 200. A model fit parameter of 1.0000 represents a perfect model, that is, all of the about 50 to about 100 prediction outputs exactly match their corresponding input values and all Deltas equal 0.00000. A model fit parameter of 0.0000 represents a model so imperfect that no individual output is statistically close to the actual measured parameter. In practice, a good model fit parameter is one that has a value of about 0.96 most of the time. When an onset of a mechanical problem (or other significant plant anomaly) occurs, the fit of the model as a whole degrades because many measured parameters are influenced. Some, such as the three Spectral Elements, #1 202, #2 204 and #3 206, will vary to a large degree and others such as FW pressure, FW flow, bearing oil temperature etc. will vary to a lesser degree. This degradation will cause the overall model fit parameter to degrade to values such as 0.94 or less in a very short period of time. Again statistical pattern tests can be applied to the model fit parameter and the results of the statistical tests can be used in the malfunction rule set described below. Of special interest are the Deltas for Spectral Element #1, #2 and #3 and Process Sensors 202, 204, 206 and 208, respectively, parameters. If a mechanical problem is present, one skilled in the art would expect the actual value of each of these four parameters to be greater than their respective model predicted values. Thus the method of the present invention compares each of these four Deltas to their respective three sigma limits to determine if the deviation is both positive and statistically large. For ease of illustration, FIG. 2 shows only the comparison 224 of the Delta for the Spectral Element #1 202 parameter. If any three of the four parameters 202, 204, 206, 208 are beyond these statistically large limits for a period of time which is sufficient to remove transient measurement effects, then that is indicative of a gross mechanical element failure. The particular period of time is specific to the mechanical equipment and the system in which that equipment is used. During commissioning of the present invention, the time period is adjusted until the number of false or nuisance alarms due to load transients and other plant disturbances are considered by the plant operating personnel to be tolerable. Again, if three of the four Deltas for the parameters 202, 204, 206, 208 exhibit sustained periods of time where Delta values are slightly positive, that is, the actual value is greater than the predicted value, a mechanical failure is probable. Finally, if one of the Deltas for the parameters 202, 204, 206, 208 matches one of the patterns and the model fit parameter is less than a predetermined value for a predetermined period of time, this is indicative that an onset of a mechanical problem may be present. All of the above tests are embodied in a rotating equipment problem detection rule set 220 within the software, and the rule set causes appropriate alarms or messages to be sent if true. The output of rule set 220 may, for example, be a significant problem is probable at 220a, a potential for a problem exists at 220b or there are other faults at 220c. While development of such a rule set is well within the capability of those of ordinary of the art, one example of such a rotating equipment problem detection rule set is given below for a motor driven startup boiler feed pump. As is well known the motor and boiler feed pump each have a set of bearings on each side of their shaft and the shafts of the motor and pump are coupled together. In operation the startup boiler feed pump runs at a predetermined speed such as for example 1800 rpm. Vibration probes are mounted near each set of bearings and the probes in combination with their associated software provide the vibration amplitude for whole number multiples starting with one and ending with a predetermined number such as ten times of the pump shaft rotational speed. These multiples are referred to below as 1X, 2X . . . NX where N is a whole number starting with one. The probes in combination with their associated software also provide the vibration amplitude for not at a whole number multiple of the pump shaft rotational speed, which is referred to below as not 1X. The vibration amplitude is provided in the three directions, namely, radial (up/down), radial (in/out) and axial (left/right). The process parameters of interest are, for example: pump flow; pump discharge pressure and temperature; bearing temperatures; and if applicable the temperature of the bearing cooling medium, for example water or oil. The rule set for this example is: If the mechanical problem is a bearing element failure, expect a normal 1X, 2X . . . NX but an abnormal not 1X in the radial direction because the frequency will be a function of the number of rollers in the bearing. If the mechanical problem is an imbalance in the shaft expect that 1X radial will be abnormal. If the mechanical problem is a misalignment in the shaft expect that 1X, 2X radial and axial will be abnormal. If the mechanical problem is inside the pump, for example, an impeller problem, except that not 1X will be abnormal because the frequency will be a function of the number of impeller vanes and not of the pump shaft rotational speed. There may be occurrences in a component of process 100 for which no rule sets have yet been written, that is, something unusual in the component. Timer 216 and Delta 218, shown in FIG. 2, are used to alarm those unusual occurrences and timer 216 provides an output 216a which is an indication that there is something unusual in the process and that indication is provided as an input to rule set 220 and as an output available to plant operating personnel. Not shown in FIG. 2 is the method of decomposing vibration sensor spectral data into elements in process real time. Numerous commercial products exist for achieving this function. The invention accepts the plethora of vibration parameters directly. As an individual piece of rotating equipment degrades, its vibration signature (spectra from individual vibration sensors) changes. However, the vibration signature also changes due to changes in the process itself. Since the APR model 200 contains information about both the process and the vibration signature, it is possible to differentiate between the two. Thus if the model fit is good under normal conditions, statistically large Deltas in individual vibration elements that persist become precursors to mechanical problems far sooner than by detection by any other means because the alarm thresholds can be set lower. The method of the present invention employs classic fuzzy math methods 226a (again for ease of illustration only one fuzzy math box 226a is shown for the parameters 202, 204, 206 and 208) and 226b to quantify the degree of deviation. In turn, these values plus similar values for the model fit parameter are combined in rule set 220 to detect if the equipment is operating normally or in an unusual manner, and with what certainty. The first step in building the empirical model 200 of process 100 is to assemble normal operational data from a plant historian for about 50-100 parameters covering about 30 days of operation. These days can be selected to give the model 200 as wide a spectrum of normal operations as practical, e.g. different loads, different ambient conditions, different numbers of auxiliaries in operation, etc. Since the model 200 is a steady state model, the data need not be in clock/calendar sequence. The data collection frequency can be anywhere from every 5 minutes to every 15 minutes. At the same time, a second set of historical data covering the same data tags should be assembled from different calendar dates to validate the model 200 after it is constructed. The APR model generation software used in the embodiment described herein is the Optimax On-Target software. That software connects to any brand of distributed control system (DCS) or historian, and includes tools to review the raw data and quickly discard any records with missing data or obvious outliers. Caution should be taken to retain records covering normal excursions and operational modes (e.g. pump is in service) while eliminating records covering unusual excursions (e.g. load runback due to trip of the forced draft fan). Usually data below 30% unit load is ignored, unless the goal of the model is to detect failures occurring during startup or shutdown. The second step is to eliminate duplicate (or very similar) records. Again, the APR model generation software should, as does the APR model generation software used in this embodiment, contain tools to simplify removal of such records. In this manner, thousands of data records can be reduced to less than 500 records in a matter of seconds. The third step is to construct the model 200 from the training set, that is, the assembled normal operational data. The nature of Advanced Pattern Recognition technology allows a current generation PC to accomplish this task in less than 30 seconds which is far less time by many orders of magnitude than any other technology such as, for example, neural networks or multiple non-linear regression. The fourth step is to validate the model 200 by using the model to predict values for a second or validation data set collected during the first step. For the embodiment described herein, the validation data set is actual plant data that contains about three weeks of data and includes a known mechanical failure occurrence that began some time during the three weeks of data in the records. To implement the Statistical Process Control aspects of the present invention, the commercial off the shelf Optimax Performance software package available from the assignee of the present invention as of the earliest claimed filing date of this patent application was selected, primarily for its tight integration with the On-Target Advanced Pattern Recognition software. Alarm limits with appropriate persistence levels are selected for the Spectral Element #1, #2 and #3 and Process Sensors DELTAs to detect the gross mechanical element failures. The data pattern tests described earlier are activated for the same variables. The Optimax Performance software also includes the tools to implement the rules governing the triggers for the detection of the onset of a mechanical problem. The present invention may, as is shown in FIG. 3, be implemented in the form of a software program that runs on a computing device 300 that is connected to a process, which may for example be the process 100 of FIG. 1, by a data highway 302 and a distributed control system (DCS) 304. The data highway 302 has the capacity to interface with the sensors at measurement locations 1 to 23 of FIG. 1. The computing device 300, may for example, be any suitably arranged device such as a desktop PC that is capable of executing the program. The program may be a series of instructions on a suitable media such as a CD-ROM and computing device 300 has a suitable device such as the well known CDRW drive for receiving the CD-ROM so that the program can be read from the CD-ROM and loaded into device 300 for execution and if desired stored in a storage media such as a hard drive which is part of device 300. While the embodiment described herein for the present invention uses an APR empirical model, it should be appreciated that other empirical model methods such as neural networks or multiple non-linear regression can also be used in the present invention. It should also be appreciated that while the present invention is described herein in connection with machinery that is a rotating device in the form of a steam driven turbine generator set for the production of electricity, the invention applies equally to any rotating device that is part of an industrial process (e.g. motors used to rotate rollers in papermaking machines or steel mill rollers, electrical motors attached to fans or pumps, gas turbine generator sets, pulp mill refiners, rotating crushers and pulverizers, compressors, diesel generator sets in locomotives, steam turbines and/or diesel generator sets in ships, etc). It is to be understood that the description of the foregoing exemplary embodiment(s) is (are) intended to be only illustrative, rather than exhaustive, of the present invention. Those of ordinary skill will be able to make certain additions, deletions, and/or modifications to the embodiment(s) of the disclosed subject matter without departing from the spirit of the invention or its scope, as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A method for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process. The method has the steps of: developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. A process plant that has: a computing device for detecting a fault in a machine used in a process operating in the plant, the computing device for developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. In a plant that has: a process having one or more machines; a computing device for detecting a fault in the one or more machines of the process, the computing device for developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the one or more machines using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. A computer readable medium having instructions for performing a method for detecting a fault in a machine of a process operating in a plant, the instructions are for: developing a model of the process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and for a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. An apparatus that has: a processing device for: developing a model of a process; generating predicted values for a predetermined number of operating parameters of the process and a predetermined number of vibration parameters of the machine using the model; comparing the value predicted by the model for each of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters to a corresponding actual measured value for each of the vibration and operating parameters; and determining whether differences between the predicted and actual measured values for one or more of the predetermined number of vibration and operating parameters exceeds a configured statistical limit using numerical methods. | 20050113 | 20070529 | 20050714 | 92560.0 | 0 | BARBEE, MANUEL L | METHOD AND APPARATUS TO DIAGNOSE MECHANICAL PROBLEMS IN MACHINERY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,656 | ACCEPTED | Nutritional supplement to treat macular degeneration | A nutritional or dietary supplement composition that strengthens and promotes retinal health through the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration. The nutritional or dietary supplement composition may likewise reduce the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts. The essential ingredients of the nutritional or dietary supplement composition are vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, zinc and copper. The essential ingredients are preferably provided in a tablet form suitable for oral ingestion. Preferably the composition is taken in the form of one or two tablets taken twice daily. | 1. A composition comprising: approximately 7 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin C; approximately 13 to 18 times the RDA of vitamin E; approximately 6 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene; approximately 4 to 7 times the RDA of zinc; and approximately the RDA of copper. 2. A retinal health strengthening composition comprising: approximately 7 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin C; approximately 13 to 18 times the RDA of vitamin E; approximately 6 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene; approximately 4 to 7 times the RDA of zinc; and approximately the RDA of copper. 3. A nutritional or dietary supplement composition to safely and effectively prevent, stabilize, reverse and/or treat visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration and by reducing the risk of vision loss associated with the formation of cataracts and the progression of age-related macular degeneration comprising: approximately 7 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin C; approximately 13 to 18 times the RDA of vitamin E; approximately 6 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin A in the form of beta-carotene; approximately 4 to 7 times the RDA of zinc; and approximately the RDA of copper. 4. A method of safely and effectively preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration and by reducing the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts and the progression of age-related macular degeneration comprising: administering a daily dosage of not less than approximately 420 mg and not more than approximately 600 mg vitamin C, not less than approximately 400 IU and not more than approximately 540 IU vitamin E, not less than approximately 17.2 mg and not more than approximately 28 mg beta-carotene, not less than approximately 60 mg and not more than approximately 100 mg zinc and not less than approximately 1.6 mg and not more than approximately 2.4 mg copper. 5. A method of manufacturing a nutritional supplement composition that is safe and effective in preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration and by reducing the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts and the progression of age-related macular degeneration comprising: blending not less than approximately 420 mg and not more than approximately 600 mg vitamin C, not less than approximately 400 IU and not more than approximately 540 IU vitamin E, not less than approximately 17.2 mg and not more than approximately 28 mg beta-carotene, not less than approximately 60 mg and not more than approximately 100 mg zinc and not less than approximately 1.6 mg and not more than approximately 2.4 mg copper into a suitable dosage form. 6. A method of manufacturing a composition comprising: blending not less than approximately 420 mg and not more than approximately 600 mg vitamin C, not less than approximately 400 IU and not more than approximately 540 IU vitamin E, not less than approximately 17.2 mg and not more than approximately 28 mg beta-carotene, not less than approximately 60 mg and not more than approximately 100 mg zinc and not less than approximately 1.6 mg and not more than approximately 2.4 mg copper into a suitable dosage form. 7. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said composition comprises not less than approximately 450 mg vitamin C, not less than approximately 400 IU vitamin E, not less than approximately 17.2 mg beta-carotene, not less than approximately 68 mg zinc and not less than approximately 1.6 mg copper. 8. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said vitamin C is provided in the form of ascorbic acid. 9. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said vitamin E is provided in the form of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate. 10. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said beta-carotene is substituted or supplemented with lutein, zeaxanthine or a raw material combination thereof. 11. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said composition is supplemented with alpha-lipoic acid, phenolic compounds, anthocyanosides or a combination thereof. 12. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said zinc is provided in the form of zinc oxide, zinc gluconate or a combination thereof. 13. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said copper is provided in the form of cupric oxide, copper gluconate or a combination thereof. 14. The method of claim 5 or 6 wherein said blend provides not less than approximately 450 mg vitamin C, not less than approximately 400 IU vitamin E, not less than approximately 17.2 mg beta-carotene, not less than approximately 68 mg zinc, and not less than approximately 1.6 mg copper, up until an expiration date of said dosage form produced from said blend. 15. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said vitamin C is provided in the form of ascorbic acid. 16. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said vitamin E is provided in the form of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate. 17. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said beta-carotene is substituted or supplemented with lutein, zeaxanthine, or a raw material combination thereof. 18. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said composition is supplemented with alpha-lipoic acid, phenolic compounds, anthocyanosides or a combination thereof. 19. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said zinc is provided in the form of zinc oxide, zinc gluconate or a combination thereof. 20. The method of claim 4, 5 or 6 wherein said copper is provided in the form of copper oxide, copper gluconate or a combination thereof. 21. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said composition is formed into one or more tablets for daily oral ingestion by a human or other mammal. 22. The composition of claim 1, 2 or 3 wherein said composition is formed into four tablets for oral ingestion by a patient of two tablets twice daily. 23. The method of claim 4 wherein said daily dosage is administered orally in the form of one or more tablets taken daily. 24. The method of claim 4 wherein said daily dosage is administered orally in the form of two tablets taken twice daily. 25. The method of claim 5 or 6 wherein said composition is compressed in the form of two tablets taken twice daily. | The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and the right in limited circumstances to require the patent owner to license others on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of the Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) awarded by the National Institutes of Health, Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a nutritional or dietary supplement composition that strengthens and promotes retinal health through the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of visual acuity loss in people with particular ocular diseases. More specifically, the present invention relates to an antioxidant and high-dosage zinc nutritional or dietary supplement composition that decreases visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration. The subject composition may likewise reduce the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Macular degeneration associated with age and drusen is the leading cause of severe visual acuity loss in the United States and Western Europe in persons aged 55 years old or older. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a collection of clinically recognizable ocular findings that can lead to blindness. The findings include drusen, retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) disturbance—including pigment clumping and/or dropout, RPE detachment, geographic atrophy, subretinal neovascularization and disciform scar. Not all these manifestations are needed for AMD to be considered present. The prevalence of persons with ophthalmoscopically or photographically identifiable drusen increases with age, and most definitions of AMD include drusen as a requisite. However, drusen alone do not seem to be directly associated with vision loss. It is rather, the association of drusen with the vision-threatening lesions of AMD, i.e., geographic atrophy, RPE detachment and subretinal neovascularization, that has led to their inclusion in the definition of AMD. Although recent studies have demonstrated the benefit of laser photocoagulation in those individuals with macular degeneration who develop acute, extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization, no treatment has been shown to be of benefit to the majority of people who have AMD. The cause of macular degeneration is unknown. Recently, attention has been focused on the possible involvement of various minerals in retinal disease. Zinc has received particular notice in this regard due to the observation of high concentrations of zinc in ocular tissues, particularly the retina, pigment epithelium and choroid. Zinc is an important micronutrient that plays an essential role in human growth and function. Zinc is necessary for the activity of over a hundred enzymes, including carbonic anhydrase, superoxide dismutase and alkaline phosphatase. Zinc acts as a cofactor for numerous metalloenzymes, including retinol dehydrogenase and catalase. Zinc also is a cofactor in the synthesis of extracellular matrix molecules, is essential for cell membrane stability, is needed for normal immune function, is associated with melanin and is taken up in a facilitated manner by the retinal pigment epithelium. Despite the evidence supporting the notion that zinc must be essential to the metabolism of the retinochoroidal complex, relatively little is known of its role in the maintenance of normal eye function. Toxicity from free radicals and oxidizers has also generated significant interest with regard to macular degeneration and the progression thereof. Circumstantial evidence indicates that protection against phototoxicity and oxidizers, such as would be provided by antioxidants, could slow the onset and progression of age-related macular degeneration as well as cataracts. If a treatment modality could slow down the progression of macular degeneration and/or cataracts, it would have a tremendous impact on the number of individuals who suffer from such problems due to the fact that such problems generally occur at significantly more advanced ages. Accordingly, a need still exists in the art to provide methods and compositions for the treatment of macular degeneration and/or cataracts in the absence of surgery. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is a nutritional or dietary supplement composition for administration to humans or other animals that strengthens and promotes retinal health through the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of visual acuity loss in people with particular ocular diseases. The present nutritional or dietary supplement composition may also be administered to prevent, stabilize, reverse and/or treat cataract development. The present nutritional or dietary supplement composition preferably comprises an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. Visual acuity loss is decreased through the use of the present composition by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration. The present composition may likewise reduce the risk of visual acuity loss associated with the development of cataracts. The present invention likewise provides a method of treating a human or other animal by administering a nutritional or dietary supplement composition comprising an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. The practice of this invention involves supplementing the diet of humans or animals by oral, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, transcutaneous or intramuscular routes of administration with the subject antioxidant and high-dosage zinc formulation. The present invention likewise provides a method of manufacturing a nutritional or dietary supplement composition comprising an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a nutritional or dietary supplement composition effective in the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a safe nutritional or dietary supplement composition for the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide an effective method of preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a safe method of preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method of manufacturing a safe nutritional or dietary supplement composition for the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a method of manufacturing a nutritional or dietary supplement composition effective in the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. These and other objectives and advantages of the present invention, some of which are specifically described and others that are not, will become apparent from the detailed description and claims that follow. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following detailed description is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to which the present invention pertains to make and use the same, and sets forth the best mode contemplated by the inventors of carrying out the subject invention. The preferred nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention is a formulation of five essential ingredients preferably in quantities not less than those set forth below in Table 1, to be ingested daily. TABLE 1 Composition Daily Dosage Ascorbic acid 450 milligrams (mg) dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate 400 international units (IU) beta-carotene 17.2 mg zinc oxide 68 mg cupric oxide 1.6 mg The subject composition is formulated to provide the above-listed essential ingredients at preferably not less than the daily dosage amounts specified above. This particular formulation of the subject composition has unexpectedly been shown in a multicenter prospective study of 4,757 persons, sponsored by the National Eye Institute of the National Institutes of Health, to provide a greater protective effect on the health of eyes than that achieved through the administration of a placebo, the antioxidant ingredients or the zinc/copper ingredients independently. The subject composition is preferably provided for oral administration in the form of lacquered tablets, unlacquered tablets, caplets or capsules. For purposes of simplicity only, throughout the remainder of this detailed description lacquered tablets, unlacquered tablets, caplets and capsules will each be referred to as simply “tablets” without distinction in form or function therebetween. The preferred daily dosage of the subject composition as specified above may be administered in the form of two or more tablets. Most preferably the daily dosage of the subject composition is provided in the form of one tablet taken twice daily, for a total of two tablets a day, or in the form of two tablets taken twice daily, for a total of four tablets a day. Compared to taking the total daily dose once a day, twice daily dosing of half the total daily dose in one or more tablets per dose provides improved absorption and better maintenance of blood levels of the essential ingredients. Accordingly, if two tablets of the preferred formulation of the subject composition are to be ingested each day, each tablet is formulated to preferably provide not less than approximately 225 mg ascorbic acid, approximately 200 IU dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate, approximately 8.6 mg beta-carotene, approximately 34 mg zinc oxide and approximately 0.8 mg cupric oxide upon oral administration. If four tablets of the preferred formulation of the subject composition are to be ingested each day, each tablet is formulated to preferably provide not less than approximately 112.5 mg ascorbic acid, approximately 100 IU dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate, approximately 4.3 mg beta-carotene, approximately 17 mg zinc oxide and approximately 0.4 mg cupric oxide upon oral administration. Tablets of the preferred formulation of the subject composition contain larger quantities of essential ingredients per tablet than the minimum quantities per tablet specified above. The minimum quantities specified above, per tablet, reflect the minimum amount of each essential ingredient to be provided upon oral administration through to the date of tablet expiration as set forth on the tablet sale label. However, since essential ingredients are subject to degradation over time, the tablets must contain larger quantities of essential ingredients to compensate for ingredient degradation. By providing larger quantities of essential ingredients in each tablet, one is ensured that even with ingredient degradation, one hundred percent of the ingredient amount specified on the tablet sale label is provided upon oral administration of the tablet through to the specified expiration date of the tablet. Another consideration in formulating the subject composition is that depending on the source of the individual ingredients, individual ingredient degradation rates may vary. For example, depending on the source of beta-carotene, a quantity of approximately 10 percent to a quantity of approximately 60 percent more beta-carotene may be necessary per tablet to provide the specified amount of beta-carotene per tablet as that listed on the tablet sale label through to the expiration date of the product. Accordingly, the specific formulation of the subject composition will vary depending on the sources of the individual ingredients and the specified length of product shelf life before expiration. Typically, the product shelf life for nutritional or dietary supplements is approximately two to three years. Such ingredient overages to compensate for ingredient degradation is reflected in the preferred ingredient percentage weight per tablet information provided below. Tablet formulations may also vary somewhat depending on slight deviations from manufacturing specifications within controlled tolerance ranges as customary within the field of art. Variations contemplated in administering the subject composition to humans or other animals include, but are not limited to, providing time-release tablets or tablets manufactured to be administered as a single dose or as other multiple part dosages. Additionally, alternative avenues of administration besides oral administration are contemplated herein such as for example, but not limited to, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, sublingual, transcutaneous, intramuscular or like forms of administration. Each tablet of the subject composition preferably contains the following essential ingredients in the quantities specified below including overages to compensate for ingredient degradation. For purposes of simplicity only, formulations of the subject composition are provided below in accordance with a four-tablet oral daily dosage regime as described above. Vitamin C Vitamin C is a well known water-soluble antioxidant. Humans depend on external sources of vitamin C to meet their vitamin C requirements. Vitamin C in the form of ascorbate is found in the aqueous humor of human eyes. A high concentration of ascorbate in the aqueous humor of eyes is maintained by active transport of ascorbate from the blood stream to the posterior chamber of the eyes. Maximum aqueous humor ascorbate concentration occurs with a blood plasma ascorbate level in the range of approximately 0.3 to 0.5 milligrams/deciliter (mg/dl). The U.S. recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin C in the form of ascorbic acid is 60 mg. Very large daily doses of vitamin C have been taken over many years with no or only minor undesirable effects. Intakes of 1,000 mg or more of vitamin C can be consumed daily without any known adverse effects. The subject composition provides a daily dose of not less than preferably approximately 450 mg of vitamin C. Accordingly, preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime of the subject composition delivers not less than approximately 112.5 mg of vitamin C, but more preferably approximately 125 mg vitamin C, in the form of ascorbic acid. Such a formulation provides a total daily dosage of preferably not less than approximately 450 mg, but more preferably approximately 500 mg, and preferably not more than approximately 600 mg of vitamin C. This daily dosage of vitamin C is equivalent to approximately 7 to 10 times the RDA. In order to provide approximately 112.5 mg of vitamin C per tablet, approximately 5 to 50 percent, but more preferably 5 to 25 percent, but most preferably approximately 10 to 12 or 10.5 percent by weight of each tablet, including active as well as inactive ingredients, is ascorbic acid. This weight percentage for vitamin C may represent up to an approximately twenty percent overage per tablet or approximately 22.5 mg of additional ascorbic acid per tablet to compensate for natural degradation of ascorbic acid over the shelf life of the tablet. Ascorbic acid is the preferred source of vitamin C in the subject tablets, although other sources such as for example sodium ascorbate could alternatively be used. Vitamin E Vitamin E is also a well-known antioxidant. Vitamin E can work synergistically with vitamin C in protecting vital cell function from normal oxidants. Vitamin E is a relatively non-toxic fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin E is readily oxidized thereby significantly reducing its activity during periods of storage prior to ingestion. Once ingested, vitamin E is stored within the body and can contribute to the total body pool of vitamin E for up to one year. The RDA of vitamin E in the form of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate is 30 IU. No adverse effects of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate have been observed at levels as high as 800 mg, with 1.0 mg of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate being equal to 1 IU of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate. Preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime of the subject composition provides not less than approximately 100 IU of vitamin E in the form of dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate. Such a formulation provides a total daily dosage of preferably not less than approximately 400 IU, and preferably not more than approximately 540 IU, of vitamin E. This daily dosage of vitamin E is equivalent to approximately 13 to 18 times the RDA for vitamin E. Accordingly, vitamin E represents approximately 5 to 45 percent, but more preferably approximately 5 to 35 percent, but most preferably approximately 8 to 11 or 9.7 percent by weight of each tablet including active as well as inactive ingredients as described in greater detail below. This weight percentage for dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate may represent up to an approximately thirty percent overage per tablet or approximately 30 IU of additional dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate per tablet to compensate for the natural degradation thereof over the shelf life of the tablet. Dl-alpha tocopheryl acetate is the preferred source of vitamin E in the subject tablets although other sources of vitamin E, such as for example trimethyl tocopheryl acetate and/or vitamin E succinate, may be used in the alternative. Beta-Carotene Beta-carotene, a proform of vitamin A, is a lipid-soluble orange pigment found in many vegetables. Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body with an efficiency of approximately 50 percent. The RDA of vitamin A is 5,000 IU. Beta-carotene has one of the highest antioxidant potentials of the antioxidants. No observed adverse effects are observed for beta-carotene at dosage levels as high as 25 mg per day for healthy, non-smokers. However, an increased risk of fatal coronary heart attacks in men with previous myocardial infarction and an increased risk of lung cancer among male smokers has been observed in individuals who receive 20 mg/day of beta-carotene. Preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime of the subject composition provides not less than approximately 4.3 mg, but more preferably approximately 6 mg, of beta-carotene. Such a formulation provides a total daily dosage of preferably not less than approximately 17.2 mg, but more preferably approximately 24 mg, of beta-carotene and preferably not more than approximately 28 mg beta-carotene. At a potency of 1,667 IU vitamin A per mg beta-carotene, this daily dosage of beta-carotene is equivalent to approximately 6 to 10 times the RDA of vitamin A. Approximately 4.3 mg of beta-carotene represents approximately 0.2 to 4 percent, but more preferably approximately 0.2 to 3 percent, but most preferably approximately 0.51 percent by weight of each tablet including active as well as inactive ingredients as described in more detail below. This weight percentage for beta-carotene may represent approximately a thirty to seventy percent overage per tablet or approximately 1 to 2.5 mg of additional beta-carotene per tablet to compensate for natural degradation thereof over the shelf life of the tablet. Beta-carotene is preferred in the subject composition due to its ready commercial availability although alternative carotenoid proforms of vitamin A could likewise be used. Zinc Zinc is important in maintaining the health of an eye's retina and is an essential part of more than 100 enzymes involved in digestion, metabolism, reproduction and wound healing. The RDA for zinc is approximately 15 mg. In one study, 80 mg of zinc was shown to be significantly better than placebo in retarding macular degeneration changes. (Newsome, Arch Ophthalmol 106: 192-8, 1988.) About 200 mg dosage of zinc per day, although well tolerated, has been shown to have potential side effects such as anemia. The anemia associated with high dosage zinc intake is attributable to copper deficiency. Diet supplementation with copper does not appear to have a deleterious effect on zinc absorption. Accordingly, preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime of the subject composition provides not less than approximately 17 mg, but more preferably 20 mg, of zinc. Such a formulation provides a total daily dosage of not less than approximately 68 mg, but more preferably 80 mg, of zinc and preferably not more than approximately 100 mg of zinc. This daily dosage of zinc is equivalent to approximately 4 to 7 times the RDA for zinc. Accordingly, zinc represents approximately 0.8 to 8 percent, but more preferably approximately 0.8 to 4 percent, but most preferably 1.69 percent by weight of each tablet including active as well as inactive ingredients as described in more detail below. This weight percentage for zinc may represent an approximately fifteen to thirty-five percent overage per tablet or approximately 3 to 6 mg of additional zinc per tablet to assure potency of the product over the shelf life of the tablet. Zinc is preferred in the form of zinc oxide in subject tablets due to the fact zinc oxide provides the most concentrated form for elemental zinc and is well tolerated in the digestive system. However, other forms of zinc such as for example zinc gluconate may alternatively be used or be used in combination with zinc oxide in the subject composition. Copper Copper, like zinc, is another important cofactor for metalloenzymes, and is a second necessary cofactor for superoxide dismutase. Two mg is the RDA for copper. Accordingly, preferably each tablet of a four tablet daily dosage regime contains not less than approximately 0.4 mg, but more preferably approximately 0.5 mg, of copper. Such a formulation provides a total daily dosage of not less than approximately 1.6 mg, but more preferably approximately 2 mg, of copper and preferably not more than approximately 2.4 mg copper to eliminate or minimize any potential undesirable effects of high dosage zinc. Accordingly, copper represents approximately 0.02 to 0.2 percent, but preferably approximately 0.02 to 0.1 percent but most preferably approximately 0.04 percent by weight of each tablet including active as well as inactive ingredients as described in more detail below. This weight percentage for copper represents approximately a twenty-five to sixty percent overage per tablet or approximately 0.10 to 0.25 mg of additional copper per tablet to ensure product potency over the shelf life of the tablet. Copper in the form of cupric oxide is preferred in the subject tablets to help prevent zinc induced copper deficiency anemia, although other forms of copper such as for example copper gluconate may alternatively be used or used in combination with cupric oxide in the subject composition. Other ingredients believed to be of benefit in maintaining eye health may likewise be added to the nutritional or dietary composition of the present invention if desired. Such ingredients include for example but are not limited to lutein, zeaxanthine, alpha-lipoic acid, phenolic compounds such as for example but not limited to oligomeric proanthocyanidins, anthocyanosides and combinations thereof as is discussed in more detail below. Lutein Lutein, like beta-carotene, is a carotenoid. Lutein is one of the most abundant carotenoids found in fruits and vegetables. Lutein is also an antioxidant found in the retina of healthy eyes. Preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime could provide approximately 0.25 to 10 mg of lutein for a total daily dosage of approximately 1 to 40 mg depending upon whether lutein is used to supplement or substitute beta-carotene and/or zeaxanthine. As with beta-carotene, lutein is subject to degradation during periods of storage prior to ingestion. Accordingly, larger quantities of lutein are necessary in a tablet than the desired daily dosage quantity of lutein to be provided upon ingestion. Zeaxanthine Zeaxanthine, like lutein and beta-carotene, is a carotenoid. Zeaxanthine is found naturally in fruits and vegetables. Zeaxanthine is also an antioxidant found in the retina of healthy eyes. Preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime could provide approximately 0.01 to 10 mg of zeaxanthine for a total daily dosage of approximately 0.04 to 40 mg depending upon whether zeaxanthine is used to supplement or substitute beta-carotene and/or lutein. As with beta-carotene, zeaxanthine is subject to degradation during periods of storage prior to ingestion. Accordingly, larger quantities of zeaxanthine are necessary in a tablet than the desired daily dosage quantity of zeaxanthine to be provided upon ingestion. Lutein-Zeaxanthine Lutein-zeaxanthine raw material combinations achieved deliberately, because of normal composition, or through raw material contamination may likewise be added to the subject composition as desired. Preferred ratios of lutein-zeaxanthine for example include 90 to 99 percent lutein and 1 to 10 percent zeaxanthine or 90 to 99 percent zeaxanthine and 1 to 10 percent lutein. Preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime could provide approximately 0.01 to 10 mg of lutein-zeaxanthine for a total daily dosage of approximately 0.04 to 40 mg depending upon whether lutein-zeaxanthine is used to supplement or substitute beta-carotene. Alpha-Lipoic Acid Alpha-lipoic acid provides superior antioxidant protection due to the fact that it enhances the potency of other antioxidants in the body. Alpha-lipoic acid may be added to the nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention if desired. If so desired, preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime would provide approximately 0.25 to 5 mg of alpha-lipoic acid for a total daily dosage of approximately 1 to 20 mg. Phenolic Compounds Phenolic compounds such as for example but not limited to oligomeric proanthocyanidins are additional useful antioxidants. Oligomeric proanthocyanidins are found naturally in grape seeds. Phenolic compounds may be added to the nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention if desired. If so desired, preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime would provide approximately 0.25 to 5 mg of phenolic compounds for a total daily dosage of approximately 1 to 20 mg. Anthocyanosides Anthocyanosides are useful antioxidants found naturally in bilberry fruit. Anthocyanosides may be added to the nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention if desired. If so desired, preferably each tablet of a four tablet per day dosage regime would provide approximately 0.25 to 5 mg of anthocyanosides for a total daily dosage of approximately 1 to 20 mg. As noted above, inactive ingredients well known in the art are preferably present in the subject tablets to aid in manufacturing the subject composition in tablet form. For example, inactive ingredients may include but are not limited to binders, lubricants and disintigrants such as for example cellulose, gelatin, magnesium stearate, water, vegetable oil, glycerin, beeswax and silica. The unique formulation of essential ingredients of the nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention was demonstrated in a National Eye Institute (NIH/ADAMHA), multicenter, cohort study of 4,757 participants, to provide benefit for safe and effective prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration or visual acuity loss. The essential ingredients of the subject nutritional or dietary supplement composition, considered individually, have been known to provide certain physiological effects. However, the subject unique formulation and the effects thereof on eye health were not previously known. A safe and effective method of preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating macular degeneration or visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration and/or by reducing the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts in accordance with the present invention consists of providing a human or other animal a daily dosage of not less than approximately 450 mg vitamin C, approximately 400 IU vitamin E, approximately 17.2 mg beta-carotene, approximately 68 mg zinc and approximately 1.6 mg copper. Preferably the daily dosage is provided in the form of two tablets taken twice daily or alternatively in the form of one tablet taken twice daily. A method of manufacturing the nutritional or dietary supplement composition of the present invention, which is safe and effective in the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration or visual acuity loss by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration and/or by reducing the risk of vision loss associated with the development of cataracts, includes providing the essential ingredients in accordance with the formulation noted above. The essential ingredients of the subject composition, as well as any desired inactive ingredients and/or additive ingredients are combined by weight as described above and mechanically combined, such as for example, through the use of a blender to form a blend. If necessary, the blend is then tumbled until uniform. The blend is then compressed using a tablet press to form tablets. Optionally a coating may be sprayed on the tablets and the tablets tumbled until dry. Alternatively, the blend may be placed in mineral oil to form a slurry for containment in a soft gel capsule, the blend may be placed in a gelatin capsule or the blend may be placed in other dosage forms known to those skilled in the art. While there is described herein certain specific embodiments of the present invention, it will be manifest to those skilled in the art that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the underlying inventive concept and that the same is not limited to the particular forms herein described except insofar as indicated by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Macular degeneration associated with age and drusen is the leading cause of severe visual acuity loss in the United States and Western Europe in persons aged 55 years old or older. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a collection of clinically recognizable ocular findings that can lead to blindness. The findings include drusen, retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) disturbance—including pigment clumping and/or dropout, RPE detachment, geographic atrophy, subretinal neovascularization and disciform scar. Not all these manifestations are needed for AMD to be considered present. The prevalence of persons with ophthalmoscopically or photographically identifiable drusen increases with age, and most definitions of AMD include drusen as a requisite. However, drusen alone do not seem to be directly associated with vision loss. It is rather, the association of drusen with the vision-threatening lesions of AMD, i.e., geographic atrophy, RPE detachment and subretinal neovascularization, that has led to their inclusion in the definition of AMD. Although recent studies have demonstrated the benefit of laser photocoagulation in those individuals with macular degeneration who develop acute, extrafoveal choroidal neovascularization, no treatment has been shown to be of benefit to the majority of people who have AMD. The cause of macular degeneration is unknown. Recently, attention has been focused on the possible involvement of various minerals in retinal disease. Zinc has received particular notice in this regard due to the observation of high concentrations of zinc in ocular tissues, particularly the retina, pigment epithelium and choroid. Zinc is an important micronutrient that plays an essential role in human growth and function. Zinc is necessary for the activity of over a hundred enzymes, including carbonic anhydrase, superoxide dismutase and alkaline phosphatase. Zinc acts as a cofactor for numerous metalloenzymes, including retinol dehydrogenase and catalase. Zinc also is a cofactor in the synthesis of extracellular matrix molecules, is essential for cell membrane stability, is needed for normal immune function, is associated with melanin and is taken up in a facilitated manner by the retinal pigment epithelium. Despite the evidence supporting the notion that zinc must be essential to the metabolism of the retinochoroidal complex, relatively little is known of its role in the maintenance of normal eye function. Toxicity from free radicals and oxidizers has also generated significant interest with regard to macular degeneration and the progression thereof. Circumstantial evidence indicates that protection against phototoxicity and oxidizers, such as would be provided by antioxidants, could slow the onset and progression of age-related macular degeneration as well as cataracts. If a treatment modality could slow down the progression of macular degeneration and/or cataracts, it would have a tremendous impact on the number of individuals who suffer from such problems due to the fact that such problems generally occur at significantly more advanced ages. Accordingly, a need still exists in the art to provide methods and compositions for the treatment of macular degeneration and/or cataracts in the absence of surgery. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is a nutritional or dietary supplement composition for administration to humans or other animals that strengthens and promotes retinal health through the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of visual acuity loss in people with particular ocular diseases. The present nutritional or dietary supplement composition may also be administered to prevent, stabilize, reverse and/or treat cataract development. The present nutritional or dietary supplement composition preferably comprises an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. Visual acuity loss is decreased through the use of the present composition by reducing the risk of developing late stage or advanced age-related macular degeneration in persons with early age-related macular degeneration. The present composition may likewise reduce the risk of visual acuity loss associated with the development of cataracts. The present invention likewise provides a method of treating a human or other animal by administering a nutritional or dietary supplement composition comprising an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. The practice of this invention involves supplementing the diet of humans or animals by oral, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, transcutaneous or intramuscular routes of administration with the subject antioxidant and high-dosage zinc formulation. The present invention likewise provides a method of manufacturing a nutritional or dietary supplement composition comprising an effective amount of specific antioxidants and high-dosage zinc to decrease visual acuity loss. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide a nutritional or dietary supplement composition effective in the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a safe nutritional or dietary supplement composition for the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide an effective method of preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a safe method of preventing, stabilizing, reversing and/or treating macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Another object of the present invention is to provide a method of manufacturing a safe nutritional or dietary supplement composition for the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a method of manufacturing a nutritional or dietary supplement composition effective in the prevention, stabilization, reversal and/or treatment of macular degeneration and/or visual acuity loss. These and other objectives and advantages of the present invention, some of which are specifically described and others that are not, will become apparent from the detailed description and claims that follow. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050113 | 20131210 | 20050728 | 66231.0 | 23 | AHMED, HASAN SYED | Nutritional supplement to treat macular degeneration | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,695 | ACCEPTED | Switchable resistive perovskite microelectronic device with multi-layer thin film structure | A switchable resistive device has a multi-layer thin film structure interposed between an upper conductive electrode and a lower conductive electrode. The multi-layer thin film structure comprises a perovskite layer with one buffer layer on one side of the perovskite layer, or a perovskite layer with buffer layers on both sides of the perovskite layer. Reversible resistance changes are induced in the device under applied electrical pulses. The resistance changes of the device are retained after applied electric pulses. The functions of the buffer layer(s) added to the device include magnification of the resistance switching region, reduction of the pulse voltage needed to switch the device, protection of the device from being damaged by a large pulse shock, improvement of the temperature and radiation properties, and increased stability of the device allowing for multivalued memory applications. | 1. A switchable two terminal multi-layer perovskite thin film resistive device comprising: a. a first electrode; b. a second electrode; c. a perovskite material thin film layer between the first and second electrodes; and d. a first buffer layer between the perovskite material thin film layer and the first electrode. 2. The device of claim 1, further comprising a second buffer layer between the perovskite material thin film layer and the second electrode. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein the property of the device is modified by the following steps: a. selecting an electrical pulse to have a certain polarity and a certain width; b. selecting a maximum value and a waveform for the electrical pulse; c. applying the electrical pulse between the first and second electrodes; so as to create an electrical field or inject an electrical current in the perovskite material thin film layer greater than a threshold electric field value or threshold electric current value to change the property of the thin film layer. 4. The device of claim 2, wherein the property of the device is modified by the following steps: a. selecting an electrical pulse to have a certain polarity and a certain width; b. selecting a maximum value and a waveform for the electrical pulse; c. applying the electrical pulse between the first and second electrodes; so as to create an electrical field or inject an electrical current in the perovskite material thin film layer greater than a threshold electric field value or threshold electric current value to change the property of the thin film layer. 5. A device as in claim 1 or 3, in which the first buffer layer comprises two buffer layers. 6. A device as in claim 2 or 4, in which the second buffer layer comprises two buffer layers. 7. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which the perovskite material thin film layer is selected from the group of materials consisting of colossal magneto-resistance materials. 8. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which the perovskite material thin film layer is selected from the group of materials consisting of high temperature superconducting oxides. 9. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which the perovskite material thin film layer is a Mott insulator material such as CCTO. 10. A device as in any of claims 1-6, wherein the property modified in the perovskite material thin film layer is the electrical resistance. 11. A device as in any of claims 1-6, wherein the property modified in the perovskite material thin film layer is the capacitance. 12. A device as in any of claims 1-6, wherein the property modified in the perovskite material thin film layer is the temperature sensitivity. 13. A device as in any of claims 1-6, wherein the property modified in the perovskite material thin film layer is the magnetic field dependence. 14. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which the buffer layers comprise resistance switchable material. 15. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which the buffer layers comprise resistance nonswitchable material. 16. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which both the buffer layer and the perovskite material thin film layer are selected from the group consisting of a multi-layer system of homojunction, a gradient configuration, or their combination. 17. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which a partial homojunction layer of the perovskite material thin film layer is conductive, and is used as one of the electrodes. 18. A device as in any of claims 1-6, in which a partial gradient material layer of the perovskite material thin film layer is conductive, and is used as one of the electrodes. 19. A device as in claim 3 or 4, wherein the selected waveform between the pair of electrodes results from a pulse generated, the pulse generated having a waveform selected from the group of waveforms consisting of square, saw-toothed, triangular, and sine wave. 20. A device as in claim 3 or 4, wherein the selected maximum value of the pulse is in the range of from about 1V to about 150 V. 21. A device as in claim 3 or 4, wherein the selected duration of the pulse is in the range from about 1 nanosecond to about 100 milliseconds. 22. The device as in claim 3 or 4, in which the pulses are bipolar. 23. The device as in claim 3 or 4, in which the pulses are unipolar. 24. A switchable thin film resistive device comprising: a. an electrode; b. a switchable homojunction, and c. a substrate. 25. A switchable thin film resistive device comprising: a. an electrode; b. a gradient layer; and c. a substrate. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of the following U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/536,155, filed Jan. 13, 2004 STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable. REFERENCE TO A “SEQUENTIAL LISTING,” A TABLE, OR A COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTING APPENDIX SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISC Not Applicable. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a two-terminal microelectronic device, and, in particular, to a two-terminal non-volatile resistor device, having a structure of electrode/perovskite-active-material-layer/electrode, which is an Electric-Pulse-Induced-Resistance change device, commonly referred to by the acronym EPIR. 2. Description of the Related Art The properties of materials having a perovskite structure, among them colossal magneto-resistance (CMR) materials and high transition temperature superconductivity (HTSC) materials, can be changed significantly by external influences, such as temperature, magnetic field, electric field, photons, and pressure. Traditional CMR resistance change effect under high magnetic fields, is set out, for example, in the paper “Growth, Transport, and Magnetic Properties of Pr0.67Ca0.33MnO3 Thin Films”, S. K. Singh, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, pp. 263-265, 1996. The pulsed electric field or pulsed current through the sample cannot create a high enough magnetic induction to change the resistance of the PCMO. The electric resistance of the perovskite materials, particularly CMR and HTSC materials, can be modified by applying one or more short electrical pulses to a thin film or bulk material. The electric field strength or electric current density of the pulse is sufficient to switch the physical state of the materials so as to modify the properties of the material. The pulse is desired to have low energy so as not to destroy the material. (S. Q. Liu, N. J. Wu, and A. Ignatiev, Applied Physics Letters, 76, 2749 (2000).) Multiple pulses may be applied to the material to produce incremental changes in properties of the material (S. Q. Liu, N. J. Wu, and A. Ignatiev, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,204,139, and 6,473,332, which are incorporated herein by this reference). One of the properties that can be changed is the resistance of the material. The change may be partially or totally reversible using pulses of opposite polarities. This has been defined as the electrical pulse induced non-volatile resistance change effect, abbreviated as the EPIR effect. Based on the EPIR effect, a two terminal non-volatile resistor device, having a structure of electrode/perovskite-active-material-layer/electrode, can be produced, and is called an EPIR device. What is needed is an EPIR device that requires less pulse voltage to switch the device, that exhibits greater resistance, that is protected from being damaged by a large pulse shock, and that has improved temperature properties and radiation hardness. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A buffered electric-pulse-induced-resistance change device (buffered-EPIR device) is provided. The buffered-EPIR device comprises a conductive bottom electrode overlying the substrate, a top conductive electrode, a perovskite active layer, and a buffer layer interposed between the perovskite function layer and an electrode, and two or more buffer layers inserted between two sides of perovskite function layer and two electrodes respectively, in the devices. The resistance of the perovskite function layer can be modified by electrical pulses and/or applied DC potentials, and thus such layer is a perovskite switchable function layer. The buffer layer material can be either a non-switchable or switchable material. By adding the buffer layers, the device changes from a device having a structure of electrode/perovskite/electrode, an EPIR device, to a device having a structure of electrode/buffer/perovskite/buffer/electrode, a buffered-EPIR device. The buffered-EPIR device can be fabricated on various substrates such as oxides, semiconductors, and integrated circuit wafer substrates. The benefits of the buffer layers to the device include, but are not limited to, an increased asymmetric configuration and magnifying resistance switching region, reduction of the pulse voltage needed to switch the device, protection of the device from being damaged by a large pulse shock, improvement of the temperature properties and radiation hardness, increased device stability, and improvement of switching to multiple resistance states. The electrical pulse may have square, saw-toothed, triangular, sine, oscillating or other waveforms, and may be of positive or negative polarity. Multiple pulses may be applied to the material to produce incremental changes in properties of the buffered-EPIR device. The applications of the buffered-EPIR device include non-volatile memory devices, and electrically variable resistors in electronic circuits. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic plot of two switchable thin film devices, being two-terminal, buffered-EPIR devices: a) with one buffer layer; b) with two buffer layers. FIGS. 2a and 2b are graphs showing the resistance change measurement of a PCMO (Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3) device without buffer layer in the test element. FIGS. 3a and 3b are graphs showing the resistance change measurement of the PCMO device with a YSZ (Yttrium Stabilized Zirconia—(ZrO2)0.92(Y2O3)0.08) buffer layer. FIG. 4 is a graph showing resistance change measurement of a YSZ layer alone, i.e., without the underlying PCMO perovskite switchable function layer. FIGS. 5a and 5b are graphs showing the resistance switch properties induced by electric pulses for a Sm—CeO2/PCMO/YBCO/LAO buffered-EPIR sample. FIGS. 6a and 6b are graphs showing resistance versus electric pulses for a PLZT/PCMO/YBCO/LAO buffered-EPIR memory sample. FIG. 7 is a graph showing resistance versus electric pulse number for a YSZ/PCMO/YBCO/LAO memory sample, where the electrical poling pulses have the same polarity (field from top electrode to low electrode). The switching of resistance was caused by pulses with short (100 ns) and long (10 μs) durations. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In summary, buffer layers are added to an EPIR device to create a buffered-EPIR device. Referring to FIG. 1a, a bottom conductive electrode layer 12 is used as the bottom electrode layer on substrate 11. A thin top switchable function film, or layer, 14 partially covers the bottom conductive electrode layer 12. A bottom electrode contact pad 19 is connected to the bottom conductive electrode layer 12. The top switchable function layer 14 is covered with a top buffer layer 15. The top switchable function layer 14 and top buffer layer 15 form a multi-layer structure 50. A top electrode contact pad 16 is fabricated on top of the top buffer layer 15. Electrode contact pads 16 and 19 are connected to wires 17 and 18, respectively. The conductive electrode layer 12 and the top electrode contact pad 16 may be crystalline or polycrystalline conducting oxide or metallic layers. Referring to FIG. 1b, the individual components and their arrangements in the buffered-EPIR device with two buffer layers are the same as in FIG. 1a, except that there is an additional thin bottom buffer layer 13. The thin bottom buffer layer 13, together with the switchable function layer 14 and the top buffer layer 15, form a multi-layer structure 60. The buffered-EPIR device of FIG. 1a can also be an inverted structure where the buffer layer is deposited on the bottom electrode, and the top electrode contact is made to the switchable function layer. Multiple buffer layers can be substituted for any of the single buffer layers in FIGS. 1a and 1b. Multiple switchable function layers with or without buffer layers in between can be substituted for single layers in FIGS. 1a and 1b. The preferred embodiment of the present invention consists of two conductive film layers as top-electrode and bottom electrode. Material of the conductive layer can be metal, alloy, conductive oxide, or other conductive materials, or their combination, e.g., Pt, RuO2, SrRuO3, IrO2, YBa2Cu3O7−x (YBCO), La1−xSrxCoO3 (LSCO), SiC, carbon-tube, or their combinations. The bottom conductive electrode layer 12 is deposited on an atomically ordered or polycrystalline substrate 11, e.g., LaAlO3 (LAO), SrTiO3 (STO), MgO, Si, GaAs, TiN, etc., with or without the pre-existence of circuits on the substrate. The bottom electrode contact pad 19 and top electrode contact pad 16 may be made of metal, conductive compounds and their combination, such as Ag, Au, Pt, Al, C, or other metal or alloy or a conducting oxide, and may be deposited by any variety of techniques onto the bottom conductive electrode layer 12 and top buffer layer 15, as well as the top switchable function layer 14, depending on device design. The switchable function layer 14 is made of a perovskite-related material, such as colossal magneto-resistance (CMR) materials and their parent Mott insulator materials, High transition Temperature Superconducting (HTSC) material families (such as YBa2Cu3O7−x-based (YBCO) and Bi—Sr—Ca—Cu—O (“BSCCO”)), and the ACu3Ti4O12 family of compounds (where A is a trivalent and/or rare earth ion) with thickness in the range from about one nanometer to about several micrometers. For example, CMR materials including the manganese perovskites and the cobalt perovskites described as ReBMnO3 and ReBCoO3, where Re is rare-earth ions, B is alkaline ions, and their doped stoichiometric perovskites (such as (La,Pr)(CaPb)MnO3) and non-stoichiometric perovskites (such as LnBa(Co,M)2O5+x, Ln=Eu or Gd, M=Cu,Fe) can be used as the active switchable layer in the buffered EPIR devices. Examples of HTSC materials are YBCO and the Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O-based (BSCCO) materials as well as other phases of these materials. The examples of the ACu3Ti4O12 compound are CaCu3Ti4O12, YCu3Ti4O12, and GdCu3Ti3FeO12. In the preferred embodiment, buffer layer 13, and/or buffer layer 15, is made of insulating materials consisting of single layer or multi-layer structure. Material for a buffer layer can be oxide or non-oxide with various lattice structures, including crystalline, polycrystalline, and glass. The oxide material for the buffer may be with or without perovskite lattice structure. Non-perovskite oxides, such as SiO2, CeO2, MgO, ZnO, Y2O3, and their doped oxides, such as yittrium-stabled ZrO2 (YSZ), (Sm,Gd) doped-CeO2, are examples, but others may be suitable. When perovskite oxides are used as buffer layers, they can be switchable or non-switchable insulating materials. These switchable perovskite-related oxide buffer layers can be, but are not limited to, the high dielectric ACu3Ti4O12 family, CMR materials and their non-doped parent Mott-insulator materials such as LaMnO3, and polar materials such as Ba1−xSrxTiO3 (BST), Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT), La doped-PZT (PLZT), and Pb3Ge5O11 (PGO). Non-oxide materials such as nitrides can also be used for the buffer layers 13 and 15. The buffer layer thickness is preferably in the range from approximately 1 nm to about 500 nm. By applying an electrical pulse between the top and bottom electrodes, 16 and 19, through wires 17 and 18, an electric field and current will be created across the multi-layer structure 50 or 60. A sufficiently high electric field strength and/or electric current density can change the charge distribution, and possibly the microstructures, and thus switch their states or modify properties such as the sensitivities to temperature, magnetic field, electric field, and mechanical pressure. Specifically, the reversible resistance switching change in the buffered-EPIR devices can be realized by applying short electric pulses to electrodes 16 and 19. Because the materials for the top switchable function layer 14, particularly CMR and HTSC materials, have quasi-symmetric structure and electrical properties, the asymmetric interface properties between the bottom electrode 19 and the switchable function layer 14, and between the top electrode 16 and the switchable function layer 14, can be induced or enhanced by adding the buffer layers and the corresponding film deposition processing. The buffer layer may be used on the top side or bottom side or both sides of the switchable function perovskite layer, shown as FIG. 1a-b. In the present invention, the buffered interface is defined as the boundary of conductive electrode(s) and switchable perovskite film, which includes the thin buffer layer and the adjacent surface regions of both the electrode layer and switchable function layer in the buffered-EPIR devices. The thin buffer layers, interposed between the switchable function layer 14 and the electrodes 16 and 19, can be used to modulate the barrier height, the density of electric carriers, carrier mobility, and/or carrier distribution in the interface area. The buffer layers can also be selected to change carrier spin distribution and spin-alignment state in the interface region. The buffer layers can be selected to change the chemical distribution and lattice structure at the interface as well as to modify electrical characteristics of the interface such as filament conduction. The buffer layers can be selected to compensate temperature dependence of device resistance switching performance, and to enhance device radiation hardness. For instance, the additional interface asymmetry induced by the buffer layers can enhance the reversible resistance switching properties of the buffered-EPIR device (resistor) from high-resistance state (RH) to low resistance state (RL) by voltage and current of short electric pulses, and to stabilize the properties of resistive switching and its non-volatility. Further, adding the buffer layers can be used to protect the device from being damaged or degraded by too large of energy shock by applied electric pulses, and to modify the non-volatile hysteresis loops to introduce more resistance states for multi-level memory application of the device. The buffer layers can be made by various deposition techniques including rf-sputtering, e-beam evaporation, thermal evaporation, metal organic deposition, sol gel deposition, pulse laser deposition, and metal organic chemical vapor deposition, but not limited only to these techniques. The following are examples to illustrate the need for the buffer layers in buffered-EPIR device of the present invention. FIG. 2 shows the resistance change of a device without a buffer layer (in an EPIR device), using CMR material with composition of Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 (PCMO) as the swichable active material. The PCMO film of 600 nm thickness was deposited on top of a YBCO bottom electrode layer of about 500 nm on a LaAlO3 (100) substrate by pulse laser deposition (PLD) method. The switching resistance change after 100 ns single pulses were applied to the device is shown in FIG. 2a. The low resistance value, RL of ˜250 Ω, was obtained after a +13V pulse was applied, and the high resistance value, RH of ˜400 Ω, was obtained after a −13V pulse was applied. The resistance of the sample is measured with very small sensing current of ˜1 μA, which does not switch the resistance of sample. The positive pulse direction is defined as from the top electrode to the bottom electrode. The switch ratio (RH−RL)/RL in this sample is 60%. FIG. 2b is R vs. pulse-voltage hysteresis loop for the device measured after each pulse was applied. The resistance change after 5V-pulse is smaller than 10%. Device resistance R reaches the low state after pulses of ≧+12V are applied. It then stays at the low state when lower voltage positive and small voltage negative pulses are applied. R starts to increase after negative voltage pulses with amplitude larger than 10V are applied, and goes to the high state with pulse about −13V. The low state and high state shown in the hysteresis loop measurement are not exactly the same as RL and RH obtained in FIG. 2a, because during the hysteresis measurement, multiple-pulses are in effect applied instead of the single switch pulses used in FIG. 2a. FIG. 3 shows the resistance change versus electrical pulse number for the device of the present invention, a buffered-EPIR device, that is, a PCMO device with a YSZ buffer layer between top-electrode and the PCMO layer. The thin YSZ buffer layer was deposited by PLD on the PCMO/YBCO/LAO, which was fabricated under the same growth conditions as the sample used in FIG. 2. FIG. 3a shows the device resistance switching under single pulses. The device resistance increases significantly after adding the insulating YSZ buffer layer. However, the voltage needed for switching the device is reduced to ˜3V in comparison with the 113V for the non buffered EPIR sample in FIG. 2, and the switch ratio of the buffered-EPIR sample is ˜70% as shown in FIG. 3a. This shows that lower operation voltage and higher resistance switching ratio are obtained for the buffered-EPIR device as compared to the non-buffered EPIR device. FIG. 3b is the non-volatile resistance hysteresis measurement, which shows the device switches under +3V pulses. It also shows that a rapid transition to switching into the low or to high R states can be achieved by the buffered-EPIR system due to the nearly rectangular hysteresis loop. Again, the high R and low R states obtained in FIG. 3b are not the same as in FIG. 3a because of the multiple pulses applied in the measurement. Referring now to FIG. 4, the resistance switching properties of a YSZ buffer film without a PCMO active layer in an electrode/YSZ/electrode structure was also studied in order to identify if the resistance switching behavior observed in the buffered-EPIR device was due only to the resistance switching of the YSZ buffer layer. In this test the YSZ film was grown on YBCO/LAO substrate under the same conditions as the sample of FIG. 3 (where the YSZ film was used as a buffer layer and was deposited on PCMO on the YBCO/LAO substrate). The resistance of the YSZ film on YBCO could be switched, but the switch ratio quickly decayed, as shown in FIG. 4. In addition, the YSZ/YBCO sample required a much higher switching pulse voltage of ±7.3V as compared to the ˜3V switch voltage needed for the YSZ/PCMO/YBCO sample shown in FIG. 3. This indicates that the PCMO layer is the major active switching layer in the YSZ buffered-EPIR device, and that the buffer layer does improve switching properties of the buffered-EPIR device. As another example, non-perovskite insulating CeO2 and Sm-doped CeO2 materials were used as buffer layers. FIG. 5 shows switching in the resistance versus electrical pulse number curve for a PCMO device with a Sm-doped CeO2 buffer layer inserted between an Au top electrode and the PCMO switch layer in the buffered-EPIR device. Multiple pulses were applied under plus and minus pulse polarity, with the device resistance changing by more than a factor of 4 under applied pulse voltage as low as ±2.7V. Such low switching voltage will allow the resistive device to be easily incorporated into semiconductor circuits. As another example, CCTO, PLZT, BST and PGO switchable materials can also be used as the buffer layer in the present invention. The switchable perovskite material can be polar, such as PZT or PLZT, or non-polar material, such as CCTO. A buffered-EPIR device with a buffer PLZT layer inserted between the Ag top electrode and the PCMO layer was switched to the low RL state (˜9 kΩ) by 4.7V pulses, and to the high RH state (˜16 kΩ) by −6V pulses, as shown in FIG. 6, yielding a switch ratio of 80%. Although PLZT is a ferroelectric material, the buffered-EPIR device of the present invention is different from existing ferroelectric switching devices. In the existing ferroelectric two-terminal devices, the non-volatile switching property is based on the two polarization states, or on dipole moment switching of the ferroelectric layer in the ferroelectric capacitor. This requires the ferroelectric layer to have large resistance (tens of mega ohm or higher) to hold charge separation. The ferroelectric buffer used in the buffered-EPIR device of the present invention is a very thin (few nm) layer with low resistance (hundred Ohms to several kilo Ohms), and thus not supporting ferroelectric state retention. In the previous examples, the non-volatile resistance switching properties of the buffered-EPIR device were obtained by applying across the device, positive and negative pulses alternatively, that is, bi-polar electric pulses. For some applications, it may be more convenient to switch the device resistance, i.e., increase or decrease resistance by single polarity pulses—only positive pulses or only negative pulses, uni-polar electric pulses with different durations, or with different intensities, or with different applied pulse numbers, or their combination. Referring now to FIG. 7, the non-volatile resistance of a YSZ/PCMO/YBCO/LAO sample was switched by applying uni-polar electric pulses. After initial set up the device was switched to the high resistance state of RH=˜3.7 Kohm by application of a +5V, 100 ns positive pulse, and switched to a low resistance state of RL=˜2.9 Kohm by application of a +5V, 10 microsecond positive pulse. Similar reversible resistance switching behavior may be achieved not only by both positive pulses, but also by both negative pulses. The buffer/switchable-layer structure offers great opportunity to modify the layer interface properties, and to modify the character of the hysteresis loop (the definition of the hysteresis has been explained in FIG. 2b and FIG. 3b) of the buffered-EPIR device. These modifications can result in increased flexibility for applications of the reversible non-volatile resistor. One example is to modify the slope of the transition edge of the hysteresis loop. Sharpening the slope will benefit binary-state applications of the switchable resistor, while flattening the slope of the hysteresis curve will offer more multi-valued resistance states. Instead of the heterojunction buffer/switchable-function-layer/electrode described in FIG. 1, it is also possible to use in the buffered-EPIR device a switchable perovskite multi-layer materials system with homojunction or gradient configurations, or their combination. The homojunction or gradient materials can be fabricated by controlling doping of the layer materials and/or controlling the film deposition processing. For example, a device can have a top-electrode/YSZ/PCMO structure, and use a graded PCMO film as the bottom electrode, if the lower part of the PCMO layer is doped to be conductive. As another example, a homojunction or gradient PCMO layer can even function as a complete buffer/PCMO/electrode component of a buffered-EPIR device. As a result, the device can be further simplified to be a top-electrode/homojunction or gradient PCMO layer directly on a substrate. The device can be used to make random access or read only memory devices with high data density and high read/write speed. Another application of this properties-modification method yielding the buffered-EPIR device is for a variable resistor that can be used in electronic circuits. Another application of this method is to modify the characteristics of the device, to increase or decrease their detection sensitivities when they are used as sensors for temperature, magnetic field, electric field, and mechanical pressure. It is not intended that the descriptions above be regarded as limitations upon the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a two-terminal microelectronic device, and, in particular, to a two-terminal non-volatile resistor device, having a structure of electrode/perovskite-active-material-layer/electrode, which is an Electric-Pulse-Induced-Resistance change device, commonly referred to by the acronym EPIR. 2. Description of the Related Art The properties of materials having a perovskite structure, among them colossal magneto-resistance (CMR) materials and high transition temperature superconductivity (HTSC) materials, can be changed significantly by external influences, such as temperature, magnetic field, electric field, photons, and pressure. Traditional CMR resistance change effect under high magnetic fields, is set out, for example, in the paper “Growth, Transport, and Magnetic Properties of Pr 0.67 Ca 0.33 MnO 3 Thin Films”, S. K. Singh, et al, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 69, pp. 263-265, 1996. The pulsed electric field or pulsed current through the sample cannot create a high enough magnetic induction to change the resistance of the PCMO. The electric resistance of the perovskite materials, particularly CMR and HTSC materials, can be modified by applying one or more short electrical pulses to a thin film or bulk material. The electric field strength or electric current density of the pulse is sufficient to switch the physical state of the materials so as to modify the properties of the material. The pulse is desired to have low energy so as not to destroy the material. (S. Q. Liu, N. J. Wu, and A. Ignatiev, Applied Physics Letters, 76, 2749 (2000).) Multiple pulses may be applied to the material to produce incremental changes in properties of the material (S. Q. Liu, N. J. Wu, and A. Ignatiev, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,204,139, and 6,473,332, which are incorporated herein by this reference). One of the properties that can be changed is the resistance of the material. The change may be partially or totally reversible using pulses of opposite polarities. This has been defined as the electrical pulse induced non-volatile resistance change effect, abbreviated as the EPIR effect. Based on the EPIR effect, a two terminal non-volatile resistor device, having a structure of electrode/perovskite-active-material-layer/electrode, can be produced, and is called an EPIR device. What is needed is an EPIR device that requires less pulse voltage to switch the device, that exhibits greater resistance, that is protected from being damaged by a large pulse shock, and that has improved temperature properties and radiation hardness. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A buffered electric-pulse-induced-resistance change device (buffered-EPIR device) is provided. The buffered-EPIR device comprises a conductive bottom electrode overlying the substrate, a top conductive electrode, a perovskite active layer, and a buffer layer interposed between the perovskite function layer and an electrode, and two or more buffer layers inserted between two sides of perovskite function layer and two electrodes respectively, in the devices. The resistance of the perovskite function layer can be modified by electrical pulses and/or applied DC potentials, and thus such layer is a perovskite switchable function layer. The buffer layer material can be either a non-switchable or switchable material. By adding the buffer layers, the device changes from a device having a structure of electrode/perovskite/electrode, an EPIR device, to a device having a structure of electrode/buffer/perovskite/buffer/electrode, a buffered-EPIR device. The buffered-EPIR device can be fabricated on various substrates such as oxides, semiconductors, and integrated circuit wafer substrates. The benefits of the buffer layers to the device include, but are not limited to, an increased asymmetric configuration and magnifying resistance switching region, reduction of the pulse voltage needed to switch the device, protection of the device from being damaged by a large pulse shock, improvement of the temperature properties and radiation hardness, increased device stability, and improvement of switching to multiple resistance states. The electrical pulse may have square, saw-toothed, triangular, sine, oscillating or other waveforms, and may be of positive or negative polarity. Multiple pulses may be applied to the material to produce incremental changes in properties of the buffered-EPIR device. The applications of the buffered-EPIR device include non-volatile memory devices, and electrically variable resistors in electronic circuits. | 20050113 | 20091027 | 20050714 | 75904.0 | 0 | LEE, CALVIN | SWITCHABLE RESISTIVE PEROVSKITE MICROELECTRONIC DEVICE WITH MULTI-LAYER THIN FILM STRUCTURE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,711 | ACCEPTED | Apparatus for removing load effect in plasma display panel | The present invention relates to an apparatus for removing the load effect, and more particularly, to an apparatus for removing the load effect through addition or subtraction of the number of sustain pulses. The present invention includes an APL calculation unit for calculating an APL value by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, a pulse number calculation unit for determining the number of reference sustain pulses, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit, a load calculation unit for calculating the ratio of cells that are selected to emit light based on the gray scale information, so as to calculate a load value in the current sub-field, and a compensation pulse number calculation unit for comparing a predetermined reference load with the load value outputted from the load calculation unit, controlling the number of the reference sustain pulses based on the comparison result, and then outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses. As such, the number of the sustain pulses is added or subtracted based on the comparison result between the load value of the current sub-field and the reference load. The present invention is advantageous in that it can save power consumption and reduce a screen flickering phenomenon. | 1. An apparatus for removing a load effect in a plasma display panel, comprising: an APL calculation unit for calculating an APL value by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame; a pulse number calculation unit for determining the number of reference sustain pulses, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit; a load calculation unit for calculating the ratio of cells that are selected to emit light based on the gray scale information, so as to calculate a load value in the current sub-field; and a compensation pulse number calculation unit for comparing a predetermined reference load with the load value outputted from the load calculation unit, controlling the number of the current subfield sustain pulses based on the comparison result, and then outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses. 2. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit outputs the number of compensated sustain pulses, which is subtracted from the number of the current subfield sustain pulses, if the load value is smaller than the reference load. 3. The apparatus as claimed in claim 2, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit subtracts the number of compensated pulses, which corresponds to a difference between the load value and the reference load, from the number of the current subfield sustain pulses when the load value is smaller than the reference load, and then outputs the subtraction result. 4. The apparatus as claimed in claim 3, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit sequentially selects and subtracts the number of compensated pulses, which is higher as the difference between the load value and the reference load becomes higher. 5. The apparatus as claimed in claim 1, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit outputs the number of compensated sustain pulses, which is more increased than the number of the current subfield sustain pulses, if the load value is greater than the reference load. 6. The apparatus as claimed in claim 5, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit adds the number of compensated pulses, which corresponds to a difference between the load value and the reference load, to the number of the current subfield sustain pulses when the load value is greater than the reference load, and then outputs the addition result. 7. The apparatus as claimed in claim 6, wherein the compensation pulse number calculation unit sequentially selects and adds the number of compensated pulses, which is higher as the difference between the load value and the reference load becomes higher. | This Nonprovisional application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) on Patent Application No. 10-2004-0003225 filed in Korea on Jan. 16, 2004, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus for removing the load effect, and more particularly, to an apparatus for removing the load effect through addition or subtraction of the number of sustain pulses. 2. Description of the Background Art FIG. 1 is a view for explaining a method of representing the gray scale in a plasma display panel according to the prior art. As shown in FIG. 1, the plasma display panel is driven with one frame being divided into several sub-fields SF1 to SF8 having a different number of emission in order to implement the gray scale of an image. Each of the sub-fields is divided into an address period where a discharge cell is selected, a sustain period where the gray scale is represented according to the number of sustain pulses, and the like. The whole screen of the plasma display panel is composed of several cells. The ratio of cells, which are selected to emit light, among the cells is called a load. The higher the number of cells that are selected to emit light, the higher the load. Brightness is controlled by adjusting the number of sustain pulses. Although the number of sustain pulses is the same, brightness varies depending on a load because the amount of externally applied power is constant. FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating variation in a brightness depending on a load in a given number of sustain pulses. If the number of cells to be discharged increases and a load increases accordingly, more power is needed. Thus, there occurs a phenomenon that, assuming that the number of sustain pulses is the same, the higher the load, the lower the brightness. This is called the load effect. Actually, if there is a desired brightness level in a given sub-field when a plasma display panel operates, the number of sustain pulses, which corresponds to the brightness level, is defined and then used to represent a brightness. However, the brightness represented based on the number of sustain pulses, which is currently defined, varies according to the load, as shown in the graph of FIG. 2. This results in distortion of the gray scale. That is, if the number of sustain pulses is constant, brightness must be constant even when the load varies. However, since the brightness is changed according to the load, the picture quality is lowered. In the prior art, in order to prevent this load effect phenomenon, lowering in brightness depending on an increased load is compensated by increasing the number of sustain pulses as the load increases on the basis of a minimum value of the load. However, if lowering in brightness depending on a load is compensated for through the conventional method, the total number of sustain pulses increases since a reference brightness level is based on a brightness when the load is the lowest. This results in increased power consumption. Furthermore, the brightness of the whole screen becomes brighter because of the increased number of the sustain pulses. Accordingly, there is a problem in that a flickering phenomenon of a screen becomes more severe. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The object of the present invention is to solve at least the problems and disadvantages of the background art. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for removing a load effect in a plasma display panel, including an APL calculation unit for calculating an APL value by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, a pulse number calculation unit for determining the number of reference sustain pulses, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit, a load calculation unit for calculating the ratio of cells that are selected to emit light based on the gray scale information, so as to calculate a load value in the current sub-field, and a compensation pulse number calculation unit for comparing a predetermined reference load with the load value outputted from the load calculation unit, controlling the number of the current subfield sustain pulses based on the comparison result, and then outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses. The present invention is advantageous in that it can save power consumption and reduce a screen flickering phenomenon. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be described in detail with reference to the following drawings in which like numerals refer to like elements. FIG. 1 is a view for explaining a method of representing the gray scale in a plasma display panel according to the prior art; FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating variation in a brightness depending on a load in a given number of sustain pulses; FIG. 3 is a graph shown to explain the concept of a method of removing the load effect according to the present invention; and FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of an apparatus for removing the load effect according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described in a more detailed manner with reference to the drawings. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for removing a load effect in a plasma display panel, including an APL calculation unit for calculating an APL value by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, a pulse number calculation unit for determining the number of reference sustain pulses, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit, a load calculation unit for calculating the ratio of cells that are selected to emit light based on the gray scale information, so as to calculate a load value in the current sub-field, and a compensation pulse number calculation unit for comparing a predetermined reference load with the load value outputted from the load calculation unit, controlling the number of the current subfield sustain pulses based on the comparison result, and then outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses. The compensation pulse number calculation unit outputs the number of compensated sustain pulses, which is subtracted from the number of the current subfield sustain pulses, if the load value is smaller than the reference load. The compensation pulse number calculation unit subtracts the number of compensated pulses, which corresponds to a difference between the load value and the reference load, from the number of the current subfield sustain pulses when the load value is smaller than the reference load, and then Outputs the subtraction result. The compensation pulse number calculation unit sequentially selects and subtracts the number of compensated pulses, which is higher as the difference between the load value and the reference load becomes higher. The compensation pulse number calculation unit outputs the number of compensated sustain pulses, which is more increased than the number of the current subfield sustain pulses, if the load value is greater than the reference load. The compensation pulse number calculation unit adds the number of compensated pulses, which corresponds to a difference between the load value and the reference load, to the number of the current subfield sustain pulses when the load value is greater than the reference load, and then outputs the addition result. The compensation pulse number calculation unit sequentially selects and subtracts the number of compensated pulses, which is higher as the difference between the load value and the reference load becomes higher. FIG. 3 is a graph shown to explain the concept of a method of removing the load effect according to the present invention. According to the method of removing the load effect in accordance with the present invention, if a given reference brightness level and the number of reference sustain pulses N in a given sub-field of a current frame are defined, the number of sustain pulses is subtracted from the number of the reference sustain pulses N in loads L1,L2, which are lower than a reference load Lref, and the number of sustain pulses in loads L3,L4, which are higher than the reference load Lref, is added to the number of the reference sustain pulses N, whereby a reference brightness level can be always outputted regardless of a load value. In this time, the number of reference sustain pulses refers to the number of sustain pulses, which are defined to be generated from a current sub-field. That is, in the conventional method, the reference brightness level is set to brightness at a minimum load (Load_min) (see FIG. 2). Accordingly, there is a problem in that power consumption and flickering of a screen are increased since the number of sustain pulses is generally increased. In the present invention, however, the reference brightness level is set to brightness at a predetermined reference load Lref not the minimum load. In this state, in the loads L1,L2 lower than the reference load Lref, the number of reference sustain pulses is subtracted from the number of sustain pulses (N-C1, N-C2), and in the loads L3,L4 higher than the reference load Lref, the number of the reference sustain pulses is added to the number of sustain pulses (N+C3, N+C4). As such, the reference brightness level can be always maintained irrespective of the load. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the construction of an apparatus for removing the load effect according to the present invention. Referring to FIG. 4, the apparatus for removing the load effect according to the present invention includes an APL calculation unit 410, a pulse number calculation unit 430, a load calculation unit 450 and a compensation pulse number calculation unit 470. APL Calculation Unit The APL calculation unit 410 calculates an average picture level (APL) using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame. Pulse Number Calculation Unit The pulse number calculation unit 430 determines the number of reference sustain pulses N, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit 410. Load Calculation Unit The load calculation unit 450 calculates the ratio of cells, which are selected to emit light, by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, so s to calculate a load value in a current sub-field. Compensated Pulse Number Calculation Unit The compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 compares a predetermined reference load Lref and the load value at the current sub-field, which is calculated by the load calculation unit 450, adds the number of compensated pulses to the number of the reference sustain pulses N if the load value at the current sub-field is higher than the reference load Lref, and subtracts the number of compensated pulses from the number of the reference sustain pulses N if the load value at the current sub-field is lower than the reference load Lref, thereby outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses at the current sub-field. The operation of the apparatus for removing the load effect according to the present invention will now be described in detail with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. It is assumed that load values in individual sub-fields, which are calculated in the load calculation unit 450, are L1, L2, L3 and L4, the amount of the load values is L1<L2<L3<L4, and the number of compensated pulses, which are respectively applied to these load values by the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470, is C1, C2, C3 and C4. The APL calculation unit 410 outputs an APL value, which is calculated using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, to the pulse number calculation unit 430. The pulse number calculation unit 430 determines the number of reference sustain pulses N, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value. If a load value of a current sub-field is L1, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 compares the load value L1 and the predetermined reference load Lref. Since L1 is lower than the reference load Lref, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 selects the number of compensated pulses C1 based on the difference between the load value L1 and the reference load Lref, and subtracts the number of the compensated pulses C1 from the number of the reference sustain pulses N. In this time, the reference load Lref indicates a given load value, which becomes a reference brightness level. As such, if a load value in a current sub-field is higher than the reference load Lref, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 maintains a reference brightness level by subtracting the number of sustain pulses. In the same manner, if the load value in the current sub-field is L2, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 maintains a reference brightness level by subtracting the number of sustain pulses. If a load value in a current sub-field is L3, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 compares the load value L3 and the predetermined reference load Lref. Since L3 is higher than the reference load Lref, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 selects the number of compensated pulses C3 based on the difference between the load value L3 and the reference load Lref, and adds the number of the compensated pulses C3 to the number of the reference sustain pulses N. As such, if the load value in the current sub-field is lower than the reference load Lref, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 maintains a reference brightness level by adding the number of sustain pulses. In the same manner, if the load value in the current sub-field is L4, the compensation pulse number calculation unit 470 maintains a reference brightness level by adding the number of sustain pulses. As described above, according to the present invention, the number of sustain pulses is added or subtracted by comparing a load value of a current sub-field and a reference load. Accordingly, the present invention is advantageous in that it can save power consumption and reduce a screen flickering phenomenon. While the present invention has been described with reference to the particular illustrative embodiments, it is not to be restricted by the embodiments but only by the appended claims. It is to be appreciated that those skilled in the art can change or modify the embodiments without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to an apparatus for removing the load effect, and more particularly, to an apparatus for removing the load effect through addition or subtraction of the number of sustain pulses. 2. Description of the Background Art FIG. 1 is a view for explaining a method of representing the gray scale in a plasma display panel according to the prior art. As shown in FIG. 1 , the plasma display panel is driven with one frame being divided into several sub-fields SF 1 to SF 8 having a different number of emission in order to implement the gray scale of an image. Each of the sub-fields is divided into an address period where a discharge cell is selected, a sustain period where the gray scale is represented according to the number of sustain pulses, and the like. The whole screen of the plasma display panel is composed of several cells. The ratio of cells, which are selected to emit light, among the cells is called a load. The higher the number of cells that are selected to emit light, the higher the load. Brightness is controlled by adjusting the number of sustain pulses. Although the number of sustain pulses is the same, brightness varies depending on a load because the amount of externally applied power is constant. FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating variation in a brightness depending on a load in a given number of sustain pulses. If the number of cells to be discharged increases and a load increases accordingly, more power is needed. Thus, there occurs a phenomenon that, assuming that the number of sustain pulses is the same, the higher the load, the lower the brightness. This is called the load effect. Actually, if there is a desired brightness level in a given sub-field when a plasma display panel operates, the number of sustain pulses, which corresponds to the brightness level, is defined and then used to represent a brightness. However, the brightness represented based on the number of sustain pulses, which is currently defined, varies according to the load, as shown in the graph of FIG. 2 . This results in distortion of the gray scale. That is, if the number of sustain pulses is constant, brightness must be constant even when the load varies. However, since the brightness is changed according to the load, the picture quality is lowered. In the prior art, in order to prevent this load effect phenomenon, lowering in brightness depending on an increased load is compensated by increasing the number of sustain pulses as the load increases on the basis of a minimum value of the load. However, if lowering in brightness depending on a load is compensated for through the conventional method, the total number of sustain pulses increases since a reference brightness level is based on a brightness when the load is the lowest. This results in increased power consumption. Furthermore, the brightness of the whole screen becomes brighter because of the increased number of the sustain pulses. Accordingly, there is a problem in that a flickering phenomenon of a screen becomes more severe. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The object of the present invention is to solve at least the problems and disadvantages of the background art. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided an apparatus for removing a load effect in a plasma display panel, including an APL calculation unit for calculating an APL value by using gray scale information corresponding to an inputted frame, a pulse number calculation unit for determining the number of reference sustain pulses, which will be used in a current sub-field, based on the APL value from the APL calculation unit, a load calculation unit for calculating the ratio of cells that are selected to emit light based on the gray scale information, so as to calculate a load value in the current sub-field, and a compensation pulse number calculation unit for comparing a predetermined reference load with the load value outputted from the load calculation unit, controlling the number of the current subfield sustain pulses based on the comparison result, and then outputting the number of compensated sustain pulses. The present invention is advantageous in that it can save power consumption and reduce a screen flickering phenomenon. | 20050114 | 20090407 | 20050721 | 69846.0 | 0 | NGUYEN, KEVIN M | APPARATUS FOR REMOVING LOAD EFFECT IN PLASMA DISPLAY PANEL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,723 | ACCEPTED | Rotatable tool for chip removing machining | A rotatable tool for chip removing machining includes a drill shank, and an exchangeable loose top mounted at an axially front end of the shank. Between these there is a coupling, which includes a male part on the loose top, and a groove in the basic body. By means of a slot, two deflectable legs are defined by the shank, which legs form a jaw for receiving and clamping the male part. The maximal width of the jaw upon deflection of the legs away from one another is larger than the maximal breadth of a wedge portion included in the male part. Furthermore, the angles of inclination of flank surfaces on the male part and side surfaces in the groove, are equally large in order to guarantee surface contact between said surfaces, when the legs are resiliently tightened against the male part. The wedge portion is of dovetail shape, wherein the loose top is drawn axially against the shank as it is being radially clamped by the legs. | 1. Rotatable tool for chip removing machining, comprising a basic body rotatable about a geometrical center axis, and a replaceable cutting part which is rigidly connectable to an axially front end of the basic body by a male/female coupling; the coupling comprising a groove formed in a front end of the basic body, and a male part insertable into the groove and protruding axially rearwardly from the cutting part; the male part comprising a front base portion which is delimited by a pair of opposite, first flank surfaces, as well as a rear wedge portion which is narrower than the base portion and delimited by a pair of opposite, second flank surfaces; a forwardly open slot being formed in the front part of the basic body, which slot communicates with the groove and separates two elastically deflectable legs of the basic body which clamp the male part in the groove; the groove comprising two axially separated front and rear spaces; the front space mouthing at a free front end surface of the basic body and delimited by a pair of first, opposite side surfaces; the rear space being delimited by a second pair of opposite side surfaces; at least one of the two second flank surfaces of said male part being inclined at a first acute angle in relation to the center axis in a radially outward and axially rearward direction; one of the second side surfaces being disposed at the rear space of the groove and being inclined in relation to the center axis at a second acute angle in a direction radially inward and axially forward; the rear space of the groove forming a jaw having a variable minimum width in a radial plane oriented perpendicular to the center axis; the wedge portion of the male part having a maximum width in a radial plane; the legs being elastically deflectable away from one another, wherein the minimum width of the groove upon deflection of the legs away from one another being larger than the maximum width of the wedge portion of the male part; the first and second acute angles being equally large to create surface contact between the flank surfaces and the side surfaces when the legs resiliently spring back against the male part from their deflected state. 2. The tool according to claim 1 wherein the two flank surfaces of the wedge portion and the two side surfaces of the rear space are inclined at the same angle of inclination to the center axis. 3. The tool according to claim 2 wherein the angles of inclination are at least 76 degrees. 4. The tool according to claim 2 wherein said angles of inclination are at most 81 degrees. 5. The tool according to claim 1 further including a centering protrusion on a rear end surface of the wedge portion of the cutting part, the protrusion having a truncated conical shape and a smallest diameter and a largest diameter; the smallest diameter being smaller than the diameter of a front limiting edge of a rotationally symmetrical seating formed in a bottom surface of the groove; the largest diameter being larger than the diameter of the front limiting edge. 6. The tool according to claim 1 wherein said inclined side surface transforms via an edge line into a second side surface. 7. The tool according to claim 6 wherein two inclined side surfaces transform via a respective edge line into a respective second side surface. 8. The tool according to claim 6 wherein the second side surface is inclined in relation to the center axis at a third acute angle which is smaller than said second angle. 9. The tool according to claim 8 wherein said second side surface is inclined in a direction radially outwardly and axially forwardly. | The present application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 to Patent Application Serial No. 0400056-8 filed in Sweden on Jan. 14, 2004. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to a rotatable tool intended for chip removing or chip forming machining, of the type that comprises a basic body rotatable around a geometrical center axis, as well as a replaceable cutting part or insert body, which is connectable to the basic body via a male/female coupling. Typically, such a coupling includes on the one hand a female-like groove formed in a front end of the basic body, and on the other hand a male part insertable in the groove, the male part protruding rearward from a main part of the cutting part. The male part comprises a front base portion positioned adjacent to the main part, which is delimited by a pair of opposite, first flank surfaces, as well as a rear wedge portion, which is more slender than the base portion and is delimited by a pair of opposite, second flank surfaces. A forwardly open slot is formed in the front part of the basic body, which slot separates two elastically deflectable legs with the purpose of clamping the male part in the groove. The groove comprises two, spaces of different respective widths, namely a front space mouthing in a free end surface of the basic body (which space is delimited by a pair of first, opposite side surfaces), and a rear bottom space, which is delimited by a pair of second, opposite side surfaces. At least one of said two second flank surfaces is inclined at an angle in relation to the center axis in the direction outward/rearward from the cutting part, at the same time as a co-operating side surface in the groove is inclined in relation to the center axis at an angle in the direction inward/forward from the basic body with the purpose of providing a wedge action. The wedge action, when tightening the legs against the male part, guarantees an axial insertion of the male part into the groove. The bottom space in the groove forms a jaw having a variable width, namely in a radial plane oriented perpendicular to the center axis, which radial plane intersects a front edge line along an inclined side surface. The wedge portion of the male part has a maximum breadth in a radial plane, which intersects a rear edge line along an inclined flank surface. Such cutting tools that make use of a basic body, as well as a separate, replaceable cutting part, may in practice be of widely varying shapes and consist of, for instance, drilling tools, milling tools, such as end mills or slitting cutters, thread cutters, etc. The basic body usually consists of an elongate shank having a cylindrical basic shape. In modern machine tools, the basic bodies are so sophisticated and expensive that for economical reasons they should not be integrated with the cutting part, which constitutes the wear part of the tool and has a limited service life. In other words, it is profitable to make the actual cutting part in the form of a separate, detachable unit, which by those skilled in the art usually is denominated “loose top”, and which may be exchanged after wear, while the expensive basic body may be used during longer period of time (usually 10 to 20 cutting part exchanges). In practice, the loose top is manufactured entirely or partly from a hard, wear-resistant material, such as cemented carbide or the like, while the basic body is made from a material having greater elasticity, e.g. steel. It should also he pointed out chat tools of the kind in question are primarily—though not necessarily—intended for the machining of metal workpieces. A tool of the type initially mentioned is previously known from EP 13 10 313-A1 (corresponding to U.S. Published Application No. 2003/0103824). Characteristic of that tool is that the male part of the loose top is formed as a slide, and the female part of the loose top is in the form of a laterally open groove into which the male part may be inserted from the side. More precisely, the wedge portion of the male part has a maximum breadth that is larger than the maximal width of the jaw, which comprises the cross-section-wise wedge-shaped bottom space of the groove. In such a way, an axial insertion of the male part of the loose top in the groove is made impossible even when the deflectable legs of the basic body are maximally distanced from each other. Underneath the male part, there is a rotationally symmetrically shaped-protrusion, which by being brought to engagement with a central, likewise rotationally symmetrically shaped seating in the bottom surface of the groove, has the purpose of centering the loose top in relation to the basic body. When the male part is inserted into the groove from either groove side, the centering protrusion is caused to slide along the bottom surface of the groove up to the point where the protrusion reaches the seating, whereby the protrusion should automatically fall into the seating. During such movement of the loose top to and from the centered position, only a limited space is available between the bottom side of the male part and the bottom surface of the groove. For this reason, the centering protrusion can only be given a very limited height. Furthermore, the protrusion and the seating have to have such a shape that the seating, which should be able to withstand repeated exchanges of loose tops, is not subjected to deformation damage during the exchanges. Furthermore, characteristic of the known tool is that the two side surfaces that define the rear, cross-section-wise wedge-shaped bottom space of the groove, are mutually inclined at an angle different from the angle formed by the external flank surfaces on the wedge portion of the male part. More precisely, the first-mentioned angle is smaller than the last-mentioned one, whereby a line contact arises between the cooperate surfaces as deep inside the groove as possible. In other words, a clearance is obtained between said flank surfaces in the direction outward or forward from the line contact places. In practice, this fact has turned out to entail disadvantages and difficulties relating to the possibilities of realizing the tool in a practically satisfying way. Thus, the limited line contact between the bottom space of the groove and the wedge portion of the male part has meant that the capacity of the tool to transmit torque between the basic body and the loose top has become mediocre. Furthermore, it happens that the loose tops made from hard material tend to crack or become sheared apart by virtue of extreme stress concentrations arising adjacent to the line contact places. Furthermore, the limited height of the centering protrusion has meant that the centering function of the protrusion has become unreliable. Above all, users of the tool have experienced uncertainty as regards the question whether the protrusion has come into engagement with the seating before the deflectable legs are brought to clamp the loose top. Another, psychological disadvantage is that users have found it unnatural to insert the loose top from the side of the groove of the basic body. From DE 3230688 A1 a tool made in the form of a milling tool having an exchangeable loose top is previously known. In this case, the male member of the loose top consists of a genuinely conical pin, which is movable into and out of a likewise conically shaped seating, which opens in the front end of the basic body. The fact that the pin as well as the seating is conical means that the coupling therebetween has to be formed with a particular, production-wise complicating rotary locking. This rotary locking in turn makes the possibility of distinctly centering the loose top in relation to the basic body more difficult. OBJECTS AND FEATURES OF THE INVENTION The present invention aims at obviating the above-mentioned drawbacks of the tool according to EP 1 310 313-A1, and at providing an improved tool. Thus, a primary object of the invention is to provide a tool, the loose top of which can be assembled and disassembled, respectively, in a natural way for the user, at the same time as the coupling between the loose top and the basic body should enable transmitting of great torque. Another object of the invention is to provide a tool, the centering means of which guarantee a distinct and accurate centering of the loose top in relation to the basic body. Yet a further object of the invention is to provide a tool in which the risk of demolition of the loose tops during operation is reduced to a minimum. According to the invention, at least the primary object is attained by a rotatable tool for chip removing machining. The tool comprises a basic body which is rotatable about a geometrical center axis, and a replaceable cutting part which is rigidly connectable to a front end of the basic body by a male/female coupling. The coupling comprises a groove formed in a front end of the basic body, and a male part insertable into the groove and protruding rearwardly from the cutting part. The male part comprises a front base portion which is delimited by a pair of opposite, first flank surfaces, as well as a rear wedge portion which is narrower than the base portion and delimited by a pair of opposite, second flank surfaces. A forwardly open slot is formed in the front part of the basic body. The slot communicates with the groove and separates two elastically deflectable legs of the basic body which clamp the male part in the groove. The groove comprises two axially separated front and rear spaces. The front space mouths at a free front end surface of the basic body and is delimited by a pair of first, opposite side surfaces. The rear space is delimited by a second pair of opposite side surfaces. At least one of the two second flank surfaces of the male part is inclined at a first acute angle in relation to the center axis in a radially outward and axially rearward direction. One of the second side surfaces is disposed at the rear space of the groove and is inclined in relation to the center axis at a second acute angle in a direction radially inward and axially forward. The rear space of the groove forms a jaw having a variable minimum width in a radial plane oriented perpendicular to the center axis. The wedge portion of the male part has a maximum width in a radial plane. The legs are elastically deflectable away from one another, wherein the minimum width of the groove upon deflection of the legs away from one another is larger than the maximum width of the wedge portion of the male part. The first and second acute angles are equally large to create surface contact between the flank surfaces and the side surfaces when the legs resiliently spring back against the male part from their deflected state. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment thereof in connection with the accompanying drawing in which like numerals designate like elements, and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective exploded view showing a loose top, as well as a partially illustrated basic body in the form of a drill shank, FIG. 2 is an enlarged perspective view of the loose top seen from behind, FIG. 3 is a partial perspective view showing a front end of the basic body in a freely exposed state, FIG. 4 is an exploded view showing the basic body in longitudinal section, as well as the loose top in a partially cut side view, two legs included in the basic body being shown in a deflected state for receipt of the loose top, FIG. 5 is a side view of FIG. 4, which has been supplemented with extension arrows and angle arrows, FIG. 6 is a side view similar to FIG. 5, showing the same basic body with the two legs in a tension-less originating state, FIG. 7 is a partial longitudinal section through the tool with the loose top inserted into the groove of the basic body, arid with the legs of the basic body still deflected outward, and FIG. 8 is a section similar to FIG. 7 showing the loose top in a state clamped by the legs. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The cutting tool shown in FIGS. 1-8 is in the form of a drill, which in the usual way includes a basic body, generally designated 1, as well as a replaceable cutting part or “loose top” 2. The basic body 1 comprises in this case an elongate shank having a cylindrical basic shape, which in the drawings is shown in a fragmentary or cut-off state. The basic body is in a suitable way mountable in a machine, e.g., a multi-operation machine, and has two helicoidal, cross-section-wise concavely curved limiting surfaces 3, which form chip channels. In a front or outer end of the basic body 1, a groove 4 is formed, in which a slot 5 mouths, which separates two elastically deflectable legs 6. On both sides of the groove 4, there are thrust load transmitting surfaces 7, in which channels 8 mouth for the transfer of cooling liquid to the corresponding channels 8′ in the loose top 2. The loose top 2 has a rotationally symmetrical basic shape, in that it has a circular outer contour shape in connection with a substantially cylindrical or rearward slightly conical envelope surface 9. The front surface 10 on the loose top is conical, having the tip of the cone directed forward. Generally, the loose top has a diameter that is somewhat larger than the diameter of the basic body 2. In the envelope surface 9, two concavely curved limiting surfaces 3′ are formed, which connect to the surfaces 3 and define chip channels in the loose top. In the front part of the loose top, cutting edges 11 are formed. At the rear or inner end thereof, the loose top 2 has a male part in its entirety designated 12 for engagement with the groove 4. On both sides of the male part 12, there are planar, thrust load-receiving, axially facing surfaces 13 for cooperation with the surfaces 7 on the basic body to transmit axial thrust. In FIG. 4, the letter C designates a geometrical center axis, around which the composed tool is rotatable. Said center axis should be common for the basic body 1 and the loose top 2, if the top 2 is exactly centered in relation to the basic body. The axially facing end surfaces 7 on the basic body 1 as well as the end surfaces 13 on the loose top 2 extend in planes, which are perpendicular to the center axis C. The loose top 2 is made entirely or partly from cemented carbide or other wear-resistant material, while the basic body 1 is made from a material having a considerably greater elasticity, e.g. steel. Steel is preferable for the basic body as a consequence of the inherent elasticity or flexibility thereof, which makes it possible to resiliently deflect the legs 6 that are spaced-apart by the slot 5. Such deflection of the legs is achieved in the example by a clamping device 14 in the form of a key having an oval cross-section shape. As is seen in FIGS. 4-6, the male part 12 is laterally elongate and has a partially tapering shape in the axial direction. In an analogous way, the groove 4 has a partially tapering shape in the axial direction. This axially tapering shape of the male part and the groove, respectively, means that the male part is drawn into the groove simultaneously as it is clamped by the legs 6 when the legs spring inwardly tightly against the male part. In the shown, preferred embodiment, the male part 12 includes a wedge-shaped or dovetail-shaped portion 15, as well as a thicker base portion 16 between the wedge portion 15 and the end surfaces 13. The wedge portion 15 is delimited by an axially facing rear end surface 17, as well as two flank surfaces 18 divergingly rearwardly from the surfaces 17, which are inclined at an acute angle a (see FIG. 5) relative to the end surface 17. These two flank surfaces 18 may advantageously be planar, although it is feasible, per se, to form the flank surfaces with a slightly curved, e.g., concavely curved shape. Also the end surface 17 may advantageously be planar. The base portion 16 is delimited by, on one hand, two opposite flank surfaces 19, which are planar and mutually parallel, and on the other hand, two axially facing transverse surfaces 20 extending inward toward the flank surfaces 18, which transverse surfaces may be planar. Advantageously—though not necessarily—the flank surfaces 18,19 of the male part 12 are symmetrical in relation to the center line C, i.e., the planar and parallel surfaces 19 on the base portion 16 are located at equally large radial distances from the center line. This is also the case with the flank surfaces 18 of the wedge portion 15, although these are inclined at an angle α (FIG. 5). The angle α should be within the range of 76-81° and preferably 78° (the complementary angle=12°). The groove 4 has a cross-sectional shape that generally—but not exactly—corresponds to the cross-sectional shape of the male part 12. Thus, an outer space in the groove is defined by two side surfaces 21, which are planar and mutually parallel. Said surfaces 21 are intended to co-operate with the flank surfaces 19 on the base portion 16 of the male part. Inward from the two first side surfaces 21, a pair of axially facing transverse surfaces 22 extend, which transform into a pair of second side surfaces 23. These surfaces 23 transform in turn via edge lines or transitions 24 into a third pair of side surfaces 25, which transform into an axially facing planar bottom surface 26, more precisely via concavely curved transitions 27. These side surfaces 25 are inclined relative to the center axis and converge in the forward direction (i.e., toward the top 2), the surfaces 25 defining an inner space or bottom space in the groove. The acute angle between each side surface 25 and the planar bottom surface 26 is in FIG. 5 designated β and is equal to α. The angle between each side surface 23 and the bottom surface 26 is in FIG. 6 designated γ. The angle γ is larger than the angle β. In other words, the side surfaces 23 are inclined in relation to the bottom surface 26 by an angle which is different than the angle by which the side surfaces 25 are inclined in relation to the bottom surface 26. Furthermore, these second side surfaces 23 are inclined in relation to the center axis C at an angle of (90-γ). This angle (90-γ) is smaller than the angle (90-β), which is formed between the side surface 25 and the center axis C. According to one embodiment of the invention (not shown), the angle γ is chosen so that the side surfaces 23 are inclined to converge in the forward direction of the basic body. According to another embodiment of the invention, the angle γ is chosen so that the side surfaces 23 are inclined and diverge in the forward direction of the basic body, i.e. the side surfaces 23 are inclined outward. In such an embodiment, the side surfaces 23 serve as guiding surfaces when inserting the male part 12 into the groove 4. The side surfaces 23 may, according to yet another embodiment of the invention, be parallel to each other and, preferably, also to the center axis C. Thanks to this arrangement of the-angles β and γ, i.e. the angle γ being larger than the angle β, the insertion of the male part 12 into the groove 4 is enabled with a smaller deflection of the legs 6 than would otherwise be needed. Now reference is again made to FIGS. 1-3, which illustrate how the tool includes means for the centering of the loose top 2 in relation to the basic body 1. These means comprise a protrusion 28, which in the example is formed on the planar end surface 17 of the male part 12, as well as a seating 29, which is formed in the bottom surface of the groove 26. The protrusion 28 has a rotationally symmetrical basic shape, i.e., symmetrical about a center thereof, and is suitably—though not necessarily—placed on the middle of the end surface 17, i.e., halfway between the two opposite ends thereof. Like the protrusion 28, the seating 29 has a generally rotationally symmetrical basic shape. As is shown in FIG. 5, the slot 5 is delimited by two planar surfaces 30, which in the tension-less (relaxed) state of the basic body are substantially parallel to each other. At the very rear back of the basic body, the slot 5 transforms into a through hole 31, which has a larger diameter than the width of the slot. At a certain distance rearwardly from the mouth of the slot in the bottom surface 26, the surfaces 30 transform into concavely curved part surfaces 32, which together define a through bore 33 having an oval cross-section shape. Into this bore 33, the aforementioned clamping key 14 may be inserted. Like the bore 33, the key 14 has a generally oval, e.g., elliptical, cross-section shape. This means that the key may be inserted without resistance into the bore when the major axes of the cross-sections coincide with each other, and then be rotated 90°. By the fact that the major axis of the key cross-section has been made somewhat larger than the minor axis of the bore cross-section, the two legs 6 will be successively deflected outward to maximally deflected positions in which the major axis of the key cross-section is perpendicular to the major axis of the bore cross-section. In FIGS. 5 and 6, W designates the width of the openable jaw which is formed between opposite edge lines or transitions 24 between the side surfaces 23, 25. Furthermore, B designates the maximal breadth of the wedge portion 15, such as this is defined in a conceived radial plane that intersects the rear edge lines of the flank surfaces 18 or transitions toward the end surface 17. These transitions are in FIGS. 4 and 5 designated 34. Because the loose top 2 comprises a solid body, e.g., a cemented carbide body, the breadth B is invariable. One of the characteristic features of the invention is that the jaw width W is on one hand, smaller than the breadth B when the basic body is tension-less, as is shown in FIG. 6, but larger than the breadth B when the legs 6 are deflected to a maximally deflected state (see FIG. 4). In such a way, the male part 12 may be inserted axially into the groove 4, something that was not possible in the tool according to EP 13 10 313-A1. Another characteristic features is that the angles α and β are equally large. This means that surface contact is established between the flank surfaces 18 on the wedge portion 15 and the side surfaces 25, which delimit the bottom space in the groove. The protrusion 28 has a truncated conical shape which becomes narrower as it gets farther from the surface 17. More precisely, the envelope surface of the protrusion should in a preferred embodiment be formed with a cone angle of about 20° (2×10°) However, smaller as well as larger cone angles are feasible, above all within the range of between 100 (2×50) and 300 (2×15°). The protrusion is shallower than the seating 29, the rotationally symmetrical shape of which is determined by a cylindrical internal surface 35 (FIG. 4), which ends in a softly rounded edge or transition 36 adjacent to the bottom surface 26. The diameter of the seating is on one hand, somewhat larger than the smallest diameter of the protrusion in connection with the free end of the envelope surface 37 of the protrusion, and on the other hand smaller than the largest diameter of the protrusion in connection with the end surface 17. This design of the protrusion and the seating, respectively, means that the protrusion distinctly is centered in the seating by establishing, upon insertion in the seating, line contact with the edge surface 36 in a plane somewhere between the two opposite ends. Below, an example follows of vital dimensions of a drill having a diameter of 16 mm (the diameter of the loose top that generates the hole in a workpiece). In this case, the wedge portion 15 has a largest breadth B of 4.0 mm. When the legs 6 assume the unaffected, tension-less state according to FIG. 5, the width W of the receiving jaw is 3.82 mm, i.e., 0.18 mm smaller than B. This means that the wedge portion of the male part 15 cannot freely be inserted into the bottom space of the groove. In order to enable insertion of the male part in the groove, the key 14 is inserted into the bore 33, as is shown in FIG. 6. Initially, the key cross-section has the major axis thereof in line with the major axis of the cross-section of the bore 33. When the key then is rotated 90° to the position shown in FIGS. 4 and 7, the legs 6 are deflected from each other, the width W being increased to 4.06 mm. In this state, the wedge portion 15 may be unresistingly (freely) inserted into the bottom space of the groove because the width of the receiving jaw is 0.06 mm larger than the largest breadth B of the wedge portion. Only by the simple measure of the user holding his/her fingers simultaneously pressed against the envelope surfaces of the basic body and of the loose top, the protrusion 28 will immediately be inserted into the seating 29. When the key 14 in a final step again is rotated 90° and returns to the position according to FIG. 6, and is removed from the bore 33, the legs 6 will, by the inherent elasticity thereof, spring back and be tightened against the male part. More precisely, the side surfaces 25 will be pressed against the flank surfaces 18 of the wedge portion 15, whereupon a force component directed axially rearward will be applied to the loose top in its entirety, which draws in the male part axially rearwardly to a fully retracted position in the groove, in which line contact is established between the envelope surface of the protrusion 28 and the outer limiting edge 26 of the seating 29. This engagement in the seating takes place without the end surface 17 of the male part contacting the bottom surface of the groove 26, as is clearly seen in FIG. 8. However, along the pairs of flank and side surfaces 18, 25, a genuine surface contact is established because the angles α and β are equally large. For a 16 mm drill, the contact surfaces 18, 25 may have a breadth, counted between outer and inner limit lines, of about 0.3 mm. Furthermore, surface contact is established between the flank surfaces 19 on the base portion 16 and the side surfaces 21 of the groove 4 located in front. This means that torque-transmitting surface contact between the male part and the legs is established in two axially spaced-apart areas along the longitudinal axis of the tool, namely on one hand, the area positioned closest to the main part of the loose top, which area is defined by the surfaces 19, 21, and on the other hand an area located farther rearward, which is defined by the contact surfaces 18, 25. By the fact that the last-mentioned surfaces 18, 25 have genuine surface contact with each other, contrary to the line contact according to EP 13 10 313, the tool according to the invention can transmit considerably greater torque between the basic body and the loose top, something which in turn considerably improves the possibilities of increasing the feed rate of the tool. In connection with FIG. 8, it should also be noted that the transverse surfaces 20, 22 on the male part and in the groove, respectively, do not have contact with each other, when the loose top is clamped in the basic body. Nor do the surfaces 23 have contact with the outer portions of the flank surfaces 18. In other words, a cross-section-wise generally L-shaped clearance space is formed in this area. In the clamped state, the jaw width W has been reduced from the maximal value of 4.06 mm thereof; however not to the initial measure of 3.82 mm. Thus, by suitable choice of the geometry of the construction, the width W is only reduced to 3.87 mm in the example in question. This means that the legs 6 continuously are kept pressed against the wedge portion of the male part by a certain prestress, more precisely by stress that results from the measure difference of 3.87-3.82=0.05 mm (2×0.025 mm) Although the prestress may be varied between strong (i.e., large measure difference) and moderate (i.e., limited measure difference), the same should in all events he chosen so that the loose top reliably is retained in the basic body in connection with the drilling tool being pulled out of a drill hole generated in a workpiece. In the example according to FIGS. 1-8, the torque-transmitting surfaces 19, 21, which stand in contact with each other during operation, have a breadth of about 1 mm (counted between outer and inner limit lines). ADVANTAGES OF THE INVENTION In comparison to the tool according to EP 13 10 313, the tool according to the invention has a plurality of advantages. One advantage is that the new, unique coupling between the loose top and the basic body enables transmitting of great torque, whereby the feed rate of the tool may be substantially increased. Furthermore, the assembly and disassembly of the loose top is considerably simplified, above all by the fact that the male part of the loose top may be inserted axially into the groove rather than in the radial direction. In such a way, the engagement between the centering protrusion and the cooperating seating is largely facilitated. Furthermore, the protrusion can be formed with a considerably greater depth than the corresponding protrusion in the previously known tool. In such a way, a more distinct and reliable centering of the loose top is obtained. Another, valuable advantage is that the risk of demolition and scrapping of the loose top, e.g., as a consequence of crack formation and shear, respectively, is reduced to a minimum. Although the present invention has been described in connection with preferred embodiments thereof, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that additions, modifications, substitutions and deletions not specifically described may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims. | <SOH> TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates to a rotatable tool intended for chip removing or chip forming machining, of the type that comprises a basic body rotatable around a geometrical center axis, as well as a replaceable cutting part or insert body, which is connectable to the basic body via a male/female coupling. Typically, such a coupling includes on the one hand a female-like groove formed in a front end of the basic body, and on the other hand a male part insertable in the groove, the male part protruding rearward from a main part of the cutting part. The male part comprises a front base portion positioned adjacent to the main part, which is delimited by a pair of opposite, first flank surfaces, as well as a rear wedge portion, which is more slender than the base portion and is delimited by a pair of opposite, second flank surfaces. A forwardly open slot is formed in the front part of the basic body, which slot separates two elastically deflectable legs with the purpose of clamping the male part in the groove. The groove comprises two, spaces of different respective widths, namely a front space mouthing in a free end surface of the basic body (which space is delimited by a pair of first, opposite side surfaces), and a rear bottom space, which is delimited by a pair of second, opposite side surfaces. At least one of said two second flank surfaces is inclined at an angle in relation to the center axis in the direction outward/rearward from the cutting part, at the same time as a co-operating side surface in the groove is inclined in relation to the center axis at an angle in the direction inward/forward from the basic body with the purpose of providing a wedge action. The wedge action, when tightening the legs against the male part, guarantees an axial insertion of the male part into the groove. The bottom space in the groove forms a jaw having a variable width, namely in a radial plane oriented perpendicular to the center axis, which radial plane intersects a front edge line along an inclined side surface. The wedge portion of the male part has a maximum breadth in a radial plane, which intersects a rear edge line along an inclined flank surface. Such cutting tools that make use of a basic body, as well as a separate, replaceable cutting part, may in practice be of widely varying shapes and consist of, for instance, drilling tools, milling tools, such as end mills or slitting cutters, thread cutters, etc. The basic body usually consists of an elongate shank having a cylindrical basic shape. In modern machine tools, the basic bodies are so sophisticated and expensive that for economical reasons they should not be integrated with the cutting part, which constitutes the wear part of the tool and has a limited service life. In other words, it is profitable to make the actual cutting part in the form of a separate, detachable unit, which by those skilled in the art usually is denominated “loose top”, and which may be exchanged after wear, while the expensive basic body may be used during longer period of time (usually 10 to 20 cutting part exchanges). In practice, the loose top is manufactured entirely or partly from a hard, wear-resistant material, such as cemented carbide or the like, while the basic body is made from a material having greater elasticity, e.g. steel. It should also he pointed out chat tools of the kind in question are primarily—though not necessarily—intended for the machining of metal workpieces. A tool of the type initially mentioned is previously known from EP 13 10 313-A1 (corresponding to U.S. Published Application No. 2003/0103824). Characteristic of that tool is that the male part of the loose top is formed as a slide, and the female part of the loose top is in the form of a laterally open groove into which the male part may be inserted from the side. More precisely, the wedge portion of the male part has a maximum breadth that is larger than the maximal width of the jaw, which comprises the cross-section-wise wedge-shaped bottom space of the groove. In such a way, an axial insertion of the male part of the loose top in the groove is made impossible even when the deflectable legs of the basic body are maximally distanced from each other. Underneath the male part, there is a rotationally symmetrically shaped-protrusion, which by being brought to engagement with a central, likewise rotationally symmetrically shaped seating in the bottom surface of the groove, has the purpose of centering the loose top in relation to the basic body. When the male part is inserted into the groove from either groove side, the centering protrusion is caused to slide along the bottom surface of the groove up to the point where the protrusion reaches the seating, whereby the protrusion should automatically fall into the seating. During such movement of the loose top to and from the centered position, only a limited space is available between the bottom side of the male part and the bottom surface of the groove. For this reason, the centering protrusion can only be given a very limited height. Furthermore, the protrusion and the seating have to have such a shape that the seating, which should be able to withstand repeated exchanges of loose tops, is not subjected to deformation damage during the exchanges. Furthermore, characteristic of the known tool is that the two side surfaces that define the rear, cross-section-wise wedge-shaped bottom space of the groove, are mutually inclined at an angle different from the angle formed by the external flank surfaces on the wedge portion of the male part. More precisely, the first-mentioned angle is smaller than the last-mentioned one, whereby a line contact arises between the cooperate surfaces as deep inside the groove as possible. In other words, a clearance is obtained between said flank surfaces in the direction outward or forward from the line contact places. In practice, this fact has turned out to entail disadvantages and difficulties relating to the possibilities of realizing the tool in a practically satisfying way. Thus, the limited line contact between the bottom space of the groove and the wedge portion of the male part has meant that the capacity of the tool to transmit torque between the basic body and the loose top has become mediocre. Furthermore, it happens that the loose tops made from hard material tend to crack or become sheared apart by virtue of extreme stress concentrations arising adjacent to the line contact places. Furthermore, the limited height of the centering protrusion has meant that the centering function of the protrusion has become unreliable. Above all, users of the tool have experienced uncertainty as regards the question whether the protrusion has come into engagement with the seating before the deflectable legs are brought to clamp the loose top. Another, psychological disadvantage is that users have found it unnatural to insert the loose top from the side of the groove of the basic body. From DE 3230688 A1 a tool made in the form of a milling tool having an exchangeable loose top is previously known. In this case, the male member of the loose top consists of a genuinely conical pin, which is movable into and out of a likewise conically shaped seating, which opens in the front end of the basic body. The fact that the pin as well as the seating is conical means that the coupling therebetween has to be formed with a particular, production-wise complicating rotary locking. This rotary locking in turn makes the possibility of distinctly centering the loose top in relation to the basic body more difficult. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The objects and advantages of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment thereof in connection with the accompanying drawing in which like numerals designate like elements, and in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective exploded view showing a loose top, as well as a partially illustrated basic body in the form of a drill shank, FIG. 2 is an enlarged perspective view of the loose top seen from behind, FIG. 3 is a partial perspective view showing a front end of the basic body in a freely exposed state, FIG. 4 is an exploded view showing the basic body in longitudinal section, as well as the loose top in a partially cut side view, two legs included in the basic body being shown in a deflected state for receipt of the loose top, FIG. 5 is a side view of FIG. 4 , which has been supplemented with extension arrows and angle arrows, FIG. 6 is a side view similar to FIG. 5 , showing the same basic body with the two legs in a tension-less originating state, FIG. 7 is a partial longitudinal section through the tool with the loose top inserted into the groove of the basic body, arid with the legs of the basic body still deflected outward, and FIG. 8 is a section similar to FIG. 7 showing the loose top in a state clamped by the legs. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050114 | 20061003 | 20050825 | 66168.0 | 0 | HOWELL, DANIEL W | ROTATABLE TOOL FOR CHIP REMOVING MACHINING | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,814 | ACCEPTED | Kneading massager | A kneading massager has a speed reduction gear unit in mesh with the output shaft of a DC driving motor to input the mechanical power of the motor, the speed reduction gear unit has several output shafts to engage with a tapered massage block thereby making the massage block to perform tender and comfortable kneading motion like human fingers when being driven by the Dc motor. | 1. A kneading massager comprising: a speed reduction gear unit; a DC driving motor; and a massage block; wherein said speed reduction gear unit is in mesh with a transmission gear at its bottom for inputting the mechanical power to said unit, several output shafts are emerged out of the top surface of said speed reduction gear unit each of which has a metal washer fitted to it by disposing on the top surface of said speed reduction gear unit, said DC driving motor is coupled to a worm gear with its output shaft, said Dc driving motor is disposed beneath said speed reduction gear unit such the said worm gear can be in mesh with said transmission gear at the bottom of said speed reduction gear unit, said massage block further includes a main body and a bottom cover, said main body has a hole at its bottom, while said bottom cover is provided with several confinement holes around its edge, and each confinement hole has a ball in it, said bottom cover is engaged to the bottom of said main body with its center hole aligned to the bottom hole of said main body and a metal pad is sandwiched therebetween such that said balls arrayed around the edge of said bottom cover are in contact with said metal pad, said balls are easily rotatable by mating said metal washers disposed on the top surface of said speed reduction gear unit and thus facilitate motion of said massage block when said massage block is engaged with the output shaft of said speed reduction gear unit, with this structure, when said Dc driving motor rotates, the mechanical power is transmitted to said massage block via said worm gear coupled to its output shaft, said transmission gear, said speed reduction gear unit in order thereby said massage block is driven by the output shaft of said speed reduction gear unit to perform inwardly or outwardly kneading motion like human fingers. 2. The kneading massager as in claim 1, wherein said massage block has an extra movable block attached to its top end for improving the massage effect. | CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present invention is a Continuation-in-part (CIP) application of a pending non-provisional patent application with application No. 10/306,219 filed 29 Nov. 2002. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a kneading massager, and particularly, to a light, thin and small sized kneading massager capable of relaxing the user's muscle. 2. Description of the Prior Art As for the conventional massage chair, please refer to the Taiwan Bulletin No. 478359, “Massage Device for Massage chair (cited Reference). It mainly includes the following components: a base plate that has a top forming a rail level and a set block provided respectively at both ends of the plate; each of the set blocks has a hinge hole and a screw bolt whose two ends being hinged to the hinge holes, the one end thereof is connected to a power source so that the screw bolt is able to rotate between the two set blocks; a sliding seat with a hollow seat body capable of sliding on the rail level of the base plate and having a drilled hole horizontally passing through it, a screw bolt can be screwed into the drilled holes from two sides; two massage wheels that respectively include a power output shaft passing through the drilled hole of the sliding seat, a transmission gear in mesh with the screw bolt, and a contact roller emerged out of the sliding seat, the one end of the output shaft connected with the transmission gear and the other end with the contact roller. Of course the above mentioned device is functional as a massager. However, employing an AC motor as its power source causes its overall structure heavy and bulky. Besides, massaging the body with contact rollers can hardly bring a comfortable feeling to the user, on the contrary, the user will feel painful on the back after the contact roller rolling on the back up and down for a long time. An improvement is seriously necessary. The inventor has dedicated great efforts for years to studying and improving these defects and come up with a novel kneading massager as provided in this invention to eliminate the defects mentioned above. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The main object of the present invention is to provide a kneading massager driven by a light and small sized DC motor to move inwardly and outwardly a massage block of the massager so as to achieve a kneading massage effect. Another object of the present invention is to provide a light and small kneading massager which can be easily fabricated and assembled with low cost. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a kneading massager which is applicable to a movable massage cushion, a massage bed, a massage chair, an office chair, an automobile seat and an easy chair. To achieve these and other objects described above, the kneading massager provided by the present invention is composed of a speed reduction gear unit, a DC driving motor, and a massage block. The speed reduction gear unit is engaged with a transmission gear at its bottom for receiving the mechanical power to the unit, several output shafts are emerged from the top surface of the speed reduction gear unit each of which has a metal washer fitted to it by disposing on the top surface of the unit thereof. The DC motor is coupled to a worm gear with its output shaft, the Dc motor is disposed beneath the speed reduction gear unit such that the worm gear can be in mesh with the transmission gear at the bottom of the speed reduction gear unit. The massage block further includes a main body and a bottom cover, the main body has a hole at its bottom, while the bottom cover is provided with several confinement holes around its edge, and each hole has a ball in it, the bottom cover is engaged with the bottom of the main body with its center hole aligned to the bottom hole of the main body and a metal pad is sandwiched therebetween such that the balls arrayed around the edge of the bottom cover are in contact with the metal pad. These balls will be easily rotatable by contacting the metal washers disposed on the top surface of the speed reduction gear unit and thus facilitate motion of the massage block when the message block is engaged with the output shaft of the speed reduction gear unit. With this structure, when the DC motor rotates, the mechanical power is transmitted to the massage block via the worm gear, coupled with its output shaft, the transmission gear, the speed reduction gear unit, in order thereby the massage block is driven by the output shaft of the speed reduction gear unit to perform kneading motion inwardly or outwardly like human fingers. These features and advantages of the present invention will be fully understood and appreciated from the following detailed description of the accompanying Drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an exploded schematic view of the kneading massager according to the present invention; FIG. 2A and FIG. 2B are respectively the three dimensional front and back views of the kneading massager according to the present invention; FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B are the schematic views illustrating how the kneading massager of the present invention operate; FIG. 4A is the three dimensional front view of the kneading massager in another embodiment; FIG. 4B is a back view of FIG. 4A; and FIG. 5 is another schematic view illustrating how the kneading massager of the present invention operate. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring to FIGS. 1, 2A and 2B simultaneously, the kneading massager of the present invention comprises a speed reduction gear unit 1, a DC motor 3, and a massage block 4. The speed reduction gear unit further includes a driver gear 20 and eight follower gears 21-28. The driver gear 20 is in mesh with the first and second follower gears 21, 22, whereas the first follower gear 21 is further in mesh with the third and fifth follower gears 23 and 25. The second follower gear 22 is in mesh with the fourth and sixth follower gears 24 and 26, whereas the seventh and eighth follower gears 27 and 28 are respectively in mesh with the third and fourth follower gears 23 and 24. As for the gear size the fifth to eighth follower gears 25-28 are the largest, while the first to fourth follower gears 21-24 rank to the next larger size, the driver gear 20 is the smallest. With such arrangement, the aforesaid gears are combined to form the speed reduction gear unit 1. The fifth to eight follower gears 25-28 are respectively equipped with output shafts 251, 261, 271 and 281. The speed reduction gear unit 1 has four recessed portions 11 formed on its top surface each having a hole 111 for output shafts 251, 261, 271, 281 to pass through. A metal washer 12 is provided for each of the holes 11 in the way that it is fitted onto each of the output shafts 251, 261, 271 and 281. A transmission gear 13 installed beneath the speed reduction gear unit 1 is in mesh with the driver gear 20. The DC motor 3 has a worm gear 31 engaged with its output shaft. The worm gear 31 is accommodated in a bottom cover 32 which is fixed to the bottom of the speed reduction gear unit 1 so as to enclose the transmission gear 13. By coupling the worm gear 31 to the transmission gear 13, the mechanical output of the DC motor 3 can be outputted from the output shafts 251, 261, 271, and 281 with amplified rotating torque and reduced rotational speed through the speed reduction gear unit 1. The massage block 4 further includes a main body 41 and a bottom cover 42. The main body 41, approximately in a tapered shape, may be equipped with an extra movable block 411 on its top, and provided with a hole 412 on its bottom. The bottom cover 42 has several confinement holes 421 formed along its edge with a ball 44 confined in each hole 421 in the manner that each ball 44 is emerged from the bottom surface of the bottom cover 42. The bottom cover 42 is engaged with the main body 41 from its bottom by aligning the center hole 422 of the bottom cover 42 to the hole 412 and sandwiches a metal pad 43 between the main body 41 and the bottom cover 42 such that the balls 44 arranged around the edge of the bottom cover 42 are mated with the metal pad 43, and then the massage block 4 is inserted into the output shafts 251, 261, 271, and 281 so as to install the bottom cover 42 on the recessed portion s 11 formed on the top surface of the speed reduction gear unit 1 thereby bringing those balls 44 emerged down from the bottom cover 42 to contact their corresponding metal washer 12 in the recessed portion 11. By so the balls 44 are made easy to roll that in turn facilitate the motion of the massage block 4 and avoid abrasion of the massage block 4 and the speed reduction gear unit 1. As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, the mechanical power of the rotating Dc motor 3 is transmitted to the massage block 4 to cause it perform a kneading motion inwardly or outwardly like human fingers. The mechanical power transmission route is Dc motor 3→worm gear 31→transmission gear 13→speed reduction gear unit 1→output shafts 251, 261,271,281→massage block 4. Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, in this embodiments, an output shaft associated with the worm gear 31 and the bottom case 32 is provided to both ends of the Dc motor 3 so that both ends thereof can be equipped with a speed reduction gear unit 1 thereby widening the massage area. Of course more than two speed reduction gear units 1 can be used according to the practical need. As shown in FIG. 5, in operating the kneading massager of the present invention, the speed reduction gear unit 1 together with the conjoined Dc motor 3 and massage block 4 can be set in a massage chair, a massage bed, an automobile seat, an easy chair, an office chair or a massage cushion, through controlling the rotational direction of the DC motor 3 (right or reverse) with a control circuit so that the massage block 4 may make the kneading motion inwardly or outwardly on the user's body laid therein. If it is desirable, an extra movable block 411 may be added to the massage block 4 so as to move along with the latter. In this manner, the effect of eliminating muscle ache and relaxation of fatigue feeling can be more improved. It emerges from the above description that the kneading massager of the present invention has several noteworthy advantages compared to the existing conventional massaging devices, namely: 1. The kneading motion of the massage block driven by the small DC motor brings a tender and comfortable feeling to the user. 2. The kneading massager of the present invention is light and compact in-size, so it can be fabricated and assembled with a very low cost, and is widely applicable for installing in a massage bed, a massage chair, an automobile seat, an easy chair, an office chair or a massage cusion. 3. The kneading massager of the present invention can be placed in a stationary location for use, or conveniently held in hand. Many changes and modifications in the above described embodiment of the invention can, of course, be carried out without departing from the scope thereof. Accordingly, to promote the progress in science and the useful arts, the invention is disclosed and is intended to be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a kneading massager, and particularly, to a light, thin and small sized kneading massager capable of relaxing the user's muscle. 2. Description of the Prior Art As for the conventional massage chair, please refer to the Taiwan Bulletin No. 478359, “Massage Device for Massage chair (cited Reference). It mainly includes the following components: a base plate that has a top forming a rail level and a set block provided respectively at both ends of the plate; each of the set blocks has a hinge hole and a screw bolt whose two ends being hinged to the hinge holes, the one end thereof is connected to a power source so that the screw bolt is able to rotate between the two set blocks; a sliding seat with a hollow seat body capable of sliding on the rail level of the base plate and having a drilled hole horizontally passing through it, a screw bolt can be screwed into the drilled holes from two sides; two massage wheels that respectively include a power output shaft passing through the drilled hole of the sliding seat, a transmission gear in mesh with the screw bolt, and a contact roller emerged out of the sliding seat, the one end of the output shaft connected with the transmission gear and the other end with the contact roller. Of course the above mentioned device is functional as a massager. However, employing an AC motor as its power source causes its overall structure heavy and bulky. Besides, massaging the body with contact rollers can hardly bring a comfortable feeling to the user, on the contrary, the user will feel painful on the back after the contact roller rolling on the back up and down for a long time. An improvement is seriously necessary. The inventor has dedicated great efforts for years to studying and improving these defects and come up with a novel kneading massager as provided in this invention to eliminate the defects mentioned above. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The main object of the present invention is to provide a kneading massager driven by a light and small sized DC motor to move inwardly and outwardly a massage block of the massager so as to achieve a kneading massage effect. Another object of the present invention is to provide a light and small kneading massager which can be easily fabricated and assembled with low cost. Still another object of the present invention is to provide a kneading massager which is applicable to a movable massage cushion, a massage bed, a massage chair, an office chair, an automobile seat and an easy chair. To achieve these and other objects described above, the kneading massager provided by the present invention is composed of a speed reduction gear unit, a DC driving motor, and a massage block. The speed reduction gear unit is engaged with a transmission gear at its bottom for receiving the mechanical power to the unit, several output shafts are emerged from the top surface of the speed reduction gear unit each of which has a metal washer fitted to it by disposing on the top surface of the unit thereof. The DC motor is coupled to a worm gear with its output shaft, the Dc motor is disposed beneath the speed reduction gear unit such that the worm gear can be in mesh with the transmission gear at the bottom of the speed reduction gear unit. The massage block further includes a main body and a bottom cover, the main body has a hole at its bottom, while the bottom cover is provided with several confinement holes around its edge, and each hole has a ball in it, the bottom cover is engaged with the bottom of the main body with its center hole aligned to the bottom hole of the main body and a metal pad is sandwiched therebetween such that the balls arrayed around the edge of the bottom cover are in contact with the metal pad. These balls will be easily rotatable by contacting the metal washers disposed on the top surface of the speed reduction gear unit and thus facilitate motion of the massage block when the message block is engaged with the output shaft of the speed reduction gear unit. With this structure, when the DC motor rotates, the mechanical power is transmitted to the massage block via the worm gear, coupled with its output shaft, the transmission gear, the speed reduction gear unit, in order thereby the massage block is driven by the output shaft of the speed reduction gear unit to perform kneading motion inwardly or outwardly like human fingers. These features and advantages of the present invention will be fully understood and appreciated from the following detailed description of the accompanying Drawings. | 20050114 | 20060718 | 20050609 | 67041.0 | 0 | THANH, QUANG D | KNEADING MASSAGER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,873 | ACCEPTED | Electron beam system and method of manufacturing devices using the system | An electron beam system wherein a shot noise of an electron beam can be reduced and a beam current can be made higher, and further a shaped beam is formed by a two-stage lenses so as to allow for an operation with high stability. In this electron beam system, an electron beam emitted from an electron gun is irradiated onto a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected. The electron gun is a thermionic emission type and designed to operate in a space charge limited condition. A shaping aperture and a NA aperture are arranged in front locations of the electron gun. An image of the shaping aperture formed by an electron beam emitted from the thermionic emission electron gun is focused onto a surface of the sample through the two-stage lenses. | 1-21. (canceled) 22. An electron beam system comprising: a primary beam system for irradiating a plurality of electron beams onto a sample; a condenser lens for focusing the plurality of electron beams into a crossover image at an aperture; and a deflector disposed upstream to the aperture, wherein the plurality of electron beams are simultaneously blocked from passing toward the sample when a signal is applied to the deflector. 23. An electron beam system according to claim 22, further comprising an ampere meter for measuring electric current absorbed by the aperture when the plurality of electron beams are blocked from passing toward the sample. 24. An electron beam system according to claim 22, further comprising an objective lens made of an electrostatic lens having three pieces of electrodes, and a power supply for applying a negative voltage to the sample, wherein a second electrode counted from the sample is applied with a positive high voltage, and a voltage applied to an electrode disposed at the electron gun side of the second electrode is varied so that field curvature aberration is corrected. 25. An electron beam system according to claim 22, further comprising an objective lens and a two-step deflectors, wherein a center of deflection is set in a predetermined location in an electron gun side on a main plane of the objective lens when the sample is scanned. 26. An electron beam system according to claim 25, wherein the predetermined location is a location in which a total value of coma aberration and deflection chromatic aberration is minimized. 27. An electron beam system comprising: an electrical lens barrel used for irradiating a primary electron beam onto a sample surface; a differential exhaust mechanism mounted on a tip end of the electrical lens barrel; an objective lens for accelerating secondary electrons which are emanated from the sample surface by irradiation of the primary electron beam; and a beam separator with at least an electromagnetic deflector for separating the secondary electrons from the primary electron beam after the secondary electrons passes the objective lens and for directing the secondary electrons to a detector, wherein the differential exhaust mechanism comprises an annular member and an annular groove, between the annular member and the sample surface is formed a minute gap, and the annular groove is connected to a vacuum pump through an exhaust pipe. 28. An electron beam system according to claim 27, wherein the differential exhaust mechanism has a double or a triple structure. 29. An electron beam system according to claim 27, further comprising a XY stage for holding and moving the sample, the XY stage being supported by a hydrostatic bearings. 30. A method for comparing a SEM image and a reference pattern image, comprising; (a) obtaining a SEM image; (b) pattern matching each corner of the reference pattern image with each corner of the SEM image; (c) calculating offsets in position, rotation and magnification of the SEM image from the reference image and; (d) obtaining a corrected SEM image in which the offsets in position, rotation and magnification are corrected; and (e) comparing the corrected SEM image and the reference image and detecting the differences of them as a defect. 31. A method according to claim 30, wherein if a corner of the pattern is shaped into an arc in the step of (b), an intersection of extensions of two sides is determined to be the corner of the pattern. 32. A method according to claim 30, further comprising: providing an electron gun with a cathode made of Lab6 single crystal; measuring shot noise contained in a signal detected by a secondary electron detector; and determining the electron gun is operating in a space charge limited zone if the “Γ” is smaller than 1, by assuming the shot noise is denoted by “N” and expressed in the following equation: N2=Γ2eIeΔf and determining whether or not the “Γ” is smaller than 1, wherein, the “Γ” is a shot noise reduction coefficient, the “e” represents a charge of an electron, the “Ie” represents a current detected by the secondary electron detector, and the “Δf” represents a band width in which the noise is measured. 33. A method according to claim 32, wherein the Γ is equal to or less than 0.5. 34. A method for evaluating a sample including dispersed patterns to be evaluated, comprising: forming a primary electron beam: selecting a pattern to be evaluated; scanning an area containing the selected pattern to be evaluated with the primary electron beam; detecting secondary electrons emanated from the sample; and evaluating the pattern to be evaluated based on a signal obtained from secondary electrons emanated from points on the sample scanned by the primary electron beam. 35. A method for evaluating a sample according to claim 34, wherein the pattern to be evaluated is a via. 36. A method for evaluating a sample according to claim 34, wherein the geometry of the primary electron beam is shorter in the scanning direction but is longer in the direction normal to said scanning direction. 37. An electron beam system comprising: a primary optical system having a plurality of apertures for forming a plurality of primary electron beams, and an objective lens for focusing the primary electron beams passed through the apertures on a sample, and a secondary optical system having a beam separator with an electromagnetic deflector for separating secondary electron beams emanated from the sample from the primary electron beams, and at least a lens for magnifying the secondary electron beams separated by the beam separator to form into an image on a detector. 38. An electron beam system according to claim 37, further comprising in a sample side of the plurality of apertures, a deflector and a member for preventing passing the plurality of primary electron beams toward the sample, wherein a signal applied to the deflector prevents simultaneously passing the plurality of primary electron beams toward the sample. 39. n electron beam system according to claim 37, further comprising axisymmetric electrodes below the objective lens, the axisymmetric electrodes being applied with a voltage which is lower than that applied to the sample so that the secondary electrons emanated from the sample are selectively passed to the detector. 40. An electron beam system according to claim 37, further comprising a single electron gun so that the plurality of apertures are irradiated by an electron beam emitted from the single electron gun. 41. An electron beam system according to claim 40, wherein the single electron gun is operated within a space charge limited zone. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an electron beam system, a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which employs the same electron beam system, and a manufacturing method of a device using the same defect inspection apparatus, and more specifically, relates to an electron beam system which can evaluate a sample (a semiconductor wafer) having a device pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm with both a high throughput and high reliability, a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which employs the same electron beam system, and a manufacturing method of a device which can improve a yield thereof by evaluating a wafer after it has been processed using the same defect inspection apparatus. The present invention also relates to an electron beam system and a defect inspection method for evaluating a device, such as a wafer or a mask, having a pattern with a minimum line width in a range of 0.1 micron, and also to a method for manufacturing a device with a high yield by using the same system and a defect inspection method. The present invention further relates to a method for simplifying a registration (positioning) of an inspection apparatus in which an electron beam is irradiated against a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected and then processed to thereby obtain an SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) image of a fine geometry on a surface of the sample, and thus carry out evaluation thereof. The fine geometry on the sample surface may be, for example, on a semiconductor wafer or a mask having a high-density pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm. The present invention also relates to a manufacturing method of a semiconductor device using such an inspection apparatus. One such electron beam system has been suggested for evaluating a sample having a device pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm, in which a shaped electron beam is demagnified (contracted) to be narrower and irradiated onto a sample and then secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected so as to evaluate the sample. In such a system, an optical system for shaping the electron beam has employed at least a three-stage of lenses. Besides, when it is intended to form such a narrow electron beam equal to or less than 0.1 μm, a demagnification crossover image type beam has been employed. Further, it is required to increase an intensity of the electron beam in order to provide evaluation with higher reliability, and in this case a thermoelectric field emission (schottky) cathode electron gun has been used so as to obtain a high current beam of 0.1 μm or smaller. Such an electron beam system has been known, in which a primary electron beam emitted from an electron gun is demagnified to be narrower so as to irradiate a sample, such as a wafer or a mask, and a secondary electron beam, which has been emanated from the sample through this irradiation, is detected, to thereby detect any defects or to measure a line width on the sample. Further, it has been also known that an electron beam is irradiated on a sample and thereby charges are introduced to a pattern on the sample so as to induce a voltage, which is in turn measured and thus an electric parameter of the sample is measured. In the prior art, for measuring the voltage induced in the pattern on the surface of the sample, there has been employed one such method in which a hemispherical mesh filter is provided, and the secondary electrons emanated from the sample surface are returned to the sample surface side or introduced into a detector arranged behind the mesh in dependence on a potential of the pattern from which the secondary electrons have been emanated, thus carrying out measurement of the potential of the pattern. An electron gun in an electron beam system to be used in such a method may be in most cases one designated as a schottky type by Zr-W having a magnified intensity. Further, a demagnified crossover image formed by the electron gun has been commonly used as a probe current for injecting charges into the sample to measure the voltage of the pattern. One such inspection apparatus has been well known that uses a scanning electron microscope to inspect a subject (sample), such as a semiconductor wafer and so on. In this inspection apparatus, a narrowly demagnified electron beam is used to conduct raster scanning with a raster scanning width of an extremely narrow space, and then secondary electrons emanated from the subject are detected by a detector so as to form an SEM image, wherein two SEM images for corresponding locations in two different samples are compared to each other to detect any defects. A lithography apparatus which comprises an electron optical system and which uses an electron beam to form a fine geometry on a surface of a sample such as a semiconductor wafer requires position alignment or a registration of high precision between the electron optical system and the sample. In order to satisfy this requirement, one method has been employed that uses the electron optical system of the lithography apparatus to detect an alignment mark on the sample to accomplish the position alignment, and also another method has been employed, in which an optical microscope is further provided in addition to the electron optical system so as to perform rough alignment (a roughly controlled position alignment) through an observation across an enlarged field of view by using the optical microscope and also fine alignment (a high magnification position alignment) by using the electron optical system of the lithography apparatus. However, such high precision alignment is not necessarily required in an inspection apparatus. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, it is problematic that although in a schottky electron gun, a beam current three to ten times higher as compared to that obtained by a thermionic emission electron gun (e.g., LaB6 electron gun) can be obtained, and a shot noise of the electron beam is quite large and inevitably an S/N ratio is not so good, which makes it difficult to evaluate a sample with high throughput. On the other hand, the crossover image demagnification type beam by using the LaB6 electron gun also has a drawback such that it is impossible to make the beam current higher, and this makes it difficult to evaluate a sample with high throughput. Further, in the method for shaping a beam by using the LaB6 electron gun, since it uses three or more stage of lenses, a long optical column must be used and a deflector is additionally required for axial alignment. It is also problematic that the space charge effect becomes greater in proportion to the length of the optical path, and it is difficult to accomplish a good intensity and position stability of the electron beam. One of the subjects to be accomplished by the invention is to provide an electron beam system that can provide an evaluation of a sample with high throughput by reducing a shot noise of an electron beam and thereby improving the S/N ratio. Another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide an electron beam system that allows a beam current to be made higher and thus can evaluate a sample with high throughput. Still another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide a fully furnished system for a defect inspection apparatus by manufacturing an electron optical column employing only two stage of lenses to form and control a shaped beam with high stability. Yet another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide a manufacturing method of a device, in which a sample after having been processed is evaluated by using the electron beam system as described above. An electron beam system according to the prior art is associated with the problems stated above, in addition to the problem that the system tends to be too complicated, and also that since the filter made up of hemispherical mesh used in a measurement of the potential contrast forms a non-axisymmetric electric field, an uncorrectable distortion may be induced in a measured result. Besides, since the electron gun of the schottky cathode type produces a big shot noise, it is required to apply a high beam current or to emit an intensified primary electron beam in order to obtain a good SIN ratio. Further, if the magnified crossover image is used as the above-stated probe current and an electron gun having the same intensity is used in this case, then again, problematically, the beam current would be smaller as compared to a case in using the demagnified image of the shaping aperture. The present invention has been made to solve the problems pointed out above, and the object thereof is to provide an electron beam system which comprises an axisymmetric filter as well as an electron gun with a smaller shot noise, and allows a relatively higher beam current to be obtained as compared to that which can be achieved by using an electron gun with the same brightness, and also to provide a defect inspection method using the same electron beam system, as well as a device manufacturing method using the same electron beam system and defect inspection method. There has been a problem that if both rough alignment and fine alignment are carried out, it takes a long time to complete an alignment operation, resulting in a lower throughput (a quantity of processing per unit time) achieved by the inspection apparatus. In addition, when an electron optical system is used to conduct alignment, an electron beam dose equivalent to or greater than that applied in the sample evaluation would be applied to the wafer, which in turn could destroy a gate oxide or the like. The present invention is also directed to solving the above problem. Accordingly, another object of the present invention is to provide an inspection apparatus, in which inspection of a wafer can be carried out by conducting alignment without using any electron beams, and thus without destroying the gate oxide and the like. Another object of the present invention is to provide a device manufacturing method using such an inspection apparatus as described above. The above-described subjects are solved by the following means. That is, the present invention provides an electron beam system, in which an electron beam emitted from an electron gun is irradiated onto a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected, wherein said electron gun is specified to be a thermionic emission electron gun, and a shaping aperture and a NA aperture are arranged in front locations of said thermionic emission electron gun, wherein an image of the shaping aperture irradiated by the electron beam from said thermionic emission electron gun is formed on a surface of the sample by two-stage lenses. It is to be noted that the expression “in (a) front location(s) of” is defined as in the sample side which is (are) in a forward side with respect to the direction along which the electrons advance. A secondary electron beam includes a reflected electron reflected by the sample surface, a transmission electron having transmitted through the sample, and an emanated electron emanated from the sample by the irradiation of the primary electron beam. Further, according to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system in which an electron beam emitted from an electron gun is irradiated onto a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected, wherein said electron gun is specified to be a thermionic emission electron gun and a shaping aperture and a NA aperture are arranged in front locations of said thermionic emission electron gun, wherein a crossover image formed by the electron beam from the thermionic electron gun is formed into an image in the NA aperture, and an image of the shaping aperture irradiated by the electron beam from the thermionic emission electron gun is formed on a surface of the sample. Further, according to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from the electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that a shaping aperture and two-stage lenses are arranged in the primary optical system, and additionally, an E×B separator is arranged between the two-atage lenses, wherein an image of a shaping aperture irradiated by an electron beam from said electron gun is demagnified and formed on the sample surface by the two-stage lenses and secondary electrons emanated from the sample surface are separated by said E×B separator from the primary optical system and introduced into a detector. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from an electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that the primary optical system comprises a shaping aperture, a NA aperture, a condenser lens and an objective lens disposed in a sequential manner along an optical axis of the primary optical system, wherein a crossover image of the electron beam from the electron gun is focused to the NA aperture by controlling a Wehnelt bias (an electrode bias) of the electron gun. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, provided is an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from an electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that the primary optical system comprises a shaping aperture, a condenser lens and an objective lens disposed in a sequential manner along an optical axis of the primary optical system, and a NA aperture is disposed in a location adjacent to the objective lens in the electron gun side with respect to the objective lens, wherein a crossover image of the electron beam is formed in the NA aperture. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which is equipped with an electron beam system as defined according to any one of the above-described inventions or other inventions. Further, according to the present invention, there is provided a device manufacturing method in which a wafer after having been processed is evaluated by using the above described defect inspection apparatus. An electron beam system according to the present invention scans a sample surface by a primary electron beam emitted from an electron gun and then detects a secondary electron beam emanated from the sample. In this electron beam system, an objective lens is arranged for focusing the primary electron beam and for accelerating the secondary electron beam, wherein the objective lens has a plurality of electrodes. Preferably, the electron gun is operated in a space charge limited condition, meaning that a shot noise reduction coefficient is smaller than 1, and a voltage applied to a plurality of electrodes of the objective lens can be set to a desired value. Further, a demagnification ratio of the electron beam can be changed between a case for irradiating the electron beam against the sample so as to form a topographical or a material image of the sample surface, and another case for measuring a potential of a pattern formed on the sample. Whether or not the electron gun operates in the space charge limited zone (condition) can be examined by referring to the attached drawings, FIGS. 14(a) and 14(b) and by using a method described below. FIG. 14(a) is a graph illustrating a relationship between an electron gun current and a cathode heating current, wherein in zone P, the electron gun current increase only by a small amount even if the cathode heating current is increased, which means that the zone P corresponds to the space charge limited condition. FIG. 14(b) is a graph illustrating a relationship between the electron gun current and an anode voltage, wherein in zone Q, the electron gun current increases sharply when the anode voltage is increased, which means that the zone Q also corresponds to the space charge limited condition. From the above description, it can be determined that the electron gun is operating in the space charge limited condition either when the cathode heating current is increased to measure the electron gun current thereby determining the P zone where the electron gun current is saturated, or when the anode voltage is increased to measure the electron gun current thereby determining the Q zone where the electron gun current is changing sharply. Accordingly, it is possible to set the condition for operating the electron gun in the space charge limited condition. A defect inspection method using an electron beam system according to the present invention comprises: an image acquiring step for irradiating an electron beam emitted from the electron gun against the sample via the objective lens to obtain an image of a sample surface; a measuring step for measuring a potential or a variation thereof on the surface of the sample, which has been induced by irradiation of the electron beam; and a determining step for determining whether a specific pattern is good or not based on the potential or a variation thereof. In the image acquiring step and the measuring step, a voltage to be applied to an electrode most proximal to the sample among the plurality of electrodes of the objective lens may be changed. Preferably, a defect inspection method of the present invention comprises: a step for forming an SEM image by the scanning, and then measuring and storing a position of a specific pattern on the sample; and a measuring step for measuring a potential of the pattern by the selective scanning or irradiation on said specific pattern, wherein it is examined from a result of measurement of the potential of the specific pattern whether or not there is a defect in the sample. Preferably, a defect inspection method of the present invention comprises a step for acquiring an SEM image by the scanning and a step for measuring a potential of a pattern, wherein in the acquiring step and the measuring step, at least one of an excitation voltage of the objective lens, a landing voltage (energy) to the sample and a cathode voltage of the electron gun may be changed. The present invention further provides a device manufacturing method in which a wafer is evaluated at the end of each one of the processes for manufacturing the wafer by using either the electron beam system or the defect inspection method described above. An inspection apparatus for evaluating a fine geometry on a surface of a sample according to the present invention comprises: an electron optical system including a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam against a sample and a detecting system for detecting the electron beam emanated from the sample; a movable stage for carrying the sample and moving the sample relative to the electron optical system; and a position sensor capable of measuring a position of the sample with a desired precision. The position sensor is disposed in a location spaced by a desired distance from the electron optical system, and the movable stage is moved on the basis of a position signal output from the position sensor so as to bring the sample into a reference position in said electron optical system with a desired precision. The inspection apparatus, in the condition where the sample has been matched to the reference position in the electron optical system with the desired precision, acquires an SEM image of a surface of the sample by the electron optical system and the thus acquired SEM image is compared to another acquired SEM image or to a reference image for the pattern matching, thereby allowing for competitive evaluation. In the present invention, preferably, comparative evaluation is conducted by applying a pattern matching between an SEM image acquired from one segment on one sample and another SEM image acquired from a corresponding segment on a different sample. Alternatively, the SEM image acquired from one segment on one sample may be compared with a reference image for the pattern matching, thus carrying out the comparative evaluation. The position sensor measures the position of the sample by measuring an electrostatic capacity. Further, in an inspection apparatus of the present invention, pattern matching is applied between the SEM image and the reference image to provide a comparative evaluation by performing one of translation, rotation or magnification tuning of the image. An inspection apparatus for evaluating a fine geometry on a surface of a sample according to the present invention comprises: an electron optical system consisting of a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam against the sample and a detecting system for detecting an electron beam emanated from the sample; a movable stage for carrying and moving the sample relatively with respect to the electron optical system; and a position sensor disposed in a location spaced by a predetermined distance from the electron optical system and being capable of measuring the position of the sample with a desired precision. In the inspection apparatus of the present invention, the movable stage is actuated on the basis of a position signal output from the position sensor to bring the sample into a reference position in the electron optical system. The inspection apparatus, in a condition that the sample has been matched to the reference position in the electron optical system with a desired precision, acquires an SEM image of a surface of the sample by the electron optical system, calculates a difference between an area to be evaluated on the sample surface and a field of view of the electron optical system based on the acquired SEM image, and then corrects the thus calculated difference by the deflector so as to acquire the SEM image. Further, in an inspection apparatus of the present invention, pattern matching is applied between the SEM image and the reference image to provide a comparative evaluation by performing one of translation, rotation or magnification tuning of the image. In a device manufacturing method of the present invention, a wafer in the course of processing is evaluated by using one of the inspection apparatuses as described above. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a general schematic diagram of an optical system of an electron beam system according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a general schematic diagram of an optical system of an electron beam system according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of one exemplary configuration of an electron optical system in an electron beam system according to the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram for illustrating a defect inspection carried out by using the electron beam system of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing a physical relationship between an objective lens and a sample in an electron beam system of FIG. 3, illustrating only a left half thereof with respect to an optical axis; FIG. 6 is a diagram showing a simulation result indicative of the fact that a potential contrast can be measured by using the electron beam system of FIG. 3; FIG. 7 is a flow chart of a method for manufacturing a semiconductor device by employing an electron beam system according to the present invention; FIG. 8 is a flow chart of a lithography process included as a sub-process in a wafer processing process shown in FIG. 7; FIG. 9 is general schematic diagram showing an arrangement of an electrostatic capacity sensor in an electron beam system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10a is an SEM image including a field of view 521 acquired by an electron optical system while FIG. 10b is a reference image including a field of view 522, and FIG. 10c is a plan view showing an example of a corner of a pattern; FIG. 11 is a general schematic diagram of an electron beam system (an electron optical system) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 is a general schematic diagram of an electron beam system (mainly, a movable table) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13a is a plan view showing a physical relationship between an electrode of a position sensor and a wafer, while FIG. 13b is a side view showing a physical relationship between the electrode of the position sensor and the wafer as well as a block diagram of respective components; and FIG. 14a is a graph illustrating a relationship between an electron gun current and a cathode current, while FIG. 14b is a graph illustrating a relationship between an electron gun current and an anode voltage. EXPLANATION OF REFERENCE SIGNS Th components and elements used herein are designated as follows: 1, 1′: Electron beam system, 10, 10′: Primary optical system, 11: Electron gun, 12: Electrostatic deflector (for axial alignment), 13: Shaping aperture, 14, 15: Electrostatic deflector (for axial alignment), 16: NA aperture, 17: Condenser lens, 18: Electrostatic deflector, 19: E×B separator, 20: Objective lens, 21: Axisymmetric electrode, 22, 23: Power supply, 24: Shift switch, 25: Electrostatic deflector, 30: Secondary optical system, 40, 40′: Detector, 71: Optical column, 73: XY stage, 74: X table, 77: Y table, 83: Linear motor, 87: Irradiation space, 91: Flexible pipe, 98: Exhaust pipe, 201: Cathode, 202: Wehnelt, 203: Anode, 204: First condenser lens, 205: Second aperture plate, 206: First aperture plate, 207: Second condenser lens, 208: Objective lens, 210: E×B separator, 211: Shield barrel, 212: Secondary electron detector, X: Optical axis, 401, 401′: detector, 402: A/D converter, 403: Image processing circuit, 502a, 502b, 502c, 505: Electrostatic capacity sensor, 503: Periphery, 504: Notch, 510, 521, 522: Field of view, 525-528: Pattern corner of SEM image, 525′-528′: Pattern corner of reference image, 529: Defect, 531: Arc, 535: Optical axis, 536: Primary optical system, 538: Detecting system, 539: Optical axis, 540: Position sensor, 541: Electrode, 542: Overlapped portion, 546: Electrostatic capacity measuring instrument, 547: Comparison chart, 548: Position detector, 600: Electron beam system, 601: Electron gun, 603: Condenser lens, 607: First multi-aperture plate, 609: Demagnifying lens, 610: Narrow gap, 615: Sample, 619: E×B separator, 623, 625: Magnifying lens, 627: Second multi-aperture plate, 629: Detector, 631: Amplifier, 628: Stop, 633: Image processing section, 635: Deflector, 637: Knife edge, 639: Am meter, 643: CPU, 645: Storage, 649: Output means, A, B, P: Optical axis, C: Electron beam, G: Center of gravity of wafer, and S: Sample (Wafer). EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION A first embodiment of an electron beam system according to the present invention will now be described in detail with reference to the attached drawings. FIG. 1 schematically shows an electron beam system 1 according to a first embodiment of the present invention. This electron beam system 1 comprises a primary optical system 10, a secondary optical system 30 and a detecting system 40. The primary optical system 10 serves as an optical system for irradiating an electron beam onto a sample “S”, and comprises an electron gun 11 for emitting the electron beam, an electrostatic deflector 12 used for an axial alignment, a shaping aperture 13, electrostatic deflectors 14, 15 used for the axial alignment, a NA aperture, a condenser lens 17 for demgnifying the electron beam after passing through the shaping aperture 13, an electrostatic deflector 18 used for scanning, an E×B separator 19, an objective lens 20 and an axisymmetric electrode 21, all of which are arranged in a sequential manner with the electron gun 11 placed at the topmost location in a manner such that an optical axis “A” of the electron beam emitted from the electron gun may be normal to a surface “S” of the sample. The E×B separator 19 is constituted of an electrostatic deflector 191, electromagnetic deflectors 192, 193 and a permalloy core 194. The electron beam system 1 further comprises a power supply 22 for applying a negative potential to the sample S. In the first embodiment, the electron gun 11 is implemented as a LaB6 electron gun of the thermionic emission type, which comprises a LaB6 cathode 111, a graphite heater 112, a support fittings 113, a Wehnelt electrode 114 and an anode 115. By adjusting a bias of the Wehnelt electrode 114 of the electron gun 11 to be deeper to some extent, the electron gun 11 can be controlled within a space charge limited condition. The shaping aperture 13 is square in shape and disposed in a location in the electron gun side with respect to the NA aperture 16. Further, both of the two-stage lenses (i.e., the condenser lens 17 and the objective lens 20) are disposed in front locations of the shaping aperture 13 and the NA aperture 16 (i.e., in the sample side which is in a forward side with respect to the direction along which the electron beam advances). The secondary optical system 30 is serving as an optical system for introducing secondary electrons emanated from the sample S into the detector 40, and disposed along the optical axis “B” angled with respect to the optical axis “A”, starting from a point proximal to the E×B separator 19. The detecting system 40 comprises a detector 401. An operation of the electron beam system 1 configured as stated above will now be described. An electron beam “C” emitted from the electron gun 11 may form a crossover image “C1” in a location corresponding to that of the NA aperture 16 by adjusting the Wehnelt voltage of the electron gun 11. At the same time, the electron gun 11 is controlled so as to operate within the space charge limited condition by adjusting a current to be applied to the graphite heater 112. Accordingly, this can reduce a shot noise induced by the electron beam to be significantly low. The electron beam, which has formed the crossover image C1, is dispersed at a not-so-big spreading angle and then focused by the condenser lens 17 so as to form a crossover image “C2” in a location on a principal plane of the objective lens 20. In this case, an excitation voltage of the condenser lens 17 is determined so that the electron beam can form the crossover image C2 in the location on the principal plane of the objective lens 20. On the other hand, an image of the shaping aperture 13 formed by the electron beam is demagnified by the condenser lens 17 into the image in a location “C3”, and further demagnified by the objective lens into the image of 0.1 μm or smaller on the surface of the sample S. This adjustment can be performed easily by changing the excitation voltage of the condenser lens 17. For scanning the sample, the electrostatic deflector 18 and the electrostatic deflector 191 of the E×B separator are used so as to provide the scanning operation by way of a two-stage deflection. In this case, a total value of a deflection chromatic aberration, a coma aberration and an astigmatism may be minimized by setting a center of deflection in a location “C4′ directly above the objective lens 20. The sample S is irradiated by the electron beam, and the secondary electrons emanated from the sample are accelerated and converged in an accelerating electric field of the objective lens 20 and deflected by the E×B separator 19 to be introduced into the secondary optical system 30. In this case, normally, since a negative voltage has been applied to the sample S by the power supply 22, almost all of the secondary electrons can pass through the objective lens 20 so as to be deflected by the E×B separator 19. The secondary electrons are moved along the optical axis B and detected by the detector 401. It is to be noted that such an arrangement may be employed in which the axisymmetric electrode 21 is disposed in the sample side with respect to the objective lens 20, and a power supply 23 and its associated shift switch 24 for applying a positive or a negative voltage to this axisymmetric electrode 21 are provided, so that the axisymmetric electrode 21 may be controlled to have a filtering function by applying thereto a lower voltage than that of the sample. In such a case, a potential contrast of the pattern on the sample surface can be obtained. Further, it may become possible to carry out defect inspection with high precision by obtaining a normal image of the scanning electron microscope or by obtaining a potential contrast image through control of the shift switch 24 by using a computer. Consequently, the electron beam system according to the present invention is applicable to a defect inspection apparatus for a device. An electron beam system 1′ according to a second embodiment of the present invention will now be described with reference to FIG. 2. In this drawing, the same components as those in the first embodiment shown in FIG. 1 are designated by the same reference numerals. Further, components corresponding to but different from components specified in the first embodiment are designated by the same reference numerals and denoted with a symbol “′”. The electron beam system 1′ according to the second embodiment, is different from that in the first embodiment, only in that it comprises a primary optical system 10′ and a detecting system 40′. The primary optical system 10′ comprises an electron gun 11 having a similar configuration to that in the first embodiment, an electrostatic deflector 12 for axial alignment, a shaping aperture 13, an electrostatic deflector 14 for an axial alignment, a condenser lens 17 for condensing an electron beam after it has passed through the shaping aperture 13, electrostatic deflectors 18, 25 for scanning, a NA aperture 16 and an objective lens 20, all of which are disposed appropriately with the electron gun 11 placed at a topmost location in such a manner that an optical axis “A” of the electron beam emitted from the electron gun 11 may be normal to a surface “S” of a sample. The electron gun 11 in this second embodiment can also be controlled within a space charge limited condition by adjusting a bias of a Wehnelt electrode to be deeper to some extent. As clearly shown in FIG. 2, the NA aperture 16 is disposed adjacent to the objective lens 20 in the electron gun side with respect to the objective lens 20. Further, differently from the first embodiment, the axial aligning electrostatic deflector is implemented as a two-stage configuration and no E×B separator nor axisymmetric electrode is provided. In the second embodiment, a secondary optical system is not provided for its own purpose, but secondary electrons emanated from the sample S are attracted by an electric field of a detector 401′ of the detecting system 40′ to be introduced directly into the detector 401′, which will be explained later. The detecting system 40′ comprises the detector 401′, an A/D converter 402 and an image processing circuit 403. An operation of the electron beam system having the configuration designated above according to the second embodiment will now be described. An electron beam “C” emitted from the electron gun 11 passes through the shaping aperture 13 to form a crossover image “C1′” in a predetermined location between the shaping aperture 13 and the condenser lens 17, and then the beam is dispersed from the crossover image C1′ at a spreading angle that is not too great. The dispersed electron beam is converged by the condenser lens 17 to form a crossover image “C2′” in the NA aperture 16. After forming the crossover image C2′, the electron beam proceeds toward the sample S and is directed to the sample S by the objective lens 20. An image of the shaping aperture 13 is demagnified by the condenser lens 17 and the objective lens 20 into the image on the sample S. In order to scan the sample, the beam is deflected in a two-stage manner by using the electrostatic deflector 18 and the electrostatic deflector 25 for scanning. The secondary electrons emanated from the sample S by the irradiation of the electron beam onto the sample S is deflected by the electric field of the deflector 401′ so as to be introduced into the deflector 401′. The deflector 401′ converts the detected secondary electron into an electric signal indicative of intensity of the secondary electron. The electric signal output from the detector 401′ is converted by the A/D converter 402 into a digital signal and is then received by the image processing circuit 403, where the digital signal is converted to image data. This image is compared to the reference pattern, and thereby any defects in the sample S can be detected. Accordingly, the electron beam system of the second embodiment is also applicable to the defect inspection apparatus for a device. The electron beam systems according to the first and the second embodiments can be used to evaluate the sample after having been finished with those processes in a semiconductor device manufacturing method, which will be described later with reference to FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. Applying the electron beam system of the present invention to a testing process in the manufacturing method for the semiconductor device enables such a semiconductor device having a fine pattern to be inspected with high throughput, thereby allowing for 100% inspection, thus improving an yield of the product and preventing the shipment of any defective products. Some further embodiments of the present invention will now be described below with reference to FIG. 3 to FIG. 6. FIG. 3 shows one example of configuration of an electron optical system in an electron beam system according to a third embodiment of the present invention. In FIG. 3, an electron gun 11 comprises a cathode 201 made of LaB6 single crystal, a Wehnelt 202 and an anode 203, which are operated within a space charge limited condition. A primary electron beam emitted from the electron gun 11 is converged by a first condenser lens 204 to form a crossover image in a second aperture plate 205. A first aperture plate 206 has a square opening and thereby enables a high beam current (an intensified primary electron beam) to be obtained. It is to be noted that if a slightly deteriorated resolution in any specific direction is permissible, then a rectangular opening, instead of the square opening, may be used. The first aperture plate 206 having a shaping aperture is disposed downstream to the first condenser lens 204, and a primary electron beam after passing through the first aperture plate 206 is demagnified to be 1/100 in scale with the aid of a second condenser lens 207 and an objective lens 208 so as to form an image on a sample “S”, such as a wafer. It is to be noted that reference symbol “SD1” designates a first scanning deflector and “P” designates an optical axis of the optical system. In this third embodiment, the objective lens 208 may be, for example, an electrostatic lens having three pieces of electrodes axisymmetric with respect to the optical axis P. One among three electrodes, which is disposed in the electron gun side, is controlled to have a voltage proximal to the ground, which will be changed to provide dynamic focusing, thereby correcting an image field curvature aberration or a fluctuation in height of the sample surface during a movement of a stage. A central electrode is applied with a positive high voltage, and this can enhance a focusing action for the primary electron beam and reduce an axial chromatic aberration. On the other hand, a secondary electron beam emanated from the sample S is accelerated by the acceleration field produced by the electrodes of the objective lens 208, and all of the secondary electrons pass through the objective lens 208 when a topographical image or a material image of the sample surface is to be formed. That is, at least two electrodes are adapted to have desired voltages applied thereto. Ideally, three of the electrodes may be preferably controlled to have desired voltages, respectively. Employing such axisymmetric electrodes would not produce a non-axisymmetric electric field, thereby preventing any additional aberration from being generated. An E×B separator 210 is disposed upstream to the objective lens 208, and this E×B separator 210 deflects the secondary electron beam off from the optical axis of the primary optical system (to deflect it toward the right hand direction on the paper in FIG. 3). The deflected secondary electron beam passes through a shielded pipe 211 and then it is detected by a secondary electron detector 212. Measuring a noise contained in a signal detected by the secondary electron detector 212 makes it possible to determine whether or not the electron gun 11 made of Lab6 single crystal is operating in the space charge limited condition. That is, assuming the shot noise is denoted by “N” and expressed in the following equation: N2=Γ2eIeΔf, if the “Γ” is smaller than 1, it is determined that the electron gun 11 is operating in the space charge limited condition. Wherein, the “Γ” is a shot noise reduction coefficient, the “e” represents a charge of an electron, the “Ie” represents a current detected by the secondary electron detector 212, and the “Δf” represents a band width in which the noise is measured. It is to be noted that preferably the Γ is equal to or less than 0.5, ideally equal to or less than 0.2. In contrast to that the Γ=1 in the electron gun of schottky cathode type, since the present invention employs an electron gun operating in a space charge limited condition, a shot noise can be reduced by Γ times and thus a beam current Γ2 times high as that attainable by the prior art can be made available to obtain a signal with a desired S/N ratio, or a signal having the same S/N ratio can be obtained in a measuring time multiplied by Γ2. In a fourth embodiment of the present invention, defect inspection is carried out by using the electron beam system comprising the electron optical system shown in FIG. 3, in which, for example, a electric resistance of a via connection with a lower-layer wiring may be evaluated, said via being used to connect the lower-layer wiring and an upper-layer wiring in a multi-layered wiring sample. Evaluating the electric resistance of the via connection with the lower-layer wiring takes advantage of such a characteristic that when the charge is given to the surface of the sample, if the lower-layer wiring is grounded or almost grounded and the electric resistance between the via connection and the lower-layer wiring is sufficiently small, then the via may immediately return back to the ground potential, but if the electric resistance between the via connection and the lower-layer wiring is great, then the via may be charged to positive. Accordingly, measuring the surface potential immediately after the injection of the charges to the sample by the electron beam system shown in FIG. 3 allows the electric resistance of the via connection with the lower-layer wiring to be evaluated. Further, measuring the changes in potential of the via over time can provide a more accurate measurement of the electric connection resistance, and also using the electron beam system of FIG. 3 to perform the defect inspection can improve the throughput. Normally, the via has a cross sectional area as small as the minimum line width at a location along the surface of the lowest layer of the multi-layered wiring, and the cross sectional area thereof becomes gradually bigger toward the topmost layer. When the via has a greater sectional area, it may be better to use a greater diameter of the beam so that the defect inspection can be carried out at high rate. Accordingly, in the fourth embodiment, when the via having the larger diameter is to be evaluated, the position of the second aperture plate 205 of FIG. 3 along the optical axis may be changed and also the demagnified ratio of the beam from the first aperture plate 206 may be changed, thereby obtaining the beam having a desired diameter. Further, upon making the probe beam by forming a crossover enlarged image or demagnified image on the sample surface, the crossover reducing ratio should be changed. Turning now to FIG. 4, how to apply the defect inspection to the via by using the electron beam system shown in FIG. 3 will now be described. A field of view for scanning by the electron beam system is indicated by a rectangular shape 3-1 of dotted line. The area within this field of view for scanning 3-1 is raster scanned along the solid line 3-3 by the electron beam system. The secondary electrons generated by this raster scanning are detected by the secondary electron detector 212 to obtain the SEM image. Since the secondary electron emission efficiency is higher in the location including a via 3-2 within the field of view for scanning 3-1, a brighter image can be acquired therein, which is then stored. This means that a different image would be obtained in dependence on the variation in the material of the sample surface. When the SEM image is to be obtained, since the ground voltage is being applied to the one electrode most proximal to the sample among those electrodes of the objective lens while the negative voltage is being applied to the sample S, therefore the secondary electrons are accelerated so as to be efficiently detected. A fifth embodiment of the present invention relates to a technology for measuring a potential contrast by using the electron beam system shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating specifically a physical relationship between the objective lens 208 of FIG. 3 and the sample S. It is to be noted that FIG. 5 shows only a left half of a cross section including the optical axis P of three electrodes of the objective lens 208, an upper electrode 8-1, a central electrode 8-2, and a lower electrode 8-3, as well as the sample S, so that a 3D figure formed by turning the cross section of the electrodes around the optical axis P shows an actual unit of electrodes. Reference numeral 8-4 designates insulating spacer for insulating the upper electrode 8-1, the central electrode 8-2 and the lower electrode 8-3 from each other. The thickness of each insulating spacer and the interval between the insulating spacers are both 2 mm, for example. If a voltage lower than that of the sample S is applied to this lower electrode 8-3 of the objective lens 8, the potential contrast for the pattern formed on the sample S can be measured. This will be described with reference to FIG. 6. FIG. 6 shows a result of a simulation which shows that a potential contrast can be measured by this electron beam system, in which a voltage lower than that of the sample S by 300V is applied to the lower electrode 8-3 most proximal to the sample among the electrodes of the objective lens 208. In FIG. 6, reference numeral 221 designates an equipotential surface of −1V, reference numeral 222 designates an trajectory of the secondary electron emitted from the pattern having a potential of 2V at an initial speed of 0.2 eV, and reference numeral 223 designates an trajectories of the secondary electron emitted from the pattern having a potential of 0V at an initial speed of 0.2 eV. Is can been seen from FIG. 6 that the secondary electrons emitted from the pattern having the potential of 2V are returned back to the sample S side, but the secondary electrons emitted from the pattern having the potential of 0V passed through those three electrodes, the upper electrode 8-1, the central electrode 8-2 and the lower electrode 8-3. This indicates that those secondary electrons from the pattern having the potential of 0V can be detected, but those secondary electrons from the pattern having the potential of 2V cannot be detected, which means that the potential contrast can be measured. A sixth embodiment of the present invention will now be described. When the potential contrast is to be measured, since the voltage lower than that of the sample S by approximately 300V is applied to the electrode most proximal to the sample S among those electrodes of the objective lens 208, the potential contrast can be obtained, but instead, an aberration characteristic of the objective lens 208 may be deteriorated, and if the beam is converged, then the beam current is apt to be smaller and thereby the S/N ratio may also become lower. As one solution to this problem, scanning may be skipped for the locations containing no via during measuring the potential contrast, as shown in 3-4. That is, only the locations containing vias should be selectively scanned. If the system is controlled to apply the irradiation only to the vias, then the measuring time would be further shortened. Besides, preferably, the geometry of the beam may be shorter in the scanning direction but may be longer in the direction normal to said scanning direction, as shown by 235 in FIG. 4. This ensures that the via may be scanned properly, even in the case of the slightly offset operational position. Such geometry of the beam may be formed through the aperture provided in the first aperture plate 205 of FIG. 3. According to a seventh embodiment of the present invention, when a voltage applied to the electrode most proximal to the sample 8 among those electrodes of the objective lens 208, i.e., the lower electrode 8-3, is changed, depending on a case where the raster scan is carried out to obtain the SEM image or a case where the potential contrast is measured, the voltage applied to the central electrode representing the focusing condition in the sample S may be also changed. It is to be appreciated that scanning for the purpose of giving charges to the sample S by the electron beam system shown in FIG. 3 may be carried out with an optimal landing energy, that is, a landing energy that can provide a desired potential with a least dose. Adjusting this landing energy can be performed by changing a cathode potential of the electron gun 11 and/or changing, a retarding voltage to be applied to the sample S. Turning now to flowcharts in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, a semiconductor device manufacturing method by using the electron beam system of the present invention will be described. The electron beam system of the present invention may be used to evaluate a wafer in the course of processing or after having been processed in the flowcharts of FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. As shown in FIG. 7, the semiconductor device manufacturing method, if generally segmented, may comprise a wafer manufacturing process S1 for manufacturing a wafer, a wafer processing process S2 for providing any processing required for the wafer, a mask manufacturing process S3 for manufacturing the mask required for exposure, a chip assembling process S4 for cutting out those chips formed on the wafer one by one so as to make them operative, and a chip testing process S5 for testing the finished chips. Each of those processes includes some sub steps, respectively. Among the processes described above, the process which may give critically effect semiconductor device manufacturing is the wafer processing process. The reason is that in this process, a designed circuit pattern is formed on the wafer and also a lot of chips are expected to operate as a memory, or a MPU are formed thereon. Thus, it is important to evaluate the processed condition of the wafer representing the result of the processes executed in the sub steps of the wafer processing process which has much effect on the manufacturing of the semiconductor wafer, and those sub steps will be described below. First of all, a dielectric thin film for functioning as an insulation layer is deposited, and a metal thin film is also deposited, which forms a wiring section and an electrode section. The film deposition may be performed by the CVD or the sputtering. Then, the deposited dielectric thin film and metal thin film together with the wafer substrate are oxidized, and also a resist pattern is formed in a lithography process by using a mask or reticle produced in the mask manufacturing process S3. Then, the substrate is processed according to the resist pattern by using the dry etching technology or the like, and ions or other impurities are implanted therein. After that step, the resist layer is removed, and the wafer is subjected to testing. Such a wafer processing process as described above may be repeated by a desired number of layers to produce the wafer which in turn is separated into respective chips in the chip assembling process S4. FIG. 8 is a flow chart illustrating the lithography process included as a sub step in the wafer processing process of FIG. 7. As shown in FIG. 7, the lithography process includes a resist coating step S21, an exposing step S22, a developing step S23 and an annealing step S24. In the resist coating step S21, the resist is applied onto the wafer, on which the circuit patter has been formed by using the CVD or the sputtering, and then in the exposing step S22, the applied resist is exposed. Then, in the developing step S23, the exposed resist is developed so as to obtain the resist pattern, and in the annealing step S24, the developed resist pattern is annealed to be made stable. Those steps S21 to S24 may be repeated by a desired number of layers. According to the semiconductor device manufacturing method of the present invention, since the electron beam system as discussed with reference to FIG. 3 to FIG. 6 is used in the chip testing process S5 for testing the finished chips, therefore even in the case of the semiconductor device having a fine pattern, an image with a reduced distortion and/or out-of-focus can be obtained and thereby any defects in the wafer can be detected with high reliability. FIG. 11 shows an electron beam system (an electron optical system) 600 to which the present invention can be applied. In FIG. 11, an electron beam emitted from a cathode 601a contained in an electron gun 601 is focused by a condenser lens 603 into a crossover image at a point 605. A first multi-aperture plate 607 having a plurality of apertures is disposed below the condenser lens 603, and with the aid of this, a plurality of primary electron beams is formed respectively. Each of the primary electron beams formed by the first multi-aperture plate 607 is demagnified by a demagnifying lens 609 so as to be projected onto a point 611. That beam is, after having been focused on the point 611, further focused by an objective lens 613 onto a sample S. The plurality of primary electron beams exiting from the first multi-aperture plate 607 is deflected so as to synchronously scan a surface of the sample S by a deflector 617 disposed between the demagnifying lens 609 and an objective lens 613. In order to eliminate an image field curvature aberration of the demagnifying lens 609 and the objective lens 613, a plurality of small apertures are arranged along a circle on the multi-aperture plate 607 in such a manner that the projections of respective apertures in the Y-direction may be equally spaced. The electron gun 601, the condenser lens 603, the first multi-aperture plate 607, the deflector 617 and the objective lens 613 all together make up a primary optical system 536 having an optical axis 535. A plurality of points on the sample S is irradiated by the thus focused plurality of primary electron beams respectively, and secondary electron beams emanated from said plurality of points are attracted by the electric field of the objective lens 613 to be converged narrower and then deflected by an E×B separator 619 to be introduced into a detecting system 538. Those secondary electron beams are focused at a point 621 closer to the objective lens 613 as compared with the point 611. This is because each of the primary electron beams has an energy of 500 eV on the sample surface, while in contrast, each of the secondary electron beams has only an energy of a few eV. The detecting system 538 has magnifying lenses 623, 625, and the secondary electron beam after passing through those magnifying lenses 623, 625 passes through a plurality of apertures 627a of a second multi-aperture plate 627 and then is formed into images on a plurality of detectors 629. It is to be noted that each of the plurality of apertures 627a formed in the second multi-aperture plate 627 disposed in front of the plurality of detectors 629 corresponds respectively to each of a plurality of apertures 607a formed in the first multi-aperture plate 607 on the one-to-one basis. Each of the detectors 629 converts the detected secondary electron beam into an electric signal indicative of its intensity. The electric signals output from respective detectors are amplified by the amplifier 631 and received by the image processing section 633, respectively, where the signals are converted into image data. Since the image processing section 633 is further provided with a scanning signal which has been used for deflecting the primary electron beam, the image processing section 633 can display an image representing the surface of the sample S. A defect in the surface of the sample S can be detected by comparing the image with a reference pattern, and also a line width of the pattern on the sample S can be measured by moving the sample S into the vicinity of the optical axis of the primary optical system 536 through the registration and then extracting a line width evaluation signal through a line scanning, which is then appropriately calibrated. At this point, a special care must be taken in order to minimize an effect from three kinds of aberrations, i.e., the distortion induced in the primary optical system, the image field curvature aberration and the astigmatism when the primary electron beam after passing through the apertures of the first multi-aperture plate 607 is formed into an image on the surface of the sample S and the secondary electron beam emanated from the sample S is formed into an image on the detector 629. Then, as to the relationship between a distance among a plurality of primary electron beams and the detecting system 538, if the primary electron beams are arranged to be spaced from each other by a distance greater than the aberration of the detecting system 538, cross talk among the plurality of electron beams can be eliminated. It is to be noted that in FIG. 11, reference numeral 626 illustrates trajectory of specific secondary electrons among those secondary electrons emanated from the irradiation points of the primary electron beam on a circle, which have been emanated from two points on a diameter of the circle in the directions normal to the sample surface. An aperture 628 is arranged in a location where those trajectories cross the optical axis 539, such that the aberration in the value converted into that on the sample surface may be made smaller than the minimum value of the beam-to-beam distance of the primary electron beams. Further, in FIG. 11, reference numeral 618 designates an axisymmetric electrode for measuring the potential of the pattern on the wafer. As for the control of the dose, during fly-back of the scanning operation the multi-beam is deflected by a deflector 635 so as to be blocked by a knife edge 637 for blanking, while at the same time, the current absorbed into this knife edge is measured by an am meter 639, and the dose per unit area is calculated by a dose calculating circuit 641. The thus calculated value is stored in a storage 645 through a CPU 643. Further, if the dose per unit area exceeds a predetermined value, the CPU 643 may invoke an electron gun control power supply 647 to decrease the voltage to be applied to a Wehnelt electrode 601b, thereby reducing the beam current to decrease the dose. Further, when the control is not able to catch up with the increase of the dose and ultimately the dose per unit area ends at a level higher than, for example, 3 μc/cm2, then the data of the corresponding irradiation area is just output by an output means 649, and the evaluation is carried on. FIG. 12 shows an electron beam system (mainly a movable stage) 70 to which the present invention can be applied. In this embodiment, a term “vacuum” means a vacuum typically referred to in this technical field. In the electron beam system 70 of FIG. 12, a tip end portion of a optical column 71 for irradiating an electron beam against a sample, i.e., an electron beam irradiation section 72, is installed in a housing 84 defining a vacuum chamber “C”. Right below the optical column 71 is provided an XY stage 73 of high precision, in which an X table 74 movable in the X direction (the left and right direction in FIG. 12) is mounted on a Y-directionally (the direction vertical to the paper in FIG. 12) movable table 75. The sample S is loaded on the X table 74. The sample S is positioned correctly with respect to the optical column 71 by the XY stage 73, so that an electron beam from the optical column 71 may be irradiated onto a predetermined point on a surface of the sample. A pedestal 76 of the XY stage 73 is fixed to a bottom wall of the housing 84, and the Y table 75 movable in the Y direction (the vertical direction with respect to the paper in FIG. 12) is mounted on the pedestal 76. On both side faces of the Y table 75 (a left and a right side faces in FIG. 12), protrusions are formed, which are protruded into concave recesses formed in a pair of Y-directional guides 77a and 77b in their side surfaces facing to the Y table respectively. Each of the concave recesses extends in the Y direction along almost the full length of each of the Y-directional guides. Hydrostatic bearings 81a, 79a, 81b, 79b having a known structure are provided respectively in an upper and a lower faces and side faces of the protrusions protruding into the concave recesses, and a high pressure gas is blown out via those hydrostatic bearings, so that the Y table 75 can be supported in a non-contact manner with respect to the Y-directional guides 77a, 77b and thereby allowed to make a reciprocating motion in the Y direction smoothly. Further, a linear motor 82 having a known structure is disposed between the pedestal 76 and the Y table 75 and a Y directional driving is performed by the linear motor 82. A high pressure gas is supplied to the Y table 75 through a flexible pipe 92 for feeding the high pressure gas, and further distributed to the hydrostatic bearings 79a to 81a and 79b to 81b through a gas passage (not shown) formed within the Y table. The high pressure gas supplied to the hydrostatic bearings is blown out into a gap in a range of some microns to some ten microns formed between the Y table and a oppositely positioned guide plane of each of the Y directional guides, and herein the high pressure gas has a role in positioning the Y table 75 accurately with respect to the guide planes in the X direction and the Z direction (in the up and down direction in FIG. 12). The X table 74 is operatively mounted on the Y table 75 so as to be movable in the X direction (the left and right direction in FIG. 12). A pair of X directional guides 78a, 78b (only 78a is shown) having the same structure as that of the Y directional guides 77a, 77b is disposed on the Y table 75 with the X table 74 interposed therebetween. A concave recess is also formed in each of the X directional guides in their side surfaces facing to the X table 74. Each of the concave recesses extends along almost full length of each of the X directional guides. Hydrostatic bearings (not shown) similar to said hydrostatic bearings 81a, 79a, 80a, 81b, 79b, 80b are arranged in a similar orientation in upper and a lower faces and side faces of each protrusion of the X directional table 74 protruding into the concave recess. A linear motor 83 having a known structure is disposed between the Y table 75 and the X table 74, and the X directional driving of the X table is performed by that linear motor 83. A high pressure gas is supplied to the X table 74 through a flexible pipe 91 and further distributed to the hydrostatic bearings. This high pressure gas is blown out against the guide plane of the X directional guide from the hydrostatic bearings, and thereby the X table 74 can be supported with high precision with respect to the Y directional guide in the non-contact manner. A vacuum chamber “C” is evacuated by a vacuum pump or the like having a known structure through vacuum pipes 89, 90a, 90b connected thereto. Inlet sides of the pipes 90a, 90b (inside of the vacuum chamber) are extended through the pedestal 76 and open in the upper surface thereof in the vicinity of a location where the high pressure gas is discharged from the XY stage 73, so that the increase in the pressure in the vacuum chamber may be prevented as much as possible, which may otherwise be caused by the high pressure gas blown out from the hydrostatic bearings. A differential exhaust mechanism 95 is arranged in the surrounding of the electron beam irradiation section 72 or the tip end of the optical column 71 so as to keep the pressure within the electron beam irradiation space 87 to be sufficiently low even if the pressure within the vacuum chamber C is high. That is, an annular member 96 of the differential exhaust mechanism 95 mounted to the periphery of the electron beam irradiation section 72 is positioned with respect to the housing 94 such that a minute gap 110 (in a range of some microns to some ten microns) may be created between the lower surface of the annular member 96 (the surface facing to the sample S) and the sample S, and an annular groove 97 is formed in the under surface of the annular member 96. The annular groove 97 is connected to a vacuum pump, though not shown, via an exhaust pipe 98. Accordingly, the minute gap 110 may be evacuated through the annular groove 97 and the exhaust port 98, so that any gas molecules trying to enter the electron beam irradiation space 87 surrounded by the annular member 96 from the vacuum chamber C can be exhausted. By way of this, the pressure within the electron beam irradiation space 87 can be kept to be low, and thereby the electron beam can be irradiated without causing any problem. This annular groove may employ a double or a triple structure depending on the pressure within the chamber and/or the pressure within the electron beam irradiation space 87. As the high pressure gas to be supplied to the hydrostatic bearings, typically dry nitrogen gas may be employed. However, if possible, preferably an inert gas of higher purity should be used. This is because if any impurities, such as water content or oil content, are contained in the gas, those impurities may adhere to the inner surface of the housing defining the vacuum chamber or to the surfaces of the stage components, which in turn deteriorate the vacuum level, or otherwise they may adhere to the surface of the sample, which also in turn reversely affect the vacuum level in the electron beam irradiation space. Typically, the sample S is not directly loaded on the X table, but may be loaded on a sample table having functions for detachably holding the sample and/or for applying a minor position change with respect to the XY stage 73. Since the stage mechanism of the hydrostatic bearing used in the atmosphere may be employed in the electron beam system 70 almost without any modification, an XY stage having as high precision as the stage specified for the atmosphere used in the exposing apparatus can be achieved for the XY stage specified for the electron beam system with approximately the same cost and size. The structure and configuration for the hydrostatic guide and the actuator (linear motor) as described above have been given by way of example only, but any hydrostatic guide and actuator usable in the atmosphere can be employed. FIG. 9 is a general schematic diagram illustrating an arrangement of an electrostatic capacity sensor in an electron beam system according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the electron beam system, four electrostatic capacity sensors 502a, 502b, 502c and 505 are disposed along a periphery 503 of a disc shaped 12 inch wafer 1 to be loaded on the movable stage, which is not shown. Three of the sensors 502a, 502b and 502c are arranged so as to be equally spaced from each other, while the sensor 505 is provided to adjust a rotational orientation of the wafer and is disposed in a location between the sensor 502b and the sensor 502c where a notch 504 or an orientation flat should be normally located. Herein, the notch or the orientation flat is provided by cutting out a portion of the contour of the disc-like wafer in order to specify the direction of rotation of the wafer. The notch is defined as a V-shaped cut-out, while the orientation flat is a linear cut-out normal to a radial direction of the wafer. A position of each of the electrostatic capacity sensors 502a, 502b, 502c and 505 with respect to the wafer on the movable stage may be determined such that the wafer may overlap approximately a half of each electrode. A distance (dx, dy) between an optical axis (0, 0) of the electron optical system and the center of gravity of three electrostatic capacity sensors 502a, 502b and 502c is measured in advance. Positioning of the wafer loaded on the electron beam system may be carried out in the following manner. The disc-like wafer S mounted on the movable stage is brought by the movement of the movable stage into a position where the periphery 503 of the wafer comes into engagement with respective electrostatic capacity sensors 502a, 502b, 502c and 505, as shown in FIG. 9. At first, the electrostatic capacity is measured by three of the sensors 502a, 502b and 502c which have been disposed to be spaced equally from each other, and the measured values from those three sensors 502a, 502b and 502c are compared to one another, and then the xy position of the wafer is adjusted by the movable stage such that those three sensors may indicate the same measured values. In the case where the wafer is in a location offset to the right hand side in FIG. 9, since the measured value from the sensor 502c may be greater, while the measured value from the sensor 502b may be smaller, therefore the wafer is shifted to the left hand side so as to make both measured values equal. If the measured value from the sensor 502a is smaller than the measured value from the sensor 502b, the wafer should be shifted upwardly, and if greater, then the wafer should be shifted downwardly to make the measured values equal to each other. In this way, the center position (the center of gravity position G) of the wafer can be made to match the center of gravity position for the three sensors 502a, 502b and 502c, or the optical axis position (0, 0) of the electron optical system. After this, in order to correct the rotational orientation of the wafer, a θ table is moved to minimize the measured value from the electrostatic capacity sensor 505. In the above embodiment, the four electrostatic capacity sensors 502a, 502b, 502c and 505 are used to position the wafer relative to the movable stage with a position accuracy of ±20 μm and a rotation accuracy of ±10 mrad. By moving the movable stage by the distance (dx, dy), the center of the wafer can be brought into a position right below the electron optical system or the optical axis position (0, 0) thereof so as to match therewith with the position accuracy of ±20 μm. When the field of view of the electron optical system is defined by a diameter of 200 μm, a corner portion (an edge) created by 100 μm wide dicing lines can be obtained in an SEM image. The dicing line is defined as a region containing no device pattern arranged between dies and it has a width slightly greater than the thickness of a saw blade used for cutting out dies from the wafer so as to separate one die from another die in the X direction and the Y direction. It can be accurately measured from the SEM image how much the center position of the wafer is offset from that of the electron optical system. Therefore, upon performing defect inspection of the pattern, this offset is compensated for on the basis of the SEM image and then the comparison is made relative to the reference pattern, thereby making it possible to detect the defect. Discussing now a problem that the rotational orientation of the wafer may fall only within a range of ±10 mrad, any offset of the rotational orientation can be accurately measured by moving the movable stage into a position where the optical axis of the electron optical system comes into match with the dicing line in the periphery of the wafer, taking the SEM image in that position and then comparing it to that taken in the center to determine the offset therebetween. The correction may be performed with the θ table, or alternatively the stage may be run along the orientation of the pattern on the wafer during the continuous driving of the stage. A method for evaluating an image, in which alignment has not been accomplished correctly, by using a pattern matching will be described with reference to FIG. 10. FIG. 10a is an SEM image including a field of view 521 obtained by the electron optical system, while FIG. 10b is a reference image including a field of view 522. By comparing respective pattern corner portions 525, 526, 527, 528 in the vicinity of four corners of the field of view 521 of the SEM image with respective pattern corner portions 525′, 526′, 527′, 528′ in the vicinity of four corners of the reference image including the field of view 522 to one another, respectively, those offsets in position, rotation and magnification of the SEM image from the reference image can be calculated. The reason why four points are selected in each image is to allow a pattern matching to be conducted correctly, even if the defects reside in the pattern corner portions to be compared. As shown in FIG. 10a, if a defect 529 happens to reside in the vicinity of the pattern corner portion 252, a magnification compared in 525-527, or (a distance between 525 and 527)/(a distance between 525′ and 527′), may be different from a magnification compared in 526-528, or (a distance between 526-528)/(a distance between 526′ and 528′), which indicates that there must be a defect in some pattern. In this case, if further a magnification measured in 525-528 is compared to a magnification measured in 526-527, the result would be, for example, (525-527)/(525′-527′)=1.01 (526-528)/(526′-528′)=1.05 (526-527)/(526′-527′)=1.05 (525-528)/(525′-528′)=0.99 which indicates that the pattern corner 525 must contain the defect. It is a matter of course that the rotation angle may be compared. FIG. 10c shows a case of a pattern corner shaped into arc 531. In this case, an accurate evaluation of a pattern can be obtained by considering an intersection 526 of extensions of two sides to be a pattern corner. An electron beam system according to the present invention shown in FIG. 11 may be applicable to a semiconductor device manufacturing method shown in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. That is, the electron beam system of FIG. 11 is applicable to the process for evaluating a processed condition of a wafer (wafer testing) in the wafer processing process, and if applied to the chip testing process for inspecting the finished chip, then a defect in a wafer can be detected with high accuracy. FIG. 13a and FIG. 13b are diagrams for illustrating a position sensor 540 of electrostatic capacity type, wherein FIG. 13a is a plan view showing a physical relationship between an electrode of the position sensor and a wafer, while FIG. 13b contains a side elevational view showing a physical relationship between the electrode of the position sensor and the wafer as well as a block diagram of other main components. As shown in FIG. 13a and FIG. 13b, an electrode 541 of the position sensor 540 has an elongated plate-like shape and it is positioned in parallel with the surface of the wafer S as spaced from the surface by a predetermined distance “H”. The wafer S and the electrode 541 are electrically connected to an electrostatic capacity measuring instrument 546, and an electrostatic capacity “Q” between these two components is measured. The electrostatic capacity measuring instrument 546 may be a commercially available impedance measuring instrument. The electrostatic capacity Q between the wafer S and the electrode 541 is proportional to an overlapped area 542 of the wafer S with respect to the electrode 541. As shown in FIG. 13a, assuming that the shape of the electrode 541 is a rectangle and the electrode 541 is disposed in the radial direction of the wafer, then the area of the overlapped portion 542 may be proportional to a length “x” of the overlapped portion of the electrode 541 with respect to the wafer S in the radial direction thereof. Accordingly, by preparing a comparison table 547 containing a relationship between the length “x” and the electrostatic capacity Q, which has been determined in advance, the overlapped portion length “x”, or the position of the wafer S, can be determined on the basis of the comparison table and the measured electrostatic capacity Q. As shown in FIG. 13b, the measured electrostatic capacity Q and the data from the comparison table 547 are input into the position detector 548, which in turn outputs the wafer position data. EFFECTS OF THE INVENTION According to the present invention, the following effects may be brought about. (1) As compared with an optical system using a three-stage of lenses according to the prior art, in the present invention, a number of stages of lenses can be reduced to two, and accordingly a lens axis aligning device may be made one stage less. Consequently, a length of an optical path may be made shorter and out-of-focus of an electron beam due to a space charge effect may be reduced. Further in the present invention, since a number of parts to be used in the optical system and a control circuit can be reduced by a number corresponding to one-stage of lens and one-stage of electrostatic deflector, therefore a reliability of the electron beam system can be improved. (2) As compared to a crossover image demagnification type beam, in the present invention, a higher beam current can be obtained by using the same electron beam size. (3) Since the electron gun can be operated in the space charge limited condition, a shot noise in the electron beam can be significantly reduced, and thereby a noise in the secondary electrons signal can be reduced. (4) Since a NA aperture is disposed in a front location with respect to a demagnification lens, a detector of the secondary electrons can be disposed in a front location with respect to an objective lens. (5) When the NA aperture is disposed adjacent to the objective lens, it is no more necessary to accurately position a crossover image point of the electron beam. (6) Since the electron gun is used in the space charge limited condition, a signal having a greater S/N ratio can be obtained by using the same level of beam current as compared to the case of using an electron gun of the schottky cathode type. In this case, preferably a shot noise reduction coefficient is 0.5 or lower, and more preferably 0.2 or lower. (7) Since the secondary electrons generated from a pattern of high voltage can be returned back toward the sample by applying a voltage lower than that of the sample to an electrode most proximal to the sample among the electrodes of the objective lens, therefore not only the potential contrast can be measured but also upon obtaining an SEM image, the secondary electrons can be detected with high efficiency by grounding this electrode. (8) Upon measuring the potential of the sample, an inspection can be finished within a shorter time as compared to a full surface scanning by applying an irradiation selectively only to a location containing a via. (9) Since an optimal operating condition, for example, a beam diameter, can be set selectively in each individual case for obtaining the SEM image, for giving charges to the sample, or for measuring a potential contrast, therefore an inspection with high precision can be achieved with high throughput. (10) Since a defect inspection can be carried out with high throughput, therefore a device can be manufactured with high yield. (11) An inspection apparatus of the present invention can provide an innovative electron beam system, in which an inspection of a wafer can be performed without destroying a gate oxide or the like by performing an alignment operation without using any electron beam. (12) According to the present invention, since an optical microscope for alignment operation is not required to be installed in a vacuum environment, an electron beam system may have a more simplified structure and thereby can be manufactured at lower price. Further, there would be no more alignment time, and so a throughput (a processing volume per time) can be improved. (13) According to the present invention, a pattern matching is conducted by using four or more points, so that no error may be produced even if a defect resides at a point to be evaluated, and also a pattern matching can be performed correctly even if a corner portion of the pattern has a curvature. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to an electron beam system, a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which employs the same electron beam system, and a manufacturing method of a device using the same defect inspection apparatus, and more specifically, relates to an electron beam system which can evaluate a sample (a semiconductor wafer) having a device pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm with both a high throughput and high reliability, a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which employs the same electron beam system, and a manufacturing method of a device which can improve a yield thereof by evaluating a wafer after it has been processed using the same defect inspection apparatus. The present invention also relates to an electron beam system and a defect inspection method for evaluating a device, such as a wafer or a mask, having a pattern with a minimum line width in a range of 0.1 micron, and also to a method for manufacturing a device with a high yield by using the same system and a defect inspection method. The present invention further relates to a method for simplifying a registration (positioning) of an inspection apparatus in which an electron beam is irradiated against a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected and then processed to thereby obtain an SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) image of a fine geometry on a surface of the sample, and thus carry out evaluation thereof. The fine geometry on the sample surface may be, for example, on a semiconductor wafer or a mask having a high-density pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm. The present invention also relates to a manufacturing method of a semiconductor device using such an inspection apparatus. One such electron beam system has been suggested for evaluating a sample having a device pattern with a minimum line width equal to or less than 0.1 μm, in which a shaped electron beam is demagnified (contracted) to be narrower and irradiated onto a sample and then secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected so as to evaluate the sample. In such a system, an optical system for shaping the electron beam has employed at least a three-stage of lenses. Besides, when it is intended to form such a narrow electron beam equal to or less than 0.1 μm, a demagnification crossover image type beam has been employed. Further, it is required to increase an intensity of the electron beam in order to provide evaluation with higher reliability, and in this case a thermoelectric field emission (schottky) cathode electron gun has been used so as to obtain a high current beam of 0.1 μm or smaller. Such an electron beam system has been known, in which a primary electron beam emitted from an electron gun is demagnified to be narrower so as to irradiate a sample, such as a wafer or a mask, and a secondary electron beam, which has been emanated from the sample through this irradiation, is detected, to thereby detect any defects or to measure a line width on the sample. Further, it has been also known that an electron beam is irradiated on a sample and thereby charges are introduced to a pattern on the sample so as to induce a voltage, which is in turn measured and thus an electric parameter of the sample is measured. In the prior art, for measuring the voltage induced in the pattern on the surface of the sample, there has been employed one such method in which a hemispherical mesh filter is provided, and the secondary electrons emanated from the sample surface are returned to the sample surface side or introduced into a detector arranged behind the mesh in dependence on a potential of the pattern from which the secondary electrons have been emanated, thus carrying out measurement of the potential of the pattern. An electron gun in an electron beam system to be used in such a method may be in most cases one designated as a schottky type by Zr-W having a magnified intensity. Further, a demagnified crossover image formed by the electron gun has been commonly used as a probe current for injecting charges into the sample to measure the voltage of the pattern. One such inspection apparatus has been well known that uses a scanning electron microscope to inspect a subject (sample), such as a semiconductor wafer and so on. In this inspection apparatus, a narrowly demagnified electron beam is used to conduct raster scanning with a raster scanning width of an extremely narrow space, and then secondary electrons emanated from the subject are detected by a detector so as to form an SEM image, wherein two SEM images for corresponding locations in two different samples are compared to each other to detect any defects. A lithography apparatus which comprises an electron optical system and which uses an electron beam to form a fine geometry on a surface of a sample such as a semiconductor wafer requires position alignment or a registration of high precision between the electron optical system and the sample. In order to satisfy this requirement, one method has been employed that uses the electron optical system of the lithography apparatus to detect an alignment mark on the sample to accomplish the position alignment, and also another method has been employed, in which an optical microscope is further provided in addition to the electron optical system so as to perform rough alignment (a roughly controlled position alignment) through an observation across an enlarged field of view by using the optical microscope and also fine alignment (a high magnification position alignment) by using the electron optical system of the lithography apparatus. However, such high precision alignment is not necessarily required in an inspection apparatus. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>However, it is problematic that although in a schottky electron gun, a beam current three to ten times higher as compared to that obtained by a thermionic emission electron gun (e.g., LaB 6 electron gun) can be obtained, and a shot noise of the electron beam is quite large and inevitably an S/N ratio is not so good, which makes it difficult to evaluate a sample with high throughput. On the other hand, the crossover image demagnification type beam by using the LaB 6 electron gun also has a drawback such that it is impossible to make the beam current higher, and this makes it difficult to evaluate a sample with high throughput. Further, in the method for shaping a beam by using the LaB 6 electron gun, since it uses three or more stage of lenses, a long optical column must be used and a deflector is additionally required for axial alignment. It is also problematic that the space charge effect becomes greater in proportion to the length of the optical path, and it is difficult to accomplish a good intensity and position stability of the electron beam. One of the subjects to be accomplished by the invention is to provide an electron beam system that can provide an evaluation of a sample with high throughput by reducing a shot noise of an electron beam and thereby improving the S/N ratio. Another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide an electron beam system that allows a beam current to be made higher and thus can evaluate a sample with high throughput. Still another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide a fully furnished system for a defect inspection apparatus by manufacturing an electron optical column employing only two stage of lenses to form and control a shaped beam with high stability. Yet another subject to be accomplished by the present invention is to provide a manufacturing method of a device, in which a sample after having been processed is evaluated by using the electron beam system as described above. An electron beam system according to the prior art is associated with the problems stated above, in addition to the problem that the system tends to be too complicated, and also that since the filter made up of hemispherical mesh used in a measurement of the potential contrast forms a non-axisymmetric electric field, an uncorrectable distortion may be induced in a measured result. Besides, since the electron gun of the schottky cathode type produces a big shot noise, it is required to apply a high beam current or to emit an intensified primary electron beam in order to obtain a good SIN ratio. Further, if the magnified crossover image is used as the above-stated probe current and an electron gun having the same intensity is used in this case, then again, problematically, the beam current would be smaller as compared to a case in using the demagnified image of the shaping aperture. The present invention has been made to solve the problems pointed out above, and the object thereof is to provide an electron beam system which comprises an axisymmetric filter as well as an electron gun with a smaller shot noise, and allows a relatively higher beam current to be obtained as compared to that which can be achieved by using an electron gun with the same brightness, and also to provide a defect inspection method using the same electron beam system, as well as a device manufacturing method using the same electron beam system and defect inspection method. There has been a problem that if both rough alignment and fine alignment are carried out, it takes a long time to complete an alignment operation, resulting in a lower throughput (a quantity of processing per unit time) achieved by the inspection apparatus. In addition, when an electron optical system is used to conduct alignment, an electron beam dose equivalent to or greater than that applied in the sample evaluation would be applied to the wafer, which in turn could destroy a gate oxide or the like. The present invention is also directed to solving the above problem. Accordingly, another object of the present invention is to provide an inspection apparatus, in which inspection of a wafer can be carried out by conducting alignment without using any electron beams, and thus without destroying the gate oxide and the like. Another object of the present invention is to provide a device manufacturing method using such an inspection apparatus as described above. The above-described subjects are solved by the following means. That is, the present invention provides an electron beam system, in which an electron beam emitted from an electron gun is irradiated onto a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected, wherein said electron gun is specified to be a thermionic emission electron gun, and a shaping aperture and a NA aperture are arranged in front locations of said thermionic emission electron gun, wherein an image of the shaping aperture irradiated by the electron beam from said thermionic emission electron gun is formed on a surface of the sample by two-stage lenses. It is to be noted that the expression “in (a) front location(s) of” is defined as in the sample side which is (are) in a forward side with respect to the direction along which the electrons advance. A secondary electron beam includes a reflected electron reflected by the sample surface, a transmission electron having transmitted through the sample, and an emanated electron emanated from the sample by the irradiation of the primary electron beam. Further, according to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system in which an electron beam emitted from an electron gun is irradiated onto a sample and secondary electrons emanated from the sample are detected, wherein said electron gun is specified to be a thermionic emission electron gun and a shaping aperture and a NA aperture are arranged in front locations of said thermionic emission electron gun, wherein a crossover image formed by the electron beam from the thermionic electron gun is formed into an image in the NA aperture, and an image of the shaping aperture irradiated by the electron beam from the thermionic emission electron gun is formed on a surface of the sample. Further, according to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from the electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that a shaping aperture and two-stage lenses are arranged in the primary optical system, and additionally, an E×B separator is arranged between the two-atage lenses, wherein an image of a shaping aperture irradiated by an electron beam from said electron gun is demagnified and formed on the sample surface by the two-stage lenses and secondary electrons emanated from the sample surface are separated by said E×B separator from the primary optical system and introduced into a detector. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from an electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that the primary optical system comprises a shaping aperture, a NA aperture, a condenser lens and an objective lens disposed in a sequential manner along an optical axis of the primary optical system, wherein a crossover image of the electron beam from the electron gun is focused to the NA aperture by controlling a Wehnelt bias (an electrode bias) of the electron gun. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, provided is an electron beam system which has a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam emitted from an electron gun onto a sample and in which secondary electrons emanated from a surface of the sample are detected by a detector, the system being characterized in that the primary optical system comprises a shaping aperture, a condenser lens and an objective lens disposed in a sequential manner along an optical axis of the primary optical system, and a NA aperture is disposed in a location adjacent to the objective lens in the electron gun side with respect to the objective lens, wherein a crossover image of the electron beam is formed in the NA aperture. According to still another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a defect inspection apparatus for a device, which is equipped with an electron beam system as defined according to any one of the above-described inventions or other inventions. Further, according to the present invention, there is provided a device manufacturing method in which a wafer after having been processed is evaluated by using the above described defect inspection apparatus. An electron beam system according to the present invention scans a sample surface by a primary electron beam emitted from an electron gun and then detects a secondary electron beam emanated from the sample. In this electron beam system, an objective lens is arranged for focusing the primary electron beam and for accelerating the secondary electron beam, wherein the objective lens has a plurality of electrodes. Preferably, the electron gun is operated in a space charge limited condition, meaning that a shot noise reduction coefficient is smaller than 1, and a voltage applied to a plurality of electrodes of the objective lens can be set to a desired value. Further, a demagnification ratio of the electron beam can be changed between a case for irradiating the electron beam against the sample so as to form a topographical or a material image of the sample surface, and another case for measuring a potential of a pattern formed on the sample. Whether or not the electron gun operates in the space charge limited zone (condition) can be examined by referring to the attached drawings, FIGS. 14 ( a ) and 14 ( b ) and by using a method described below. FIG. 14 ( a ) is a graph illustrating a relationship between an electron gun current and a cathode heating current, wherein in zone P, the electron gun current increase only by a small amount even if the cathode heating current is increased, which means that the zone P corresponds to the space charge limited condition. FIG. 14 ( b ) is a graph illustrating a relationship between the electron gun current and an anode voltage, wherein in zone Q, the electron gun current increases sharply when the anode voltage is increased, which means that the zone Q also corresponds to the space charge limited condition. From the above description, it can be determined that the electron gun is operating in the space charge limited condition either when the cathode heating current is increased to measure the electron gun current thereby determining the P zone where the electron gun current is saturated, or when the anode voltage is increased to measure the electron gun current thereby determining the Q zone where the electron gun current is changing sharply. Accordingly, it is possible to set the condition for operating the electron gun in the space charge limited condition. A defect inspection method using an electron beam system according to the present invention comprises: an image acquiring step for irradiating an electron beam emitted from the electron gun against the sample via the objective lens to obtain an image of a sample surface; a measuring step for measuring a potential or a variation thereof on the surface of the sample, which has been induced by irradiation of the electron beam; and a determining step for determining whether a specific pattern is good or not based on the potential or a variation thereof. In the image acquiring step and the measuring step, a voltage to be applied to an electrode most proximal to the sample among the plurality of electrodes of the objective lens may be changed. Preferably, a defect inspection method of the present invention comprises: a step for forming an SEM image by the scanning, and then measuring and storing a position of a specific pattern on the sample; and a measuring step for measuring a potential of the pattern by the selective scanning or irradiation on said specific pattern, wherein it is examined from a result of measurement of the potential of the specific pattern whether or not there is a defect in the sample. Preferably, a defect inspection method of the present invention comprises a step for acquiring an SEM image by the scanning and a step for measuring a potential of a pattern, wherein in the acquiring step and the measuring step, at least one of an excitation voltage of the objective lens, a landing voltage (energy) to the sample and a cathode voltage of the electron gun may be changed. The present invention further provides a device manufacturing method in which a wafer is evaluated at the end of each one of the processes for manufacturing the wafer by using either the electron beam system or the defect inspection method described above. An inspection apparatus for evaluating a fine geometry on a surface of a sample according to the present invention comprises: an electron optical system including a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam against a sample and a detecting system for detecting the electron beam emanated from the sample; a movable stage for carrying the sample and moving the sample relative to the electron optical system; and a position sensor capable of measuring a position of the sample with a desired precision. The position sensor is disposed in a location spaced by a desired distance from the electron optical system, and the movable stage is moved on the basis of a position signal output from the position sensor so as to bring the sample into a reference position in said electron optical system with a desired precision. The inspection apparatus, in the condition where the sample has been matched to the reference position in the electron optical system with the desired precision, acquires an SEM image of a surface of the sample by the electron optical system and the thus acquired SEM image is compared to another acquired SEM image or to a reference image for the pattern matching, thereby allowing for competitive evaluation. In the present invention, preferably, comparative evaluation is conducted by applying a pattern matching between an SEM image acquired from one segment on one sample and another SEM image acquired from a corresponding segment on a different sample. Alternatively, the SEM image acquired from one segment on one sample may be compared with a reference image for the pattern matching, thus carrying out the comparative evaluation. The position sensor measures the position of the sample by measuring an electrostatic capacity. Further, in an inspection apparatus of the present invention, pattern matching is applied between the SEM image and the reference image to provide a comparative evaluation by performing one of translation, rotation or magnification tuning of the image. An inspection apparatus for evaluating a fine geometry on a surface of a sample according to the present invention comprises: an electron optical system consisting of a primary optical system for irradiating an electron beam against the sample and a detecting system for detecting an electron beam emanated from the sample; a movable stage for carrying and moving the sample relatively with respect to the electron optical system; and a position sensor disposed in a location spaced by a predetermined distance from the electron optical system and being capable of measuring the position of the sample with a desired precision. In the inspection apparatus of the present invention, the movable stage is actuated on the basis of a position signal output from the position sensor to bring the sample into a reference position in the electron optical system. The inspection apparatus, in a condition that the sample has been matched to the reference position in the electron optical system with a desired precision, acquires an SEM image of a surface of the sample by the electron optical system, calculates a difference between an area to be evaluated on the sample surface and a field of view of the electron optical system based on the acquired SEM image, and then corrects the thus calculated difference by the deflector so as to acquire the SEM image. Further, in an inspection apparatus of the present invention, pattern matching is applied between the SEM image and the reference image to provide a comparative evaluation by performing one of translation, rotation or magnification tuning of the image. In a device manufacturing method of the present invention, a wafer in the course of processing is evaluated by using one of the inspection apparatuses as described above. | 20050114 | 20071225 | 20050623 | 71782.0 | 0 | JOHNSTON, PHILLIP A | ELECTRON BEAM SYSTEM AND METHOD OF MANUFACTURING DEVICES USING THE SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,034,887 | ACCEPTED | System and method for managing devices | A device which is subject to management by the management unit comprises a storage region for storing device status information, which is information indicating a status relating to the device, and control sections for sending the device status information stored in this storage region to the management unit. | 1. A system comprising: a management unit; a first device connected to said management unit; and a second device connected to said management unit; wherein said first device comprises: a first storage region for storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to said first device; and a first control section for sending first device status information stored in said first storage region to said management unit; and said second device comprises: a second storage region for storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to said second device; and a second control section for sending second device status information stored in said second storage region to said management unit. 2. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first control section and said management unit are connected by means of a communications network; said second control section and said management unit are connected by means of said communications network or another communications network; said system comprises a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not said management unit is operating normally; and said subsidiary management unit is not connected to said communications network or said other communications network, but is connected to said management unit. 3. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first device and said second device respectively have a first ID and a second ID; there being cases where the second ID of said first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of said first device and the first ID of said second device are different to each other; said first control section, said second control section and said management unit are connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses; and said management unit generates a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of said first device, generates a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of said second device, checks whether or not said first IP address and said second IP address are mutually duplicating, and outputs the result of said check. 4. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first device further comprises a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to said first device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to said first storage region, as said first device status information; and said second device further comprises a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to said second device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to said second storage region, as said second device status information. 5. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first control section is a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program; said second control section is a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program; said first device comprises a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including said first storage region; said second device comprises a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including said second storage region; said first computer program read in by said first processor refers to said first storage region, and if it detects that said first device status information is stored in said first storage region, then it sends said first device status information to said management unit; and said second computer program read in by said second processor refers to said second storage region, and if it detects that said second device status information is stored in said second storage region, then it sends said second device status information to said management unit. 6. The system according to claim 5, wherein at least said first device is a storage control device provided with a storage device capable of storing data; said storage control device is connected to a host device which transmits a write command for writing data to said storage device or a read command for reading out data from said storage device; and if said first computer program seeks to refer to said first storage region while said write command or said read command is being processed, then the first computer program refers to said first storage region when the processing of the write command or read command has finished. 7. The system according to claim 1, wherein said first device and said second device respectively have a first ID and a second ID; there being cases where the second ID of said first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of said first device and the first ID of said second device are different to each other; said first control section is a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program; said second control section is a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program; said first processor, said second processor and said management unit are connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses; said system comprises a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not said management unit is operating normally; said subsidiary management unit is not connected to said communications network, but is connected to said management unit; said management unit generates a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of said first device, generates a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of said second device, checks whether or not said first IP address and said second IP address are mutually duplicating, and outputs the result of said check; said first device comprises a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including said first storage region, and a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to said device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to said first storage region, as said first device status information; said second device comprises a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including said second storage region, and a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to said device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to said second storage region, as said second device status information; said first computer program read in by said first processor refers to said first storage region, and if it detects that said first device status information is stored in said first storage region, then it sends said first device status information to said management unit via said communications network; and said second computer program read in by said second processor refers to said second storage region, and if it detects that said second device status information is stored in said second storage region, then it sends said second device status information to said management unit via said communications network. 8. A device connected to a management unit, comprising: a storage region for storing device status information, which is information indicating a status relating to said device; and a control section for transmitting the device status information stored in said storage region to said management unit. 9. The device according to claim 8, further comprising a status writing unit which inputs a status relating to said device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to said storage region, as said first device status information. 10. The device according to claim 8, wherein said control section is a processor which operates by reading in a computer program; said device comprises a memory having a plurality of storage regions including said storage region; and said computer program read in by said processor refers to said storage region, and if it detects that said device status information is stored in said storage region, then it sends said device status information to said management unit. 11. The device according to claim 10, wherein said device is a storage control device comprising a storage device capable of storing data; said storage control device is connected to a host device which transmits a write command for writing data to said storage device or a read command for reading out data from said storage device; and if said computer program seeks to refer to said storage region while said write command or said read command is being processed, then the computer program refers to said storage region when the processing of the write command or read command has finished. 12. A method comprising the steps of: storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a first device, in a first storage region; sending the first device status information stored in said first storage region to a management unit; storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a second device, in a second storage region; and sending the second device status information stored in said second storage region to said management unit. 13. The method according to claim 12, wherein said first control section and said management unit are connected by means of a communications network; said second control section and said management unit are connected by means of said communications network or another communications network; and said method comprises a step whereby a subsidiary management unit which is not connected to said communications network or said other communications network, but is connected to said management unit, manages whether or not said management unit is operating normally. 14. The method according to claim 12, wherein said first device and said second device respectively have a first ID and a second ID; there being cases where the second ID of said first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of said first device and the first ID of said second device are different to each other; said first control section, said second control section and said management unit are connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses; and said method comprises the steps of: generating a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of said first device; generating a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of said second device; checking whether or not said first IP address and said second IP address are mutually duplicating; and outputting the result of said check. 15. The method according to claim 12, further comprising the steps of: inputting a status relating to said first device, and writing the information indicating a status thus input, to said first storage region, as said first device status information; and inputting a status relating to said second device, and writing the information indicating a status thus input, to said second storage region, as said second device status information. 16. The method according to claim 12, wherein said first device comprises a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program, and a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including said first storage region; said second device comprises a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program, and a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including said second storage region; and said method further comprises: a step whereby said first computer program read in by said first processor refers to said first storage region and if it detects that said first device status information has been stored in said first storage region, then it sends said first device status information to said management unit; and a step whereby said second computer program read in by said second processor refers to said second storage region and if it detects that said second device status information has been stored in said second storage region, then it sends said second device status information to said management unit. 17. The method according to claim 16, wherein at least said first device is a storage control device provided with a storage device capable of storing data; said storage control device is connected to a host device which transmits a write command for writing data to said storage device or a read command for reading out data from said storage device; and said method comprises: a step whereby, if it is sought to refer to said first storage region while said write command or said read command is being processed, then said first storage region is referred to when the processing of the write command or read command has finished. 18. The method according to claim 12, wherein said first device and said second device respectively have a first ID and a second ID; there being cases where the second ID of said first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of said first device and the first ID of said second device are different to each other; said first device comprises a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program; said second device comprises a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program; said first processor, said second processor and said management unit are connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses; and said method further comprises a step whereby a subsidiary management unit which is not connected to said communications network, but is connected to said management unit, manages whether or not said management unit is operating normally; and the steps of: generating a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of said first device; generating a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of said second device; checking whether or not said first IP address and said second IP address are mutually duplicating; outputting the result of said check; inputting a status relating to said first device, and writing the information indicating a status thus input, to said first storage region, as said first device status information; inputting a status relating to said second device, and writing the information indicating a status thus input, to said second storage region, as said second device status information; referring to said first storage region, and sending said first device status information to said management unit via said communications network, if it is detected that said first device status information has been stored in said first storage region; and referring to said second storage region, and sending said second device status information to said management unit via said communications network, if it is detected that said second device status information has been stored in said second storage region. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO PRIOR APPLICATION This application relates to and claims priority from Japanese Patent Publication No. 2003-157180, and Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-339805, filed on Nov. 25, 2004 the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a technology for managing devices. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A method for managing devices is known in which a terminal for maintaining devices (hereafter, called a “maintenance terminal”) is prepared, the maintenance terminal thus prepared is connected to a device, and the status of the device is acquired by operating the maintenance terminal. A generic computer may be used as the device subject to maintenance, for example. When carrying out maintenance tasks with respect to a plurality of generic computers, a technique as disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2000-47898, for example, can be employed. According to this technology, a SVP (Service Processor) is installed in each of the plurality of generic computers. Each SVP is connected to the other SVPs. A maintenance work console is connected to one of the plurality of SVPs. The maintenance work console is able to send a maintenance procedure to the other SVPs, via the SVP to which it is connected. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION However, it is also possible to employ a storage control device comprising a plurality of storage device (for example, hard disk drives) as the device that is managed. It should be desirable from the viewpoint of the user to employ a storage control device that is inexpensive but affords high reliability. Moreover, it should also be desirable to provide a configuration whereby a storage system of larger capacity can be constructed by adding on storage control devices. The present inventors devised a management method by envisaging cases such as this. FIG. 1 is an example of the composition of a storage system devised by the present inventors. A plurality of (for example, two) storage control devices 401A and 401B are connected to a LAN (Local Area Network) 416. The storage control devices 401A and 401B have substantially the same composition. Therefore, in FIG. 1, for the plurality of the storage control devices 401A and 401B, the same parent reference number is applied to constituent elements that are the same, and different subsidiary symbols (A or B) are applied after these parent numbers, for the sake of convenience. Where a constituent element is described using the parent number only, the description applies to all such elements, whatever their subsidiary symbol. Below, the storage control device 401A is described as a representative example. A host device 421a for sending a data write command or read command (hereafter, called “I/O request”) is connected to the storage control device 401A. The storage control device 401A comprises a shared memory (hereafter, SM) 405A, a cache memory (hereafter, “CM”) 406A, one or a plurality of channel adapters (hereafter, CHA) 402A, one or a plurality of disk adapters (hereafter, DKA) 403A, a coupled logic section 407A, a storage device 404A, an environment monitoring section 408A, a sub-service processor (hereafter, S-SVP) 409A, and a service processor (hereafter, SVP) 410A. The CHA 402A is provided with a channel port section 411A connected to a host device 421A, a data transfer section 412A for transferring data, and a local memory (hereafter, LM) 441A capable of storing computer programs, such as a control program 443A. Furthermore, the CHA 402A also comprises a microprocessor (hereafter, MP) 413A for reading in computer programs, such as the control program 443A, from the LM 441A, and a LAN controller (hereafter, LANC) 415A for controlling communications via the LAN 416. The processing implemented by the CHA 402A can be controlled by the MP 413A. By means of the MP 413A, data is transferred between the host device 421A and the CM 406A, via the channel port section 411A, the data transfer section 412A and the coupled logic section 407A. The DKA 403A comprises a drive port section 514A connected to the storage device 404A, a data transfer section 512A for performing data transfer, and an LM 541A capable of storing computer programs, such as the control program 543A. The DKA 403A also comprises an MP 513A which reads in computer programs, such as the control program 543A, from the LM 541A, and a LANC 515A which controls communications via the LAN 416. The processing implemented by the DKA 403A can be controlled by the MP 513A. By means of the MP 513A, data is transferred between the CM 406 and the storage device 404A, via the coupled logic section 407A and the drive port section 514A. The coupled logic section 407A connects together the CHAs 402A, the DKAs 403A, the CM 406A and the SM 405A. The coupled logic section 407A may be composed, for example, in the form of a high-speed bus, such as an ultra-high-speed cross-bar switch, which performs data transfer by means of a high-speed switching operation. Furthermore, the coupled logic section 407A may also be constituted by a communications network, such as a LAN or SAN, and furthermore, it may also be constituted by a plurality of networks, as well as the aforementioned high-speed bus. For the storage device 404A, it is possible to use devices such as a hard disk, flexible disk, magnetic tape, semiconductor memory, optical disk, or the like. The environment monitoring section 408A is a device for monitoring the environmental status relating to the storage control device 401A. The environmental monitor section 408A is connected to a variety of sensors 423A, such as temperature sensors, for example, and it is able to determine various environmental statuses (such as the power source of the storage control device 401A, the temperature at a particular position, the rotating/non-rotating status of the cooling fan, and the like), from the signal value from the various sensors 423A. The environmental monitor section 408A transfers information indicating the determined environmental status (hereinafter, called “environmental status information”) to the S-SVP 409A, via a signal line 417A, at periodic intervals or prescribed timings (for example, when the determined environmental status indicates an abnormality). The S-SVP 409A is a device (such as a circuit board) fitted with a microprocessor 427A. The S-SVP 409A converts the environmental status information from the environmental monitor section 408A into a format that can be interpreted by the SVP 410A, and it transfers the converted environmental status information to the SVP 410A. Furthermore, the S-SVP 409A monitors whether or not the SVP 410A is operating normally, for example. The SVP 410A is a device used by an administrator in order to maintain or manage the storage control device 401A. The SVP 401A is provided with both a control system and an input/output system, and it may be a notebook PC, for example. More specifically, for example, the SVP 410A comprises an input/output device 435A and a management unit 445A. The input/output device 435A comprises an input device, such as a keyboard, and an output device, such as a display screen. The management unit 445A is a device (a circuit board such as a motherboard) that is provided with a processor 431A, a storage region (for example, a memory) 433A, and a LANC 471A. The processor 431A receives environmental status information from the S-SVP 409A, and stores the received environmental status information in the storage region 433A. Furthermore, the processor 431A sets information input from the input/output device 435A in the CHAs 402A or the DKAs 403A, and displays the environmental status information stored in the storage region 433A on the input/output device 435A. The foregoing provides an example of the composition of a storage system devised by the present inventors. It is also possible to use a personal computer, for example, as an SVP 410. However, the cost of a personal computer is high. Since at least one SVP 410 is installed in each storage control device 401, the greater the number of storage control devices 401 provided in one storage system, the greater the number of SVPs, and hence the greater the cost. Therefore, the present inventors attempted to manage a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of one SVP 410 (for example, the management unit 445 in the SVP 410, in particular) However, it was discovered that handling a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of one SVP 410 is not straightforward, due to the following two typical reasons. (1) First Reason When one SVP 410 is used, in the storage control devices 401 that are not installed with the SVP 410, the environmental monitor section 408 or the S-SVP 409 is connected to the LAN 416. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a LANC or an equivalent function, in the environment monitoring section 408 or the S-SVP 409. However, in this case, since the cost of the environment monitoring section 408 or S-SVP 409 installed in each storage control device 401 is high, there is no substantial merit in managing a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of a single SVP 410. (2) Second Reason In a particular storage system, an IP address is assigned to the plurality of MPs 413 and 513 installed in the CHAs 402 and the DKAs 403, on the basis of the serial number of the storage control device 401 in which they are installed. Even if the serial number for any given model is a unique number for that model, it may not be unique with respect to other models and hence it is possible that the same serial number may exist. Therefore, when seeking to manage a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of a single SVP 410, the SVP 410 may not be able to identify the MP 413 or 513 uniquely. For example, the IP address of the MP 413A in the storage control device 401A and the IP address of the MP 413B in another storage control device 401B may be the same. The aforementioned problems are not limited to cases where the object of maintenance is a storage control device, and they may also arise in the case of other types of device. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to resolve problems arising when a plurality of devices are managed by one management unit. Further objects of the present invention will become apparent from the following description. The system according to one aspect of the present invention comprises: a management unit; a first device connected to the management unit; and a second device connected to the management unit. The first device comprises: a first storage region for storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to the first device; and a first control section for sending first device status information stored in the first storage region to the management unit. The second device comprises: a second storage region for storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to the second device; and a second control section for sending second device status information stored in the second storage region to the management unit. Here, the first device and second device are the devices managed by the management unit. The first device and second device maybe personal computers, or storage control devices, for example. This system may be employed with a mainframe system or an open type storage system. Moreover, the management unit may be set in at least the control system, of the control system and the input/output system. More specifically, for example, the management unit may be a circuit board, such as a motherboard. A processor and a memory, or the like, may be mounted on this circuit board. In one embodiment of this system, the first control section and the management unit can be connected by means of a communications network. The second control section and the management unit can be connected by means of the communications network or another communications network. The system may comprise a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not the management unit is operating normally. The subsidiary management unit is not connected to the communications network or the other communications network, but is connected to the management unit. In a second embodiment of this system, the first device and the second device may respectively have a first ID and a second ID. There may be cases where the second ID of the first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of the first device and the first ID of the second device are different to each other. The first control section, the second control section and the management unit may be connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses. The management unit may generate a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of the first device, generate a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of the second device, check whether or not the first IP address and the second IP address are mutually duplicating, and output the result of the check. Here, the first ID is a device name or model name, for example. The second ID is the serial number of the device, for example. In a third embodiment of this system, the first device may further comprise a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the first device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the first storage region, as the first device status information. The second device may further comprise a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the second device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the second storage region, as the second device status information. In a fourth embodiment of this system, the first control section may be a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program. The second control section may be a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program. The first device may comprise a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including the first storage region. The second device may comprises a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including the second storage region. The first computer program read in by the first processor may refer to the first storage region, and if it detects that the first device status information is stored in the first storage region, then it may send the first device status information to the management unit; and the second computer program read in by the second processor may refer to the second storage region, and if it detects that the second device status information is stored in the second storage region, then it may send the second device status information to the management unit. In a fifth embodiment of this system, in the fourth embodiment, at least the first device may be a storage control device provided with a storage device capable of storing data. The storage control device may be connected to a host device which transmits a write command for writing data to the storage device or a read command for reading out data from the storage device. If the first computer program seeks to refer to the first storage region while the write command or the read command is being processed, then the first computer program may refer to the first storage region when the processing of the write command or read command has finished. Furthermore, the storage device may be a physical storage device or a logical storage device, for example. Moreover, the storage control device may be a personal computer, a hard disk drive comprising hard disks, or a disk array device comprising a plurality of storage devices, for example. In a sixth embodiment of this system, the first device and the second device may respectively have a first ID and a second ID. There may be cases where the second ID of the first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of the first device and the first ID of the second device are different to each other. The first control section may be a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program. The second control section may be a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program. The first processor, the second processor and the management unit may be connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses. The system may comprise a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not the management unit is operating normally. The subsidiary management unit is not connected to the communications network, but is connected to the management unit. The management unit may generate a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of the first device, generate a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of the second device, check whether or not the first IP address and the second IP address are mutually duplicating, and output the result of the check. The first device may comprise a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including the first storage region, and a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the first storage region, as the first device status information. The second device may comprise a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including the second storage region, and a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the second storage region, as the second device status information. The first computer program read in by the first processor may refer to the first storage region, and if it detects that the first device status information is stored in the first storage region, then it sends the first device status information to the management unit via the communications network. The second computer program read in by the second processor may refer to the second storage region, and if it detects that the second device status information is stored in the second storage region, then it may send the second device status information to the management unit via the communications network. The principles of the system described above may be applied to devices or methods which are subject to management. For example, the device according to a second aspect of the present invention can be connected to a management unit and may comprise a storage region for storing device status information, which is information indicating a status relating to the device; and a control section for transmitting the device status information stored in the storage region to the management unit. Moreover, for example, the method according to a third aspect of the present invention may comprise the steps of: storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a first device, in a first storage region; sending the first device status information stored in the first storage region to a management unit; storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a second device, in a second storage region; and sending the second device status information stored in the second storage region to the management unit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows an example of the composition of a storage system devised by the present inventors; FIG. 2 shows an example of a storage system relating to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 shows one example of a processing sequence for assigning IP addresses which are unique in the storage system to the respective MPs of respective storage control devices; FIG. 4 shows one example of a processing sequence implemented in the storage control device 601A until environmental status information is sent to the management unit 645; FIG. 5 shows one example of the composition of a screen displayed by the management unit 645; FIG. 6 shows an example of the external composition of a storage control device; and FIG. 7 is an illustrative diagram of a second embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Below, several practical examples relating to one embodiment of the present invention are described with reference to the drawings. PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 1 FIG. 2 shows an example of the composition of the storage system relating to one embodiment of the present invention. The storage system shown in FIG. 2 is an improvement of the storage system shown in FIG. 1. Therefore, the same reference numerals are applied to constituent elements which do not contain any substantial improvement with respect to the same constituent elements shown in FIG. 1, and different reference numerals are applied to constituent elements which do contain an improvement. The following description will focus on the points of improvement (changes) with respect to the storage system illustrated in FIG. 1, by referring to FIG. 2. Parts of the description which would duplicate the description given above are omitted or abbreviated here. Furthermore, in the following description, the storage control device 601A is taken as a representative example, but unless stated explicitly otherwise, the composition of the storage control device 601A can also be applied to the other storage control device 601B. A storage region (hereafter, status storage region) 661A for storing environmental status information is prepared in a prescribed location of the SM 605A. The SM 605A comprises a further storage region, namely, a control storage region 663A storing a table, or the like, for managing the logical volumes provided in at least one storage device 404A, for example. The environment monitoring section 608A is connected to various sensors 423A, such as temperature sensors, for example, and it is able to determine environmental statuses (for example, the power supply of the storage control device 601A, the temperature at a certain position, the operational status of the cooling fan, or the like) on the basis of the signal values from the various sensors 423A. The environment monitoring section 608A may be constituted by a hardware circuit, software or a combination of these. The environment monitoring section 608A is connected to the SM 605 (either directly) or via the coupled logic section 407A. The environment monitoring section 408A stores environmental status information indicating the detected environmental statuses, in a status storage region 661A of the SM 605A, either periodically or at prescribed timings (for example, if the determined environmental status indicates an abnormality). In so doing, the environment monitoring section 608A may convert the environmental status information into a format that can be interpreted by the management unit 645, and it may store the converted environmental status information in the status storage region 661A. The coupled logic section 607A connects together the CHAs 702A, DKAs 703A, the CM 406A, the SM 605A and the environment monitoring section 608A. The MP 613A of the CHA 702A and the MP 713A of the DKA 703A also refer to the status storage region 661A at regular or irregular intervals. Here, if the MPs 613A and 713A, for example, are processing an I/O request, the processing of the I/O request is prioritized and the processing for referring to the status storage region 661A is not performed. When the processing of the I/O request has finished, the processing for referring to the status storage region 661A is then implemented. Furthermore, if, for example, the MP 613A detects, before the MP 713A, that environmental status information has been stored which has not yet been read out by either MP, then the MP 613A reads out this environmental status information from the status storage region 661A, and it sends the environmental status information thus read out to the management unit 645, via the LANC 415A. In this case, the MP 613A is able to convert the environmental status information read out into a format that can be interpreted by the management unit 645, and it can send the converted environmental status information to the management unit 645. Furthermore, the MP 613A may also establish the fact that the environmental status information has been read out, in respect of environmental status information that has been read out. More specifically, for example, the MP 613A may delete the environmental status information that has been read out, from the status storage region 661A, and it may set a flag in the status storage region 661A which indicates that the environmental status information has been read out. Thereby, when the MP 613A or another MP subsequently refers to the status storage region 661A, it is possible to prevent that MP from reading out again environmental status information that has already been read out. Furthermore, the processing described above relating to the reading and sending of the environmental status information is carried out by a control program 643 that is read in to the MP. Therefore, it is possible to adopt the same composition for the control program 643 that is read in to each one of the plurality of MPs 613 and 713. In other words, it is possible to construct a control program 643 without paying any consideration to which MP the control program is to be read into. Of the input/output system and the control system of the SVP, the control system, in other words, the management unit 645 is installed in the storage control device 601A. The management unit 645 receives environmental status information from the MP 613A or 713A of the storage control device 601A in which it is installed, or from the MP 613B or 713B of a storage control device 601B other than the one in which it is installed, and it stores the environmental status information thus received in the storage region 633. The management unit 645 does not necessarily have to be installed in one of the storage control devices 601 and it may also be connected to the LAN 416. The S-SVP 609 installed in the storage control device 601A is connected to the management unit 645 and monitors whether or not the management unit 645 is operating normally. However, the S-SVP 609 does not receive environmental status information from the environment monitor 608A, and therefore it is not required to convert the format of the environmental status information. In this respect, the load on the processor 627 of the S-SVP 609 is less than that on the first processor 427A. The S-SVP 609 does not necessarily have to be installed in one of the storage control devices 601, either, and it may be connected to the management unit 645. Since one management unit 645 manages a plurality of storage control devices 601A and 601B, a management unit 645 is not installed in the storage control device 601B, at the least. Therefore, the S-SVP 609 is not installed in the storage control device 601B either. Even if a composition of this kind is adopted, and even if the storage control device 601A and the storage control device 601B are devices of the same level, there is no relationship of dependency on another device, such as a master-slave or parent-subsidiary relationship. More specifically, for example, even if a fault occurs in the storage control device 601A, this will not necessarily affect the other storage control device 601B. An input/output terminal 635 is connected to the LAN 416. The input/output terminal 635 inputs information to the management unit 645 and outputs information from the management unit 645. The input/output terminal 635 may be a personal computer, for example. More specifically, for example, the input/output terminal 635 may be constituted by a LANC 681, a control circuit 687 provided with a processor (for example, a CPU) 683 and a storage region (for example, memory) 685, an input device 691, such as a keyboard, and a display device 689 comprising a display screen. The environmental status information accumulated in the management unit 645 is displayed on the display device 689, via the LAN 416, for example. The foregoing was a description of the composition of a storage system relating to one embodiment. In this storage system, a composition is adopted in which the control system of the SVP is installed in the storage control device 601A, and the input/output system thereof is not installed in the storage control device 601A. However, it is also possible to install an SVP provided with both a control system and an input/output system, in the storage control device 601A, and simply to connect a LAN 416 to the storage control device 601A, rather than installing it therein. Furthermore, rather than a LAN 416, it is also possible to adopt a communications network of another type (in particular, a network which performs communications on the basis of an Internet protocol, for example.) In this storage system, by implementing a processing sequence such as that described below, an IP address that is unique within the storage system is assigned to each of the MPs belonging to the storage system. FIG. 3 shows one example of a processing sequence for assigning unique IP addresses for the storage system to the respective MPs in the respective storage control devices. The storage region 633 of the management unit 645 comprises a registration table 640, a control program 643 for the MPs 613 and 713, and an environmental status information storage area 691 for each of the storage control devices. For each storage control device connected to the LAN 416, information is registered in the registration table 640, namely, a device ID (for example, a number), a serial number, a calculation result calculated from the serial number using a prescribed formula (for example, the second and third octet of the IP address), the IP address of the MP of the CHA, and the IP address of the MP of the DKA. Furthermore, information indicating where the fourth octet of the IP address of the MP 613 of the CHA 702 is located between 40-100, and where the fourth octet of the IP address of the MP 713 of the DKA 703 is located between 101-255, is also registered in the registration table 640. In this storage system, for example, the management unit 645 is able to function as a so-called Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. At a prescribed timing or a desired timing indicated by the administrator (for example, the user of the input/output terminal 635), the management unit 645 generates an IP address on the basis of the serial number of the storage control device 601 installed in the MP forming the connection destination (step S302). The management unit 645 can identify which of the storage control devices 601 the MP forming the connection destination is installed in by receiving information relating to the storage control device 601 where that MP is installed. Moreover, the management unit 645 is also able to identify the storage control device 601 by generating a provisional IP address, accessing the MP on the basis of this address, and then receiving information (for example, the vendor name, model name, serial number, and the like) relating to the storage control device 601 in which the MP is installed, from the MP. At S302, the management unit 645 calculates the second and third octet of the IP address on the basis of the serial number, and it can register the calculation results in the registration table 640. Furthermore, if the management unit 645 identifies the fact that a calculation result based on the serial number has already been registered, by referring to the registration table 640, then it is able to generate an IP address by using that calculation result, without performing calculation. As a calculation rule for the IP address, for example, the first octet is taken to be “126”, the second and third octets are taken to be calculation results based on the serial number, and the fourth octet is taken to be a value between 40 and 100 in the case of the MP 613 and a value between 101 and 255 in the case of the MP 713. Since the serial number may be the same in the case of different models, then according to this calculation rule, the same IP address may be generated for the MP 613A and 613B of the CHAs 602A and 603B of different storage control devices. The management unit 645 judges refers to the registration table 640, and judges whether or not an IP address which duplicates the generated IP address is already present in the registration table 640 (S303). If the result of the judgment step in S303 indicates that a duplicate IP address is present, then the management unit 645 causes the two duplicated IP addresses to be displayed on the display device 689 of the input/output terminal 635. If one of the IP addresses is revised by the administrator (S305), then the management unit 645 is able to register the revised IP address in the registration table 640 (S306). The management unit 645 also performs the judgment step in S303 for the revised IP address, and if the judgment result is affirmative, then it performs step S304 again, whereas if it is negative, then it is able to perform S306. The management unit 645 may also revise the IP address automatically on the basis of the aforementioned calculation rule. For example, the management unit 645 may seek to generate non-duplicating IP addresses by setting the number of the fourth octet of the generated IP address (for example, 48) to the next number (for example, 49). Provided that a unique, non-duplicating IP address has been generated, the management unit 645 registers the generated IP address in a suitable location of the registration table 640 (more specifically, a location corresponding to the MP that has been assigned that IP address) (S306). The management unit 645 transfers the control program 643 stored in the storage region 633 to the connected MP (for example, 613A), using this IP address, and it instructs the MP to start up that control program (S307). Thereby, the control program 643 is read in to the MP from the LM (for example, 641A). Thereupon, the management unit 645 receives information used for processing the MP that has read in the control program 643 (hereafter, called “configuration information”), from the input/output terminal 635, and it sets up the configuration information thus input (for example, it registers the information in the LM 641A) (S308). The management unit 645 carries out the processing in steps S302 to S308 for all of the MPs (S309). By means of the foregoing processing sequence, it is possible to prevent the existence of duplicated IP addresses in the storage system. In other words, for example, if the storage control device connected to the management unit 645 is changed from 601A to 601B, then if measures such as those described above are not adopted, it is not possible to ascertain the IP address that has been assigned to the MPs 613A and 713A of the storage control device 601A. Consequently, there is a risk that an IP address which duplicates an IP address previously assigned to the MP 613A or 713A may be generated and assigned to the MP 613B or 713B of the storage control device 601B forming the connection destination after switching. However, by adopting the measures described above, it is possible to prevent such situations occurring, in advance. FIG. 4 shows one example of a processing sequence implemented in the storage control device 601A until environmental status information is sent to the management unit 645. The environment monitoring section 608A takes the detection results from the sensor 423A, or the like (for example, a signal value), as environmental status information, and writes this information to the status storage region 661A (S350). At the reference timing (YES at S402), if the MP 613A (more specifically, the control program 643 read in to the MP 613A) is currently processing an I/O request when referenced (YES at S403), then the sequence waits until that processing terminates (S404). If the MP 613A is not processing an I/O request, then it references the status storage region 661A (S405). If, as a result of S405, environmental status information that has not been read out by any MP is found to be present in the status storage region 661A (YES at S406), then the MP 613A reads out that environmental status information from the status storage region 661A and sends the environmental status information thus read out to the management unit 645 (S407). The management unit 645 refers to the registration table 640, by using the IP address of the MP to which the environmental status information is to be sent as a key. It then selects a storage destination area from the plurality of environmental status storage areas 691 (in other words, an area corresponding to the storage control device in which the destination MP is installed) 691, and it stores the received environmental status information in the selected area 691. Needless to say, the processing in steps S402 to S407 may also be carried out by the other MPs 713A, 613B and 713B. Moreover, the MP 613A may also establish that the environmental status information has been read out, at step S407, for example. More specifically, for example, the MP 613A may delete the environmental status information that has been read out, from the status storage region 661A, and it may set a flag in the status storage region 661A to indicate that that environmental status information has been read out. In this way, at the following step S406, it is possible to judge whether or not there exists any environmental status information that has been read out. The foregoing was a description of a first practical example. In this first practical example, for example, if there are duplicated IP addresses, the management unit 645 is able to display the two duplicated IP addresses on the display device 689, by means of a method such as that shown in FIG. 5, for example. For example, as shown in the example in FIG. 5, if the tag 831 of a particular storage control device 601A has been selected, then the management unit 645 displays a screen 835 having that tag and it is able to display information relating to that storage control device 601A on the screen 835. In this case, if there are duplicated IP addresses, or the like, then the management unit 645 is able to display common information for a plurality of storage control devices 601, even though the tag of one of the plurality of storage control devices 601 is selected. Furthermore, if the management unit 645 has received a revised IP address from the administrator, via the input device 691 and the control circuit 687, then it is able to register the revised IP address in the registration table 640 of the storage region 633. Furthermore, in the first embodiment, as shown in the example in FIG. 6, each of the storage control devices 601 may be a so-called rack-mounted device, for example. In other words, the storage control device 601A has a frame body 700A, for instance, and a plurality of storage devices 404A (such as hard disk drives), a CHA 702A, DKA 703A, CM 406A and SM 605A, and the like, can be installed inside the frame body 700A. Furthermore, the frame body 700A comprises a space in which a management unit 645 can be installed and a space in which an S-SVP 609 can be installed. The management unit 645 and S-SVP 609 are installed detachably in the frame body 700A. The composition of the frame body 700A may also be applied to the frame body of the other storage control device 601B. In other words, in the first practical example, the user is able to select any one storage control device of a plurality of storage control devices, and install a management unit 645 and S-SVP 609 in the selected storage control device. Furthermore, in the first practical example, the dimensions of the management unit 645 and the S-SVP 609 (the height H and h) may be determined on the basis of prescribed standards (for example, a dimension of 1 U). Above, according to the first practical example described above, in the respective storage control devices 601, the monitoring results for the environmental status (namely, environmental status information) are stored in a status storage region 661, which is a prescribed location that can be accessed by a plurality of MPs. The environmental status information stored in this storage region 661 is read out by the first MP that discovers the information, 613 or 713, and is transferred to the management unit 645. In this way, it becomes possible to manage a plurality of storage control devices 601A and 601B by means of a single management unit 645, without making significant design modifications to the constituent elements of the respective storage control devices 601A and 601B. According to the first practical example described above, when IP addresses are assigned to the MPs of the respective storage control devices, a check for the presence of duplicated IP addresses is made, and if duplicated IP addresses exist, the IP addresses are revised. Therefore, even if one management unit 645 controls a plurality of storage control devices 601A and 601B, it is still possible to assign IP addresses that are unique in the storage system, to the MPs 613 and 713 of the storage control devices 601. Moreover, according to the first practical example described above, the management unit 645 is mounted in the storage control device 601A, rather than in an SVP formed by a personal computer. In device to device connections, there is the issue of compatibility between devices, but since personal computers themselves are gradually upgraded, then even if there has been good compatibility with the SVP prior to upgrading, the compatibility with the SVP 410 may deteriorate after upgrading. According to this first practical example, as described above, since the management unit 645 is installed in the storage control device 601A, rather than in a SVP formed by a personal computer, it is possible to reduce the occurrence of situations of this kind. SECOND PRACTICAL EXAMPLE A second practical example of the present invention will now be described. The following description will focus principally on the points of difference with respect to the first practical example. As shown in FIG. 7, in this second practical example, the storage system may be provided with dual management units 645A and 645B. Normally, the main management unit 645A operates. The main management unit 645A reports the information stored in its own storage region 633 (for example, the contents of the registration table 640) to the management unit 645B, at regular or irregular intervals. The subsidiary management unit 645B stores the information thus reported in its own storage region 633. By means of this processing, it is possible to synchronize the main management unit 645A and the subsidiary management unit 645B. The S-SVP 609 monitors the operational status of the main management unit 645A that is functioning. If a problem has occurred in the main management unit 645A, then the S-SVP 609 shuts off the power supply to the main management unit 645A and switches on the power supply to the management unit 645B, thereby making the subsidiary management unit 645A operate as a main management unit. This system may adopt technology disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2003-157180. Several preferred practical examples of the present invention were described above, but these are examples for the purpose of describing the present invention and the scope of the present invention is not limited to these practical examples only. The present invention may be implemented in various other modes. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A method for managing devices is known in which a terminal for maintaining devices (hereafter, called a “maintenance terminal”) is prepared, the maintenance terminal thus prepared is connected to a device, and the status of the device is acquired by operating the maintenance terminal. A generic computer may be used as the device subject to maintenance, for example. When carrying out maintenance tasks with respect to a plurality of generic computers, a technique as disclosed in Japanese Patent Laid-open No. 2000-47898, for example, can be employed. According to this technology, a SVP (Service Processor) is installed in each of the plurality of generic computers. Each SVP is connected to the other SVPs. A maintenance work console is connected to one of the plurality of SVPs. The maintenance work console is able to send a maintenance procedure to the other SVPs, via the SVP to which it is connected. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>However, it is also possible to employ a storage control device comprising a plurality of storage device (for example, hard disk drives) as the device that is managed. It should be desirable from the viewpoint of the user to employ a storage control device that is inexpensive but affords high reliability. Moreover, it should also be desirable to provide a configuration whereby a storage system of larger capacity can be constructed by adding on storage control devices. The present inventors devised a management method by envisaging cases such as this. FIG. 1 is an example of the composition of a storage system devised by the present inventors. A plurality of (for example, two) storage control devices 401 A and 401 B are connected to a LAN (Local Area Network) 416 . The storage control devices 401 A and 401 B have substantially the same composition. Therefore, in FIG. 1 , for the plurality of the storage control devices 401 A and 401 B, the same parent reference number is applied to constituent elements that are the same, and different subsidiary symbols (A or B) are applied after these parent numbers, for the sake of convenience. Where a constituent element is described using the parent number only, the description applies to all such elements, whatever their subsidiary symbol. Below, the storage control device 401 A is described as a representative example. A host device 421 a for sending a data write command or read command (hereafter, called “I/O request”) is connected to the storage control device 401 A. The storage control device 401 A comprises a shared memory (hereafter, SM) 405 A, a cache memory (hereafter, “CM”) 406 A, one or a plurality of channel adapters (hereafter, CHA) 402 A, one or a plurality of disk adapters (hereafter, DKA) 403 A, a coupled logic section 407 A, a storage device 404 A, an environment monitoring section 408 A, a sub-service processor (hereafter, S-SVP) 409 A, and a service processor (hereafter, SVP) 410 A. The CHA 402 A is provided with a channel port section 411 A connected to a host device 421 A, a data transfer section 412 A for transferring data, and a local memory (hereafter, LM) 441 A capable of storing computer programs, such as a control program 443 A. Furthermore, the CHA 402 A also comprises a microprocessor (hereafter, MP) 413 A for reading in computer programs, such as the control program 443 A, from the LM 441 A, and a LAN controller (hereafter, LANC) 415 A for controlling communications via the LAN 416 . The processing implemented by the CHA 402 A can be controlled by the MP 413 A. By means of the MP 413 A, data is transferred between the host device 421 A and the CM 406 A, via the channel port section 411 A, the data transfer section 412 A and the coupled logic section 407 A. The DKA 403 A comprises a drive port section 514 A connected to the storage device 404 A, a data transfer section 512 A for performing data transfer, and an LM 541 A capable of storing computer programs, such as the control program 543 A. The DKA 403 A also comprises an MP 513 A which reads in computer programs, such as the control program 543 A, from the LM 541 A, and a LANC 515 A which controls communications via the LAN 416 . The processing implemented by the DKA 403 A can be controlled by the MP 513 A. By means of the MP 513 A, data is transferred between the CM 406 and the storage device 404 A, via the coupled logic section 407 A and the drive port section 514 A. The coupled logic section 407 A connects together the CHAs 402 A, the DKAs 403 A, the CM 406 A and the SM 405 A. The coupled logic section 407 A may be composed, for example, in the form of a high-speed bus, such as an ultra-high-speed cross-bar switch, which performs data transfer by means of a high-speed switching operation. Furthermore, the coupled logic section 407 A may also be constituted by a communications network, such as a LAN or SAN, and furthermore, it may also be constituted by a plurality of networks, as well as the aforementioned high-speed bus. For the storage device 404 A, it is possible to use devices such as a hard disk, flexible disk, magnetic tape, semiconductor memory, optical disk, or the like. The environment monitoring section 408 A is a device for monitoring the environmental status relating to the storage control device 401 A. The environmental monitor section 408 A is connected to a variety of sensors 423 A, such as temperature sensors, for example, and it is able to determine various environmental statuses (such as the power source of the storage control device 401 A, the temperature at a particular position, the rotating/non-rotating status of the cooling fan, and the like), from the signal value from the various sensors 423 A. The environmental monitor section 408 A transfers information indicating the determined environmental status (hereinafter, called “environmental status information”) to the S-SVP 409 A, via a signal line 417 A, at periodic intervals or prescribed timings (for example, when the determined environmental status indicates an abnormality). The S-SVP 409 A is a device (such as a circuit board) fitted with a microprocessor 427 A. The S-SVP 409 A converts the environmental status information from the environmental monitor section 408 A into a format that can be interpreted by the SVP 410 A, and it transfers the converted environmental status information to the SVP 410 A. Furthermore, the S-SVP 409 A monitors whether or not the SVP 410 A is operating normally, for example. The SVP 410 A is a device used by an administrator in order to maintain or manage the storage control device 401 A. The SVP 401 A is provided with both a control system and an input/output system, and it may be a notebook PC, for example. More specifically, for example, the SVP 410 A comprises an input/output device 435 A and a management unit 445 A. The input/output device 435 A comprises an input device, such as a keyboard, and an output device, such as a display screen. The management unit 445 A is a device (a circuit board such as a motherboard) that is provided with a processor 431 A, a storage region (for example, a memory) 433 A, and a LANC 471 A. The processor 431 A receives environmental status information from the S-SVP 409 A, and stores the received environmental status information in the storage region 433 A. Furthermore, the processor 431 A sets information input from the input/output device 435 A in the CHAs 402 A or the DKAs 403 A, and displays the environmental status information stored in the storage region 433 A on the input/output device 435 A. The foregoing provides an example of the composition of a storage system devised by the present inventors. It is also possible to use a personal computer, for example, as an SVP 410 . However, the cost of a personal computer is high. Since at least one SVP 410 is installed in each storage control device 401 , the greater the number of storage control devices 401 provided in one storage system, the greater the number of SVPs, and hence the greater the cost. Therefore, the present inventors attempted to manage a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of one SVP 410 (for example, the management unit 445 in the SVP 410 , in particular) However, it was discovered that handling a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of one SVP 410 is not straightforward, due to the following two typical reasons. (1) First Reason When one SVP 410 is used, in the storage control devices 401 that are not installed with the SVP 410 , the environmental monitor section 408 or the S-SVP 409 is connected to the LAN 416 . Therefore, it is necessary to provide a LANC or an equivalent function, in the environment monitoring section 408 or the S-SVP 409 . However, in this case, since the cost of the environment monitoring section 408 or S-SVP 409 installed in each storage control device 401 is high, there is no substantial merit in managing a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of a single SVP 410 . (2) Second Reason In a particular storage system, an IP address is assigned to the plurality of MPs 413 and 513 installed in the CHAs 402 and the DKAs 403 , on the basis of the serial number of the storage control device 401 in which they are installed. Even if the serial number for any given model is a unique number for that model, it may not be unique with respect to other models and hence it is possible that the same serial number may exist. Therefore, when seeking to manage a plurality of storage control devices 401 by means of a single SVP 410 , the SVP 410 may not be able to identify the MP 413 or 513 uniquely. For example, the IP address of the MP 413 A in the storage control device 401 A and the IP address of the MP 413 B in another storage control device 401 B may be the same. The aforementioned problems are not limited to cases where the object of maintenance is a storage control device, and they may also arise in the case of other types of device. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to resolve problems arising when a plurality of devices are managed by one management unit. Further objects of the present invention will become apparent from the following description. The system according to one aspect of the present invention comprises: a management unit; a first device connected to the management unit; and a second device connected to the management unit. The first device comprises: a first storage region for storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to the first device; and a first control section for sending first device status information stored in the first storage region to the management unit. The second device comprises: a second storage region for storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to the second device; and a second control section for sending second device status information stored in the second storage region to the management unit. Here, the first device and second device are the devices managed by the management unit. The first device and second device maybe personal computers, or storage control devices, for example. This system may be employed with a mainframe system or an open type storage system. Moreover, the management unit may be set in at least the control system, of the control system and the input/output system. More specifically, for example, the management unit may be a circuit board, such as a motherboard. A processor and a memory, or the like, may be mounted on this circuit board. In one embodiment of this system, the first control section and the management unit can be connected by means of a communications network. The second control section and the management unit can be connected by means of the communications network or another communications network. The system may comprise a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not the management unit is operating normally. The subsidiary management unit is not connected to the communications network or the other communications network, but is connected to the management unit. In a second embodiment of this system, the first device and the second device may respectively have a first ID and a second ID. There may be cases where the second ID of the first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of the first device and the first ID of the second device are different to each other. The first control section, the second control section and the management unit may be connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses. The management unit may generate a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of the first device, generate a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of the second device, check whether or not the first IP address and the second IP address are mutually duplicating, and output the result of the check. Here, the first ID is a device name or model name, for example. The second ID is the serial number of the device, for example. In a third embodiment of this system, the first device may further comprise a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the first device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the first storage region, as the first device status information. The second device may further comprise a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the second device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the second storage region, as the second device status information. In a fourth embodiment of this system, the first control section may be a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program. The second control section may be a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program. The first device may comprise a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including the first storage region. The second device may comprises a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including the second storage region. The first computer program read in by the first processor may refer to the first storage region, and if it detects that the first device status information is stored in the first storage region, then it may send the first device status information to the management unit; and the second computer program read in by the second processor may refer to the second storage region, and if it detects that the second device status information is stored in the second storage region, then it may send the second device status information to the management unit. In a fifth embodiment of this system, in the fourth embodiment, at least the first device may be a storage control device provided with a storage device capable of storing data. The storage control device may be connected to a host device which transmits a write command for writing data to the storage device or a read command for reading out data from the storage device. If the first computer program seeks to refer to the first storage region while the write command or the read command is being processed, then the first computer program may refer to the first storage region when the processing of the write command or read command has finished. Furthermore, the storage device may be a physical storage device or a logical storage device, for example. Moreover, the storage control device may be a personal computer, a hard disk drive comprising hard disks, or a disk array device comprising a plurality of storage devices, for example. In a sixth embodiment of this system, the first device and the second device may respectively have a first ID and a second ID. There may be cases where the second ID of the first device and the second ID of the second device are the same as each other, even if the first ID of the first device and the first ID of the second device are different to each other. The first control section may be a first processor which operates by reading in a first computer program. The second control section may be a second processor which operates by reading in a second computer program. The first processor, the second processor and the management unit may be connected to a communications network which allows communications to be performed on the basis of IP addresses. The system may comprise a subsidiary management unit for managing whether or not the management unit is operating normally. The subsidiary management unit is not connected to the communications network, but is connected to the management unit. The management unit may generate a first IP address on the basis of the second ID of the first device, generate a second IP address on the basis of the second ID of the second device, check whether or not the first IP address and the second IP address are mutually duplicating, and output the result of the check. The first device may comprise a first memory having a plurality of storage regions including the first storage region, and a first status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the first storage region, as the first device status information. The second device may comprise a second memory having a plurality of storage regions including the second storage region, and a second status writing unit which inputs a status relating to the device, and writes the information indicating a status thus input, to the second storage region, as the second device status information. The first computer program read in by the first processor may refer to the first storage region, and if it detects that the first device status information is stored in the first storage region, then it sends the first device status information to the management unit via the communications network. The second computer program read in by the second processor may refer to the second storage region, and if it detects that the second device status information is stored in the second storage region, then it may send the second device status information to the management unit via the communications network. The principles of the system described above may be applied to devices or methods which are subject to management. For example, the device according to a second aspect of the present invention can be connected to a management unit and may comprise a storage region for storing device status information, which is information indicating a status relating to the device; and a control section for transmitting the device status information stored in the storage region to the management unit. Moreover, for example, the method according to a third aspect of the present invention may comprise the steps of: storing first device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a first device, in a first storage region; sending the first device status information stored in the first storage region to a management unit; storing second device status information which is information indicating a status relating to a second device, in a second storage region; and sending the second device status information stored in the second storage region to the management unit. | 20050114 | 20081202 | 20060525 | 76467.0 | G06F300 | 0 | NAWAZ, ASAD M | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MANAGING DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,005 |
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11,034,909 | ACCEPTED | Extension and locking assembly for dripless element, and container therefore | A filter assembly includes housing enclosing a replaceable filter element. A support core is provided in the housing, and includes an extension and locking assembly. The element includes a ring of filtration media with a pair of end caps. The first end cap includes a central opening to receive the support core. The extension and locking assembly prevents the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member, which are in locking engagement when an element is absent in the housing. The second end cap includes internal protrusions which engage the locking member when the filter element is installed to disengage the bypass member from the support core, and allow the element to be inserted and the cover to be installed. | 1. A filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; an end cap assembly at the first end of the filter media including i) a first flat annular end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and ii) a separate annular end piece located against a surface of the first end cap; and a second flat annular end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said end cap assembly at the first end of the filter element including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said end cap assembly having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, and being defined by an annular flange integral with an inner surface of said end cap assembly and projecting axially inward from said end cap assembly toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said end cap assembly than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; and a series of distinct, axially-projecting protrusions affixed to said annular end piece of the end cap assembly and spaced radially outward from said annular flange and radially between said flange and said ring of filtration media, said protrusions projecting axially inward from said end cap assembly from said end cap assembly toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said end cap assembly than said second end cap. 2. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said protrusions are unitary with said end piece. 3. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said protrusions are evenly spaced in an annular arrangement surrounding said annular flange. 4. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein each of said protrusions has a distal free end, and the distal free end of the protrusions has a helical ramped surface. 5. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the ring of filtration media radially outwardly bounds the protrusions. 6. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said flange is spaced radially inward apart from the filtration media, and defines an annular gap between the flange and the media. 7. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said protrusions are radially spaced inward apart from the filtration media, and radially spaced outward apart from the flange. 8. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein said second end cap has an annular body portion with a surface that is sealingly bonded in surface-to-surface contact with an annular end surface of the filtration media ring. 9. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the protrusions extend in arcuate segments in an annular configuration along an inner surface of the end piece. 10. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the flange is affixed to the first end cap. 11. The filter element as in claim 1, wherein the annular flange has a tapered inner distal end. 12. A filter element removably positionable between a pair of housing portions, with a central support core projecting axially away from one of the housing portions toward the other of the housing portions, said filter element comprising: i) a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central cavity along a central axis and having first and second ends, ii) an annular first end cap and annular end piece at the first end of the media ring, and iii) an annular second end cap at the second end of the media ring; the first end cap having a surface sealingly bonded to a surface at the first end of the filtration media and the end piece located against a surface of the first end cap to form an integral end cap assembly, and having a series of elongated protrusions extending axially inward from said end piece toward said second end cap, said protrusions located radially between a central opening in the end piece and said ring of filtration media, and being radially outwardly bounded by the ring of filtration media; and iii) the second end cap having a surface sealingly bonded to a surface at the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap also having a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, dimensioned to receive the central support core, wherein the end piece and protrusions remain with the filter element when the filter element is removed from between the pair of housing portions. 13. The filter element as in claim 12, wherein the protrusions are permanently affixed to said end piece. 14. The filter element as in claim 12, wherein the protrusions are unitary with the first end piece. 15. The filter element as in claim 12, wherein the first end cap includes a central flange outwardly bounding a central opening in the first end cap, and projecting axially inward from the first end cap toward the second end cap and terminating at a point closer to the first end cap than the second end cap, the flange located radially inward from the protrusions. 16. A filter element including a ring of filtration media circumscribing a central axis and having first and second ends; an end cap assembly at the first end of the filter media having a first annular end cap sealingly bonded to the first end of the filtration media, and a second annular end cap sealingly bonded to the second end of the filtration media; the second end cap including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element; said end cap assembly at the first end of the filter element including a central opening along the central axis of the filter element, said central opening of said end cap assembly having a smaller diameter than said central opening of said second end cap, and being defined by an annular flange integral with an inner surface of said end cap assembly and projecting axially inward from said end cap assembly toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said end cap assembly than said second end cap, said annular flange spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media; and a series of axially-projecting protrusions affixed to said end cap assembly and located radially between said annular flange and said ring of filtration media, said protrusions projecting axially inward from said end cap assembly from said end cap assembly toward said second end cap and terminating at a point closer to said end cap assembly than said second end cap. 17. The filter element as in claim 16, wherein said end cap assembly further comprises an annular end piece located in surface-to-surface relation with a surface of the first annular end cap, the protrusions being unitary with the annular end piece. 18. The filter element as in claim 17, wherein the annular end piece is located against an inner surface of the first end cap. 19. The filter element as in claim 18, wherein said protrusions are spaced radially outward apart from said annular flange. | This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/989,776, filed Nov. 16, 2004; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/371,751, filed Feb. 21, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,837,993; which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/584,972, filed Jun. 1, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,554,139, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates to fluid filters, and more particularly to fuel filters for vehicles. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Many types of filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. Filters are widely known for removing contaminants and other impurities from fluids such as fuel and oil. A popular type of filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel or oil before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that flow is restricted. It is known that problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter element can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. If an automatic drain valve is used in the filter (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386), fuel or oil can be dumped to drain when an element is not installed in the housing. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine, particularly if the operation of the engine depends on the continued supply of oil or fuel from the filter. A still further problem is that upon removing the element, an individual may come into contact with the fuel/oil and any impurities on the element, and get dirty hands. The user typically has to reach down into the housing to grasp the element, and may come into contact with residual fuel or oil in the housing and on the element. In addition, any fuel or oil remaining on the element may drip off on the surrounding engine components when the element is removed, thereby fouling the engine; or worse yet, drip off onto the ground and create environmental issues. To reduce and at least partially eliminate some of these problems, the filter assembly shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter assembly includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The filter element includes an opening in one end cap opposite from the cover, which allows the filter element to be removeably located over an elongated standpipe in the housing. The element is removed when the cover is removed (screwed off) from the housing. While this reduces skin contact with the element and thereby reduces the mess associated with an element change, this does not fully address the problem with fuel, oil and impurities draining off the element as it is removed from the housing and carried across the engine. In addition, the cover of the housing in the '923 patent is typically discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint, as the cover is usually a heavy plastic or metal component. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste and/or cannot be easily incinerated. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result, this design adds cost to the replacement element. The element in the '923 patent may also be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, this design does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. An improved filter assembly is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this patent, a standpipe is similarly provided internally to the housing, and a spring-biased valve element is provided internal to the standpipe. The valve element is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on an end cap of the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. The valve (and hence the filter assembly) generally cannot be operated without a proper filter element installed. The filter shown in the '065 patent overcomes some of the problems associated with the earlier '923 patent, however, the cover is attached to the element in the same manner as in the '923 patent, and fuel and oil can still drip onto the engine and the surrounding area when the filter element is replaced. Also, as in the '923 patent, the cover may be detached from the element and screwed back onto the housing with out a fresh element being installed. In some high-pressure fuel systems, the valve element may actually be forced open, and unfiltered fuel can be allowed to pass to the downstream components. This can also be detrimental to the engine. It is therefor believed there exists a need for a still further filter that reduces if not eliminates, the mess and environmental issues associated with changing an element; and prevents the operation of the filter without a proper filter element. SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION A new and unique filter assembly is provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. According to the present invention, the filter assembly includes a replaceable element with a ring of filtration media, and an end cap sealingly bonded to either end of the filtration media. An internal support core is fixed to an end wall of the filter housing, and one of the end caps of the filter element include a central opening, such that the filter element can be removably received over the support core. The support core provides internal support for the filter element, so that the filter element can be composed of only material which is easily incinerated. An extension and locking assembly is provided with the support core. The extension and locking assembly operates to prevent the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed in the housing, or without a filter element in the housing. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member. The bypass member is closely and slideably received in the locking member, while the locking member is closely and slideably received in the support core. In one embodiment, both the locking member and the bypass member have enlarged heads, with the enlarged head of the bypass member overlying the enlarged head of the locking member. A main spring extends between a shoulder on the support core and the enlarged head of the locking member to bias the locking member and bypass member outwardly from the support core. When the locking member and bypass member are in their outer position, the distal inner end of the locking member urges the distal inner end of the bypass member radially outward against the inner surface of the support core. The support core includes an annular step or shoulder along its inner surface, and the distal inner end of the bypass member engages the step to prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. The extension and locking assembly is long enough such that the cover of the housing cannot be attached to the housing body when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. The enlarged head of the bypass member includes a series of openings which allow access to the enlarged head of the locking member. The openings are strategically placed, and the other end cap (opposite from the end cap of the filter element with the central opening) has a series of protrusions that extend axially inward from the end cap, in orientation with the openings. When the element is installed over the support core, the protrusions extend through the openings in the head of the bypass member and engage the head of the locking member. The protrusions force the locking member axially inward, and in so doing, move the distal inner end of the locking member away from the distal inner end of the bypass member. This allows the distal inner end of the bypass member to disengage from the step in the support core, and the locking member and bypass member to slide inwardly (retract) into the support core. In its inner position, the extension and locking assembly allows the filter element to be properly located in the filter housing, and the cover to be attached to the housing body. As should be appreciated, a filter element without a correct arrangement of protrusions on its end cap will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locking in its outer position, thereby preventing the filter element from being properly assembled in the filter housing. Another feature of the filter assembly is that during an element change, when the cover is removed, the extension and locking assembly will urge the spent element slightly outwardly from the housing, as the extension and locking assembly moves to its outer position. This facilitates removing the spent filter element from the housing, and reduces contact with any fuel or oil remaining in the housing. A bypass valve can be provided in the bypass member to allow fluid to bypass the filter element when the filter element becomes clogged with impurities. The bypass valve can be provided as a unitary piece with the bypass member, or as a separate piece supported by the bypass member. A bypass spring biases the head of the bypass valve against a central opening in the adjacent end cap to normally prevent fluid bypassing the element, but to allow fluid bypass when the pressure in the housing increases above a predetermined amount. As discussed above, the filter element includes a pair of end caps, with a first of the end caps including a central opening to receive the central support core. The second end cap includes the protrusions for operating the extension and locking assembly, and can include a central opening if the bypass valve is used. The central opening in the second end cap is preferably bounded by a short annular flange, which extends inwardly into the filter element, and seals against the bypass valve when the element is located in the housing. The flange and protrusions can be easily formed with the end cap such as by molding the end cap as a unitary component, and the filter element is otherwise a simple and inexpensive component to manufacture. While not as preferred, the protrusions could also be formed on a separate piece and held against the inside surface of the second end cap. Another feature of the present invention is that the filter element is preferably stored for shipment in a fluid-tight container. The container includes a cup-shaped body and a lid, with the lid being easily attachable to the body to allow easy access to the filter element. The body and lid are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight, incineratable material, for example, a plastic. The container body includes a retaining device, such as a ridge or bead, integral with either the sidewall and/or end wall of the body, which is designed to engage an appropriate part of the element and retain the element in the body. The retaining device can have a number of different forms, and can be configured to engage different locations on the filter element to retain the element within the container body. It is preferred that the retaining device be resilient, and resiliently deflect to engage a portion of the end cap, such as the outer periphery of one of the end caps. During an element change, a fresh element can be removed from the container and set aside. The empty body of the container is then inverted, and inserted open-end first into the open end of the filter housing, in surrounding relation to the spent element. This is facilitated by the element sitting slightly outwardly from the housing as discussed above. The resilient retaining device engages the element, and cooperates with the element to retain the element to the body. The container body is then removed from the housing, with the element attached thereto. Upon removing the body from the housing, the body is immediately turned upright, thereby preventing any fuel or oil from dripping off the element and contaminating the surrounding area. The lid is then attached to the body, and the entire assembly, with the spent element, can then be disposed of such as by incineration. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter, and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. Further features and advantages will be apparent upon reviewing the following Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiment and the accompanying Drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an elevated perspective view in partial cross section of a first embodiment of the filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded view of certain components of the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional side view of a portion of the filter of FIG. 1, illustrating the outer position of the extension and locking assembly; FIG. 5 is an enlarged view of a portion of the filter of FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is an elevated perspective view of the extension and locking assembly for the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 7 is an inside view of the upper end cap for the filter element; FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional side view of the extension and locking assembly, illustrating the end cap of the filter element engaging the locking member; FIG. 9 is cross-sectional side view of the filter, illustrating the extension and locking assembly in an outer position; FIG. 10 is a cross-sectional side view of the extension and locking assembly shown constructed according to a further embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is an exploded view of the extension and locking assembly of FIG. 10; FIG. 12 is an elevated perspective view of a separate end piece with protrusions for the filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 13 is an exploded view of the container and a fresh element for the fuel filter of FIG. 1; FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional side view of a first embodiment of the container for the filter element; FIG. 15 is an enlarged view of a portion of the container of FIG. 14; FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional enlarged view of another portion of the container of FIG. 14; FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional enlarged side view of a portion of the container, illustrating a second embodiment of the container; FIG. 18 is a cross-sectional side view of a third embodiment of the container; FIG. 19 is an elevated perspective view of a fourth embodiment of the container; FIG. 20 is a cross-sectional side view of the container, illustrating a fifth embodiment of the container; FIG. 21 is an enlarged view of a portion of the container of FIG. 20; and FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional side view of a sixth embodiment of the container. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Referring now to the drawings, and initially to FIG. 1, a first embodiment of a filter constructed according to the principles of the present invention, is indicated generally at 30. The filter 30 is particularly suited for filtering water and other particulate and contaminants from fuel (e.g., diesel fuel), but is generally appropriate for separating any low density fluid (e.g., water) from a higher density fluid (e.g., oil). The filter 30 of the first embodiment includes an annular housing body 32 with a cup-shaped cover 34 removeably attached to an open end of the housing body. The housing body 32 and cover 34 define an interior cavity 35 for a removable filter element 36. Housing 32 and cover 34 are formed from materials appropriate for the particular application, for example hard plastic, and the housing 32 is fixed to an appropriate location on the engine. Annular housing body 32 includes a disk-shaped end wall 37, an inlet port 38 and an outlet port 39 which direct fuel into and out of the filter. The inlet and outlet ports are illustrated as being formed in the end wall 37, however one or both could also be formed in housing body 32, or even in cover 34. In any case, fuel (or oil) to be filtered is directed through inlet port 38 and into a peripheral region 40 of the filter, between housing body 32 and filter element 36. The fuel then passes radially inward through element 36, where contaminants/particulate in the fuel are removed, and the filtered fuel then passes through port 39 to the downstream components of the fuel system. The housing body 32 includes an open end 42, and a series of internal threads 44 are provided near the open end. The cover 34 also includes an open end 46, with a series of external threads 48 provided near the open end. Threads 44 of housing cooperate with threads 48 of cover 34 to enable the cover to be easily screwed onto and off of the housing. An O-ring seal or gasket 50 is provided between the housing components to provide a fluid-tight seal. The above is only one technique for attaching the cover to the housing, and other techniques are possible as should be known to those skilled in the art. A threaded spud or collar 54 is provided centrally in the end wall 37 of the housing, and bounds outlet port 39. Spud 54 projects axially upward a short distance from the end wall 37 toward the open end 42 of the housing body. If necessary or desirable, an automatic drain valve (not shown) can be installed in the end wall 37 of the housing, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386. This patent is incorporated herein by reference. Referring now to FIGS. 2-5, a support core or tube 56 extends along the axial center line of the housing, and includes a threaded inner end 57 which is screwed into and sealingly received in spud 54. The inner end of the support core includes a short annular skirt 58 (see also FIG. 8) which is radially outwardly spaced from the core, and is closely outwardly received around spud 54. The support core 56 includes a series of ribs or flights as at 60 along its length. Flights 60 preferably extend in a continuous helix, and facilitate the movement of fuel along the length of the support core, as well as provide uniform support along the inside surface of the filter element 36. The support core 56 preferably has one or more openings 62 (FIG. 3) toward its outer (upper) end 64 to allow fuel to pass inward into the support core. The remainder of the length of the support core can be imperforate, or may also have appropriate openings, depending upon the desired level of fuel to be maintained in the support core. In certain situations, it is desired to maintain a certain level of fuel in the support core for the smooth operation of the filter during start-up. Finally, the support core includes an outer annular shoulder 66 and an inner annular step 68 (FIG. 5), both at appropriate locations along the length of the core, and the reasons for which will be described below. Support core 56 is formed of material, e.g., hard plastic, appropriate for the particular application. An extension and locking assembly, indicated generally at 70 in FIG. 4, is received in support core 56. Extension and locking assembly 70 prevents the cover 34 from being attached to housing body 32 unless a proper filter element is installed in the housing. To this end, the extension and locking assembly 70 include a locking member 74 and a bypass member 76; with locking member 74 being closely and slidingly received in bypass member 76, and bypass member 76 being closely and slidingly received in support core 56. As shown in FIG. 3, locking member 74 includes a body 78 with a series of lower openings 79 for fluid flow, a series of upper openings 80, an annular base 82, and an enlarged annular head 84. The base 82 of the locking member includes a radially-outward projecting annular flange 86 (see FIG. 5). Body 78 includes a series of inner axial channels or slots 90, which are positioned to slidingly receive fingers 92 of bypass member 76. Locking member 74 is preferably formed unitarily (in one piece) from appropriate material, such as hard plastic. Bypass member 76 includes fingers 92 and an enlarged annular head 94 which overlays the enlarged annular head 84 of locking member 74 when fingers 92 are received in channels 90. Fingers 92 extend along slots 90 in locking member 74, and project outwardly (downwardly in the Figures) through upper openings 80. An imperforate dome-shaped end wall 96 is provided radially inwardly of head 94, as shown in FIG. 4. Bypass member 76 is also preferably formed unitarily (in one piece) from appropriate material, such as hard plastic. A main spring 100 is provided in surrounding relation to the outer (upper) end of support core 56 and the locking member 74 and bypass member 76. Spring 100 extends between annular shoulder 66 on support core 56 and the enlarged head 84 of locking member 74. Spring 100 urges the head of locking member 74 against the head of bypass member 76, and hence urges these components axially outward from support core 56. When the bypass member 76 is received in locking member 74, fingers 92 of bypass member 76 project axially through openings 80 in locking member 74 and are received between the annular base 82 of the locking member and the inside surface of the support core, as best seen in FIG. 5. The annular flange 86 of the base 82 urges the fingers 92 radially outward against the inner surface of the support core, and creates an interference fit to retain the locking member and bypass member in the support core, that is, to prevent the main spring 100 from pushing these components entirely outwardly from the support core. A bypass spring 102 is provided internally of the dome-shaped end wall 96 (as seen in FIG. 4), and biases bypass member 76 outwardly away from locking member 74. Bypass spring 102 extends between the dome-shaped end wall 96 and a radially inward directed annular spring stop 106 (FIG. 2) on locking member 74. As indicated above, the extension and locking assembly prevents attachment of the cover 34 to the housing body 32 without a proper filter element installed in the housing. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the main spring 100 normally urges the locking member and bypass member outwardly such that the distal inner ends of the fingers 92 of the bypass member 76 are axially outward of the annular step 68 (FIG. 5) in the support core. The annular base 82 of the locking member 74 urges the fingers 92 radially outward against the support core, such that the fingers engage the step and prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. As illustrated in FIG. 9, the extension and locking assembly 70 has an axial length sufficient that the cover 34 cannot be fully screwed onto the housing body 32 when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. To disengage the bypass member from the step in the support core, the base 82 of the locking member is moved axially away (inwardly) from the distal ends of the fingers 92 of the bypass member. As shown in FIG. 6, the head 94 of the bypass member has a series of openings 110 that allow access to the underlying head 84 of the locking member. The filter element has an end cap 114, which as shown in FIG. 7, has a series of distinct, axially-extending protrusions 116 corresponding to the location of the openings 110 in the bypass valve head 94. As illustrated, four such protrusions 116 are shown in a generally evenly-spaced annular arrangement extending outwardly, away from the end cap 114, however the number and spacing of the protrusions can vary depending upon the number and location of openings 110, and it is noted that only a single protrusion may be necessary in some applications. The distal ends of the protrusions 116, and/or the lands 118 between the openings 110, can have angled or helical ramped surfaces, to facilitate the orientation of the protrusions with the openings 110. The angled or helical surfaces force or urge the filter element to rotate when the element is installed in the housing such that the protrusions 116 automatically become aligned with the openings 110. When the filter element is installed in the housing, the protrusions 116 on the end cap 114 project through openings 110, and engage the head 84 of the locking member 74. The protrusions 116 force the locking member axially inward into the support core, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 8. The base 82 of the locking member moves axially away from the inner ends of fingers 92 of bypass member 76, thereby allowing the fingers to disengage from step 68 and the bypass member to slide inwardly into the support core. This allows the extension and locking assembly to retract into the support core, compressing main spring 100, and allows the cover 34 to be attached to the housing body 32. The length of the protrusions necessary to move the locking member an appropriate axial distance can be easily determined. It should be appreciated that an element without a proper arrangement of protrusion(s) will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locked in its outer position. It will not be possible to attach the cover 34 to the housing body 32. Thus, the invention not only prevents the operation of the filter without a filter element installed, but also prevents the operation of the filter even if an element is installed, but where the element fails to have a proper arrangement of protrusion(s). Referring again to FIGS. 2 and 3, the filter element 36 includes a ring of filtration media 120 formed of an appropriate material in an appropriate manner. The element also includes a disk-shaped end cap 114 sealingly bonded (such as with adhesive) to the outer (upper) end of the media ring; and an opposite disk-shaped end cap 122 sealingly bonded (such as with adhesive) to the inner (lower) annular end of the media ring. The end cap 122 includes a central circular opening 124 dimensioned to receive the support core 56 and enable the filter element to be removeably located over the support core. A short annular flange 126 projects axially downward and bounds opening 124 in end cap 122, to provide a fluid-tight seal against the sleeve 58 of the support core. Alternatively (or in addition), an O-ring or resilient gasket (not shown) can be provided between the end cap 122 and the support core 56. The outer end cap 114 also includes a central opening 128, with a diameter somewhat smaller than the opening 124 end cap 122. As shown in FIG. 7, an annular flange 130 bounds the opening 128 in end cap 114, and projects a short distance axially inward into the filter element from end cap 114 toward end cap 122 (but terminating at a point much closer to end cap 114 than end cap 122). The protrusions 116 are spaced radially inward from the ring of filtration media 120 and radially outward from flange 130. Flange 130 includes a tapered distal end 132 which is dimensioned to engage flush against the dome-shaped end wall 96 of the bypass member 76 when the element is located in the housing (see, e.g., FIG. 2). The inner and outer end caps 114, 122 are preferably each formed of an appropriate material (such as plastic) unitarily (in one piece) in a conventional manner, such as by molding. The dome-shaped end wall 96 and bypass spring 102 of the bypass member, and the flange 130 on the end cap 114 provide a bypass valve for the filter element. When the element is located in the housing, the flange 130 engages and seals against the dome-shaped end wall 96, thereby preventing fluid from bypassing the element. When an overpressure situation exists in the peripheral region 40 of the element, such as when the element becomes plugged, the pressure forces bypass member 76 inwardly against bypass spring 102, thereby creating a flow gap between the end wall 96 and the flange 130, and allowing fluid to bypass the element. The spring constant of bypass spring 102 can be chosen to determine the appropriate cracking force for the bypass feature. Further discussion of the bypass valve can be found, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,054, which is incorporated herein by reference. It is noted that the bypass valve is an optional feature, and that the filter could also be configured without such a bypass valve, in which case end wall 96 and spring 102 would be absent, and the end cap 114 would be continuous (imperforate) across its diameter. While it is illustrated above that the locking member and bypass member are received internally of the support core, it is anticipated that with appropriate modifications, the bypass member and locking member could likewise be received around (outwardly from) the support core. In this case, the bypass member and locking member could function in the same manner as described above to lock the extension and locking assembly in an outward position when an element is absent from the housing, and allow the extension and locking assembly to move inwardly when an appropriate filter element is located in the housing. When the element is installed properly in the housing, the fuel entering inlet port 38 flows into the peripheral region 40 surrounding the element, and then radially inward through the element to the support core 56. The filtered fuel then passes through the support core to the outlet 39. If an element becomes clogged and a bypass valve is provided, the valve will allow fluid to bypass the element when the fluid pressure in the peripheral region 40 exceeds a predetermined amount. When it is desirable to change a spent element, the cover 34 is removed (screwed off), and the element can be easily accessed and replaced with a fresh element. To facilitate the easy grasping of the spent element, the extension and locking assembly 70 automatically pushes the spent element outwardly a short distance by virtue of main spring 100. This also allows at least some of the fuel to drip off the element and remain in the filter housing, rather than drip onto the surrounding area during element removal. A second embodiment of the extension and locking assembly 70 is illustrated in FIGS. 10 and 11. In this embodiment, the bypass feature is provided by a separate valve component, indicated generally at 144. Valve component 144 operates in the same manner as the bypass valve described above, and includes a body 146; an enlarged valve head 148; and a pair of elongated and axially-extending fingers 150, each of which have a catch 152 at their distal ends. The body 146 of the valve component is received in a circular opening defined by an annular support 154 in the locking member, with the catches 152 engaging the support 154 to prevent the valve component from being removed from locking member 74. Bypass spring 102 extends between the head 148 of the valve component and an inner annular shoulder 155 of the bypass member, and urges valve component 144 outwardly from the support core. The enlarged annular head is absent from the locking member 74 illustrated in FIG. 11. Instead, the valve head 148 and the catches 152 on the fingers 150 of the valve component 144 retain the bypass member and valve component together. Main spring 100 is applied directly to the enlarged head 94 of the bypass member. The outer end of fingers 157 of locking member 74 are accessible through the openings 110 in the head 94 of the bypass member, and can be engaged by the protrusions 116 on end cap 114 to move the locking member inwardly into the support core. The locking member 74 and bypass member 76 otherwise have the same configuration as discussed previously and operate in the same manner to lock the extension and locking assembly in an outward position if an element is absent, or if an element does not have an appropriate arrangement of protrusion(s). A further embodiment of the filter element of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 12. In this embodiment, the protrusions 116 are formed in a separate end piece 160. End piece 160 has an annular configuration, and fits against the inside surface of the end cap 114. The end piece 160 can be permanently fixed to the end cap, such as with adhesive, or can merely be located against the end cap and held in place by friction fit, or by the interaction with the locking member 76. The angled or helical distal end surfaces of the protrusions are clearly visible in this Figure. The remainder of the filter element is preferably the same as described previously. Referring now to FIGS. 13-22, a further feature of the present invention is that a fluid-tight container is provided for the filter element that substantially reduces, if not eliminates, fouling the surrounding area with dripping fuel. The container is also handy for shipping, and eliminates the need for a shipping carton or box. Referring first to FIGS. 13-16, the container is indicated generally at 164, and includes an imperforate, cup-shaped body 166, and an imperforate lid or cap 168. The cup-shaped body has a sidewall 169 with a cylindrical dimension slightly larger than the element, and disk-shaped end wall 170. The body and lid form a fluid-tight enclosure with a dimension slightly larger than the element to entirely enclose the filter element. The body also has a dimension sufficient to enable it to be inserted into the housing body 32, between the housing body 32 and the filter element 36. Lid 168 has an annular, axially extending lip portion 171, which as shown in FIG. 16, closely receives and cooperates with a bead 172 bounding the open end of the housing body to enable the lid to be easily attached to and removed form the body. Other techniques are of course possible for easily attaching the lid to the body, such as corresponding screw threads, and any technique is possible, as long as it allows relatively easy attachment and removal of the lid. The container 164 further includes a retaining device, indicated generally at 174, integral with either the sidewall 119 or end wall 170. As shown in FIG. 15, the retaining device 174 can include a resilient member, such as an annular channel or ridge 175 formed in the sidewall 32, that engages around the outer periphery of end cap 114. The sidewall 169 has some resiliency to allow the container body 166 to be easily located over the filter element, and snap around the end cap 114 to hold the end cap against end wall 170. An alternative embodiment of the retaining device 174 is shown in FIG. 17. In this embodiment, an annular bead 178 is formed near the end wall 170, and engages the periphery of the end cap 114 when the container is located over the filter element. The annular bead 178 is likewise formed in sidewall 169, and the sidewall resiliently deflects to allow the container body 166 to be easily located over the filter element. The body 166 and lid 16 are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight material, such as plastic, polypropylene, polyethylene, polycarbonate, PET, or other similar material. The material is preferably easily incinerated (burned), or at least recyclable. The body 166, including retaining device 174, and lid 168 are each preferably formed unitary (in one piece) by appropriate techniques, such as injection molding, vacuum-forming or drawing. While the dimensions of the body and lid can vary, it is preferred that the body and lid have relatively thin walls, and it has been found that a body and lid with a wall thickness of between 0.015 and 0.030 inches, provides a durable, inexpensive and incineratable product. As should be appreciated, when the filter element is to be changed, the fresh element is removed from the container 164. The fresh element is preferably inverted in the container for shipping, and the end caps on the element can be dimensioned such that the retaining device does not retain the fresh element in the container, or the element is only loosely retained. In any case, the body of the empty container is then inverted and located open-end first, down around the filter element. This is facilitated by the element being supported somewhat outwardly from the housing, as discussed above. The container is pushed downwardly until the retaining device is received and snapped around the end cap. The body of the container can then be removed from the housing, thereby simultaneously removing the element. When the container body is free from the housing, the container body is quickly inverted to reduce the amount of fuel or oil dripping onto the surrounding area. This also virtually eliminates skin-contact with the element and the fuel or oil. Once inverted, the container body catches any remaining fuel or oil, and the lid 168 can be easily attached to the body 166 to form a fluid-tight enclosure for the element. Since it is preferred that the element is comprised of combustible materials, the spent element and container can then be disposed of in an incinerator. While the retaining device is illustrated above as being unitary with the sidewall of the container, the retaining device can alternatively be unitary with the end wall 170, or formed as a separate piece and permanently fixed to the end wall or sidewall. There are numerous embodiments of the retaining device that would be appropriate for the present invention. For example, as shown in FIG. 18, the retaining device 174 can be formed at the opposite, open end of the container body 166, and comprises a channel, ridge or bead 180 in sidewall 169 that snaps around the opposite end cap 122 of the element. FIG. 19 shows a further embodiment, where the container body can include a retaining device 174 comprising a screw thread 181. The screw thread cooperates with end cap 122 to allow the container body to be screwed onto the end cap. The lid (not shown) can then have cooperating internal threads to allow the lid to be easily screwed onto (and off of) the container body. FIGS. 20 and 21 show a still further embodiment, where the retaining device 174 comprises an annular flange 182 centrally located on the end wall 170 of the container body 166, and received in the central opening 128 of the end cap 114 of the element. The flange 182 includes an annular, radially-outward directed catch 186 at the distal inner end that deformably engages the annular flange 132 surrounding opening 128 in end cap 114 to retain the element to the container. The length of the container body 166 can of course vary, with the lid 168 consequently having a longer or shorter axial length such that the two components entirely encapsulate the element. As shown in FIG. 22, the container body 166 is shown as a relatively short component, only as long as necessary that the retainer device 174 snaps around the end cap 114 of the element. The lid 168 would then have a relatively long length to fully encapsulate the element. Other alternatives are of course possible. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. The principles, preferred embodiments and modes of operation of the present invention have been described in the foregoing specification. The invention which is intended to be protected herein should not, however, be construed as limited to the particular form described as it is to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive. Variations and changes may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Many types of filters (also referred to as “separators”) are known in the prior art. Filters are widely known for removing contaminants and other impurities from fluids such as fuel and oil. A popular type of filter has a housing that encloses a replaceable ring-shaped filter element. The filter element ensures that impurities are removed from fuel or oil before it is delivered to system components such as fuel injection pumps and fuel injectors. Mating portions of the housing form an interior enclosure for the element, and the housing portions may be separated for replacement of a spent filter element. Periodic replacement of the filter element is required so that the filter element will not become so loaded with impurities that flow is restricted. It is known that problems may arise when such filter elements are replaced. One problem is that filter elements with different sizes and/or filtration capabilities often have identical mounting configurations and can fit on the same filter head. However, use of the wrong filter element can cause poor engine performance and allow undesirable amounts of contaminants to pass through the system. Another problem is that individuals may remove a spent filter element and simply re-attach the housing portions without a fresh element. If an automatic drain valve is used in the filter (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,468,386), fuel or oil can be dumped to drain when an element is not installed in the housing. While the engine may operate (at least for a short period of time), this can be detrimental to the engine, particularly if the operation of the engine depends on the continued supply of oil or fuel from the filter. A still further problem is that upon removing the element, an individual may come into contact with the fuel/oil and any impurities on the element, and get dirty hands. The user typically has to reach down into the housing to grasp the element, and may come into contact with residual fuel or oil in the housing and on the element. In addition, any fuel or oil remaining on the element may drip off on the surrounding engine components when the element is removed, thereby fouling the engine; or worse yet, drip off onto the ground and create environmental issues. To reduce and at least partially eliminate some of these problems, the filter assembly shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,836,923, owned by the Assignee of the present application, was developed. This filter assembly includes a unique replaceable filter element that is attached to a removable cover. The filter element includes an opening in one end cap opposite from the cover, which allows the filter element to be removeably located over an elongated standpipe in the housing. The element is removed when the cover is removed (screwed off) from the housing. While this reduces skin contact with the element and thereby reduces the mess associated with an element change, this does not fully address the problem with fuel, oil and impurities draining off the element as it is removed from the housing and carried across the engine. In addition, the cover of the housing in the '923 patent is typically discarded with each spent element. This is undesirable from a conservation and solid waste standpoint, as the cover is usually a heavy plastic or metal component. It is generally desirable to minimize the amount of material discarded, particularly if a discarded element must be treated as hazardous waste and/or cannot be easily incinerated. The cover also represents a portion of the cost of the replacement element. As a result, this design adds cost to the replacement element. The element in the '923 patent may also be separated from the cover, and the cover re-attached to the housing without a fresh element also being installed. As such, this design does not fully address the problems associated with operating an engine without a filter element installed. An improved filter assembly is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,770,065, also owned by the assignee of the present application. In this patent, a standpipe is similarly provided internally to the housing, and a spring-biased valve element is provided internal to the standpipe. The valve element is normally closed, and can be engaged and moved to an open position by a projection on an end cap of the element when the element is properly installed in the housing. The valve (and hence the filter assembly) generally cannot be operated without a proper filter element installed. The filter shown in the '065 patent overcomes some of the problems associated with the earlier '923 patent, however, the cover is attached to the element in the same manner as in the '923 patent, and fuel and oil can still drip onto the engine and the surrounding area when the filter element is replaced. Also, as in the '923 patent, the cover may be detached from the element and screwed back onto the housing with out a fresh element being installed. In some high-pressure fuel systems, the valve element may actually be forced open, and unfiltered fuel can be allowed to pass to the downstream components. This can also be detrimental to the engine. It is therefor believed there exists a need for a still further filter that reduces if not eliminates, the mess and environmental issues associated with changing an element; and prevents the operation of the filter without a proper filter element. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE PRESENT INVENTION <EOH>A new and unique filter assembly is provided that prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. According to the present invention, the filter assembly includes a replaceable element with a ring of filtration media, and an end cap sealingly bonded to either end of the filtration media. An internal support core is fixed to an end wall of the filter housing, and one of the end caps of the filter element include a central opening, such that the filter element can be removably received over the support core. The support core provides internal support for the filter element, so that the filter element can be composed of only material which is easily incinerated. An extension and locking assembly is provided with the support core. The extension and locking assembly operates to prevent the cover of the housing from being attached to the housing body without a proper filter element installed in the housing, or without a filter element in the housing. The extension and locking assembly includes a bypass member and a locking member. The bypass member is closely and slideably received in the locking member, while the locking member is closely and slideably received in the support core. In one embodiment, both the locking member and the bypass member have enlarged heads, with the enlarged head of the bypass member overlying the enlarged head of the locking member. A main spring extends between a shoulder on the support core and the enlarged head of the locking member to bias the locking member and bypass member outwardly from the support core. When the locking member and bypass member are in their outer position, the distal inner end of the locking member urges the distal inner end of the bypass member radially outward against the inner surface of the support core. The support core includes an annular step or shoulder along its inner surface, and the distal inner end of the bypass member engages the step to prevent the extension and locking assembly from being pushed inwardly into the support core. The extension and locking assembly is long enough such that the cover of the housing cannot be attached to the housing body when the extension and locking assembly is in its outer position. The enlarged head of the bypass member includes a series of openings which allow access to the enlarged head of the locking member. The openings are strategically placed, and the other end cap (opposite from the end cap of the filter element with the central opening) has a series of protrusions that extend axially inward from the end cap, in orientation with the openings. When the element is installed over the support core, the protrusions extend through the openings in the head of the bypass member and engage the head of the locking member. The protrusions force the locking member axially inward, and in so doing, move the distal inner end of the locking member away from the distal inner end of the bypass member. This allows the distal inner end of the bypass member to disengage from the step in the support core, and the locking member and bypass member to slide inwardly (retract) into the support core. In its inner position, the extension and locking assembly allows the filter element to be properly located in the filter housing, and the cover to be attached to the housing body. As should be appreciated, a filter element without a correct arrangement of protrusions on its end cap will not engage the head of the locking member, and the extension and locking assembly will remain locking in its outer position, thereby preventing the filter element from being properly assembled in the filter housing. Another feature of the filter assembly is that during an element change, when the cover is removed, the extension and locking assembly will urge the spent element slightly outwardly from the housing, as the extension and locking assembly moves to its outer position. This facilitates removing the spent filter element from the housing, and reduces contact with any fuel or oil remaining in the housing. A bypass valve can be provided in the bypass member to allow fluid to bypass the filter element when the filter element becomes clogged with impurities. The bypass valve can be provided as a unitary piece with the bypass member, or as a separate piece supported by the bypass member. A bypass spring biases the head of the bypass valve against a central opening in the adjacent end cap to normally prevent fluid bypassing the element, but to allow fluid bypass when the pressure in the housing increases above a predetermined amount. As discussed above, the filter element includes a pair of end caps, with a first of the end caps including a central opening to receive the central support core. The second end cap includes the protrusions for operating the extension and locking assembly, and can include a central opening if the bypass valve is used. The central opening in the second end cap is preferably bounded by a short annular flange, which extends inwardly into the filter element, and seals against the bypass valve when the element is located in the housing. The flange and protrusions can be easily formed with the end cap such as by molding the end cap as a unitary component, and the filter element is otherwise a simple and inexpensive component to manufacture. While not as preferred, the protrusions could also be formed on a separate piece and held against the inside surface of the second end cap. Another feature of the present invention is that the filter element is preferably stored for shipment in a fluid-tight container. The container includes a cup-shaped body and a lid, with the lid being easily attachable to the body to allow easy access to the filter element. The body and lid are preferably formed from inexpensive, lightweight, incineratable material, for example, a plastic. The container body includes a retaining device, such as a ridge or bead, integral with either the sidewall and/or end wall of the body, which is designed to engage an appropriate part of the element and retain the element in the body. The retaining device can have a number of different forms, and can be configured to engage different locations on the filter element to retain the element within the container body. It is preferred that the retaining device be resilient, and resiliently deflect to engage a portion of the end cap, such as the outer periphery of one of the end caps. During an element change, a fresh element can be removed from the container and set aside. The empty body of the container is then inverted, and inserted open-end first into the open end of the filter housing, in surrounding relation to the spent element. This is facilitated by the element sitting slightly outwardly from the housing as discussed above. The resilient retaining device engages the element, and cooperates with the element to retain the element to the body. The container body is then removed from the housing, with the element attached thereto. Upon removing the body from the housing, the body is immediately turned upright, thereby preventing any fuel or oil from dripping off the element and contaminating the surrounding area. The lid is then attached to the body, and the entire assembly, with the spent element, can then be disposed of such as by incineration. Thus, as described above, the filter of the present invention prevents an improper filter element from being used in the filter, and prevents operation of the filter without a filter element in place. Mess and environmental issues are substantially reduced, if not eliminated, during an element change. The filter element is also simple and low-cost to manufacture. Further features and advantages will be apparent upon reviewing the following Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiment and the accompanying Drawings. | 20050113 | 20060117 | 20050714 | 90999.0 | 3 | THERKORN, ERNEST G | EXTENSION AND LOCKING ASSEMBLY FOR DRIPLESS ELEMENT, AND CONTAINER THEREFORE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,077 | ACCEPTED | Logic circuit and method thereof | An example embodiment of the present invention relates to a method of executing a logic operation while remaining safe from side channel attacks. Another example embodiment of the present invention relates to a logic circuit and device for executing a logic operation while remaining safe from side channel attacks. | 1. A logic circuit, comprising: a random data generator for generating random data; a random mask device for generating random mask data based on received input data and the random data; and a logic device for executing a logic operation including the random mask data and outputting the results of the execution in a random mask type, the logic operation not satisfying an associative law. 2. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device includes a NOT operation device. 3. The logic circuit of claim 2, wherein the NOT operation device includes: a NOT logic gate for receiving the random mask data; a first XOR logic gate for receiving first and second random data, the first and second random data being a portion of the generated random data; and a second XOR logic gate for receiving outputs of the NOT and first XOR logic gates. 4. The logic circuit of claim 3, wherein the random mask data and the first and second random data each include n-bits, n being a natural number. 5. The logic circuit of claim 4, wherein the NOT operation is executed based on corresponding bits of the random mask data and the first and second random data. 6. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device is an AND operation device. 7. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device includes a first at least one logic gate for executing a first logic operation satisfying the associative law and a second at least one logic gate for executing a second logic operation not satisfying the associative law. 8. The logic circuit of claim 6, wherein the AND operation device includes: a first logic gate for receiving first and second random mask data to execute a first AND operation; a second logic gate for receiving the first random mask data and second random data to execute a second AND operation; a third logic gate for receiving the second random mask data and first random data to execute a third AND operation; a fourth logic gate for receiving the first and second random data to execute a fourth AND operation; a fifth logic gate for receiving outputs of the second and third logic gates to execute a first XOR operation; a sixth logic gate for receiving outputs of the fourth and fifth logic gates to execute a second XOR operation; a seventh logic gate for receiving an output of the sixth logic gate and third random data to execute a third XOR operation; and an eighth logic gate for receiving the first and seventh logic gates to execute a fourth XOR operation, the result of the fourth XOR operation being an output of the AND operation device, wherein the first, second and third random data are a portion of the generated random data. 9. The logic circuit of claim 8, wherein the first random mask data is the result of a first input data and the first random data being executed with a fifth XOR operation and the second random mask data is the result of a second input data and the second random data being executed with a sixth XOR operation. 10. The logic circuit of claim 8, wherein the random mask data and the first, second and third random data each include n-bits, n being a natural number. 11. The logic circuit of claim 10, wherein the AND operation is executed based on corresponding bits of the random mask data and the first, second and third random data. 12. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device is an OR operation device. 13. The logic device of claim 12, wherein the OR operation device includes: a first logic gate for receiving first and second random mask data to execute a first OR operation; a second logic gate for receiving the first random mask data and second random data to execute a first AND operation; a third logic gate for receiving the second random mask and first random data to execute a second AND operation; a fourth logic gate for receiving the first and second random data to execute a second OR operation; a fifth logic gate for receiving outputs of the second and third logic gates to execute a first XOR operation; a sixth logic gate for receiving outputs of the fourth and fifth logic gates to execute a second XOR operation; a seventh logic gate for receiving outputs of the sixth logic gate and third random data to execute a third XOR operation; and an eighth logic gate for receiving outputs of the first and seventh logic gates to execute a fourth XOR operation, the result of the fourth XOR operation being an output of the OR operation device, wherein the first, second and third random data are a portion of the generated random data. 14. The logic circuit of claim 13, wherein the first random mask data is the result of a first input data and the first random data being executed with a fifth XOR operation and the second random mask data is the result of a second input data and the second random data being executed with a sixth XOR operation. 15. The logic circuit of claim 14, wherein the random mask data and the first, second and third random data each include n-bits, n being a natural number. 16. The logic circuit of claim 15, wherein the OR operation is executed based on corresponding bits of the random mask data and the first, second and third random data. 17. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device is a NAND operation device. 18. The logic circuit of claim 17, wherein the NAND operation device includes an AND operation device and a NOT operation device. 19. The logic circuit of claim 1, wherein the logic device is a NOR operation device. 20. The logic circuit of claim 16, wherein the NOR operation device includes an OR operation device and a NOT operation device. 21. A method of executing a logic operation, comprising: generating random mask data based on received input data and generated random data; executing at least one logic operation including at least one of the random mask data, the random data and random mask type data, the at least one logic operation including a first logic operation satisfying the associative law and a second logic operation not satisfying the associative law; and outputting the result of the at least one logic operation applied in a random mask type. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least one logic operation includes a first NOT operation. 23. The method of claim 22, wherein the first NOT operation includes: executing a second NOT operation on the random mask data; executing a first XOR operation on received first and second random data, the first and second random data being a portion of the generated random data; and executing a second XOR operation on the outputs of the NOT operation and the first XOR operation. 24. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least one logic operation includes a first AND operation. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the first AND operation includes: receiving first and second random mask data to execute a second AND operation, the first and second random mask data being a portion of the generated random mask data; receiving the first random mask data and second random data to execute a third AND operation; receiving the second random mask data and first random data to execute a fourth AND operation; receiving the first and second random data to execute a fifth AND operation; receiving outputs of the second and third logic gates to execute a first XOR operation; receiving outputs of the fourth and fifth logic gates to execute a second XOR operation; receiving an output of the sixth logic gate and third random data to execute a third XOR operation; and receiving outputs of the first and seventh logic gates to execute a fourth XOR operation, the output of the fourth XOR operation being the result of the first AND operation, wherein the first, second and third random data are a portion of the generated random data. 26. The method of claim 25, wherein the first and second random mask data and the first, second and third random data each include n-bits, n being a natural number. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the first AND operation is executed based on corresponding bits of the first and second random mask data and the first, second and third random data. 28. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least one logic operation includes a first OR operation. 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the first OR operation includes: receiving first and second random mask data to execute a second OR operation; receiving the first random mask data and second random data to execute a first AND operation; receiving the second random mask data and first random data to execute a second AND operation; receiving the first and second random data to execute a third OR operation; receiving outputs of the second and third logic gates to execute a first XOR operation; receiving outputs of the third and fourth logic gates to execute a second XOR operation; receiving an output of the sixth logic gate and third random data to execute a third XOR operation; and receiving outputs of the first and seventh logic gates to execute a fourth XOR operation, the output of the fourth XOR operation being the result of the first OR operation, wherein the first, second and third random data are a portion of the generated random data. 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the first and second random mask data and the first, second and third random data each include n-bits, n being a natural number. 31. The method of claim 28, wherein the first OR operation is executed based on corresponding bits of the first and second random mask data and the first, second and third random data. 32. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least one logic operation includes a NAND operation. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the NAND operation includes an AND operation and a NOT operation. 34. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least one logic operation includes a NOR operation. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the NOR operation includes an OR operation and a NOT operation. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This U.S. non-provisional patent application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 of Korean Patent Application 2004-10975 filed on Feb. 19, 2004, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention Example embodiments of the present invention relate generally to a logic circuit and method thereof and more particularly to a logic circuit for performing a logic operation not meeting an associative law and method thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventional methods for processing data may include a key for security. The data encoded with the key may be extracted by measuring a power dissipation occurring during an operation of a cryptography algorithm and/or timing the execution of the operation. A leakage or exposure of data during extraction with a cryptography algorithm may be referred to as a side channel and a method for receiving the side channel may be referred to as a side channel attack. Side channel attacks may include a timing attack, a fault insertion attack, a power analysis attack, etc. In an example, a smart card system with an installed co-processor for cryptographic processing may have a higher possibility of a side channel because the smart card system may execute a higher number of logic operations (e.g., AND, OR, XOR, etc. . . .). A conventional differential power analysis (DPA) may measure and analyze power dissipation in logic operations of the cryptograph algorithm, thereby extracting the data. Thus, installing a defense against DPA may increase the security for a given system. One conventional defensive method, referred to as random masking, may include applying a cryptography algorithm after data is received and random data is included. If the received data is processed with a logical operation satisfying an associative law, data may not be extracted by a side channel attack because power dissipation during the cryptography algorithm execution may not result in the input data. Another conventional random masking method may include applying an XOR operation to the input data and the random data as given by /a=a⊕r (1.1) where the input data is a, the random data is r, the random mask data is /a, and an XOR operation is denoted by ⊕. It is well known that XOR operations satisfy the associative law (e.g., a⊕r=r⊕a, (a⊕r)⊕x=a⊕(r⊕x), etc. . . . ). The data generated during the cryptography algorithm operation may be maintained in a random mask in order to apply a logical operation satisfying an associative law (e.g., an XOR operation) to the input data while remaining unreadable with conventional DPA. In this case, the data included in the random mask type may include both processed data and random data. In another example, it may be assumed that a cryptography algorithm may apply an XOR operation to an input data ‘a’ and a key k. To prevent the DPA from extracting the input data a, random data r may be generated in order to attain the random mask data /a as given in Expression 1.1. If an XOR operation is applied to the random mask data /a and key k, the result may be given by /a⊕k=(a⊕r)⊕k (1.2) Thus, a result of the XOR operation (i.e., a⊕k) may be achieved without exposing data to extraction by DPA since the random data r is included within Expression 1.2. Further, the result of the XOR operation may not be exposed. In another example, the cryptography algorithm may not include an AND operation applied to the data a and the key k1 as given by /ak=(a⊕r)k (1.3) where denotes an AND operation, while remaining secure from side channel attacks. Referring to Expression 1.3, the AND operation may not satisfy the associative law, as given by /Ak≠(Ak)⊕r. (1.4) Thus, by conventional methods, logic operations (e.g., AND, OR, etc. . . . ) which do not satisfy the associative law may not be included in the cryptography algorithm without risking exposure to DPA. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An example embodiment of the present invention is a logic circuit, including a random data generator for generating random data, a random mask device for generating random mask data based on received input data and the random data, and a logic device for executing a logic operation including the random mask data and outputting the results of the execution in a random mask type, the logic operation not satisfying an associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including generating random mask data based on received input data and generated random data, executing at least one logic operation including at least one of the random mask data, the random data and random mask type data, the at least one logic operation including a logic operation not satisfying the associative law, and outputting the result of the at least one logic operation applied in a random mask type. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including executing at least one logic operation including a random mask, the at least one logic operation not satisfying an associative law, the at least one logic operation not being able to be monitored with a differential power analysis (DPA). Another example embodiment of the present invention is a logic circuit for executing a logic operation not satisfying an associative law, including a first logic gate for executing a first logic operation, the first logic operation satisfying the associative law, a second logic gate for executing a second logic operation, the second logical operation not satisfying the associative law, a third logic gate for executing a third logic operation, the third logic gate receiving the outputs of the first and second logic gates, the third logic operation not satisfying the associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including executing a first logic operation on first and second data, the first logic operation satisfying an associative law, executing a second logic operation on first and second random data, the second logic operation not satisfying the associative law, and executing a third logic operation on the results of the first and second logic operation, the third logic operation not satisfying the associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of logic operation, including executing a logic operation not satisfying an associative law on first and second data, the first and second data not being able to be monitored with a side channel attack during the logic operation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Example embodiments of the present invention will become more apparent by describing in detail exemplary embodiments thereof with reference to the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a logic circuit including a logic device according to an example embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of a NOT operation device as an example embodiment of the logic device in FIG. 1. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of an AND operation device as an example embodiment of the logic device in FIG. 1. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram of an OR operation device as an example embodiment of the logic device in FIG. 1. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of a NAND operation device as an example embodiment of the logic device in FIG. 1. FIG. 6 illustrates a block diagram of a NOR operation device as an example embodiment of the logic device in FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS OF THE PRESENT INVENTION Hereinafter, example embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the Figures, the same reference numerals are used to denote the same elements throughout the drawings. FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a logic circuit 50 including a logic device 300 according to an example embodiment of the present invention. In another example embodiment of the present invention, referring to FIG. 1, the logic circuit 50 may include a random mask device 100, a random data generating device, and/or the logic device 300. The logic circuit 50 may execute a logic operation including input data which may not expose the input data to a side channel attack during a logic operation. The logic circuit 50 may output the result of the logic operation with a random mask type. As shown in FIG. 1, the random mask device 100 may receive input data ai and random data ri. The random mask device 100 may use the data ai and random data ri to generate the random mask data /ai, where ai, ri, and /ai indicate the ith elements between elements 1-m, m being a natural number. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the random mask data /a1 may be represented by one of /a1=a1⊕r1, /a2⊕a2⊕r2, . . . /, am=am⊕rm. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the random data generating device 200 may generate random data r1, r2, . . . , and rm. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the logic device 300 may receive the random mask data and the random data and may execute a logic operation. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the logic device 300 may include at least one logic gate (e.g., NOT, AND, OR, etc. . . . ) for executing a logic operation. The logic device 300 may execute the logic operation including the random mask data, the random data and/or data of a random mask type. The logic device 300 may output a result of the logic operation. FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of a NOT operation device 300A as an example embodiment of the logic device 300 in FIG. 1. As shown in FIG. 2, the NOT operation device 300A may include a NOT logic gate 311 and first and second XOR logic gates 312 and 313. The NOT logic gate 311 may receive a random mask data /a1 and the first XOR gate 312 may receive random data r1 and r2. The result of the NOT operation at the NOT logic gate 311 may be output in a mask type ˜a1⊕r2. The NOT logic gate 311 may receive the random mask data /a1 and may perform a NOT operation, thereby generating a first intermediate data ˜/a1 (i.e., an inverse of /a1). The first XOR logic gate 312 may receive the first and second random data r1 and r2 and may execute a XOR operation, thereby generating a second intermediate data r1⊕r2. The second XOR logic gate 313 may receive the first and second intermediate data and may execute an XOR operation, thereby generating output data ˜/a1⊕(r1⊕r2) as given by ˜/a1⊕(r1⊕r2)=(˜/a1⊕r1)⊕r2=˜a1⊕r2 (2.1) Table 1 below illustrates example values based on Expression 2.1 as described above. TABLE 1 a1 r1 /a1 ˜/a1 ˜/a1 ⊕ r1 ˜a1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Referring to Table 1, since (˜/a1⊕r1)=˜a1, the output of the NOT operation device 300A may be ˜a1⊕r2 as illustrated in FIG. 2. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the NOT operation device 300A may reduce a side channel attack based on a differential power analysis (DPA). In another example embodiment of the present invention, the NOT operation device 300A may execute a logical operation using the random mask data /a1 and at least one of the random data r1 and r2 and may output a result of the NOT operation applied to the input data a1 in a random mask type (e.g., ˜a1⊕r2). In another example embodiment of the present invention, if each of the random mask data and the first and second random data is n-bit data, n being a natural number, the NOT operation may be applied at corresponding bits. For example, when 4-bit random mask data /A=(/a3, /a2, /a1, /a0), 4-bit random data R1=(r3/r2/r1/r0), and R2=(s3/s2/s1/s0), and output data of the NOT operation may be given as ˜Al⊕R2={(˜a3⊕s3),(˜a2⊕s2),(˜a1⊕s1),(˜a0⊕s0)} (2.2) FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of an AND operation device 300B as an example embodiment of the logic device 300 in FIG. 1. In another example embodiment of the present invention, referring to FIG. 3, the AND operation device 300B may include logic gates 321/322/323/324 and XOR gates 325/326/327/328. Referring to FIG. 3, the AND operation device 300B may receive random mask data /a1 and /a2 and random data r1/r2/r3 and may output results of an AND operation executed to the input data a1 and a2 in a random mask type (e.g., (a1⊕a2)⊕r3). In another example embodiment of the present invention, referring to FIG. 3, the first AND logic gate 321 may receive the random mask data /a1 and /a2 to execute an AND operation and may generate first intermediate data /a1/a2. The second AND logic gate 322 may receive first mask data /a1 and second random data r2 to execute an AND operation and may generate a second intermediate data /a1r2. The third AND logic gate 323 may receive the second random mask data /a2 and the first random data r1 to execute an AND operation to generate a third intermediate data /a2r1. The fourth AND logic gate 324 may receive the first and second random data r1 and r2 to execute an AND operation to generate a fourth intermediate data r1r2. The first XOR logic gate 325 may receive the second intermediate data (/a1r2) and the third intermediate data (/a2r1) to execute an XOR operation and may generate a fifth intermediate data given by (/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1) (2.3) The second XOR logic gate 326 may receive a fourth intermediate data (r1r2) and the fifth intermediate data given in Expression 2.3 to execute an XOR operation to generate a sixth intermediate data as given by (/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1)⊕(r1r2). (2.4) The third XOR logic gate 327 may receive the sixth intermediate data as given by Expression 2.4 and the third random data r3 to execute an XOR operation to generate a seventh intermediate data as given by (/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1)⊕(r1r2)⊕r3 (2.5) The fourth XOR logic gate 328 may receive the first intermediate data (/a1/a2) and the seventh intermediate data as given in Expression 2.6 to execute an XOR operation to generate output data as given by (/a1/a2)⊕{(/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1)⊕(r1r2)⊕r3. (2.6) Thus, the following relationships may be determined as given by (/a1/a2)=(a1⊕r1)(a2⊕r2)=(a1a2)⊕(a1r2)⊕(r1a2)⊕r1r2) (2.7) (/a1r2)=(a1⊕r1)r2=(a1r2)⊕(r1r2) (2.8) (/a2r1)=(a2⊕r2)r1=(a2r1)⊕(r1r2) (2.9) which may indicate (/a2/a2)⊕{(/a2r1)⊕(/r1r2)⊕r3}={(/a1/a2)⊕(/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1)⊕(r1r2)⊕(r1r2)}⊕r3=((a1a2)⊕r3) (2.11) Thus, when the Expressions 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10 are substituted in the Expression 2.11 the same output data (a1a2)⊕r3 may be achieved. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the AND operation device 300B may include the random mask data /a1 and /a2 and the random data r1, r2 and r3 and may perform a logic operation. The AND operation device 300B may output the result of the AND operation applied to the input data a1 and a2 in a random mask type. In another example embodiment of the present invention, when the random mask data and the random data are n-bit data, n being a natural number, the AND operation may be applied at corresponding bits. For example, when 4-bit random mask data /A=(/a3, /a2, /a1, /a0), 4-bit random data R1=(r3/r2/r1/r0), and R2=(s3/s2/s1/s0), the output data of the NOT operation given as shown in Expression 2.2. FIG. 4 illustrates a block diagram of an OR operation device 300C as an example embodiment of the logic device 300 in FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 4, the OR operation device 300C may receive random mask data /a1 and /a2 and random mask data r1, r2 and r3. The result (a1V a2) of an OR operation applied to the input data a1 and a2 may be output in a random mask type ((a1a2)⊕r3). The OR operation device 300C may include first and second OR logic gates 331 and 334, first and second AND logic gates 332 and 333, and/or XOR logic gates 335/336/337/338. In another example embodiment, the OR operation device 300C may function similar to the above-described AND operation device 300B of FIG. 2 except for the inclusion of OR logic gates 331 and 334 in place of AND logic gates 321 and 324 in FIG. 3. Thus, the OR operation device may generate output data as given by 300C. (/a1r2)⊕(/a2r1)⊕(r1r2)⊕r3=(a1a2)⊕r3 3.1 The OR operation device 300C may execute logic operations using the random mask data /a1 and /a2 and the random data r1, r2 and/or r3, and may output the result (a1a2) in a random mask type (a1a2)⊕r3. In another example embodiment of the present invention, when the random mask data and the random data are n-bit data, n being a natural number, an OR operation may be applied to the random mask data and the random data at corresponding bits. FIG. 5 illustrates a block diagram of an NAND operation device 300D as an example embodiment of the logic device 300 in FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 5, the NAND operation device 340 may receive two random mask data /a1 and /a2 and random data r1, r2, r3 and/or r4. The output of the NAND operation device 300D ˜(a1a2) may be applied in a random mask type ˜(a1a2)⊕4. The NAND operation device 300D may include an AND operation device 341 and a NOT operation device 342. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the AND operation device 341 may function as an AND operation device (e.g., AND operation device 300B of FIG. 3). The AND operation device 341 may receive random mask data /a1 and/or /a2 and random data r1, r2 and/or r3 and may generate a first intermediate data (a1a2)⊕r3. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the NOT operation 342 may function as a NOT operation device (e.g., NOT operation device 300A of FIG. 2). In another example embodiment of the present invention, if (a1a2) is equivalent to a3 in the first intermediate data (a1a2)⊕r3, the first intermediate data may be a3⊕r3. The first intermediate data may include a random mask data (e.g., /a3=a3⊕r3). The NOT operation device 342 may receive the random mask data /a3 and random data r3 and r4 and may generate output data ˜a3⊕r4. In this example, since a3 may be equivalent to a1a2, the output data of the NAND operation device 300D may be ˜(a1a2)⊕r4. In another example embodiment of the present invention, the NAND operation device 300D may execute logic operations using the random mask data /a1 and /a2 and the random data r1, r2, r3 and/or r4 and may output the result ˜(a1a2) of the NAND operation in a random mask type ˜(a1a2)⊕r4. In another example embodiment of the present invention, when the random mask data and the random data are n-bit data, n being a natural number, a NAND operation may be applied to the random mask data and the random data at corresponding bits. FIG. 6 illustrates a block diagram of a NOR operation device 300E as an example embodiment of the logic device 300 in FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 6, the NOR operation device 300E may receive random mask data /a1 and/or /a2 and random data r1, r2, r3 and/or r4. The NOR operation device 300E may include an OR operation device 351 and a NOT operation device 352. In another example embodiment of the present invention, referring to FIG. 6, the NOR operation device 300E may function similar to the above-described NAND operation device 300D of FIG. 5 except for the inclusion of the OR operation device 341 (e.g., OR operation device 300C of FIG. 4) in place of the AND operation device 341. The NOR operation device 300E may include the random mask data /a1 and/or /a2 and the random data r1, r2, r3 and/or r4 and may output the result ˜(a1 a2) of the NOR operation in a random mask type ˜(a1a2)⊕r4. In another example embodiment of the present invention, when the random mask data and the random data are n-bit data, n being a natural number, a NOR operation may be applied to the random mask data and the random data at corresponding bits. The example embodiments of the present invention being thus described, it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways. For example, above-described example embodiments include one of NOT, AND, OR, NAND and NOR operation devices. However, other example embodiments of the present invention may include any well-known arithmetic and/or logic devices (e.g., full adders, half adders, ripple carry adders, comparators, general arithmetic logic units (ALU), etc. . . . ). Further, above-described example embodiments include four random data (e.g., r1, r2, r3, and r4). However, any number and type of random data may be used in other example embodiments of the present invention. Basic arithmetic and logic devices according to example embodiments of the present invention may be safe from a side channel attack (e.g., from DPA) because the devices may not expose data during logic operations. Further, basic arithmetic and logic devices and methods according to example embodiments of the present invention may execute a logic operation (e.g., NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, etc. . . . ) that may satisfy an associative law while remaining safe from a side channel attack. Further, the basic arithmetic and logic devices and methods according to example embodiments of the present invention may be applied to more complex algorithms including the above-described logic operations (e.g., NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, etc. . . . ) Such variations are not to be regarded as departure from the spirit and scope of the example embodiments of the present invention, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention Example embodiments of the present invention relate generally to a logic circuit and method thereof and more particularly to a logic circuit for performing a logic operation not meeting an associative law and method thereof. 2. Description of the Related Art Conventional methods for processing data may include a key for security. The data encoded with the key may be extracted by measuring a power dissipation occurring during an operation of a cryptography algorithm and/or timing the execution of the operation. A leakage or exposure of data during extraction with a cryptography algorithm may be referred to as a side channel and a method for receiving the side channel may be referred to as a side channel attack. Side channel attacks may include a timing attack, a fault insertion attack, a power analysis attack, etc. In an example, a smart card system with an installed co-processor for cryptographic processing may have a higher possibility of a side channel because the smart card system may execute a higher number of logic operations (e.g., AND, OR, XOR, etc. . . .). A conventional differential power analysis (DPA) may measure and analyze power dissipation in logic operations of the cryptograph algorithm, thereby extracting the data. Thus, installing a defense against DPA may increase the security for a given system. One conventional defensive method, referred to as random masking, may include applying a cryptography algorithm after data is received and random data is included. If the received data is processed with a logical operation satisfying an associative law, data may not be extracted by a side channel attack because power dissipation during the cryptography algorithm execution may not result in the input data. Another conventional random masking method may include applying an XOR operation to the input data and the random data as given by in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? / a=a⊕r (1.1) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where the input data is a, the random data is r, the random mask data is /a, and an XOR operation is denoted by ⊕. It is well known that XOR operations satisfy the associative law (e.g., a⊕r=r⊕a, (a⊕r)⊕x=a⊕(r⊕x), etc. . . . ). The data generated during the cryptography algorithm operation may be maintained in a random mask in order to apply a logical operation satisfying an associative law (e.g., an XOR operation) to the input data while remaining unreadable with conventional DPA. In this case, the data included in the random mask type may include both processed data and random data. In another example, it may be assumed that a cryptography algorithm may apply an XOR operation to an input data ‘a’ and a key k. To prevent the DPA from extracting the input data a, random data r may be generated in order to attain the random mask data /a as given in Expression 1.1. If an XOR operation is applied to the random mask data /a and key k, the result may be given by in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? / a⊕k =( a⊕r )⊕ k (1.2) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Thus, a result of the XOR operation (i.e., a⊕k) may be achieved without exposing data to extraction by DPA since the random data r is included within Expression 1.2. Further, the result of the XOR operation may not be exposed. In another example, the cryptography algorithm may not include an AND operation applied to the data a and the key k 1 as given by in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? / a img id="custom-character-00001" he="2.12mm" wi="1.78mm" file="US20050184760A1-20050825-P00900.TIF" alt="custom character" img-content="character" img-format="tif" ? k =( a⊕r ) k (1.3) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? where denotes an AND operation, while remaining secure from side channel attacks. Referring to Expression 1.3, the AND operation may not satisfy the associative law, as given by in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="lead"? / A img id="custom-character-00004" he="2.12mm" wi="1.78mm" file="US20050184760A1-20050825-P00900.TIF" alt="custom character" img-content="character" img-format="tif" ? k ≠( A img id="custom-character-00005" he="2.12mm" wi="1.78mm" file="US20050184760A1-20050825-P00900.TIF" alt="custom character" img-content="character" img-format="tif" ? k )⊕ r. (1.4) in-line-formulae description="In-line Formulae" end="tail"? Thus, by conventional methods, logic operations (e.g., AND, OR, etc. . . . ) which do not satisfy the associative law may not be included in the cryptography algorithm without risking exposure to DPA. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An example embodiment of the present invention is a logic circuit, including a random data generator for generating random data, a random mask device for generating random mask data based on received input data and the random data, and a logic device for executing a logic operation including the random mask data and outputting the results of the execution in a random mask type, the logic operation not satisfying an associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including generating random mask data based on received input data and generated random data, executing at least one logic operation including at least one of the random mask data, the random data and random mask type data, the at least one logic operation including a logic operation not satisfying the associative law, and outputting the result of the at least one logic operation applied in a random mask type. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including executing at least one logic operation including a random mask, the at least one logic operation not satisfying an associative law, the at least one logic operation not being able to be monitored with a differential power analysis (DPA). Another example embodiment of the present invention is a logic circuit for executing a logic operation not satisfying an associative law, including a first logic gate for executing a first logic operation, the first logic operation satisfying the associative law, a second logic gate for executing a second logic operation, the second logical operation not satisfying the associative law, a third logic gate for executing a third logic operation, the third logic gate receiving the outputs of the first and second logic gates, the third logic operation not satisfying the associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of executing a logic operation, including executing a first logic operation on first and second data, the first logic operation satisfying an associative law, executing a second logic operation on first and second random data, the second logic operation not satisfying the associative law, and executing a third logic operation on the results of the first and second logic operation, the third logic operation not satisfying the associative law. Another example embodiment of the present invention is a method of logic operation, including executing a logic operation not satisfying an associative law on first and second data, the first and second data not being able to be monitored with a side channel attack during the logic operation. | 20050114 | 20071106 | 20050825 | 99256.0 | 0 | TRAN, ANH Q | LOGIC CIRCUIT AND METHOD THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,088 | ACCEPTED | Clock signal generator with low power comsumption function and method thereof | The invention is related to a method and an apparatus for generating an output clock. The method comprises: measuring a reference clock according to a free-run clock to produce a counter signal in a normal mode; suspending the reference clock; and generating the output clock according to the counter signal and the free-run clock in a power-saving mode. | 1. An apparatus for generating an output clock comprising: a first clock generator for generating a first clock according to a first clock; a second clock generator for generating a second clock; a measuring unit for measuring the first clock according to the second clock to generate a measured signal; and an output circuit for outputting the output clock according to the second clock and the measured signal; wherein the clock generator is suspended when the measured signal is generated. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the measuring unit comprises a first counter. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the output unit comprises a second counter. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprises: a storage unit coupled to the output circuit for storing the measured signal. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the power consumption of the first clock generator is larger than that of the second clock generator. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: an adjusting unit, coupled between the measuring unit and the output unit, for adjusting the value of the measured signal according to a control signal. 7. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the adjusting unit is a counter or a divider. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the clock generator is suspended such that the power consumption is reduced. 9. A method for generating an output clock, comprising: generating a first clock; generating a second clock; generating a measured signal according to the first clock and the second clock; generating the output clock according the second clock and the measured signal; and suspending the first clock. 10. The method of the claim 9, wherein the power consumption of generating the first clock is larger than that of generating the second clock. 11. The method of claim 9, further comprising: storing the measured signal in a storage unit. 12. The method of claim 9, wherein the measured signal is a non-integer. 13. The method of claim 9, wherein the suspending the first clock step is in a power-saving mode. 14. A method for generating an output clock, comprising: generating a first clock in a first mode; generating a second clock; producing a measured signal according to the first clock and the second clock; generating the output clock according the measured signal and the second clock in a second mode; and stopping the first clock in the second mode. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the power consumption of generating the first clock is larger than that of generating the second clock. 16. The method of claim 14, further comprising: storing the measured value in a storage unit. 17. The method of claim 14, wherein the value of the measured signal is a non-integer. 18. The method of claim 14, wherein the first mode is a calibration mode. 19. The method of claim 14, wherein the second mode is a sleep mode. 20. The method of claim 14, wherein the second mode is a power-saving mode. | This application claims the benefit of Taiwan application serial no. 93103420, filed on Feb. 13, 2004 and Taiwan application serial no. 93101101, filed on Jan. 16, 2004, the subject matter of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an apparatus and a method for generating an output clock, particularly relates to an apparatus and a method for generating an output clock signal using a free-run clock generator. 2. Description of the Prior Art The reference clock generator is a very popular device for providing a reference clock. Conventionally, a reference clock generator can be an oscillator or a combination of a crystal and an oscillation circuit. The power consumptions of these kinds of reference clock generators are high. The electronic device can operate in a power-saving mode or a sleep mode to reduce the power consumption of the electronic device. When the electronic device operates in the power-saving mode or the sleep mode, the electronic device periodically check whether the electronic device receives the link signal or not and determines whether the electronic device need to operate in the normal mode. The conventional method is utilized an external component, such as a resistor or a capacitor, and an internal component, such as a resistor or a capacitor, to generate a clock signal having a long period according to a RC constant. However, this long period clock signal is not stable that the period may change with the changes of temperature, voltage or/and the manufacture process of semiconductor. In additions, an integrated circuit (IC) includes a phase-lucked loop (PLL) and needs at least one pin, which receives an external clock. The PLL produces the other reference clock according to the external clock. SUMMARY OF INVENTION It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The apparatus and method can reduce the power consumption of generating the output clock. It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The frequency of the output clock will be robust to the changes of the voltage, temperature and/or the manufacture process. It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The apparatus and method have a self-calibration or/and real-time calibration functions. According to the present invention, a method for generating an output clock comprises: generating a free-run clock; generating a first clock in a first mode; measuring the first clock according to the free-run clock to generate a counter signal; generating the output clock according the free-run clock and the counter signal in a second mode; and suspending the first clock in the second mode. Preferably, the period of the output clock in a second mode can be adjusted when the counter signal is adjusted. For example, the counter signal can be divided by or multiplied by the adjusting value. According to the present invention, an apparatus for generating an output clock comprises: a clock generator for generating a reference clock in a first mode and suspending the reference clock in a second mode; a free-run clock generator for generating a free-run clock; a comparator for measuring the reference clock according to the free-run clock in the first mode to generate a counter signal; and an output circuit for outputting the output clock according to the free-run clock and the counter signal in the second mode. Preferably, the clock generator of the invention further includes an adjusting unit. This adjusting unit receives the counter signal from the comparator, adjusts the value of the counter signal and outputs the adjusted counter signal to the output circuit. These and other objectives of the claimed invention will no doubt become obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art after reading the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment that is illustrated in the various figures and drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The details of the present invention will be more readily understood from a detailed description of the preferred embodiments taken in conjunction with the following figures. FIG. 1 shows a block diagram of a first embodiment of the clock generator according to the present invention; FIG. 2 shows a block diagram of a second embodiment of the clock generator according to the present invention; and FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of an embodiment of the method for generating an output clock according to the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Please refer to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 shows an embodiment of the low power consumption clock generator of this invention. In FIG. 1, the low power consumption clock generator 300 comprises a clock generator 310, a measuring unit 320, an output unit 330, and a free-run clock generator 340. The power consumption of the free-run clock generator 340 is lower than that of the clock generator 310. Generally speaking, the clock generator 310 is a high power consumption clock generator and generates an accuracy reference clock 319. In an embodiment, the clock generator 310 further includes a clock generator 313 and a first frequency-adjusting unit 315. The clock generator 313 generates a clock signal 317. The first frequency-adjusting unit 315 can be omitted. The first frequency-adjusting unit 315 can be a divider or a counter. In the first mode, the measuring unit 320 uses the free-run clock 343 generated by the free-run clock generator 340 to measure (count) the accuracy reference signal 319 and obtain the measured value 325. The power consumption of the free-run clock generator is lower than that of the clock generator 310. In an embodiment, the measured value 325 generated by the measuring unit 320 can be adjusted by the adjusting unit 316 and then stored in the storage unit (not show in FIG. 1). The storage unit can be a register or an on-chip memory or RAM or others. The adjusting unit 316 can be omitted. In the second mode, the high power consumption clock generator 310 can be suspended to reduce the power consumption of the clock generator of the invention. The output unit 330 outputs a clock signal 335, which is corresponding to the reference signal 319, according to the measured value 325 and the free-run clock 343. The output unit 330 can also adjust the frequency of the clock signal 335 according to a control signal 345. In one embodiment, the free-run clock generator 340 comprises a RC oscillator circuit. The measuring unit 320 can be a first counter and the measured value is a counter value. The output unit 330 can be a second counter. The measured value can be a non-integer. In a preferred embodiment, the first mode can be a calibration mode or a normal mode. In another preferred embodiment, the second mode can be a power-saving mode or a sleep mode. Please refer to FIG. 2. FIG. 2 shows another embodiment of the clock generator of this invention. In the FIG. 2, the low power consumption clock generator 400 comprises a free-run clock generator 410, a measuring unit 420, an output unit 430, a reference clock generator 440 and the adjusting unit 450. The power consumption of the free-run clock generator 410 is lower than that of the precise clock generator 440. In the embodiment, the free-run clock generator 410 is different from the high power consumption clock generator 310 in FIG. 1. The free-run clock generator 410 generates a free-run clock 419 to the output unit 430. In an embodiment, the free-run clock generator 410 further comprises a clock generator 411 and a first frequency-adjusting unit 413. The clock generator 411 generates a clock signal 415 which is then transmitted to and adjusted by the first frequency-adjusting unit 413. The first frequency-adjusting unit 413 can be omitted. In a first mode, the measuring unit 420 uses the clock signal 445, which generated by the clock generator 440, to measure (count) the free-run clock 419 from the free-run clock generator 410, and obtains a measuring value 425. In an embodiment, the measured value 425, which is outputted from the measuring unit 420, is modified by the adjusting unit 450 and outputted to an output circuit 430. The output circuit 430 can record (store) the measured value 425. In this embodiment, the adjusting unit 450 can be omitted. In a second mode, the clock generator 440 stops operating. The output unit 430 uses the stored measured value 425 and the free-run clock 419, and outputs the output clock 460. In one embodiment, the free-run clock generator 410 comprises a RC oscillator circuit. As illustrated in FIG. 1 and FIG. 2, whether through using the free-run clock signal to count (measure) the reference signal or through using the reference signal to count (measure) the free-run clock signal, the relationship between (ratio of the period of) the free-run clock signal and the reference signal can be obtained. This ratio is the measured value. Although the frequency of the free-run clock signal is unknown, the output clock which is substantially the same as the reference signal generated by the clock generator 310 or 440 is generated according to the measured value and the free-run clock. In additions, when the operating temperature changes, the clock generator of this invention can be self-calibration to optimize the measured value, which is the ratio of the period of the free-run clock signal and the reference signal. Therefore, the errors caused by the changes of operation environment, such as temperature, voltage, can be avoided. Please refer to FIG. 3. FIG. 3 shows the procedures of an embodiment of the low power consumption clock generator in this invention. Please also refer to FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. In step 201: in the first mode, the free-run clock 343 (419) is used to measure (count) the reference signal 319 (445) generated by the clock generator. A measured value 325 (425) is then obtained. The measured value 325 (425) can be an integer or a non-integer value. In step 202: the output clock 330 (430) is outputted according to the free-run clock 343 (419) and the measured value 325 (425) obtained in the step 201. Because the measured value 325 (425) is corresponding to the reference signal 319 (445) outputted from the clock generator 310 (440). After obtaining the measured value 325 (425), the low power consumption clock generator of the present invention enters the second mode in which the clock signal generator 310 (440) stop operating to reduce the power consumption of the clock generator of the present invention. In an embodiment, the measured value 325 (425) can be adjusted by the adjusting unit 316 (450). In step 203: the measured value 325 (425) can be adjusted according to an adjusting signal 345 to control the frequency of the output clock 460. As illustrated previously, through a free-run clock 419, the relationship between (ratio of the period of) the free-run clock and the reference signal can be obtained, whether using the free-run clock signal to count the reference signal or using the reference signal to count the free-run clock signal. This ratio is the measured value. The output clock can be generated according to the measured value. If the reference signal is inputted externally, the output clock will not vary with the changes of the voltage, temperature or the manufacturing process and the frequency of the output clock can be fixed. In other words, the invention can utilize the free-run clock generator to output an output clock which has the same frequency of the reference clock generated by the clock generator. Those skilled in the art will readily observe that numerous modifications and alterations of the device may be made while retaining the teachings of the invention. Accordingly, that above disclosure should be construed as limited only by the metes and bounds of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention This invention relates to an apparatus and a method for generating an output clock, particularly relates to an apparatus and a method for generating an output clock signal using a free-run clock generator. 2. Description of the Prior Art The reference clock generator is a very popular device for providing a reference clock. Conventionally, a reference clock generator can be an oscillator or a combination of a crystal and an oscillation circuit. The power consumptions of these kinds of reference clock generators are high. The electronic device can operate in a power-saving mode or a sleep mode to reduce the power consumption of the electronic device. When the electronic device operates in the power-saving mode or the sleep mode, the electronic device periodically check whether the electronic device receives the link signal or not and determines whether the electronic device need to operate in the normal mode. The conventional method is utilized an external component, such as a resistor or a capacitor, and an internal component, such as a resistor or a capacitor, to generate a clock signal having a long period according to a RC constant. However, this long period clock signal is not stable that the period may change with the changes of temperature, voltage or/and the manufacture process of semiconductor. In additions, an integrated circuit (IC) includes a phase-lucked loop (PLL) and needs at least one pin, which receives an external clock. The PLL produces the other reference clock according to the external clock. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The apparatus and method can reduce the power consumption of generating the output clock. It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The frequency of the output clock will be robust to the changes of the voltage, temperature and/or the manufacture process. It is therefore one of the objectives of the claimed invention to provide an apparatus and method for generating an output clock. The apparatus and method have a self-calibration or/and real-time calibration functions. According to the present invention, a method for generating an output clock comprises: generating a free-run clock; generating a first clock in a first mode; measuring the first clock according to the free-run clock to generate a counter signal; generating the output clock according the free-run clock and the counter signal in a second mode; and suspending the first clock in the second mode. Preferably, the period of the output clock in a second mode can be adjusted when the counter signal is adjusted. For example, the counter signal can be divided by or multiplied by the adjusting value. According to the present invention, an apparatus for generating an output clock comprises: a clock generator for generating a reference clock in a first mode and suspending the reference clock in a second mode; a free-run clock generator for generating a free-run clock; a comparator for measuring the reference clock according to the free-run clock in the first mode to generate a counter signal; and an output circuit for outputting the output clock according to the free-run clock and the counter signal in the second mode. Preferably, the clock generator of the invention further includes an adjusting unit. This adjusting unit receives the counter signal from the comparator, adjusts the value of the counter signal and outputs the adjusted counter signal to the output circuit. These and other objectives of the claimed invention will no doubt become obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art after reading the following detailed description of the preferred embodiment that is illustrated in the various figures and drawings. | 20050113 | 20060912 | 20050721 | 63942.0 | 0 | ARANDA, REY | CLOCK SIGNAL GENERATOR WITH LOW POWER COMSUMPTION FUNCTION AND METHOD THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,213 | ACCEPTED | Pharmaceutical compositions comprising dextromethorphan and quinidine for the treatment of neurological disorders | Pharmaceutical compositions and methods for treating neurological disorders by administering same are provided. The compositions comprise dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine. | 1. A method for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered comprises from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as one combined dose per day. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as at least two combined doses per day. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount of quinidine administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount of dextromethorphan administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the quinidine comprises quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan comprises dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered comprises from about 30 mg/day to 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered comprises from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. 11. A method for treating neuropathic pain, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered comprises from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as one combined dose per day. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as at least two combined doses per day. 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the amount of quinidine administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the amount of dextromethorphan administered comprises from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. 16. The method of claim 11, wherein at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. 17. The method of claim 11, wherein at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. 18. The method of claim 11, wherein the quinidine comprises quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan comprises dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered comprises from about 30 mg/day to 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered comprises from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. 19. The method of claim 11, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. | RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation, under 35 U.S.C. § 120, of International Patent Application No. PCT/US2003/022303, filed on Jul. 17, 2003 under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), which was published by the International Bureau in English on Jan. 22, 2004, which designates the United States and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/396,661, filed Jul. 17, 2002. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Pharmaceutical compositions and methods for treating neurological disorders are provided. The compositions comprise dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases or brain damage such as is caused by stroke or head injury often are afflicted with emotional problems associated with the disease or injury. The terms emotional lability and pseudobulbar affect are used by psychiatrists and neurologists to refer to a set of symptoms that are often observed in patients who have suffered a brain insult such as a head injury, stroke, brain tumor, or encephalitis, or who are suffering from a progressive neurodegenerative disease such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also called motor neuron disease or Lou Gehrig's disease), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or multiple sclerosis. In the great majority of such cases, emotional lability occurs in patients who have bilateral damage (damage which affects both hemispheres of the brain) involving subcortical forebrain structures. Emotional lability, which is distinct from clinical forms of reactive or endogenous depression, is characterized by intermittent spasmodic outbursts of emotion (usually manifested as intense or even explosive crying or laughing) at inappropriate times or in the absence of any particular provocation. Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect is also referred to by the terms emotionalism, emotional incontinence, emotional discontrol, excessive emotionalism, and pathological laughing and crying. The feelings that accompany emotional lability are often described in words such as “disconnectedness,” since patients are fully aware that an outburst is not appropriate in a particular situation, but they do not have control over their emotional displays. Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect becomes a clinical problem when the inability to control emotional outbursts interferes in a substantial way with the ability to engage in family, personal, or business affairs. For example, a businessman suffering from early-stage ALS or Parkinson's disease might become unable to sit through business meetings, or a patient might become unable to go out in public, such as to a restaurant or movie, due to transient but intense inability to keep from crying or laughing at inappropriate times in front of other people. These symptoms can occur even though the patient still has more than enough energy and stamina to do the physical tasks necessary to interact with other people. Such outbursts, along with the feelings of annoyance, inadequacy, and confusion that they usually generate and the visible effects they have on other people, can severely aggravate the other symptoms of the disease; they lead to feelings of ostracism, alienation, and isolation, and they can render it very difficult for friends and family members to provide tolerant and caring emotional support for the patient. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION There remains a need for additional or improved forms of treatment for emotional lability and other chronic disorders, such as chronic pain. Such a treatment preferably provides at least some degree of improvement compared to other known drugs, in at least some patients. A method for treating emotional lability in at least some patients suffering from neurologic impairment, such as a progressive neurologic disease, is desirable. A method of treating emotional lability, pseudobulbar affect, and other chronic conditions in human patients who are in need of such treatment, without oversedation or otherwise significantly interfering with consciousness or alertness is provided. The treatment involves administering dextromethorphan in combination with a minimum dosage of quinidine. In a first embodiment, a method for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the first embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a second embodiment, a method for treating neuropathic pain is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In a third embodiment, a method for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the third embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a fourth embodiment, a method for treating a brain injury is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the fourth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as one combined dose per day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as at least two combined doses per day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the amount of quinidine administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered includes from about 30 mg/day to 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In a fifth embodiment, a method for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the fifth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a sixth embodiment, a method for treating neuropathic pain is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In a seventh embodiment, a method for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the seventh embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In an eighth embodiment, a method for treating a brain injury is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the eighth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the amount of quinidine administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day, and wherein the amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, one combined dose is administered per day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, two or more combined doses are administered per day. In a ninth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the ninth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a tenth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating neuropathic pain is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an eleventh embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the eleventh embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a twelfth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in a brain injury is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the twelfth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the quinidine is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 45 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 60 mg. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, wherein the quinidine sulfate is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan hydrobromide is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg. In a thirteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the thirteenth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a fourteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating neuropathic pain is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In a fifteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the fifteenth embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a sixteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating a brain injury is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the sixteenth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, wherein the quinidine sulfate is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan hydrobromide is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the quinidine is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 45 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 60 mg. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 provides a box plot of CNS-LS scores for Clinical Study #4. The distributions of CNS-LS scores are symmetrical and contain only one outlier. These distributions support the use of ANCOVA for the analysis of the CNS-LS scores. As prospectively specified in the study protocol, the differences in mean improvement in CNS-LS cores, adjusted for center and baseline CNS-LS scores, were analyzed by using linear regression according to the ANCOVA method of Frison and Pocock. The results of this analysis are in Table 30. The results of the additional analyses without any adjustments or with an adjustment for baseline CNS-LS score alone are also in this table. FIG. 2 provides a plot depicting adjusted mean reductions in CNS-LS scores for the three treatment groups from the primary efficacy analysis of the ITT population of Clinical Study #4. Reductions in CNS-LS scores below the horizontal lines are statistically significantly different from 30DM/30Q at the significance levels indicated. FIG. 3 provides the disposition of subjects by MTD group participating in Clinical Study #5. FIG. 4 depicts Mean Sleep Ratings from the Subject Diaries of subjects participating in Clinical Study #5. FIG. 5. Mean Present Pain Intensity Ratings from the Subject Diaries of subjects participating in Clinical Study #5. FIG. 6. Mean Activity Ratings from the Subject Diaries of subjects participating in Clinical Study #5. FIG. 7. Mean Pain Ratings from the Subject Diaries of subjects participating in Clinical Study #5. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The following description and examples illustrate a preferred embodiment of the present invention in detail. Those of skill in the art will recognize that there are numerous variations and modifications of this invention that are encompassed by its scope. Accordingly, the description of a preferred embodiment should not be deemed to limit the scope of the present invention. Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect is associated with a number of neurological diseases, such as stroke (House et al., BMJ, 1989; 298:991-4), multiple sclerosis (MS) (Cotrell et al., J. Neurol. Psychopathol., 1926; 7:1-30; Feinstein et al., Arch. Neurol., 1997; 54:1116-21), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (Miller et al., Neurol., 1999; 52:1311-23; Jackson et al., Semin. Neurol. 1998; 18:27-39; Poeck, K., Pathophysiology of emotional disorders associated with brain damage. In: P. J. Vinken, G. W. Bruyn, editors. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company 1969; pp. 343-67), Alzheimer's disease (Starkstein et al., J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1995; 59:55-64), and traumatic brain injury (Brooks, N., Acta Neurochirurgica Suppl., 44 1988; 59-64). Studies have suggested that pseudobulbar affect occurs in up to 50% of patients with ALS (Gallagher, J. P., Acta Neurol. Scand. 1989; 80:114-7). Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect in the context of neurological injury can be considered a disconnection syndrome resulting from loss of cortical communication with the brainstem or cerebellum Wilson S A K, J Neurol. Psychopathol., 1924; IV:299-333; Parvivzi et al., Brain, 2001; 124:1708-19). At the neurotransmitter level, disruptions of ascending and descending serotonergic pathways arising in the brainstem, and dysregulation of dopaminergic projections to the striatum and cortex have been implicated (Andersen et al., Stroke, 1994; 25:1050-2; Ross et al., J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1987; 175:165-72; Shaw et al., Brain Sciences in Psychiatry, London: Butterworth, 1982; Udaka et al., Arch. Neurol. 1984; 41:1095-6). A body of evidence suggests that pseudobulbar affect can be modulated through pharmacologic intervention. In 1979, Wolf reported that levodopa was effective in subjects with pathological laughing (Wolf et al., Neurol., 1979; 29:1435-6.). However, in a follow-up study, only 10 of 25 subjects responded satisfactorily to treatment (Udaka et al., Arch. Neurol., 1984; 41:1095-6). There have been reports of symptomatic benefit with other drugs, including amantadine, imipramine, desipramine, nortriptyline, amitriptyline, sertraline, fluoxetine, levodopa, methylphenidate, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (Dark et al., Austr. N. Zeal. J. Psychiatry, 1996; 30:472-9; Iannoccone et al., Clin. Neuropharm., 1996; 19:532-5). The best previously known therapies for treating emotional lability involve the drugs amitriptyline, amantadine, and levodopa. Although reports such as Udaka et al., Arch. Neurol. 1984, 41: 1095-1096, and Schiffer et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 1985, 312: 1480-1482 indicate that these compounds may be effective in helping reduce pathological displays of emotion in some patients, they make it clear that none of these prior art drugs are effective in all patients, and even in patients who receive some benefit, the effect usually stops far short of an effective cure. A common practice for many clinical neurologists is to prescribe amitriptyline and amantadine, one at a time, in the hope that one of them might be able to provide any level of improvement in the patient's condition. However, all both fall short of offering an effective cure. In addition, levodopa is not satisfactory, since it has other effects and is a relatively powerful drug. ALS is a neurodegenerative disease produced by progressive loss of upper and lower motor neurons. Up to 50 percent of patients with ALS exhibit emotional lability, and it is more prevalent in those with the bulbar form of ALS (Gallagher J P, Acta Neurol. Scand., 1989; 80:114-7). Based on the notion that excitotoxicity secondary to impaired recycling of glutamate may be a factor in the etiology of ALS, riluzole, a glutamate release inhibitor, has been used to treat ALS (Jerusalem et al., Neurology, 1996; 47:S218-20; Doble A., Neurology, 1996; 47:S233-41). Riluzole modestly extends life span but does not confer symptomatic benefit (Bensimon et al., N. Eng. J. Med., 1994; 330:585-91; Kwiecinski H, Neurol. Neurochir. Pol., 2001; 35:51-9). Because of the possibility that an excitotoxic process involving glutamate is etiologically implicated in ALS, several investigators have attempted to modify or arrest the course of ALS by the administration of dextromethorphan (DM). DM is an noncompetitive antagonist of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-sensitive ionotropic glutamate receptor, and it acts by reducing the level of excitatory activity. However, DM is extensively metabolized to dextrorphan (DX) and a number of other metabolites. Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is the key enzyme responsible for the formation of DX from DM. A subset of the population, 5 to 10% of Caucasians, has reduced activity of this enzyme (Hildebrand et al., Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1989; 36:315-318). Such individuals are referred to as “poor metabolizers” of DM in contrast to the majority of individuals who are referred to as “extensive metabolizers” of DM (Vetticaden et al., Pharm. Res., 1989; 6:13-9). A number of in vitro studies have been undertaken to determine the types of drugs that inhibit CYP2D6 activity. Quinidine (O) is one of the most potent of those that have been studied (Inaba et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1986; 22:199-200). These observations led to the hypothesis that concomitant dosing with Q could increase the concentration of DM in plasma. A number of chronic disorders other than emotional lability also have symptoms which are known to be very difficult to treat, and often fail to respond to safe, non-addictive, and non-steroid medications. Disorders such as intractable coughing fail to respond to conventional medicines and are typically treated by such drugs as codeine, morphine, or the anti-inflammatory steroid prednisone. These drugs are unacceptable for long-term treatment due to dangerous side effects, long-term risks to the patient's health, or the danger of addiction. There has been no satisfactory treatment for the severe itching and rash associated with dermatitis. Drugs such as prednisone and even tricyclic antidepressants, as well as topical applications have been employed, but do not appear to offer substantial and consistent relief. Chronic pain due to conditions such as stroke, cancer, and trauma, as well as neuropathic pain resulting from conditions such as diabetes and shingles (herpes zoster), for example, is also a problem which resists treatment. Neuropathic pain includes, for example, diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, phantom limb pain, trigeminal neuralgia, and sciatica. Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a complication of shingles and occurs in approximately ten percent of patients with herpes zoster. The incidence of PHN increases with age. Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication of diabetes which increases with the duration of the disease. The pain for these types of neuropathies has been described as a burning steady pain often punctuated with stabbing pains, pins and needles pain, and toothache-like pain. The skin can be sensitive with dysesthetic sensations to even light touch and clothing. The pain can be exacerbated by activity, temperature change, and emotional upset. The pain can be so severe as to preclude daily activities or result in sleep disturbance or anorexia. The mechanisms involved in producing pain of these types are not well understood, but may involve degeneration of myelinated nerve fibers. It is known that in diabetic neuropathy, both small and large nerve fibers deteriorate resulting in reduced thresholds for tolerance of thermal sensitivity, pain, and vibration. Dysfunction of both large and small fiber functions is more severe in the lower limbs when pain develops. Most of the physiological measurements of nerves that can be routinely done in patients experiencing neuropathic pain demonstrate a slowing of nerve conduction over time. To date, treatment for neuropathic pain has been less than universally successful. Chronic pain is estimated to affect millions of people. Dextromethorphan is widely used as a cough syrup, and it has been shown to be sufficiently safe in humans to allow its use as an over-the-counter medicine. It is well tolerated in oral dosage form, either alone or with quinidine, at up to 120 milligrams (mg) per day, and a beneficial effect may be observed when receiving a substantially smaller dose (e.g., 30 mg/day) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,206,248 to Smith). The chemistry of dextromethorphan and its analogs is described in various references such as Rodd, E. H., Ed., Chemistry of Carbon Compounds, Elsevier Publ., N.Y., 1960; Goodman and Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics; Choi, Brain Res., 1987, 403: 333-336; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,806,543. Its chemical structure is as follows: Dextromethorphan is the common name for (+)-3-methoxy-N-methylmorphinan. It is one of a class of molecules that are dextrorotatory analogs of morphine-like opioids. The term “opiate” refers to drugs that are derived from opium, such as morphine and codeine. The term “opioid” is broader. It includes opiates, as well as other drugs, natural or synthetic, which act as analgesics and sedatives in mammals. Most of the addictive analgesic opiates, such as morphine, codeine, and heroin, are levorotatory stereoisomers (they rotate polarized light in the so-called left-handed direction). They have four molecular rings in a configuration known as a “morphinan” structure, which is depicted as follows: In this depiction, the carbon atoms are conventionally numbered as shown, and the wedge-shaped bonds coupled to carbon atoms 9 and 13 indicate that those bonds rise out of the plane of the three other rings in the morphinan structure. Many analogs of this basic structure (including morphine) are pentacyclic compounds that have an additional ring formed by a bridging atom (such as oxygen) between the number 4 and 5 carbon atoms. Many dextrorotatory analogs of morphine are much less addictive than the levorotatory compounds. Some of these dextrorotatory analogs, including dextromethorphan and dextrorphan, are enantiomers of the morphinan structure. In these enantiomers, the ring that extends out from carbon atoms 9 and 13 is oriented in the opposite direction from that depicted in the above structure. While not wishing to be limited to any particular mechanism of action, dextromethorphan is known to have at least three distinct receptor activities which affect central nervous system (CNS) neurons. First, it acts as an antagonist at N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. NMDA receptors are one of three major types of excitatory amino acid (EAA) receptors in CNS neurons. Since activation of NMDA receptors causes neurons to release excitatory neurotransmitter molecules (primarily glutamate, an amino acid), the blocking activity of dextromethorphan at these receptors reduces the level of excitatory activity in neurons having these receptors. Dextromethorphan is believed to act at the phencyclidine (PCP) binding site, which is part of the NMDA receptor complex. Dextromethorphan is relatively weak in its NMDA antagonist activity, particularly compared to drugs such as MK-801 (dizocilpine) and phencyclidine. Accordingly, when administered at approved dosages, dextromethorphan is not believed to cause the toxic side effects (discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,400 to Olney) that are caused by powerful NMDA antagonists such as MK-801 or PCP. Dextromethorphan also functions as an agonist at certain types of inhibitory receptors; unlike EAA receptors, activation of inhibitory receptors suppresses the release of excitatory neurotransmitters by affected cells. Initially, these inhibitory receptors were called sigma opiate receptors. However, questions have been raised as to whether they are actually opiate receptors, so they are now generally referred to as sigma (σ) receptors. Subsequent experiments showed that dextromethorphan also binds to another class of inhibitory receptors that are closely related to, but distinct from, sigma receptors. The evidence, which indicates that non-sigma inhibitory receptors exist and are bound by dextromethorphan, is that certain molecules which bind to sigma receptors are not able to completely block the binding of dextromethorphan to certain types of neurons that are known to have inhibitory receptors (Musacchio et al., Cell Mol. Neurobiol., 1988 June, 8(2):149-56; Musacchio et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1988 November, 247(2):424-31; Craviso et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 1983 May, 23(3):629-40; Craviso et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 1983 May, 23(3):619-28; and Klein et al., Neurosci. Lett., 1989 Feb. 13, 97(1-2):175-80). These receptors are generally called “high-affinity dextromethorphan receptors” or simply “DM receptors” in the scientific literature. As used herein, the phrase “dextromethorphan-binding inhibitory receptors” includes both sigma and non-sigma receptors which undergo affinity-binding reactions with dextromethorphan and which, when activated by dextromethorphan, suppress the release of excitatory neurotransmitters by the affected cells (Largent et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 1987 December, 32(6):772-84). Dextromethorphan also decreases the uptake of calcium ions (Ca++) by neurons. Calcium uptake, which occurs during transmission of nerve impulses, involves at least two different types of channels, known as N-channels and L-channels. Dextromethorphan suppressed calcium uptake fairly strongly in certain types of cultured neurons (synaptosomes) which contain N-channels; it also suppressed calcium uptake, although less strongly, in other cultured neurons (PC12 cells) which contain L-channels (Carpenter et al., Brain Res., 1988 Jan. 26, 439(1-2):372-5). An increasing body of evidence indicates dextromethorphan has therapeutic potential for treating several neuronal disorders (Zhang et al., Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 51: 647-655; Palmer G C, Curr. Drug Targets, 2001; 2: 241-271; and Liu et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2003; 21: 21; Kim et al., Life Sci., 2003; 72: 769-783). Pharmacological studies demonstrate that DM is a noncompetitive NMDA antagonist that has neuroprotective, anticonvulsant and antinociceptive activities in a number of experimental models (Desmeules et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1999; 288: 607-612). In addition to acting as an NMDA antagonist, both DM and its primary metabolite, dextrorphan, bind to sigma-1 sites, inhibit calcium flux channels and interact with high voltage-gated sodium channels (Dickenson et al., Neuropharmacology, 1987; 26: 1235-1238; Carpenter et al., Brain Res., 1988; 439: 372-375; Netzer et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol., 1993; 238: 209-216). Recent reports indicate that an additional neuroprotective mechanism of DM may include interference with the inflammatory responses associated with some neurodegenerative disorders that include Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease (Liu et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 2003; 21: 21). The potential efficacy of DM as a neuroprotectant was explored in limited clinical trials in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Gredal et al., Acta Neurol. Scand. 1997; 96: 8-13; Blin et al., Clin. Neuropharmacol., 1996; 19: 189-192) Huntington's disease (Walker et al., Clin. Neuropharmacol., 1989; 12: 322-330) and Parkinson's Disease (Chase et al., J. Neurol., 2000; 247 Suppl 2: 1136-42). DM was also examined in patients with various types of neuropathic pain (Mcquay et al., Pain, 1994; 59: 127-133; Vinik A I, Am. J. Med., 1999; 107: 17S-26S; Weinbroum et al., Can. J. Anaesth., 2000; 47: 585-596; Sang et al., Anesthesiology, 2002; 96: 1053-1061; Heiskanen et al., Pain, 2002; 96: 261-267; Ben Abraham et al., Clin. J. Pain, 2002; 18: 282-285; Sang C N, J. Pain Symptom Manage., 2000; 19: S21-25). Although the pharmacological profile of DM points to clinical efficacy, most clinical trials have been disappointing with equivocal efficacy for DM compared to placebo treatment. Several investigators suggested that the limited benefit seen with DM in clinical trials is associated with rapid hepatic metabolism that limits systemic drug concentrations. In one trial in patients with Huntington's disease, plasma concentrations were undetectable in some patients after DM doses that were eight times the maximum antitussive dose (Walker et al., Clin. Neuropharmacol., 1989; 12: 322-330). As discussed above, DM undergoes extensive hepatic O-demethylation to dextrorphan that is catalyzed by CYP2D6. This is the same enzyme that is responsible for polymorphic debrisoquine hydroxylation in humans (Schmid et al., Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 1985; 38: 618-624). An alternate pathway is mediated primarily by CYP3A4 and N-demethylation to form 3-methoxymorphinan (Von Moltke et al., J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 1998; 50: 997-1004). Both DX and 3-methoxymorphinan can be further demethylated to 3-hydroxymorphinan that is then subject to glucuronidation. The metabolic pathway that converts DM to DX is dominant in the majority of the population and is the principle for using DM as a probe to phenotype individuals as CYP2D6 extensive and poor metabolizers (Kupfer et al., Lancet 1984; 2: 517-518; Guttendorf et al., Ther. Drug Monit., 1988; 10: 490-498). Approximately 7% of the Caucasian population shows the poor metabolizer phenotype, while the incidence of poor metabolizer phenotype in Chinese and Black African populations is lower (Droll et al., Pharmacogenetics, 1998; 8: 325-333). A study examining the ability of DM to increase pain threshold in extensive and poor metabolizers found antinociceptive effects of DM were significant in poor metabolizers but not in extensive metabolizers (Desmeules et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1999; 288: 607-612). The results are consistent with direct effects of parent DM rather than the DX metabolite on neuromodulation. One approach for increasing systemically available DM is to coadminister the CYP2D6 inhibitor, quinidine, to protect DM from metabolism (Zhang et al., Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1992; 51: 647-655). Quinidine administration can convert subjects with extensive metabolizer phenotype to poor metabolizer phenotype (Inaba et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1986; 22: 199-200). When this combination therapy was tried in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis patients it appeared to exert a palliative effect on symptoms of pseudobulbar affect (Smith et al., Neurol., 1995; 54: 604P). Combination treatment with DM and quinidine also appeared effective for patients with chronic pain that could not be adequately controlled with other medications. This observation is consistent with a report that showed DM was effective in increasing pain threshold in poor metabolizers and in extensive metabolizers given quinidine, but not in extensive metabolizers (Desmeules et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1999; 288: 607-612). To date, most studies have used quinidine doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg to inhibit CYP2D6 mediated drug metabolism, but no studies have identified a minimal dose of quinidine for enzyme inhibition. The highly complex interactions between different types of neurons having varying populations of different receptors, and the cross-affinity of different receptor types for dextromethorphan as well as other types of molecules which can interact with some or all of those same types of receptors, render it very difficult to attribute the overall effects of dextromethorphan to binding activity at any particular receptor type. Nevertheless, it is believed that dextromethorphan suppresses neuronal activity by means of at least three molecular functions: it reduces activity at (excitatory) NMDA receptors; it inhibits neuronal activity by binding to certain types of inhibitory receptors; and it suppresses calcium uptake through N-channels and L-channels. Unlike some analogs of morphine, dextromethorphan has little or no agonist or antagonist activity at various other opiate receptors, including the mu (μ) and kappa (κ) classes of opiate receptors. This is highly desirable, since agonist or antagonist activity at those opiate receptors can cause undesired side effects such as respiratory depression (which interferes with breathing) and blockade of analgesia (which reduces the effectiveness of pain-killers). Accordingly, emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect can be treated in at least some patients by means of administering a drug which functions as an antagonist at NMDA receptors and as an agonist at dextromethorphan-binding inhibitory receptors, and wherein the drug is also characterized by a lack of agonist or antagonist activity at mu or kappa opiate receptors, namely, dextromethorphan. It has long been known that in most people (estimated to include about 90% of the general population in the United States), dextromethorphan is rapidly metabolized and eliminated by the body (Ramachander et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 1977 July, 66(7):1047-8; and Vetticaden et al., Pharm. Res., 1989 January, 6(1):13-9). This elimination is largely due to an enzyme known as the P450 2D6 (or IID6) enzyme, which is one member of a class of oxidative enzymes that exist in high concentrations in the liver, known as cytochrome P450 enzymes (Kronbach et al., Anal. Biochem., 1987 April, 162(1):24-32; and Dayer et al., Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 1989 January, 45(1):34-40). In addition to metabolizing dextromethorphan, the P450 2D6 isozyme also oxidizes sparteine and debrisoquine. It is known that the P450 2D6 enzyme can be inhibited by a number of drugs, particularly quinidine (Brinn et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1986 August, 22(2):194-7; Inaba et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1986 August, 22(2):199-200; Brosen et al., Pharmacol. Toxicol., 1987 April, 60(4):312-4; Otton et al., Drug Metab. Dispos., 1988 January-February, 16(1):15-7; Otton et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1988 October, 247(1):242-7; Funck-Brentano et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1989 April, 27(4):435-44; Funck-Brentano et al., J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1989 April, 249(1):134-42; Nielsen et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1990 March, 29(3):299-304; Broly et al., Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1989 July, 28(1):29-36). Patients who lack the normal levels of P450 2D6 activity are classified in the medical literature as “poor metabolizers,” and doctors are generally warned to be cautious about administering various drugs to such patients. “The diminished oxidative biotransformation of these compounds in the poor metabolizer (PM) population can lead to excessive drug accumulation, increased peak drug levels, or in some cases, decreased generation of active metabolites . . . . Patients with the PM phenotype are at increased risk of potentially serious untoward effects . . . ” (Guttendorf et al., Ther. Drug Monit., 1988, 10(4):490-8, page 490). Accordingly, doctors are cautious about administering quinidine to patients, and rather than using drugs such as quinidine to inhibit the rapid elimination of dextromethorphan, researchers working in this field have administered very large quantities (such as 750 mg/day) of dextromethorphan to their patients, even though this is known to introduce various problems (Walker et al., Clin Neuropharmacol., 1989 August, 12(4):322-30; and Albers et al., Stroke, 1991 August, 22(8):1075-7). Dextromethorphan is a weak, noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that binds with moderate-to-high affinity to the phencyclidine site of the receptor complex. However, DM has additional, unique pharmacological properties. Binding studies suggest it is a ligand at the high affinity sigma 1 site, where it initially was proposed to act as an antagonist (Tortella et al., TiPS, 1989; 10:501-7) but more recently as an agonist (Maurice et al., Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev., 2001; 37:116-32). Sigma ligands also modulate NMDA responses (Debonnel et al., Life Sci., 1996; 58:721-34). Due to its inhibitory actions on glutamate, a number of investigators have treated ALS patients with DM in the hope of modifying or arresting the disease (Askmark et al., J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1993; 56:197-200; Hollander et al., Ann. Neurol., 1994; 36:920-4; and Blin et al., Clin. Neuropharmacol., 1996; 19:189-92). These trials have failed to demonstrate any benefit, possibly due to the rapid and extensive metabolism of DM that occurs in approximately 90 percent of the Caucasian population (referred to as extensive metabolizers) (see Hildebrand et al., Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 1989; 36:315-8). DM metabolism is primarily mediated by CYP2D6 in extensive metabolizers. This can be circumvented by co-administration of quinidine, a selective CYP2D6 inhibitor, at Q doses 1 to 1.5 logs below those employed for the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias (Schadel et al., J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1995; 15:263-9). Blood levels of DM increase linearly with DM dose following co-administration with Q but are undetectable in most subjects given DM alone, even at high doses (Zhang et al., Clin. Pharmac. & Therap., 1992; 51:647-55). The observed plasma levels in these individuals thus mimic the plasma levels observed in individuals expressing the minority phenotype where polymorphisms in the gene result in reduced levels of P450 2D6 (poor metabolizers). Unexpectedly, during a study of DM and Q in ALS patients, patients reported that their emotional lability improved during treatment. Subsequently, in a placebo controlled crossover study (N=12) conducted to investigate this, the concomitant administration of DM and Q administered to ALS patients was found to suppress emotional lability (P<0.001 compared to placebo) (Smith et al., Neurology, 1995; 45:A330). Rapid dextromethorphan elimination may be overcome by co-administration of quinidine along with dextromethorphan (U.S. Pat. No. 5,206,248 to Smith). The chemical structure of quinidine is as follows: Quinidine co-administration has at least two distinct beneficial effects. First, it greatly increases the quantity of dextromethorphan circulating in the blood. In addition, it also yields more consistent and predictable dextromethorphan concentrations. Research involving dextromethorphan or co-administration of quinidine and dextromethorphan, and the effects of quinidine on blood plasma concentrations, are described in the patent literature (U.S. Pat. No. 5,166,207, U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,927, U.S. Pat. No. 5,366,980, U.S. Pat. No. 5,206,248, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,350,756 to Smith). The discovery that dextromethorphan can reduce the internal feelings and external symptoms of emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect in some patients suffering from progressive neurological disease suggests that dextromethorphan is also likely to be useful for helping some patients suffering from emotional lability due to other causes, such as stroke or other ischemic (low blood flow) or hypoxic (low oxygen supply) events which led to neuronal death or damage in limited regions of the brain, or head injury or trauma as might occur during an automobile, motorcycle, or bicycling accident or due to a gunshot wound. In addition, the results obtained to date also suggest that dextromethorphan is likely to be useful for treating some cases of emotional lability which are due to administration of other drugs. For example, various steroids, such as prednisone, are widely used to treat autoimmune diseases such as lupus. However, prednisone has adverse events on the emotional state of many patients, ranging from mild but noticeably increased levels of moodiness and depression, up to severely aggravated levels of emotional lability that can impair the business, family, or personal affairs of the patient. In addition, dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine can reduce the external displays or the internal feelings that are caused by or which accompany various other problems such as “premenstrual syndrome” (PMS), Tourette's syndrome, and the outburst displays that occur in people suffering from certain types of mental illness. Although such problems may not be clinically regarded as emotional lability, they involve manifestations that appear to be sufficiently similar to emotional lability to suggest that dextromethorphan can offer an effective treatment for at least some patients suffering from such problems. One of the significant characteristics of the treatments of preferred embodiments is that the treatments function to reduce emotional lability without tranquilizing or otherwise significantly interfering with consciousness or alertness in the patient. As used herein, “significant interference” refers to adverse events that would be significant either on a clinical level (they would provoke a specific concern in a doctor or psychologist) or on a personal or social level (such as by causing drowsiness sufficiently severe that it would impair someone's ability to drive an automobile). In contrast, the types of very minor side effects that can be caused by an over-the-counter drug such as a dextromethorphan-containing cough syrup when used at recommended dosages are not regarded as significant interference. The magnitude of a prophylactic or therapeutic dose of dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine in the acute or chronic management of emotional lability or other chronic conditions can vary with the particular cause of the condition, the severity of the condition, and the route of administration. The dose and/or the dose frequency can also vary according to the age, body weight, and response of the individual patient. In general, it is preferred to administer the dextromethorphan and quinidine in a combined dose, or in separate doses administered substantially simultaneously. The preferred weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.5 or less, preferably about 1:1.45, 1:1.4, 1:1.35, or 1:1.3 or less, more preferably about 1:1.25, 1:1.2, 1:1.15, 1:1.1, 1:1.05, 1:1, 1:0.95, 1:0.9, 1:0.85, 1:0.8, 1:0.75, 1:0.7, 1:0.65, 1:0.6, 1:0.55 or 1:0.5 or less. In certain embodiments, however, dosages wherein the weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is greater than about 1:1.5 may be preferred, for example, dosages of about 1:1.6, 1:1.7, 1:1.8, 1:1.9, 1:2 or greater. Likewise, in certain embodiments, dosages wherein the ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is less than about 1:0.5 may be preferred, for example, about 1:0.45, 1:0.4, 1:0.35, 1:0.3, 1:0.25, 1:0.2, 1:0.15, or 1:0.1 or less. When dextromethorphan and quinidine are administered at the preferred ratio of 1:1.25 or less, it is generally preferred that less than 50 mg quinidine is administered at any one time, more preferably about 45, 40, or 35 mg or less, and most preferably about 30, 25, or 20 mg or less. It may also be preferred to administer the combined dose (or separate doses simultaneously administered) at the preferred ratio of 1:1.25 or less twice daily, three times daily, four times daily, or more frequently so as to provide the patient with a preferred dosage level per day, for example: 60 mg quinidine and 60 mg dextromethorphan per day provided in two doses, each dose containing 30 mg quinidine and 30 mg dextromethorphan; 50 mg quinidine and 50 mg dextromethorphan per day provided in two doses, each dose containing 25 mg quinidine and 25 mg dextromethorphan; 40 mg quinidine and 40 mg dextromethorphan per day provided in two doses, each dose containing 20 mg quinidine and 20 mg dextromethorphan; 30 mg quinidine and 30 mg dextromethorphan per day provided in two doses, each dose containing 15 mg quinidine and 15 mg dextromethorphan; or 20 mg quinidine and 20 mg dextromethorphan per day provided in two doses, each dose containing 10 mg quinidine and 10 mg dextromethorphan. The total amount of dextromethorphan and quinidine in a combined dose may be adjusted, depending upon the number of doses to be administered per day, so as to provide a suitable daily total dosage to the patient, while maintaining the preferred ratio of 1:1.25 or less. These ratios are particularly preferred for the treatment of emotional lability and neuropathic pain. In general, the total daily dose for dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, for the conditions described herein, is about 10 mg or less up to about 200 mg or more dextromethorphan in combination with about 1 mg or less up to about 150 mg or more quinidine; preferably from about 15 or 20 mg to about 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, or 190 mg dextromethorphan in combination with from about 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, or 20 mg to about 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130, or 140 mg quinidine; more preferably from about 25, 30, 35, or 40 mg to about 55 or 60 mg dextromethorphan in combination with from about 25, 30, or 35 mg to about 40, 45, or 50 mg quinidine. In particularly preferred embodiments, the daily dose of dextromethorphan (DM) to quinidine (O) is: 20 mg DM to 20 mg Q; 20 mg DM to 30 mg Q; 20 mg DM to 40 mg Q; 20 mg DM to 50 mg Q; 20 mg DM to 60 mg Q; 30 mg DM to 20 mg Q; 30 mg DM to 30 mg Q; 30 mg DM to 40 mg Q; 30 mg DM to 50 mg Q; 30 mg DM to 60 mg Q; 40 mg DM to 20 mg Q; 40 mg DM to 30 mg Q; 40 mg DM to 40 mg Q; 40 mg DM to 50 mg Q; 40 mg DM to 60 mg Q; 50 mg DM to 20 mg Q; 50 mg DM to 30 mg Q; 50 mg DM to 40 mg Q; 50 mg DM to 50 mg Q; 50 mg DM to 50 mg Q; 60 mg DM to 20 mg Q; 60 mg DM to 30 mg Q; 60 mg DM to 40 mg Q; 60 mg DM to 50 mg Q; or 60 mg DM to 60 mg Q. A single dose per day or divided doses (two, three, four or more doses per day) can be administered. Preferably, a daily dose for emotional lability is about 20 mg to about 60 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20 mg to about 60 mg quinidine, in single or divided doses. Particularly preferred daily dose for emotional lability is about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; about 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, or 40 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; about 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; or about 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or 60 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; in single or divided doses. In general, the total daily dose for dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, for chronic pain, such as neuropathic pain, intractable coughing, dermatitis, tinnitus, and sexual dysfunction is preferably about 10 mg or less up to about 200 mg or more dextromethorphan in combination with about 1 mg or less up to about 150 mg or more quinidine. Particularly preferred total daily dosages for chronic pain, such as neuropathic pain, intractable coughing, dermatitis, tinnitus, and sexual dysfunction are about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; about 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, or 40 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; about 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; or about 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or 60 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 mg quinidine; in single or divided doses. Similar daily doses for other indications as mentioned herein are generally preferred. In managing treatment, the therapy is preferably initiated at a lower daily dose, preferably about 20 or 30 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 2.5 mg quinidine per day, and increased up to about 60 mg dextromethorphan in combination with about 75 mg quinidine, or higher, depending on the patient's global response. It is further preferred that infants, children, patients over 65 years, and those with impaired renal or hepatic function, initially receive low doses, and that they be titrated based on individual response(s) and blood level(s). Generally, a daily dosage of 20 to 30 mg dextromethorphan and 20 to 30 mg quinidine is well-tolerated by most patients. It can be preferred to administer dosages outside of these preferred ranges in some cases, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Further, it is noted that the ordinary skilled clinician or treating physician will know how and when to interrupt, adjust, or terminate therapy in consideration of individual patient response. Any suitable route of administration can be employed for providing the patient with an effective dosage of dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine. For example, oral, rectal, transdermal, parenteral (subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous), intrathecal, topical, inhalable, and like forms of administration can be employed. Suitable dosage forms include tablets, troches, dispersions, suspensions, solutions, capsules, patches, and the like. Administration of medicaments prepared from the compounds described herein can be by any suitable method capable of introducing the compounds into the bloodstream. Formulations of preferred embodiments can contain a mixture of active compounds with pharmaceutically acceptable carriers or diluents as are known by those of skill in the art. The present method of treatment of emotional lability can be enhanced by the use of dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine as an adjuvant to known therapeutic agents, such as fluoxetine hydrochloride, marketed as PROZAC® by Eli Lilly and Company, and the like. Preferred adjuvants include pharmaceutical compositions conventionally employed in the treatment of the disordered as discussed herein. The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention comprise dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts of dextromethorphan and/or quinidine, as the active ingredient and can also contain a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, and optionally, other therapeutic ingredients. The terms “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” or “a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof” refer to salts prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable, non-toxic acids or bases. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts include metallic salts, e.g., salts of aluminum, zinc, alkali metal salts such as lithium, sodium, and potassium salts, alkaline earth metal salts such as calcium and magnesium salts; organic salts, e.g., salts of lysine, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, chloroprocaine, choline, diethanolamine, ethylenediamine, meglumine (N-methylglucamine), procaine, and tris; salts of free acids and bases; inorganic salts, e.g., sulfate, hydrochloride, and hydrobromide; and other salts which are currently in widespread pharmaceutical use and are listed in sources well known to those of skill in the art, such as The Merck Index. Any suitable constituent can be selected to make a salt of an active drug discussed herein, provided that it is non-toxic and does not substantially interfere with the desired activity. In addition to salts, pharmaceutically acceptable precursors and derivatives of the compounds can be employed. Pharmaceutically acceptable amides, lower alkyl esters, and protected derivatives of dextromethorphan and/or quinidine can also be suitable for use in compositions and methods of preferred embodiments. In particularly preferred embodiments, the dextromethorphan is administered in the form of dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and the quinidine is administered in the form of quinidine sulfate. For example, a dose of 30 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide (of molecular formula C18H25NO.HBr.H2O) and 30 quinidine sulfate (of molecular formula (C20H24N2O2)2.H2SO4.2H2O) may be administered (corresponding to an effective dosage of approximately 22 mg dextromethorphan and 25 mg quinidine). Other preferred dosages include, for example, 45 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 30 quinidine sulfate (corresponding to an effective dosage of approximately 33 mg dextromethorphan and approximately 25 mg quinidine); 60 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 30 quinidine sulfate (corresponding to an effective dosage of approximately 44 mg dextromethorphan and approximately 25 mg quinidine); 45 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 45 quinidine sulfate (corresponding to an effective dosage of approximately 33 mg dextromethorphan and 37.5 mg quinidine); 60 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 60 quinidine sulfate (corresponding to an effective dosage of approximately 44 mg dextromethorphan and 50 mg quinidine). The compositions can be prepared in any desired form, for example, tables, powders, capsules, suspensions, solutions, elixirs, and aerosols. Carriers such as starches, sugars, microcrystalline cellulose, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents, and the like can be used in oral solid preparations. Oral solid preparations (such as powders, capsules, and tablets) are generally preferred over oral liquid preparations. However, in certain embodiments oral liquid preparations can be preferred over oral solid preparations. The most preferred oral solid preparations are tablets. If desired, tablets can be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques. In addition to the common dosage forms set out above, the compounds can also be administered by sustained release, delayed release, or controlled release compositions and/or delivery devices, for example, such as those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770; 3,916,899; 3,536,809; 3,598,123; and 4,008,719. Pharmaceutical compositions suitable for oral administration can be provided as discrete units such as capsules, cachets, tablets, and aerosol sprays, each containing predetermined amounts of the active ingredients, as powder or granules, or as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid, a non-aqueous liquid, an oil-in-water emulsion, or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion. Such compositions can be prepared by any of the conventional methods of pharmacy, but the majority of the methods typically include the step of bringing into association the active ingredients with a carrier which constitutes one or more ingredients. In general, the compositions are prepared by uniformly and intimately admixing the active ingredients with liquid carriers, finely divided solid carriers, or both, and then, optionally, shaping the product into the desired presentation. For example, a tablet can be prepared by compression or molding, optionally, with one or more additional ingredients. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as powder or granules, optionally mixed with a binder, lubricant, inert diluent, surface active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets can be made by molding, in a suitable machine, a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with an inert liquid diluent. Preferably, each tablet contains from about 30 mg to about 60 mg of dextromethorphan and from about 30 mg to about 45 mg quinidine, and each capsule contains from about 30 mg to about 60 mg of dextromethorphan and from about 30 mg to about 45 mg quinidine. Most preferably, tablets or capsules are provided in a range of dosages to permit divided dosages to be administered. For example, tablets, cachets or capsules can be provided that contain about 10 mg dextromethorphan and about 5, 10, or 15 mg quinidine; about 20 mg dextromethorphan and about 10, 20 or 30 mg quinidine; about 30 mg dextromethorphan and about 15, 30, or 45 mg quinidine; and the like. A dosage appropriate to the patient, the condition to be treated, and the number of doses to be administered daily can thus be conveniently selected. While it is generally preferred to incorporate both dextromethorphan and quinidine in a single tablet or other dosage form, in certain embodiments it can be desirable to provide the dextromethorphan and quinidine in separate dosage forms. It has been unexpectedly discovered that patients suffering from emotional lability and other conditions as described herein can treated with dextromethorphan in combination with an amount of quinidine substantially lower than the minimum amount heretofore believed to be necessary to provide a significant therapeutic effect. As used herein, a “minimum effective therapeutic amount” is that amount which provides a satisfactory degree of inhibition of the rapid elimination of dextromethorphan from the body, while producing no adverse effect or only adverse events of an acceptable degree and nature. More specifically, a preferred effective therapeutic amount is within the range of from about 20, 25 or 30 mg to about 60 mg of dextromethorphan and less than about 50 mg of quinidine per day, preferably about 20 or 30 mg to about 60 mg of dextromethorphan and about 30 mg to about 45 mg of quinidine per day, the amount being preferably administered in a divided dose based on the plasma half-life of dextromethorphan. For example, in a preferred embodiment dextromethorphan and quinidine are administered in specified mg increments to achieve a target concentration of dextromethorphan of a specified level in μg/mL plasma, with a maximum preferred specified dosage of dextromethorphan and quinidine based on body weight. The target dose is then preferably administered every 12 hours. Since the level of quinidine is minimized, the side effects observed at high dosages for quinidine are minimized or eliminated, a significant benefit over compositions containing dextromethorphan in combination with higher levels of quinidine. The combination of dextromethorphan and quinidine of preferred embodiments can also be extremely effective in formulations for the treatment for other chronic disorders which do not respond well to other treatments. Dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine can be used to effectively treat severe or intractable coughing, which has not responded adequately to non-addictive, non-steroid medications, with minimal side-effects. Intractable coughing is a consequence of respiratory infections, asthma, emphysema, and other conditions affecting the pulmonary system. Dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine as in the preferred embodiments can also be used in pharmaceutical compositions for treating dermatitis. As used herein, “dermatitis” or “eczema” is a skin condition characterized by visible skin lesions and/or an itching or burning sensation on the skin. Dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine as in the preferred embodiments can also be used in pharmaceutical compositions for the treatment of chronic pain from conditions such as stroke, trauma, cancer, and pain due to neuropathies such as herpes zoster infections and diabetes. Other conditions that can be treated using dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine according to the preferred embodiments can include sexual dysfunctions, such as priapism or premature ejaculation, as well as tinnitus. Clinical Study #1 Clinical testing was conducted to determine the lowest dose of quinidine which inhibits the conversion of dextromethorphan to dextrorphan; and to chronicle the occurrence of side effects during administration of dextromethorphan/quinidine. Testing protocol specifications and a detailed time and events schedule were prepared to assure consistent execution of the protocol throughout the study conduct. A phenotyping study directed to dextromethorphan was conducted. The study was an open-label single dose study. Subjects were screened to ensure they met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Subjects received a single oral dose of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. A total of fifty-eight subjects were screened and fifty subjects dosed. The study determined each subject's ability to metabolize dextromethorphan. Subjects who met the inclusion/exclusion criteria remained in house for dosing. Each subject was administered one 30 mg capsule (P.M.) of dextromethorphan. Urine was collected predose through 12 hours postdose and analyzed for dextromethorphan and dextrorphan. A blood sample (5 mL) was collected for analysis of plasma dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and quinidine predose and at 2, 4 and 8 hours postdose. Following a wash-out period of at least two days, forty-eight subjects determined to be extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan were asked to participate in the quinidine dosing study. Forty-six of these subjects were determined to be extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan. One adverse effect was reported during the study (a headache, classified as mild, that resolved without intervention). Thereafter, a quinidine dose determination study was conducted. The study was an open-label, randomized, multiple dose study. Subjects identified as extensive metabolizers received an evening dose on Day 1, at 12-hour intervals for the next six days, with a final morning dose on Day 8. All subjects were instructed to dose themselves at home on eight occasions with medication dispensed to them. Subjects maintained a diary during the study to record adverse effects. Subjects randomized to Treatment A received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. Subjects randomized to Treatment B received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg/quinidine 2.5 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. Subjects randomized to Treatment C received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg/quinidine 10 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. Subjects randomized to Treatment D received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan Hydrobromide 30 mg/quinidine 25 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. Subjects randomized to Treatment E received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg/quinidine 50 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. Subjects randomized to Treatment F received fourteen oral doses of dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg/quinidine 75 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of tap water. All subjects enrolled in the study except for one satisfied the inclusion/exclusion criteria as listed in the protocol. Medical histories, clinical laboratory evaluations, and performed physical examinations were reviewed prior to subjects being enrolled in the study. The subjects were instructed not to consume any grapefruit products while participating in the study. Over-the-counter medications were prohibited three days prior to dosing and during the study, and prescription medications (with the exception of oral contraceptives) were prohibited fourteen days prior to dosing and during the study. A total of forty-six subjects, twenty-two males and twenty-four females, were enrolled in the study and forty-five subjects, twenty-two males and twenty-three females, completed the study. The subjects were screened within twenty-one days prior to study enrollment. The screening procedure included medical history, physical examination (height, weight, frame size, vital signs, and ECG), and clinical laboratory tests (hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysis, HIV antibody screen, serum pregnancy, and a screen for THECA). Subjects were dosed in the clinic on the following schedule: Day 1 (P.M.), Day 2 (A.M.), Day 3 (P.M.), Day 4 (A.M.) and Day 7 (P.M.). The subjects reported to the clinic on Day 8 for the A.M. dosing and remained in house for 8 hours postdose. Subjects self medicated at home on Day 2 (P.M.), Day 3 (A.M.), Day 4 (P.M.), Day 5 (A.M. and P.M.), Day 6 (A.M. and P.M.), and Day 7 (A.M.). Subjects were dosed twice daily except they received only a PM dose on Day 1 and an AM dose on Day 8. A clinical laboratory evaluation (hematology, chemistries, urinalysis), vital signs, ECG, and a brief physical examination were performed at the completion of the study. Subjects were instructed to inform the study physician and/or safety nurses of any adverse events that occurred during the study. Blood samples (5 mL) were collected on Day 8 prior to dosing and at 2, 4 and 8 hours postdose for analysis of dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and quinidine. A total of eight blood samples (40 mL) were drawn during the study (including the dextromethorphan screen) for drug analysis. Plasma samples were separated by centrifugation and then frozen at −20° C. and kept frozen until assayed. Urine was collected predose through twelve hours post doses 1, 5, and 13. Urine samples were pooled for the entire collection interval. At the end of the interval, the total volume was recorded and two aliquots were frozen at −20° C. until assayed for dextromethorphan and dextrorphan. A total of forty-six subjects were dosed and forty-five subjects completed the study. One subject was discontinued/withdrawn from the study as not tolerating adverse events experienced. The mean age of the subjects was 51 years (range of 20 through 86), the mean height of the subjects was 67.6 inches (range of 61.5 through 74.5), and the mean weight of the subjects was 162.9 pounds (range 101.0 through 229.0). A total of eight subjects were enrolled in Treatment Groups B, D, and E. Seven subjects were enrolled in Treatment Groups A and C. A total of 150 adverse events were experienced by thirty-four subjects (74%). Other than one serious adverse effect, all adverse events were classified as mild (96%) or moderate (4%). The most frequently reported adverse events included headache, loose stool, lightheadedness, dizziness, and nausea. The relationship to study drug was classified as possibly, probably, or almost certainly for 120 of the 150 adverse events (80%). There were no clear differences between dose groups in the type or frequency of adverse events observed. No clinically significant trends regarding vital signs, physical examinations or clinical laboratory tests were observed. Clinical Study #2 The objectives of this study were to determine pharmacokinetic parameters of dextromethorphan upon single-dose and multiple-doses of a capsule formulation containing 30 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 25 mg quinidine sulfate capsules, to determine the differences in these pharmacokinetic parameters for extensive metabolizers and poor metabolizers, and to chronicle the occurrence of side effects during administration of the formulation. This study had an open-label, single, and multiple dose design. Ten subjects were enrolled in the study. A total of nine subjects completed the study. Ten subjects were included in safety analyses, and nine were included in pharmacokinetic analyses. All subjects enrolled in this study were judged by the investigator to be normal, healthy volunteers. The test formulation was 30 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 25 mg quinidine sulfate capsules. All subjects received one 30 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide and 25 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken orally with 240 mL of water every 12 hours for a total of 15 doses. The noncompartmental pharmacokinetic parameters Cmax, Tmax, and AUC (0-12) were calculated from the plasma concentration-time data for dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and quinidine on Days 1, 4, and 8. In addition, the parameters Kel and T ½el were calculated for dextrorphan (Day 8), and quinidine (Days 1, 4, and 8). The amount of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan excreted in the urine was calculated from the 12-hour urine collections on Day 1 (postdose 1), Day 8 (postdose 15), and Days 9-14. The molar metabolic ratio (dextromethorphan:dextrorphan) was calculated for each urine-collection day. Subjects were evaluated by physical examination, vital signs, electrocardiogram (ECG), clinical laboratory (hematology, serum chemistry, and urinalysis), and adverse event assessment. Descriptive statistics for each parameter, including mean, median, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, N, minimum, and maximum were calculated for all of the subjects by Day. In addition, descriptive statistics were presented by the subgroups: extensive metabolizer (EM) and poor metabolizer (PM). A normal theory, general linear model (GLM) was applied to the log-transformed parameters Cmax and AUC (0-12), and untransformed Tmax (dextromethorphan and dextrorphan), and to untransformed parameters Cmax, AUC (0-12), and Tmax (quinidine). The ANOVA model included the factors group (EM or PM), subject within group, day, and the interaction term day by group. The group effect was tested using the subject within group mean square, and all other main effects were tested using the residual error (error mean square). In addition, tests of the hypotheses Day 1=Day 4, Day 1=Day 8, and Day 4=Day 8 were performed. Safety and tolerability were assessed via data listings and calculation of summary statistics as follows: hematology, serum chemistry, and urinalysis test results from predose and postdose were listed in by-subject data listings. Descriptive statistics were reported by time point of collection, and changes from predose to postdose were summarized and statistically tested using the paired t-test (Ho: change=0). Shift tables describing out-of-range shifts from predose to postdose were created. Out-of-normal range and clinically significant laboratory values were listed by subject. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and sample size) were reported by time point (screen and Day 8 postdose) for vital sign measurements: systolic and diastolic blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and temperature. Summary statistics were presented by metabolizer type. Differences between screening and postdose measurements were presented and statistically tested using a paired t-test (Ho: difference=0). Individual vital signs results were listed in by-subject data listings. Changes in physical examination results that occurred from predose to postdose were also identified. Twelve-lead ECGs were recorded prior to dosing. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and sample size) were reported by time point (predose and Day 8 postdose) for ECG measurements: QRS, PR, QTc, and heart rate. Summary statistics were presented by metabolizer type. Differences between predose and Day 8 postdose measurements were presented and statistically testing using a paired t-test (Ho: difference=0). ECG results were listed in by-subject data listings. Adverse events were classified using the 5th Edition of the COSTART dictionary. Summary tables include number of subjects reporting the adverse event and as percent of number of subjects dosed by metabolizer type. Summary tables were also presented by adverse event frequency, severity, and relationship to study medication. Adverse events were listed by subject, including verbatim term, severity, frequency, and relationship to treatment in data listings. Mean pharmacokinetic parameters for dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and quinidine are summarized in Table 1 for extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan (EMs), poor metabolizers of dextromethorphan (PMs), and all subjects. TABLE 1 Metabolizer Type Pharmacokinetics EM PM All Subjects Compound Parameter Day Mean N S.D. Mean N S.D. Mean N S.D. Dextromethorphan Cmax 1 15.89 7 8.22 22.30 2 0.14 17.31 9 7.66 (ng/mL) 4 76.69 7 15.28 105.70 2 9.48 83.13 9 18.71 8 95.50 7 19.92 136.20 2 3.25 104.54 9 24.92 Tmax (hr) 1 6.85 7 2.78 8.00 2 0.00 7.11 9 2.46 4 5.42 7 1.90 6.00 2 2.82 5.55 9 1.94 8 5.99 7 2.58 4.99 2 1.41 5.77 9 2.33 AUC (0-12) 1 133.27 7 59.86 198.33 2 6.97 147.73 9 59.30 (ng * hr./ml) 4 811.68 7 151.7 1146.4 2 84.43 886.07 9 199.8 8 1049.0 7 243.3 1533.5 2 80.97 1156.7 9 301.4 T ½el (hr) 8 13.13 6 3.41 41.96 2 4.47 20.33 8 13.76 Dextrorphan Cmax 1 124.86 7 53.26 10.80 2 3.39 99.51 9 68.25 (ng/ml) 4 79.33 7 18.63 37.05 2 0.21 69.93 9 24.65 8 123.51 7 17.07 51.45 2 4.17 107.50 9 35.08 Tmax (hr) 1 4.00 7 0.00 3.00 2 1.42 3.78 9 0.67 4 2.21 7 1.40 2.00 2 0.00 2.17 9 1.22 8 41.18 7 11.57 2.99 2 1.41 32.70 9 19.61 AUC (0-12) 1 933.83 7 324.8 90.95 2 19.08 748.52 9 466.2 (ng * hr/mL) 4 849.22 7 181.9 365.27 2 30.37 741.68 9 265.4 8 1000.5 7 147.2 530.40 2 82.39 896.04 9 245.1 Quinidine Cmax 1 0.09 7 0.02 0.08 2 0.01 0.09 9 0.02 (μg/ml) 4 0.15 7 0.03 0.14 2 0.01 0.15 9 0.03 8 0.16 7 0.04 0.16 2 0.02 0.16 9 0.03 Tmax (hr) 1 1.71 7 0.27 1.50 2 0.00 1.67 9 0.25 4 1.65 7 0.37 1.52 2 0.00 1.62 9 0.33 8 1.99 7 0.01 1.49 2 0.00 1.88 9 0.22 AUC (0-12) 1 0.48 7 0.18 0.51 2 0.13 0.49 9 0.17 (μg * hr/ml) 4 1.20 7 0.21 0.97 2 0.05 1.15 9 0.21 8 1.31 7 0.19 1.07 2 0.02 1.26 9 0.19 T ½el (hr) 1 8.11 7 2.95 8.25 2 2.65 8.14 9 2.72 4 6.86 7 1.11 6.51 2 0.70 6.78 9 1.01 8 7.66 7 1.09 6.66 2 0.41 7.44 9 1.05 Mean urinary metabolic ratios (dextromethorphan:dextrorphan) are summarized in Table 2 for extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan (EMs), poor metabolizers of dextromethorphan (PMs), and all subjects. TABLE 2 Metabolizer Type EM PM All Subjects DAY Mean N S.D. Mean N S.D. Mean N S.D. 1 0.268 7 0.227 1.790 2 0.493 0.608 9 0.721 8 0.804 7 0.366 1.859 2 0.507 1.039 9 0.591 9 0.445 6 0.170 1.398 2 0.597 0.683 8 0.516 10 0.198 7 0.152 2.538 2 1.593 0.718 9 1.183 11 0.145 7 0.125 2.200 2 1.136 0.601 9 0.997 12 0.091 7 0.086 3.333 2 0.090 0.812 9 1.432 13 0.037 7 0.064 2.250 2 0.554 0.529 9 0.997 14 0.027 5 0.061 2.061 2 0.115 0.608 7 0.995 No serious adverse events occurred during this study. Drug related adverse events included asthenia, diarrhea, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, anxiety, depersonalization, insomnia, and somnolence. The majority of the adverse events were mild in severity and all were resolved without treatment. Prolonged QT intervals and decreased ventricular rates were observed for the extensive metabolizer group following dosing. No clinically significant trends regarding vital signs, physical examinations, or routine clinical laboratory tests were observed. Over the course of this study, low dose quinidine inhibited the metabolism of dextromethorphan, resulting in increased systemic availability. This effect was most pronounced in extensive metabolizers. The mean urinary metabolic ratio (dextromethorphan:dextrorphan) increased at least 29-fold in extensive metabolizers by Day 8. The plasma dextrorphan AUC (0-12) increased approximately 8-fold between Day 1 and Day 8, whereas the mean plasma dextrorphan AUC (0-12) remained the same between Day 1 and Day 8. The effect of quinidine on dextromethorphan metabolism in poor metabolizers was unclear. The urinary metabolic ratios did not appear to change with quinidine treatment. The excretion of both dextromethorphan and dextrorphan increased. However, dextrorphan excretion increased proportionally to dextromethorphan. This suggests that quinidine did not inhibit dextromethorphan metabolism to dextrorphan in poor metabolizers. However, there was 6.1-fold increase in dextromethorphan AUC (0-12) from Day 1 to Day 8, compared to a 4.8-fold increase in dextrorphan AUC (0-12), which is consistent with a small decrease in metabolic clearance. Quinidine pharmacokinetics were similar between extensive metabolizers and poor metabolizers. Mean quinidine elimination half-life values (6.78 to 8.14 hours) were similar to previously reported values. Dextromethorphan hydrobromide and quinidine sulfate capsules administered as a single-dose or multiple-doses product appeared to be well tolerated in this healthy population. Clinical Study #3 The objectives of this study were to determine the lowest dose of quinidine sulfate that effectively inhibits the conversion of 45 mg of dextromethorphan to dextrorphan and the lowest dose of quinidine that effectively inhibits the conversion of 60 mg of dextromethorphan to dextrorphan, and to chronicle the occurrence of side effects during administration of dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine. This dose interaction study was a Phase 1, open-label, parallel group, multiple-dose, single-center, safety, and pharmacokinetic study. A total of sixty-four subjects were planned, and sixty-five subjects were enrolled in the study. A total of forty-seven subjects completed the study and were included in pharmacokinetic analyses. All subjects were included in safety analyses. Males and females between 18 and 60 years of age, identified as extensive metabolizers of dextromethorphan, were enrolled. All subjects were judged to be healthy volunteers. Enrolled subjects met inclusion and exclusion criteria. The test formulation was dextromethorphan hydrobromide and quinidine sulfate capsules, administered orally with water. Subjects receiving Treatment A received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 60 mg/0 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment B received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 60 mg/30 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment C received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 60 mg/45 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment D received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 60 mg/60 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment E received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 45 mg/0 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment F received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 45 mg/30 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment G received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 45 mg/45 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. Subjects receiving Treatment H received an oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide of 45 mg/60 mg quinidine sulfate capsule taken twice daily with 240 mL of water on Days 1 through 8. For Treatments B, C, D, F, G, and H, subjects received a single dose of dextromethorphan hydrobromide (either 60 mg for Treatments B, C, and D or 45 mg for Treatments F, G, and H) without quinidine for the first dose and then 14 does of the designated capsule, i.e., all subjects received one dose of either Treatment A or E as a baseline. The first dose of Treatments A and E was considered as reference. Dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg capsules were used for phenotyping. Subjects received a single oral dose of one dextromethorphan hydrobromide 30 mg capsule taken with 240 mL of water. The plasma pharmacokinetic parameters, Cmax, Tmax, AUC (0-5), and AUC (0-12) were calculated using noncompartmental analysis. Pharmacokinetic parameters were summarized and descriptive statistics for all groups were calculated. Changes in these parameters from baseline were calculated and summarized. Urine metabolic ratios (dextromethorphan/dextrorphan) were calculated. Descriptive statistics for all groups were calculated, and changes in metabolic ratio from baseline were calculated and summarized. Adverse events assessments, monitoring of hematology, blood chemistry, and urine values, measurements of vital signs and electrocardiogram (ECG) as well as the performance of physical examinations were evaluated for safety. The effect of quinidine on the pharmacokinetics of dextromethorphan was assessed by measuring serial plasma dextromethorphan and dextrorphan concentrations on Days 1 and 8, quinidine concentrations on Day 8, and the amount of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan excreted in the urine for 12-hour urine collections on Day, 1, Day 3, and Day 7, following a multiple dose administration of dextromethorphan and quinidine. The noncompartmental pharmacokinetic parameters Cmax, Tmax, AUC (0-5), and AUC (0-12) were calculated from the plasma concentration-time data for dextromethorphan and dextrorphan on Days 1 and 8, quinidine on Day 8. The amount of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan excreted in the urine was calculated from the 12-hour urine collections on Day 1, Day 3, and Day 7. The molar metabolic ratio (dextromethorphan: dextrorphan) was calculated for each urine-collection day. To assess the effect of quinidine on dextromethorphan, analysis of variance was performed using SAS PROC Mixed on the parameter AUC of dextromethorphan from the 4 dextromethorphan and quinidine treatments, respectively, for 60 mg and 45 mg dextromethorphan doses. Least square means of doses, the differences (pairwise comparisons) between doses, plus the P-values for the significance of the differences were presented. To assess the effect of dextromethorphan on quinidine, analysis of variance was performed using SAS PROC Mixed on the parameter AUC of quinidine. Least square means of doses, the differences (pairwise comparisons) between doses, plus the P-values for the significance of the differences were presented. Safety and tolerability were assessed through calculation of summary statistics and were displayed in data listings of individual subjects. Adverse events were coded using the MedDRA Adverse Event Dictionary (Version 3.0, 2000). The frequency, type, severity, and relationship to study drug of treatment-emergent adverse events were displayed and compared across treatments. For laboratory tests, the study screening and poststudy measurements, along with the change between these time points, were summarized by descriptive statistics (median, mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and sample size) for serum chemistry and hematology tests. Shift tables from screening to poststudy for serum chemistry, hematology, and urinalysis laboratory tests were constructed. Out-of-range clinical laboratory results and their associated recheck values were listed. Descriptive statistics (median, mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum, and sample size) were calculated for vital signs and 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements for baseline and postdose, along with the change between these time points. The ECG shift table from baseline to postdose was also presented. The arithmetic means of pharmacokinetic parameters of plasma dextromethorphan, dextrorphan, and quinidine following Treatments A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H, and results of statistical comparisons between treatment groups are presented in the following tables. Table 3 provides a summary of the plasma DM pharmacokinetic parameters following a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 3 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic A B C D Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (ng/mL) 1 3.7 3.70 2.1 2.82 3.5 3.19 4.8 4.74 8 7.7 7.01 191.8 45.48 204.8 22.93 231.9 96.36 C 4.0 4.75 189.7 43.90 201.3 22.19 227.1 97.52 Tmax (hr) 1 2.6 0.96 2.5 0.57 2.4 0.56 3.5 1.05 8 2.1 0.38 3.5 1.73 3.7 1.17 5.2 1.94 C −0.5 1.12 1.0 1.42 1.3 1.51 1.7 1.97 AUC(0-t) (ng * hr/mL) 1 23.0 23.64 12.1 16.04 20.7 17.39 32.0 34.66 8 52.3 46.72 1963.0 608.50 2121.0 278.50 2252.0 689.30 C 29.3 34.57 1951.0 600.30 2100.0 275.90 2220.0 697.70 AUC (0-12) (ng * hr/mL) 1 23.2 23.50 12.3 15.93 20.7 17.39 32.2 34.45 8 52.3 46.72 1963.0 608.50 2121.0 278.50 2252.0 689.30 C 29.2 34.79 1951.0 600.10 2100.0 275.90 2220.0 697.80 1n (Cmax) 1 0.9 1.07 0.1 1.21 0.9 1.05 1.2 0.88 8 1.6 1.03 5.2 0.24 5.3 0.11 5.4 0.40 C 2.3 1.03 219.5 132.00 108.8 92.40 85.0 54.87 In (AUC(0-12) 1 2.7 1.07 2.0 1.08 2.8 0.95 3.1 0.98 8 3.6 1.02 7.5 0.33 7.7 0.13 7.7 0.32 C 2.6 1.22 324.9 185.30 170.9 130.30 141.0 114.80 *= Code C corresponds to the change from the baseline, calculated as follows: for the untransformed parameters, it is the difference between Day 8 and Baseline values, for the In-transformed parameters, it is the ratio of Day 8 over Baseline values. Table 4 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-12) relating to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 4 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P A vs. D 35.11 2159.23 0.02 0.0001 B vs. D 1888.72 2159.23 0.87 0.7601 C vs. D 2108.96 2159.23 0.98 0.9608 Table 5 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-t) relating to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 5 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P A vs. D 35.11 2159.23 0.02 0.0001 B vs. D 1888.72 2159.23 0.87 0.7601 C vs. D 2108.96 2159.23 0.98 0.9608 Table 6 provides a summary of plasma dextromethorphan pharmacokinetic parameters following a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 6 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic E F G H Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (ng/mL) 1 2.3 1.60 9.6 13.91 3.6 5.04 1.7 1.08 8 4.2 3.01 141.5 74.68 138.9 25.97 136.1 50.59 C 1.9 2.03 131.9 62.92 135.3 23.87 134.4 50.80 Tmax (hr) 1 3.5 0.93 2.9 0.37 3.4 1.40 3.0 1.0 8 3.4 0.50 4.3 1.70 3.3 1.80 3.6 2.07 C −0.1 1.16 1.4 1.51 −0.1 1.21 0.6 2.20 AUC(0-t) (ng * hr/mL) 1 14.9 11.39 77.5 120.80 25.4 36.89 10.2 7.08 8 31.3 23.85 1438.0 842.60 1403.0 283.10 1464.0 588.60 C 16.3 17.0 1360.0 736.20 1378.0 259.50 1453.0 589.30 AUC (0-12) (ng * hr/mL) 1 15.0 11.36 77.5 120.80 25.5 36.79 10.3 6.98 8 31.5 23.64 1488.0 842.60 1403.0 283.10 1464.0 588.50 C 16.5 16.82 1360.0 736.20 1378.0 259.60 1453.0 589.50 1n (Cmax) 1 0.5 0.95 1.2 1.56 0.5 1.33 0.4 0.55 8 1.1 1.09 4.8 0.52 4.9 0.19 4.8 0.45 C 1.9 0.93 62.6 54.58 138.3 107.10 100.3 59.37 In (AUC(0-t) 1 2.2 1.45 3.2 1.64 2.3 1.45 2.1 0.65 8 3.0 1.23 7.1 0.54 7.2 0.19 7.2 0.50 C 2.6 1.60 89.6 78.74 241.2 206.30 188.5 112.20 In (AUC(0-12) 1 2.3 1.34 3.2 1.64 2.4 1.39 2.2 0.62 8 3.0 1.17 7.1 0.54 7.2 0.19 7.2 0.50 C 2.5 1.38 89.6 78.74 218.9 177.50 185.4 113.80 *= Code C corresponds to the change from the baseline, calculated as follows: for the untransformed parameters, it is the difference between Day 8 and Baseline values, for the In-transformed parameters, it is the ratio of Day 8 over Baseline values. Table 7 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-12) relating to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 7 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P E vs. H 20.89 1342.73 0.02 0.0001 F vs. H 1266.94 1342.73 0.94 0.8945 G vs. H 1380.84 1342.73 1.03 0.9490 Table 8 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-t) relating to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 8 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P E vs. H 20.18 1342.73 0.02 0.0001 F vs. H 1266.94 1342.73 0.94 0.8980 G vs. H 1380.84 1342.73 1.03 0.9490 Table 9 provides a summary of plasma dextromethorphan pharmacokinetic parameters following a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 9 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic A B C D Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (ng/mL) 1 663.6 111.69 858.1 75.95 885.4 33.23 655.5 145.57 8 709.6 88.82 176.7 41.40 90.1 24.55 110.8 27.68 C 46.0 142.71 −681.4 75.24 −795.3 57.72 −544.8 126.32 Tmax (hr) 1 2.2 0.37 2.0 0.01 2.0 0.03 2.0 0.01 8 2.1 0.38 1.6 1.60 5.3 5.77 4.3 4.13 C −0.0 0.58 −0.4 1.59 3.3 5.78 2.3 4.13 AUC(0-t) 1 3240.0 494.10 3953.0 516.80 3669.0 468.10 3237.0 515.10 (ng * hr/mL) 8 3608.0 386.80 1830.0 443.10 958.0 248.80 1157.0 281.30 C 367.9 581.60 −2123.0 322.70 −2711.0 467.40 −2080.0 369.40 AUC (0-12) 1 3240.0 494.10 3953.0 516.80 3669.0 468.10 3237.0 515.10 (ng * hr/mL) 8 3608.0 386.80 1830.0 443.10 958.0 248.80 1157.0 281.30 C 367.9 581.60 −2123.0 322.70 −2711.0 467.40 −2080.0 369.40 1n (Cmax) 1 6.5 0.16 6.8 0.09 6.8 0.04 6.5 0.23 8 6.6 0.12 5.2 0.24 4.5 0.27 4.7 0.27 C 1.1 0.22 0.2 0.05 0.1 0.03 0.2 0.04 In (AUC(0-t) 1 8.1 0.15 8.3 0.13 8.2 0.13 8.1 0.16 8 8.2 0.11 7.5 0.26 6.8 0.25 7.0 0.27 C 1.1 0.19 0.5 0.08 0.3 0.07 0.4 0.06 In (AUC(0-12) 1 8.1 0.15 8.3 0.13 8.2 0.13 8.1 0.16 8 8.2 0.11 7.5 0.26 6.8 0.25 7.0 0.27 C 1.1 0.19 0.5 0.08 0.3 0.07 0.4 0.06 *= Code C corresponds to the Change from the baseline, calculated as follows: for the untransformed parameters, it is the difference between Day 8 and Baseline values, for the In-transformed parameters, it is the ratio of Day 8 over Baseline values. Table 10 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-12) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on 60 mg of Dextromethorphan. TABLE 10 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P A vs. D 3589.57 1125.35 3.19 0.0001 B vs. D 1786.16 1125.35 1.59 0.0046 C vs. D 937.28 1125.35 0.83 0.2521 Table 11 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-t) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on 60 mg of Dextromethorphan. TABLE 11 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P A vs. D 3589.57 1125.35 3.19 0.0001 B vs. D 1786.16 1125.35 1.59 0.0046 C vs. D 937.28 1125.35 0.83 0.2521 Table 12 provides a summary of plasma dextromethorphan pharmacokinetic parameters following a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 12 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic E F G H Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (ng/mL) 1 587.4 172.23 446.6 216.16 554.0 209.23 607.3 125.85 8 599.2 199.89 89.1 25.97 86.8 23.11 77.7 15.81 C 11.9 94.36 −357.5 215.39 −467.2 188.06 −529.6 126.09 Tmax (hr) 1 2.0 0.00 2.0 0.01 2.2 .038 2.0 0.01 8 2.0 0.01 2.3 1.38 1.0 1.12 1.3 1.20 C 0.0 0.01 0.3 1.38 −1.2 1.25 0.7 1.20 AUC(0-t) 1 2618.0 603.10 2260.0 751.50 2462.0 737.10 2860.0 580.40 (ng * hr/mL) 8 2898.0 900.50 920.7 275.90 874.1 283.80 782.6 129.9 C 280.7 430.70 −1340.0 751.40 −1588.0 537.30 −2078.0 535.00 AUC (0−12) 1 2618.0 603.10 2260.0 751.50 2481.0 732.00 2860.0 580.40 (ng * hr/mL) 8 2898.0 900.50 920.7 275.90 874.1 238.80 782.6 129.90 C 280.7 430.70 −1340.0 751.40 −1607.0 536.50 −2078.0 535.00 1n (Cmax) 1 6.3 0.30 6.0 0.62 6.3 0.37 6.4 0.20 8 6.3 0.35 4.5 0.29 4.4 0.27 4.3 0.20 C 1.0 0.19 0.3 0.24 0.2 0.03 0.1 0.04 In (AUC(0-t) 1 7.8 0.22 7.7 0.39 7.8 0.27 7.9 0.21 8 7.9 0.31 6.8 0.31 6.7 0.28 6.7 0.17 C 1.1 0.17 0.5 0.24 0.4 0.05 0.3 0.06 In (AUC(0-12) 1 7.8 0.22 7.7 0.39 7.8 0.27 7.9 0.21 8 7.9 0.31 6.8 0.31 6.7 0.28 6.7 0.17 C 1.1 0.17 0.5 0.24 0.4 0.05 0.3 0.06 *= Code C corresponds to the Change from the baseline, calculated as follows: for the untransformed parameters, it is the difference between Day 8 and Baseline values, for the In-transformed parameters, it is the ratio of Day 8 over Baseline values. Table 13 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-12) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 13 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P E vs. H 2777.40 773.75 3.59 0.0001 F vs. H 884.33 773.75 1.14 0.4276 G vs. H 846.26 773.75 1.09 0.5933 Table 14 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma dextromethorphan AUC (0-t) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 14 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P E vs. H 277.40 773.75 3.59 0.0001 F vs. H 884.33 773.75 1.14 0.4276 G vs. H 846.26 773.75 1.09 0.5933 Table 15 provides a summary of plasma dextromethorphan pharmacokinetic parameters following a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 15 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic A B C D Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (mcg/mL) 8 0.0 0.00 0.1 0.05 0.3 0.02 0.3 0.15 Tmax (mcr) 8 — — 2.3 1.26 1.3 0.58 1.8 0.40 AUC(0-Tt) (mcg- 8 0.0 0.00 0.9 0.40 1.9 0.10 2.4 1.29 hr/mL) AUC(0-12) 8 0.0 0.00 1.0 0.34 1.9 0.10 2.5 1.22 (mcg * hr/mL) 1n(Cmax) 8 — — −2.0 0.33 −1.3 0.07 −1.1 0.43 1n[AUC(0-t)] 8 — — −0.2 0.40 0.6 0.05 0.8 0.58 1n[AUC(0-12)] 8 — — −0.1 0.33 0.6 0.05 0.8 0.51 *= For Quinidine, only Day 8 data were analyzed Table 16 provides a summary of plasma dextromethorphan pharmacokinetic parameters following a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan. TABLE 16 Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Pharmacokinetic E F G H Parameters Day* Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Cmax (mcg/mL) 8 0.0 0.00 0.2 0.11 0.3 0.13 0.3 0.06 Tmax (mcr) 8 — — 1.6 0.79 1.2 0.57 1.8 1.3 AUC(0-Tt) (mcg- 8 0.0 0.00 1.0 0.77 2.0 0.91 2.3 0.71 hr/mL) AUC(0-12) 8 0.0 0.00 1.1 0.74 2.0 0.88 2.3 0.64 (mcg * hr/mL) 1n(Cmax) 8 — — −1.8 0.58 −1.3 0.44 −1.1 0.19 1n[AUC(0-t)] 8 — — −0.2 0.66 0.6 0.48 0.8 0.33 1n[AUC(0-12)] 8 — — −0.1 0.61 0.6 0.44 0.8 0.28 *= For Quinidine, only Day 8 data were analyzed Table 17 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma quinidine AUC (0-12) as relates to different dextromethorphan/quinidine dose combinations. TABLE 17 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P F vs. B 0.94 0.94 1.00 0.9925 G vs. C 1.88 1.89 1.00 0.9930 H vs. D 2.24 2.23 1.01 0.9765 Table 18 provides a summary of statistical comparisons of plasma quinidine AUC (0-t) as relates to different dextromethorphan/quinidine dose combinations. TABLE 18 Treatment Ratio of Comparison Geometric Means GEOMEANS P F vs. B 0.84 0.84 1.00 0.9987 G vs. C 1.84 1.89 0.97 0.9421 H vs. D 2.18 2.12 1.03 0.9294 A summary of the metabolic ratios for urinary pharmacokinetic parameters following a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided in Table 19. TABLE 19 Treatment A Treatment B Treatment C Treatment D Pharmacokinetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Period Parameters Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 0-12 hr Ae 0.0013 0.0023 0.0010 0.0015 0.0027 0.0048 0.0041 0.0070 CumAe 0.0013 0.0023 0.0010 0.0015 0.0027 0.0048 0.0041 0.0070 12-24 hr Ae 0.0058 0.0055 0.0865 0.0496 0.2748 0.2228 0.2934 0.2046 CumAe 0.0031 0.0039 0.0253 0.0116 0.0641 0.0504 0.0632 0.0362 60-72 hr Ae 0.0133 0.0122 0.8139 0.3464 1.3598 0.7454 2.0366 0.9219 CumAe 0.0058 0.0061 0.1248 0.0545 0.2374 0.1904 0.2966 0.1670 156-168 hr Ae 0.0179 0.0163 0.6513 0.4119 1.1785 0.1517 1.3023 0.7430 CumAe 0.0085 0.0092 0.2005 0.1129 0.3493 0.1676 0.4374 0.1767 0-12 hr collecting period corresponds to Baseline, when only Dextromethorphan (no Quinidine) was administered at the specific dose. Ae = Amount excreted (mcg) CumAe = Cumulative Amount Excreted (mcg) A summary of statistical comparisons of urinary metabolic ratio for Ae (156-168 Hr) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided Table 20. TABLE 20 Treatment Comparison Geometric Means Ratio of GEOMEANS P A vs. D 0.01 1.12 0.01 0.0001 B vs. D 0.54 1.12 0.49 0.1947 C vs. D 1.17 1.12 1.05 0.9347 A summary of statistical comparisons of urinary metabolic ratio for CumAe (156-168 Hr) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 60 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided Table 21. TABLE 21 Treatment Comparison Geometric Means Ratio of GEOMEANS P A vs. D 0.01 0.41 0.02 0.0001 B vs. D 0.18 0.41 0.45 0.0822 C vs. D 0.32 0.41 0.80 0.6485 A summary of the metabolic ratios for urinary pharmacokinetic parameters following a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided in Table 22. TABLE 22 Treatment A Treatment B Treatment C Treatment D Pharmacokinetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic Period Parameters Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 0-12 hr Ae 0.0022 0.0043 0.0454 0.0768 0.0130 0.0271 0.0017 0.0025 CumAe 0.0022 0.0043 0.0454 0.0768 0.0130 0.0271 0.0017 0.0025 12-24 hr Ae 0.0044 0.0043 0.2338 0.1996 0.2647 0.1224 0.3252 0.1955 CumAe 0.0032 0.0043 0.1078 0.1130 0.0798 0.0393 0.0774 0.0554 60-72 hr Ae 0.0089 0.0096 1.2159 0.4110 1.2594 0.5056 0.8073 0.4256 CumAe 0.0052 0.0061 0.3673 0.1438 0.2837 0.1087 0.1889 0.0621 156-168 hr Ae 0.0087 0.0097 0.9387 0.2688 1.6276 0.7287 0.8770 0.4967 CumAe 0.0059 0.0054 0.4826 0.1201 0.4912 0.2480 0.3468 0.1477 0-12 hr collecting period corresponds to Baseline, when only Dextromethorphan (no Quinidine) was administered at the specific dose. Ae = Amount excreted (mcg) CumAe = Cumulative Amount Excreted (mcg) A summary of statistical comparisons of urinary metabolic ratio for Ae (156-168 Hr) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided Table 23. TABLE 23 Treatment Comparison Geometric Means Ratio of GEOMEANS P E vs. H 0.01 0.75 0.01 0.0001 F vs. H 0.90 0.75 1.20 0.5713 G vs. H 1.46 0.75 1.95 0.0469 A summary of statistical comparisons of urinary metabolic ratio for CumAe (156-168 Hr) as relates to the effect of quinidine doses on a 45 mg dose of dextromethorphan are provided Table 24. TABLE 24 Treatment Comparison Geometric Means Ratio of GEOMEANS P E vs. H 0.01 0.32 0.02 0.0001 F vs. H 0.47 0.32 1.48 0.2201 G vs. H 0.43 0.32 1.36 0.3345 The data suggest that co-administration of dextromethorphan and quinidine sulfate is safe and moderately well tolerated up to the highest dose level (60 mg dextromethorphan/60 mg quinidine). There were a total of 279 treatment-emergent adverse events experienced by forty-eight of the sixty-five subjects dosed (74%) during the trial. There were 206 adverse events reported by twenty-seven of the thirty-two subjects dosed (84%) following the 60 mg dextromethorphan treatments and seventy-three adverse events reported by twenty-one of the thirty-three subjects dosed (64%) following the 45 mg dextromethorphan treatments. Twelve subjects following the 60 mg dextromethorphan treatments and five subjects following the 45 mg dextromethorphan treatments were discontinued from the trial due to adverse events. Dizziness, nausea, and headache were the most common adverse events following both dextromethorphan groups, and fewer adverse events were reported following the 45 mg dextromethorphan treatments. All of the adverse events were mild or moderate in severity and no serious adverse events occurred. No clinically significant differences were observed between the treatment groups regarding clinical laboratory results, vital signs, physical examination, or ECG results. Over the course of this study, quinidine inhibited the metabolism of dextromethorphan dosed at 45 and 60 mg resulting in increased systemic availability of dextromethorphan. The 60 mg quinidine dose resulted in the largest dextromethorphan AUC at both the 45 and 60 mg dextromethorphan doses, compared to the 30 and 45 mg quinidine doses. The statistical comparisons, however, showed there were not only statistically significant differences in the quinidine inhibition of dextromethorphan metabolism among the different quinidine doses. Based on dextromethorphan AUC statistical comparisons, the lowest effective dose of quinidine that inhibits the metabolism of 45 and 60 mg dextromethorphan is 30 mg. Thus, a 30 mg quinidine dose is recommended for dextromethorphan inhibition. The occurrence of side effects during the co-administration of dextromethorphan and quinidine sulfate indicated the treatments were moderately well tolerated up to the highest dose level (60 mg dextromethorphan/60 mg quinidine). Clinical Study #4 The objectives of this study were to compare and evaluate the efficacy, safety, and tolerance of a combination of 30DM/30Q taken twice daily relative to 30 mg DM and 30 mg Q taken individually in a population of ALS subjects with pseudobulbar affect. This was a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled, parallel-group study. All study drugs were self-administered orally every twelve hours for twenty-eight days. The study included a screening visit and three other clinic visits on Days 1, 15, and 29. Day 29 was the last day the subject was on study and could occur anywhere between the morning of Day 26 and the morning of Day 32. Subjects with clinically diagnosed pseudobulbar affect were screened for general health within four weeks before entry into the study. All eligible subjects had attained a score of 13 or above on the Center for Neurologic Study-Lability Scale (CNS-LS) at the clinic visit on Day 1. Subjects were randomized to one of three treatment groups to receive 30DM/30Q, or 30 mg DM, or 30 mg Q. They received a diary in which they recorded the date and time each dose was taken, the number of laughing/crying episodes experienced, and any adverse events that had occurred since the last visit. Diary cards were collected on Day 15 and at the time of study completion. Subjects completed the CNS-LS questionnaire and visual analog scales assessing quality of life (QOL) and quality of relationships (QOR) every two weeks (Days 1, 15, and 29) during the treatment period. A clinical psychologist, or other approved clinician, administered the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD) at the Screening Visit and on Day 29. Safety was evaluated on Day 15 and Day 29 by examining adverse events, results of physical examinations, vital signs, clinical laboratory values, and resting electrocardiograms (ECGs). In addition to blood samples taken to provide clinical laboratory data, blood was also taken for pharmacokinetic analysis and CYP2D6 genotyping. Each subject completed a diary in which the number of episodes experienced, medications taken, and any adverse events were recorded daily. DM and Q were chosen as control groups because they are the components of the drug investigated in this study (30DM/30Q). Subjects included in the study were 18 to 80 years of age, inclusive. The subjects had a confirmed diagnosis of ALS or probable ALS according to the World Federation of Neurology (WFN) criteria, and a clinical history of pseudobulbar affect. Every effort was made by the to continue a subject in the study; however, if the subject decided to withdraw, all efforts were made to complete all assessments listed on Day 29 in Table 25. An explanation of why the subject withdrew from the study was obtained. Subjects who withdrew from the study could not re-enter it, and no subject who had been randomized was replaced. The study drugs were randomized in blocks of four. Each block contained two assignments to the 30DM/30Q, one to DM and one to Q in random order. Specifically, each block was constructed by selecting one of the four possibilities to be received first. From the three remaining treatments, one was selected to be received next, and so forth. Subject numbers were allocated to study sites in one block of four assignments at a time. There were three treatments administered in the study: 30DM/30Q, or 30 mg DM, or 30 mg Q. Study medications were provided as hard, gelatin capsules. The contents of the capsules is listed in Table 25. All medication used in the study was prepared according to current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP). TABLE 25 Amount (mg) Ingredient DM/Q DM Q Dextromethorphan hydrobromide 31.50 31.50 0.00 monohydrate USP Quinidine sulfate dihydrate USP 31.40 0.00 31.40 Croscarmellose sodium NF 7.80 7.80 7.80 Microcrystalline cellulose NF 94.00 109.70 109.75 Colloidal silicone dioxide NF 0.65 0.65 0.65 Lactose monohydrate NF 94.00 109.70 109.75 Magnesium stearate NF 0.65 0.65 0.65 Subjects took one capsule twice a day (every 12 hours) for twenty-eight days. The first dose was taken in the evening of Day 1, and the final dose was taken in the morning on Day 29. The investigators were supplied with capsules of 30DM/30Q, DM, and Q in identical blister-packs, and all capsules were identical in appearance and weight. Subjects could not take any disallowed medications during the study or for one week before the start of dosing on Day 1. These medications included amantadine, amitriptyline, any anti-depressant medication including St. John's Wort, any monoamine oxidase inhibitor, aspirin (for pain or fever acetaminophen was recommended), captopril, cimetidine, desipramine, dextromethorphan (over-the-counter cough medicines), digoxin, diltiazem, erythromycin, fluoxetine, imipramine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, nortriptyline, paroxetine, quinidine, quinine, and verapamil. At each visit, subjects were queried as to whether or not they had taken any medications, and if they had, the medication was recorded on the Case Report Form. Subjects were instructed to bring unused study medication to the visit on Day 15 visit and to return all unused study medication to the clinic at the end of study participation. Percent of doses taken was calculated as the total number of doses taken divided by the total number of doses planned, and the result was multiplied by 100. Subjects were considered to be compliant if they had taken 80% of their prescribed doses. The primary efficacy variable was the CNS-LS score. All efficacy variables involving a change were determined by the baseline score being subtracted from the mean of the non-missing scores on Days 15 and 29. The secondary efficacy variables were laughing/crying episodes, QOL scores, and QOR scores. All efficacy variables involving a change were determined by subtracting the baseline score from the mean of the scores on Days 15 and 29. The CNS-LS questionnaire used to assess primary efficacy is a seven-item self-report measure that provides a score for total pseudobulbar affect; it required approximately five minutes for the subject to complete. The range of possible scores was 7 to 35. The cut-off score of 13 was selected because it has been reported in the literature to provide the highest incremental validity, accurately predicting the neurologists' diagnoses for 82% of participants with a sensitivity of 0.84 and a specificity of 0.81. This questionnaire is the only instrument for the measurement of pseudobulbar affect validated for use with ALS subjects. Secondary efficacy was assessed by using two, 10-cm visual analog scales (VAS). One scale asked subjects to rate how much uncontrollable laughter, tearfulness, or anger had affected the overall quality of their life during the past week, and one scale asked subjects to rate how much uncontrollable laughter, tearfulness, or anger had affected the quality of their relationships with others during the past week. Each scale required less than one minute to complete. The subjects recorded episodes of pathological laughing and crying in a diary daily. Safety was assessed by the following measurements: adverse events; clinical laboratory values; vital signs; physical examinations; and resting ECGs. An adverse event was defined any untoward medical occurrence or unintended change from the subject's baseline (pre-treatment) condition, including intercurrent illness, that occurs during the course of a clinical trial after treatment has started, whether considered related to treatment or not. An adverse event was any unfavorable and unintended sign (including an abnormal laboratory finding, for example), symptom, or disease temporally associated with the use of a medicinal product, whether or not considered related to the medicinal product. Changes associated with normal growth and development not varying in frequency or magnitude from that ordinarily anticipated clinically are not adverse events (for example, onset of menstruation occurring at a physiologically appropriate time). Clinical adverse events were described by diagnosis and not by symptoms when possible (for example, cold or seasonal allergies, instead of “runny nose”). The severity of adverse events was graded on a 3-point scale and reported in detail as indicated on the Case Report Form: mild—easily tolerated, causing minimal discomfort, and not interfering with normal everyday activities; moderate—sufficiently discomforting to interfere with normal everyday activities; and severe—incapacitating and/or preventing normal everyday activities. The relationship of study medication to each adverse event was determined by the investigator by using the following definitions: not related—the event was clearly related to other factors, such as the subject's clinical state, therapeutic interventions, or concomitant medications administered to the subject; unlikely—the event was most likely produced by other factors, such as the subject's clinical state, therapeutic interventions, or concomitant medications administered to the subject, and did not follow a known response pattern to the study drug; possible—the event followed a reasonable temporal sequence from the time of drug administration, and/or followed a known response pattern to the study drug, but could have been produced by other factors, such as the subject's clinical state, therapeutic interventions, or concomitant medications administered to the subject; probable—the event followed a reasonable temporal sequence from the time of drug administration, followed a known response pattern to the trial drug, and could not be reasonably explained by other factors, such as the subject's clinical state, therapeutic interventions, or concomitant medications administered to the subject; highly probable—the event followed a reasonable temporal sequence from the time of drug administration, and followed a known response pattern to the trial drug, and could not be reasonably explained by other factors, such as the subject's clinical state, therapeutic interventions, or concomitant medications administered to the subject, and either occurs immediately following study drug administration or improves on stopping the drug or reappears on repeat exposure. A serious adverse event was any adverse event occurring at any dose that resulted in any of the following outcomes: death; life-threatening experience (one that places the subject at immediate risk of death from the adverse event as it occurred, for example, it does not include an adverse event that, had it occurred in a more severe form, might have caused death); persistent or significant disability/incapacity (disability is a substantial disruption of a person's ability to conduct normal life functions); in-patient hospitalization or prolongation of hospitalization; and congenital anomaly/birth defect. Subjects were instructed to promptly report any adverse event. The serious adverse event was assessed for the following details: seriousness of event, start date, stop date, intensity, frequency, relationship to test drug, action taken regarding test drug, treatment required, and outcome to date. These details were recorded on the Case Report Form. Such preliminary reports were followed by detailed descriptions that included copies of hospital case reports, autopsy reports, and other documents when requested and applicable. Blood and urine were collected at the screening visit and Day 29 for clinical chemistry, hematology, urinalysis, and pregnancy testing. In the event of an abnormal laboratory test value, the test was repeated within one week, and the subject was followed up until the value returned to the normal range and/or until an adequate explanation of the abnormality was found. Values were obtained for systolic and diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rate on the screening visit and all other study visits. All values outside the pre-defined ranges were flagged in the subject data listings. Electrocardiography (twelve lead) was used to obtain ventricular rate (VR), QT, Q-Tc intervals, pulse rate (PR), and QRS duration. A blood sample (10 mL whole blood) was taken from each subject at the Screening Visit for CYP2D6 genotyping to determine which subjects were poor metabolizers of DM and which were extensive metabolizers. Blood samples were taken on Day 29 for the determination of concentrations of DM, DX, and Q in plasma. The relationship between the concentration of drug in plasma and changes in CNS-LS scores was determined, and the effect of the CYP2D6 genotype on this relationship was evaluated. Sample sizes of forty-eight subjects in the 30DM/30Q group and twenty-four subjects in each of the DM and Q groups were sufficient to detect a difference in CNS-LS score of 5.5 between the DM/Q group and each of the other groups. These calculations were based on standard deviations of 7, 5, and 3 in the DM/Q, DM, and Q groups, respectively. The power is approximately 85% based on a 2-sided, 5% test, assuming baseline/Day 15 and baseline/Day 29 correlations are both 0.3, and the Day 15/Day 29 correlation is 0.7. The assumptions on which sample sizes were based were drawn from a small, fourteen subject crossover study, in which DM/Q subjects had a mean change from baseline of −6.6 points with standard deviation of 7.5; and placebo-treated subjects had a mean change of +0.83 with a standard deviation of 3.2. A total of 140 subjects were randomized to treatment; seventy were in the 30DM/30Q group, thirty-three were in the DM group, and thirty-seven were in the Q group. The sample size calculations required that there be only forty-eight subjects in the 30DM/30Q group and twenty-four subjects in each of the other treatment groups. Therefore, under the assumptions made in the sample size calculations, the number of subjects in each group was adequate to detect the defined difference in treatment effect. The percent of subjects with compliance ≧80% was 73.5 in the 30DM/30Q group, 87.9 in the DM group, and 86.5 in the Q group. Three data sets were analyzed in this study; the safety data set consisting of data for 140 subjects, the intent-to-treat data set consisting of data for 129 subjects, and the efficacy-evaluable data set consisting of data for 101 subjects. The definitions of these three populations are as follows: safety population—all randomized subjects; intent-to-treat population—all randomized subjects who are not “poor metabolizers” of cytochrome P450 2D6; and efficacy evaluable population—all subjects in the ITT population who were protocol adherent. Subjects were considered adherent if they completed the visit on Day 29, completed all study procedures, and took 80% of their scheduled doses. The demographic characteristics of the ITT population are provided in Table 26; the history of ALS is in Table 27, and the scores at baseline for depression, pseudobulbar affect, QOL, and QOR are in Table 28. TABLE 26 P-valuesa 30DM/ 30DM/ 30DM/30Q DM Q 30Q 30Q Category (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) vs DM vs Q Age (years) n 65 30 34 Mean 54.82 53.77 55.32 0.7788 0.9976 Std Dev 12.79 11.25 9.47 Median 55 54 58 Min/Max 38/82 33/75 35/72 Gender, n (%) Female 23 (35.4) 14 (46.7) 12 (35.3) 0.1549 0.8105 Male 42 (64.6) 16 (53.3) 22 (64.7) Race, n (%) Asian 0 (0) 1 (3.3) 0 (0) 0.2100 0.5522 Black 2 (3.1) 0 (0) 0 (0) Caucasian 58 (89.2) 25 (83.3) 31 (91.2) Hispanic 5 (7.7) 3 (10.0) 3 (8.8) Other 0 (0.00) 1 (3.3) 0 (0.00) aP-values to compare means for continuous variables are computed by using ANOVA with an adjustment for treatment and center to obtain overall F-tests. P-values for categorical values were computed by using Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel chi-square with an adjustment for center. TABLE 27 P-valuesa 30DM/ 30DM/ 30DM/30Q DM Q 30Q 30Q Category (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) vs DM vs Q ALS Type, n (%) Bulbar 29 (44.6) 14 (46.7) 21 (61.8) 0.8341 0.0793 Limb 36 (55.4) 16 (53.3) 13 (38.2) Weekly Episode of Laughing/ Crying n 65 30 34 Mean 22.18 38.93 19.35 0.0897 0.7043 Std Dev 31.62 66.28 19.04 Median 11 17 13 Min/Max 2/210 1/350 2/70 aP-values to compare means for continuous variables are computed by using ANOVA with an adjustment for treatment and center to obtain overall F-tests. P-values for categorical values were computed by using Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel chi-square with an adjustment for center. TABLE 28 Baseline 30DM/30Q DM Q P-valuesb Characteristicsa (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) 30DM/30Q vs DM 30DM/30Q vs Q HRSD N 65 30 34 Mean 5.37 4.27 5.79 0.1404 0.7066 Std Dev 4.33 3.05 4.20 Median 4.0 3.5 5.0 Min/Max 0/16 0/14 0/15 CNS-LS n 65 30 34 Mean 20.06 21.40 22.26 0.3202 0.0705 Std Dev 5.46 6.17 5.22 Median 19.0 20.0 21.0 Min/Max 11/33 13/35 13/33 VAS-QOL n 65 30 34 Mean 35.05 47.57 46.56 0.0209 0.0261 Std Dev 26.70 27.24 26.93 Median 33.0 48.5 42.0 Min/Max 0/96 5/95 2/100 VAS-QOR n 65 30 34 Mean 31.77 41.07 42.18 0.1435 0.0646 Std Dev 28.50 28.16 29.93 Median 28.0 41.5 34.5 Min/Max 0/99 0/95 0/100 aHRSD = Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression; CNS-LS = Center for Neurologic Study Lability Scale; VAS = Visual Analog Scale; QOL = Quality of Life; QOR = Quality of Relationships. Baseline measurements for HRSD were done at screening. Baseline measurements for CNS-LS, VAS-QOL, and VAS-QOR were done on Day 1. bP-values to compare means were computed by using ANOVA with an adjustment for treatment and center to obtain overall F-tests. There were no statistically significant differences between the 30DM/30Q group and the DM and Q groups for any demographic variable. The only statistically significant difference in the baseline characteristics was in the QOL scores. Subjects in the 30DM/30Q group rated their QOL better at baseline than did the subjects in either of the other two treatment groups. Similar demographic results were obtained in the efficacy-evaluable population, and the trend in the baseline characteristics was in the same direction as that in the ITT population. The population of interest in the primary and secondary analyses of efficacy was the ITT population. Therefore, all results shown in the text are those obtained from this population. The primary efficacy analysis was the change from baseline in CNS-LS scores, adjusted for center and baseline CNS-LS score. The descriptive statistics for the ITT Population are in Table 29. TABLE 29 Change in 30DM/30Q DM Q Scorea (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) n 61 30 34 Mean −7.39 −5.12 −4.91 Std Dev 5.37 5.56 5.56 Median −6.50 −4.50 −4.25 Min/Max −24.00/0.0 −25.00/2.0 −21.00/2.0 aChange in CNS-LS scores was defined as the mean of scores on Day 15 and Day 29 minus the baseline (Day 1) score. The distributions of CNS-LS scores at baseline, Day 15, and Day 29 for each of the three treatment groups are provided in FIG. 1. These distributions have not been adjusted for baseline scores or for study site. As shown in FIG. 1, the distributions of CNS-LS scores are symmetrical and contain only one outlier. These distributions support the use of ANCOVA for the analysis of the CNS-LS scores. As prospectively specified in the protocol, the differences in mean improvement in CNS-LS scores, adjusted for center and baseline CNS-LS scores, were analyzed by using linear regression according to the ANCOVA method of Frison and Pocock. The results of this analysis are in Table 30. The results of additional analyses without any adjustments or with an adjustment for baseline CNS-LS score alone are also in this table. TABLE 30 30DM/30Q 30DM/30Q Statistics vs DM vs Q Unadjusted difference in mean score −2.27 −2.47 Std Err 1.22 1.17 p-value 0.0652 0.0366 Difference in mean score adjusted for −2.97 −3.65 baseline CNS-LS score Std Err 1.03 1.00 p-value 0.0046 0.0004 Difference in mean score adjusted for −3.29 −3.71 baseline CNS-LS score and centerb Std Err 1.00 0.97 p-value 0.0013 0.0002 aChange in CNS-LS scores was defined as the mean of the scores on Day 15 and Day 29 minus the baseline (Day 1) score. bAnalysis in italics was pre-specified in the Statistical Analysis Plan. The mean score in the group treated with 30DM/30Q was statistically significantly different from the mean scores of the group treated with DM and from the mean scores of the group treated with Q. Therefore, subjects treated with 30DM/30Q showed a significant improvement in pseudobulbar affect. The results for the analysis pre-specified in the protocol are shown graphically in FIG. 2. Adjusted mean reductions in CNS-LS scores for the three treatment groups from the primary efficacy analysis of the ITT population. Reductions in CNS-LS scores below the horizontal lines are statistically significantly different from 30DM/30Q at the significnce levels indicated. The primary efficacy analysis was also done for the efficacy-evaluable and the safety populations. These results are in Table 31. The results in these populations also showed that 30DM/30Q significantly improved pseudobulbar affect. TABLE 31 P-values vs 30DM/30Q Statisticsb DM Q DM Q ITT Population (n = 125) Difference vs 30DM/30Q −3.29 −3.71 0.0013 0.0002 Std Error 1.00 0.97 Efficacy Evaluable Population (n = 101) Difference vs 30DM/30Q −3.78 −5.00 0.0009 <0.0001 Std Error 1.10 1.10 Safety Population (n = 136) Difference vs 30DM/30Q −3.09 −4.23 0.0016 <0.0001 Std Error 0.96 0.93 aThe ITT and EFF populations excluded poor metabolizers. bDifferences are mean differences in the CNS-LS reduction, controlling for baseline CNS-LS and study site, using the analysis pre-specified in the Statistical Analysis Plan. The results in these populations also showed that 30DM/30Q significantly improved pseudobulbar affect. The primary efficacy data were also analyzed by using linear regression according to the ANCOVA method of Frison and Pocock with an adjustment for center, baseline CNS-LS scores, and treatment-by-center interaction. Because of small sample sizes at some centers, this interaction could not be estimated. An analysis of secondary efficacy data was conducted. Weekly episode counts were analyzed by using the Poisson regression model as specified in the statistical analysis plan, and the results are in Table 32. TABLE 32 Episodea 30DM/30Q DM Q Statistic (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) Laughing n 62 30 34 Wtd. Meanb 4.70 35.29 6.79 Wtd. Std Dev 49.66 709.97 53.93 Median 0.66 2.50 2.23 Min/Max 0.00/116.67 0.00/726.55 0.00/45.00 Crying n 62 30 34 Wtd. Meanb 2.04 4.30 5.64 Wtd. Std Dev 33.99 32.86 28.14 Median 0.44 0.70 4.00 Min/Max 0.00/66.00 0.00/21.00 0.00/19.83 Laughing/Crying n 62 30 34 Wtd. Meanb 6.74 39.58 12.45 Wtd. Std Dev 69.23 707.62 69.91 Median 2.00 8.97 6.19 Min/Max 0.00/116.67 0.00/726.55 0.00/49.00 aThe number of episodes were collected continuously by each subject in a diary. The diaries were reviewed at the visits on Days 15 and 29. bThe mean across all subjects was the weighted mean of each subject's mean (total number of episodes divided by the total number of days). The weight is the number of days in the study for each subject. This analysis of episode rates, pre-specified in the protocol, showed that total episodes were 6.4 times greater (calculated by using the episode rates from the Poisson regression model with an adjustment for center) in the DM group than in the 30DM/30Q group and were 1.9 times greater in the Q group than in the 30DM/30Q group. A single outlier in the DM group was a subject who reported 10 times more episodes than any other subject in the study—an average of over 100 episodes per day. When this outlier was omitted, the ratios were 2.3 and 1.8 for the DM and Q groups, respectively. In each case, the calculated p-values were <0.0001. Separate assessments for crying and laughing were also highly statistically significant. This subject's extreme episodes counts were primarily laughing episodes; as a result, the estimated effects on crying were changed little by omitting this subject. For the assessments for episode counts described above, there is evidence of substantial overdispersion in the data, signifying that the data did not meet the assumptions of the model. A number of additional analyses were carried out to assess the sensitivity of the conclusions to model specification; these analyses are discussed below. When the data were analyzed by using the quadratic-variance (mean dispersion) negative binomial model (one model for overdispersion), the results indicated that 30DM/30Q crying rates were twice as large as those for DM (p=0.06) and 4.5 times as large as those for Q (p<0.001). The corresponding factors for laughing were 2.6 (p=0.10) and 0.9 (p=0.84) and for total are 2.6 (p=0.013) and 1.5 (p=0.29). However, there is a continued lack of fit of the data in this model also. The data were also analyzed by using the proportional-variance (constant dispersion) negative binomial model (another model that takes overdispersion into account). The results, indicated by an analysis of residuals, showed a better fit to this overdispersed data. The estimated ratios from this model for crying were 2.0 (p=0.007) and 3.3 (p<0.001) relative to DM and Q, respectively. For laughing, the ratios were 1.4 and 1.5, with p-values of 0.21 and 0.13 for DM and Q, respectively. (With the outlier subject omitted, the laughing ratios were 1.5 (p=0.14) and 1.6 (p=0.05). Total counts had ratios of 1.7 and 1.8, with p-values 0.02 and 0.006 relative to DM and Q, respectively. When center was omitted from the model as a sensitivity analysis, the magnitude of response was similar to the analyses with center. The p-values increased somewhat, as expected. The normal probability plots of residuals from these models, however, indicate that adjustment for center substantially improved the normality of the residuals. Additional studies to determine the sensitivity of the results to model assumptions were also carried out. These analyses explored nonparametric approaches, as well as an assessment designed to examine “steady-state” differences between groups. The assessment of statistical significance of the relative effects of 30DM/30Q, DM, and Q is dependent on the model assumptions used. However, statistical estimates of the relative effects in all models consistently favored 30DM/30Q over DM and Q, even when statistical significance was not reached. In the model for which the assumptions best describe the observed data, these differences were statistically significant. To help quantify and understand how changes in the primary efficacy variable, CNS-LS score, affect episode count, the effect of a 1-point difference in CNS-LS score on the episode rate during the previous two weeks was estimated. For each 1-point increase in CNS-LS score, the average episode rate increased 12%. Thus, a 3.5-point decrease in CNS-LS score would correspond to a 50% decrease in episode rate. This was true for both laughing and crying episodes. Summary statistics of QOL and QOR scores are in provided in Table 33. TABLE 33 30DM/30Q DM Q Change in Scorea (N = 65) (N = 30) (N = 34) All Days QOL n 51 27 32 Mean −23.34 −17.41 −18.97 Std Dev 24.38 27.61 28.30 Median −19.0 −11.0 −14.3 Min/Max −84.0/29 −90.5/27 −98.0/19 QOR n 51 27 32 Mean −22.36 −9.98 −14.14 Std Dev 27.32 22.09 27.54 Median −12.00 −4.50 −10.50 Min/Max −90.0/24.0 −71.0/23.5 −74.5/42.0 Day 15 QOL n 52 28 33 Mean −20.54 −17.14 −15.94 Std Dev 23.05 29.06 28.51 Median −18 −13 −6 Min/Max −84/28 −90/55 −96/22 QOR n 52 28 33 Mean −20.77 −11.75 −12.15 Std Dev 26.11 24.88 29.05 Median −10 −7 −2 Min/Max −89/25 −71/34 −84/41 Day 29 QOL n 60 29 33 Mean −24.13 −19.31 −21.15 Std Dev 25.77 29.29 30.97 Median −17 −7 −14 Min/Max −90/30 −91/27 −100/23 QOR n 59 29 33 Mean −22.42 −10.38 −15.67 Std Dev 27.92 23.62 27.85 Median −13.0 −3.0 −13.0 Min/Max −91/34 −71/26 −77/43 aThe change in VAS scores for all days was defined as the mean of the scores on Days 15 and 29 minus the score on Day 1; the change in score for Day 15 was defined as the score on Day 15 minus the score on Day 1; and the score on Day 29 was defined as the score on Day 29 minus the score on Day 1. The differences in the mean changes in QOL and QOR scores between 30DM/30Q and DM and Q, adjusted for baseline and study site, are in Table 34. The group treated with 30DM/30Q showed a statistically significant improvement in these scores when compared with the group treated with DM and compared with the group treated with Q. These results were similar for all time periods. TABLE 34 Variable Statisticsa 30DM/30Q vs DM 30DM/30Q vs Q All Days QOL Difference −15.00 −14.67 Std Err 4.58 4.44 p-valueb 0.0015 0.0013 QOR Difference −18.35 −16.08 Std Err 4.27 4.16 p-value <0.0001 0.0002 Day 15 QOL Difference −11.11 −12.60 Std Err 4.03 4.63 p-value 0.0235 0.0077 QOR Difference −15.04 −15.25 Std Err 4.49 4.32 p-value 0.0012 0.0006 Day 29 QOL Difference −16.33 −13.57 Std Err 4.78 4.62 p-value 0.0009 0.0041 QOR Difference −19.14 −14.77 Std Err 4.33 4.24 p-value <0.0001 0.0007 aChange in VAS “all-day” scores was defined as the mean of the scores on Day 15 and Day 29 minus the baseline (Day 1) score. Change in the scores on Day 15 and Day 29 was defined as the score on that day minus the baseline score. Differences in changed scores were adjusted for baseline levels and center effects. bP-values were computed by using linear regression according to the ANOVA method of Frison and Pocock with an adjustment for center and baseline QOL and QOR scores. To account for multiple comparisons, all the secondary efficacy variables were combined and analyzed simultaneously by using the O'Brien Rank Sum Method, as specified in the protocol. The results showed that subjects treated with 30DM/30Q had a statistically significant reduction in episodes of laughing and crying and an improvement in QOL and QOR relative to the subjects treated with DM (p=0.0041) or Q (p=0.0001) after adjustment for multiple comparisons. 30DM/30Q was statistically significantly better that either DM or Q in improving pseudobulbar affect, number of episodes of laughing and crying, QOL, and QOR in subjects with ALS. The extent of exposure to study medication, in terms of number of doses taken, is reported in Table 35. The mean days of exposure were very similar across all treatment groups. TABLE 35 30DM/30Q DM Q Exposure Statisticsa (N = 70) (N = 33) (N = 37) n 68 33 36 Mean 24.4 27.6 28.0 Std Dev 9.66 6.25 4.40 Median 29.0 29.0 29.0 Min/Max 3/32 7/33 5/32 aExposure was calculated by using the date of the last dose of study drug minus the date of the first dose of study drug + 1. Nausea was the most common adverse event experienced, and it afflicted more subjects [twenty-three (32.9%)] in the 30DM/30Q group than in either the DM [2 (6.1%)] or the Q [3 (8.1%)] groups. However, in the 30DM/30Q group, nausea was judged to be mild or moderate in twenty of the twenty-three subjects, but it was judged to be at least possibly related to treatment with 30DM/30Q in nineteen of the twenty-three subjects. All instances of nausea in the DM and Q groups were mild or moderate, and all but one was judged to be at least possibly related to treatment. Dizziness was also reported by more subjects [fourteen (20%)] in the 30DM/30Q group than in either the DM [five (15.2%)] or the Q [one (2.7%)] groups. All instances of this adverse event in all treatment groups were mild or moderate, and almost all were judged to be at least possibly related to treatment. Somnolence was the third event that was reported by more subjects [nine (12.9%)] in the 30DM/30Q group than in either the DM [one (3.0%)] or the Q [zero (0%)] groups. All instances of this adverse event in all treatment groups were mild or moderate, and almost all were judged to be at least possibly related to treatment. Three subjects experienced loose stools as an adverse event, and all of them were in the DM group. All instances of the event were mild, and all were judged to be related to treatment. A total of twenty-two subjects withdrew from the study because of adverse events; seventeen (24.3%) were in the 30DM/30Q group, two (6.1%) in the DM group, and three (8.1%) in the Q group. The seventeen subjects in the 30DM/30Q group experienced fifty adverse events, and most of these [seventeen (34%)] were related to the nervous system. All of these fifty events except four were mild or moderate, and all but one were judged to be at least possibly related to treatment. One subject had a severe headache, one subject had severe nausea and severe vomiting, and one subject had severe respiratory failure. The subject died as a result of the respiratory failure. This was judged not related to study medication. The other two subjects recovered without sequelae. In the DM group, there were seven adverse events experienced by two subjects. All of these events except one were mild or moderate, and all were judged to be related to treatment. One subject, who had six of the seven adverse events, experienced severe diarrhea; received appropriate drug treatment for this condition; and recovered without sequelae. Three subjects in the Q group experienced five adverse events. One subject had a severe kidney infection that was judged to be not related to treatment, and one subject had severe muscle cramping that was judged to be related to treatment. Both of these subjects recovered without sequelae. All other adverse events were mild or moderate, and most were judged to be not related to treatment. Overall, there were four serious adverse events experienced by subjects in this study. Three subjects in the 30DM/30Q group reported serious adverse events, but only one of these discontinued taking the drug. All three of these serious adverse events were judged to be not related to the study drug. The only other serious adverse event was experienced by a subject in the Q group. This subject continued on the study drug, and the event was also judged to be not related to the study drug. There was one death during the study; one subject in the 30DM/30Q group died because of respiratory failure unrelated to study treatment. There was no statistically significant change in hematology, clinical chemistry, or urinalysis values from Baseline to Day 29 in any treatment group, nor any statistically significant change among the treatment groups in any laboratory value except a significant increase in CPK in the DM group relative to the 30DM/30Q group. There were no clinically relevant changes from Baseline to Day 29 in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, or respiration. There were no clinically relevant changes from Baseline to Day 29 in the results of physical examinations. There was a statistically significant difference in the change from Baseline to Day 29 in VR and in the QT interval between the 30DM/30Q and Q groups. However, these changes were so small that they were not clinically relevant. There was no statistically significant difference among the treatment groups in QTc, PR, and QRS duration. Since the nature, frequency, and intensity of the adverse events were within acceptable limits in this subject population, and there were no clinically relevant findings for any other safety variable, 30DM/30Q is safe in this subject population. The CYP2D6 genotypes in each treatment group of the safety population were determined and are provided in Table 36. As defined in the Statistical Analysis Plan, the ITT population did not include poor metabolizers. Extensive metabolizer was the most prevalent genotype in all treatment groups in the ITT population. TABLE 36 30DM/30Q DM Q (N = 70) (N = 33) (N = 37) Genotype n (%) n (%) n (%) Poor metabolizer 5 (7.2) 3 (9.1) 3 (8.1) Extensive metabolizer 61 (88.4) 30 (90.9) 32 (86.5) Ultrarapid metabolizer 3 (4.3) 0 (0.0) 2 (5.4) Q in this combination product inhibits the rapid first-pass metabolism of DM. Therefore, it was expected that the concentrations of DM in plasma would be higher and the concentration of its metabolite, DX, would be lower in subjects who had received 30DM/30Q. The concentrations of DM and DX in the group receiving 30DM/30Q and the group receiving DM are provided in Table 37. TABLE 37 30DM/30Q DM N = 70 N = 33 P-valuesb Statistics DM DX DM DX DM DX n 35 35 23 23 Mean 96.37 89.46 5.18 295.92 <0.0001 <0.0001 Std Dev 46.71 52.25 4.97 143.21 Median 96.26 78.24 4.55 262.35 Min/Max 1.07/212.40 8.17/235.27 0.35/15.81 101.07/526.65 aOnly those subjects whose time of blood collection was within 8 hours of the time of their last dose of study medication were included in this table. bP-value from ANOVA with adjustment for treatment. The mean DM concentration was 18.6-fold higher in the 30DM/30Q group than in the DM group, and the mean DX concentration was 3.3-fold lower in the 30DM/30Q group than in the DM group. These differences were both statistically significant. The data for the levels in plasma of all subjects show the same results as in those subjects whose blood was collected within eight hours of the last dose of study medication. The results of the study demonstrate that 30DM/30Q was statistically significantly more effective than its components in the treatment of pseudobulbar affect as indicated by the primary and all secondary endpoints. Expected adverse events were reported, and no unexpected safety issues emerged. More subjects in the 30DM/30Q group had adverse events than in either of the other groups, and seventeen subjects in the 30DM/30Q group discontinued the study because of adverse events; however, all adverse events except four in the subjects who discontinued were mild or moderate. Only two of the seventeen subjects had severe adverse events (headache, nausea, vomiting), and these events, although debilitating, resolved without sequelae. There were three subjects treated with 30DM/30Q with serious events, and all of the events were unrelated to this treatment. Furthermore, as the results of the assessments of QOL and QOR were markedly and statistically significantly better in the subjects treated with 30DM/30Q, the benefits of the drug outweighed any discomfort caused by the adverse events. Therefore, 30DM/30Q was very effective in treating pseudobulbar affect in ALS subjects, and the drug was safe and well tolerated. Clinical Study #5 The primary objective of this study was to evaluate the safety and tolerability of capsules containing dextromethorphan hydrobromide and quinidine sulfate (DM/Q) during an open-label, dose-escalation study to the subject's maximum tolerated dose (MTD), not to exceed 120 mg DM/120 mg Q per day. The secondary objective was to obtain a preliminary assessment of the efficacy of DM/Q in the treatment of pain associated with diabetic neuropathy. This was an open-label, dose-escalation study in subjects experiencing pain associated with diabetic neuropathy. After screening for inclusion/exclusion criteria, subjects underwent a washout period during which all analgesics were discontinued. This was followed by twenty-nine days of treatment with capsules containing 30 mg DM/30 mg Q, beginning with one capsule per day and escalating approximately weekly to a maximum permitted dose of four capsules per day. Subjects who could not tolerate a dose level could return to the previous level; could substitute a capsule containing 15 mg DM/30 mg Q; or, if they were unable to tolerate the lowest dose level, could be discontinued from the study. Subjects were screened for general health, including electrocardiography, within four weeks before Day 1 of dosing. The first dose of DM/Q was administered at the clinic, and a resting electrocardiogram was obtained one hour after this dose and interpreted on site. If the corrected QT interval (QTc) determined in this preliminary interpretation was not ≧450 msec for males or ≧470 msec for females, and the QTc did not change from the screening electrocardiogram by more than 30 msec, the subject was issued study medication to take as directed by the physician. The subject was instructed on the use of a daily diary to record study medication taken and scores from rating scales for sleep, present and average pain intensity, and activity. Subjects visited the clinic every two weeks during the four-week duration of the study and were contacted by telephone during weeks without clinic visits. At each subsequent study visit or weekly phone call, the subjects were given the Pain Intensity Rating Scale and the Pain Relief Rating Scale and were queried regarding any adverse events that might have occurred since their previous visit. Subjects were administered the Peripheral Neuropathy Quality of Life (QOL) Instrument on Days 1 and 29 (or the final visit). Blood samples were taken at the visits on Day 15 and Day 29 to determine concentrations in plasma of DM, DX, and Q. Subjects selected were 18 to 80 years of age, inclusive, and had a confirmed diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. Subject had acceptable glycemic control, with total glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c)<12%, had been on established diabetic therapy for at least 3 months, had a clinical diagnosis of distal symmetrical diabetic neuropathy, and had daily pain associated with diabetic neuropathy for the previous 3 months. Subjects scored moderate or greater (≧2) on the Pain Intensity Rating Scale before receiving DM/Q on Day 1. Every effort was made to continue each subject in the study. However, if a subject decided to withdraw, all efforts were made to complete all assessments and an explanation of why the subject withdrew from the study was provided. Subjects received capsules containing 30 mg DM/30 mg Q or 15 mg DM/30 mg Q in increasing dosages, to a maximum of 120 mg DM/120 mg Q. Study medications were provided as hard gelatin capsules; Capsule A was opaque orange, and Capsule B was opaque white. The contents of the capsules are listed in Table 38. TABLE 38 Amount (mg) Capsule A Capsule Ba 30 mg DM/ 15 mg DM/ Ingredient 30 mg Q 30 mg Q Dextromethorphan hydrobromide 31.50b 15.75c monohydrate USP (DM) Quinidine sulfate dihydrate USP (Q) 31.40d 31.40d Croscarmellose sodium NF 7.80 7.80 Microcrystalline cellulose NF 94.00 101.87 Colloidal silicone dioxide NF 0.050 0.065 Lactose monohydrate NF 94.00 101.88 Magnesium stearate NF 0.05 0.05 aFor optional use if Capsule A was not tolerated. bEquivalent to 30.0 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide. cEquivalent to 15.0 mg dextromethorphan hydrobromide. dEquivalent to 30.0 mg quinidine sulfate. Subjects received capsules containing DM/Q in escalating doses, as indicated in Table 39. Subjects who could not tolerate a dose level were permitted to return to the previous level, substitute a capsule containing 15 mg DM/30 mg Q, or be discontinued from the study if they were unable to tolerate the lowest dose level. TABLE 39 AM Dose PM Dose Total Daily Dose Number of DM Q Number of DM Q Number of DM Q Study Day Capsules (mg) (mg) Capsules (mg) (mg) Capsules (mg) (mg) 1 (in clinic) 0 0 0 1 30 30 1 30 30 2 to 3 0 0 0 1 30 30 1 30 30 4 to 13 1 30 30 1 30 30 2 60 60 14 to 20 1 30 30 2 60 60 3 90 90 21 to 29 2 60 60 2 60 60 4 120 120 Subjects could not take any disallowed medications during the study or for one week (or two weeks, where applicable) before the start of dosing on Day 1. These medications included: amantadine; amitriptyline; any antidepressant medication, including St. John's Wort; any monoamine oxidase inhibitor; analgesics (only acetaminophen could be used); captopril; cimetidine; carbonic anhydrase inhibitors; desipramine; dextromethorphan (OTC cough medicines); digoxin; diltiazem; erythromycin; fluoxetine; haloperidol; imipramine; itraconazole; ketoconazole; nortriptyline; paroxetine; quinidine or other antiarrhythmic drugs; sodium bicarbonate; thiazide diuretics; and verapamil. If a subject was unable to complete the washout period without analgesia, he/she was permitted to begin the dose-escalation phase of the study, provided that sufficient washout of other disallowed, non-pain medications had occurred. Daily, low-dose aspirin was not considered an analgesic and was permitted for cardiac prophylaxis. Acetaminophen was the only analgesic permitted as a rescue pain medication and was to be taken at the dosage specified on the package label. Subjects were instructed to consult the study clinic before taking any medication, including over-the-counter (OTC) medications, and they were counseled that acetaminophen-containing products that also contained other analgesics (e.g., codeine) or dextromethorphan should be avoided. Subjects were instructed to bring unused study medication to the clinic on Day 15 and to return all unused study medication to the clinic at the final visit. Diary cards were collected from subjects at these visits. The percent of doses taken was calculated as the total number of doses taken divided by the total number of doses prescribed, multiplied by 100. Safety was assessed by the following measurements: adverse events; clinical laboratory values; vital signs; physical examinations; electrocardiograms; and measurements of nerve conduction velocity. Subjects underwent nerve conduction studies at Screening and on Day 29 (or the final visit). Nerve conduction velocity was measured with surface stimulation and recording. Bilateral sural nerve sensory studies and a unilateral peroneal nerve motor study were performed or supervised by a clinical electromyographer certified by the American Board of Electrodiagnostic Medicine. Techniques were standardized to minimize variability among electromyographers. Limb temperature was maintained above a standard temperature in all studies. Results were interpreted at a central reading laboratory. Efficacy was assessed through the following instruments: Pain Intensity Rating Scale; Diary Present Pain Intensity Scale; Pain Relief Rating Scale; Diary Activity Rating Scale; Peripheral Neuropathy QOL Instrument; Diary Average Pain Rating Scale; and Diary Sleep Rating Scale. Score on the Pain Intensity Rating Scale was determined on Day 8, Day 15, Day 22, and Day 29 (or the final visit). Subjects indicated the amount of pain experienced in the lower extremities within the previous twenty-four hours by using a 5-point Likert scale (0=None, 1=Mild, 2=Moderate, 3=Severe, 4=Extreme). Subjects were required to complete the Pain Intensity Rating Scale at the clinic on Day 1, before entry into the study and on Day 15 and Day 29 (or the final visit). The scale was also administered verbally in telephone calls to the subject during weeks when no clinic visit was scheduled (Day 8 and Day 22). The Pain Relief Rating Scale was completed on Day 8, Day 15, Day 22, and Day 29 (or the final visit). Subjects indicated the amount of pain relief experienced in the lower extremities relative to the end of the washout/screening phase by using a 6-point Likert scale (−1=Worse, 0=None, 1=Slight, 2=Moderate, 3=A lot, 4=Complete). Subjects were required to complete the scale at the clinic on Day 15 and Day 29 (or the final visit). The Pain Relief Rating Scale was also administered verbally in telephone calls to the subject during weeks when no clinic visit was scheduled (Day 8 and Day 22). The QOL score was obtained at the clinic on Day 1 and Day 29 (or the final visit). QOL was assessed by using the Peripheral Neuropathy QOL Instrument-97 as in Vickrey et al., Neurorehabi. Neural. Repair, 2000; 14:93-104. This is a self-administered, health-related, QOL measure for peripheral neuropathy. It incorporates the Health Status Survey SF-36 scale in its entirety and includes additional questions determined to be particularly relevant to subjects with peripheral neuropathy. The instrument comprises 21 subscales containing items about general health issues, specific peripheral neuropathy issues, health symptoms or problems, assessment of overall health, and feelings in general and about health. All of the items use 3-, 4-, 5-, or 6-point categorical rating scales, except for number of disability days, overall health rating (0 to 100), and a yes/no question about sexual activity. To analyze the QOL results, a scoring algorithm was used to convert the categorical item ratings to appropriate percent ratings. The most favorable rating was 100%, the least favorable was 0%, and the intermediate percents were spaced at equal intervals, depending on the number of points in the scale (e.g., 0, 25, 50, 75, 100 for a 5-point ascending scale; 100, 50, 0 for a 3-point descending scale). The converted ratings for each item in a subscale were averaged to provide the subscale scores. All subscale scores were constructed so that a higher value reflected a more favorable result. The composite QOL score was obtained by averaging all subscale scores, except for number of disability days. The subject diary included a sleep rating scale and a present pain intensity scale to be completed in the morning, and an activity rating scale and an average pain rating scale to be completed in the evening. In the Sleep Rating Scale, subjects were instructed to circle the number on a scale of 0 to 10 that best described the extent that pain had interfered with their sleep in the past 24 hours (0=Does not interfere and 10=Completely interferes). In the Present Pain Intensity Scale, subjects were instructed to circle the statement that best described their present pain intensity: O—No Pain; 1—Mild; 2—Discomforting; 3—Distressing; 4—Horrible; and 5—Excruciating. In the Activity Rating Scale, subjects were instructed to circle the number on a scale of 0 to 10 (the same as the Sleep Rating Scale) that best described the extent that pain had interfered with their general activity in the past 24 hours (0=Does not interfere and 10=Completely interferes). In the Average Pain in Past 12 Hours Rating Scale, subjects were instructed to circle the number on a scale of 0 to 10 (the same as the Sleep Rating Scale) that best described their average pain intensity during the past 12 hours (0=None and 10=Worst pain ever). The rating scales used as efficacy measures are well-established instruments in pain research, and the Peripheral Neuropathy QOL instrument, in particular, contains material that is specific for subjects with peripheral neuropathy. Efficacy evaluations consisted of inferential analyses and summary statistics, calculated on all subjects and on subjects categorized by MTD, for the following variables (except where noted): change from baseline in the Pain Intensity Rating Scale score on Days 8, 15, 22, and 29 (or the final visit); the Pain Relief Rating Scale score on Days 8, 15, 22, and 29 (or the final visit); change from baseline in the composite score on the Peripheral Neuropathy Quality of Life Instrument on Day 29 (or the final visit); Sleep Interference score calculated from values recorded in the diary for the Sleep Rating Scale (the score for Day 15 was the average of the Sleep Rating Scale scores from the subject diary for Days 13, 14, and 15; the score for Day 29 was the average of the Day 27, 28, and 29 scores; and the Final Visit score was the average of scores from the final 3 consecutive days of study treatment); Daily Present Pain Intensity, Activity, Pain, and Sleep Rating scales, recorded in subject diaries; the percent of subjects experiencing improved scores for each of the efficacy variables. The disposition of subjects is provided in FIG. 3. Subjects are classified by MTD group in this figure and in subsequent summary tables and figures. Except for a subject with an MTD of 45 mg, who was classified with the 60-mg group (see below), subjects in the 30-, 60-, and 90-mg groups received the MTDs indicated. Subjects in the 120-mg group tolerated this dose, which was the highest dose permitted in the study but is technically not an MTD. For brevity these groupings are all referred to as “MTDs.” Of the thirty-six subjects who were enrolled and received study medication, thirty-three completed the study. One subject completed the study with an MTD of 45 mg DM. Because there was only one subject with this MTD, this subject is included with the 60-mg MTD group in the data tables and in FIG. 3. The number of subjects in each MTD group and overall in each study site is reported in Table 40. TABLE 40 MTD (mg) Site 30 45 60 90 120 Total 01 1 0 0 0 4 5 02 1 0 0 0 3 4 03 0 0 3 0 0 3 04 2 1 2 2 5 12 05 1 0 0 0 11 12 Total 5 1 5 2 23 36 Only one population was used in the data analyses. Analyses and summaries were performed by using all 36 subjects who took study medication. The demographic characteristics of the study population are reported in Table 41. TABLE 41 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a Charac- 30b 60c 90 120 Total teristic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Age (years) n 5 6 2 23 36 Mean 62.2 57.7 57.0 57.1 57.9 SDd 10.99 8.14 9.90 11.99 10.94 Median 65.0 59.0 57.0 56.0 57.0 Min/Max 49/77 45/67 50/64 22/78 22/78 Gender, n (%) Male 4 (80.0) 3 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 11 (47.8) 19 (52.8) Female 1 (20.0) 3 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 12 (52.2) 17 (47.2) Race, n (%) Caucasian 3 (60.0) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 15 (65.2) 25 (69.4) Black 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 3 (8.3) Asian 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) Othere 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 6 (26.1) 8 (22.2) aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dSD = Standard deviation. eAll of the subjects in the category “Other” were described as Hispanic. The history of the subjects' diabetic neuropathy is summarized in Table 42. TABLE 42 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a 30b 60c 90 120 Total Characteristic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Duration of Diabetic Neuropathy (years) n 5 6 2 23 36 Mean 3.9 3.8 3.2 5.3 4.7 SD 4.30 5.01 0.21 6.35 5.63 Median 2.5 0.9 3.2 2.4 2.5 Min/Max 0.6/11.4 0.2/10.4 3.0/3.3 0.5/24.3 0.2/24.3 Duration of Daily Pain (months) n 5 6 2 23 36 Mean 30.2 30.0 9.0 38.0 34.0 SD 30.99 17.47 4.24 46.32 39.42 Median 24.0 27.0 9.0 18.0 24.0 Min/Max 7/84 7/60 6/12 4/180 4/180 aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. Subjects enrolled in the study had received their diagnosis of diabetic neuropathy a minimum of 0.2 years and a maximum of 24.3 years previously (median of 2.5 years). Subjects had experienced daily pain from their diabetic neuropathy for a minimum of four months and a maximum of 180 months/15.0 years (median of 24.0 months/2.0 years). Concomitant medications were reported for up to 30 days before the study and throughout the treatment period. Concomitant medications reported by at least 10% of subjects overall are listed in Table 43 by WHO term. TABLE 43 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a 30b 60c 90 120 Total Drug Category (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) WHO Preferred Term n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Analgesics Paracetamol (acetaminophen) 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (50.0) 2 (8.7) 4 (11.4) ACE inhibitors Lisinopril 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 4 (17.4) 5 (14.3) Diuretics Furosemide 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 4 (17.4) 5 (14.3) Hydrochlorothiazide 2 (40.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 5 (14.3) Anticoagulants Acetylsalicylic acidd 1 (20.0) 2 (33.3) 1 (50.0) 6 (26.1) 10 (28.6) Lipid-lowering agents Atorvastatin 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 5 (21.7) 6 (17.1) Antidiabetic agents Glibenclamide 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (50.0) 5 (21.7) 8 (22.9) Glipizide 0 (0.0) 2 (33.3) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 4 (11.4) Insulin 2 (40.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (13.0) 5 (14.3) Insulin human injection, isophane 0 (0.0) 2 (33.3) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 4 (11.4) Metformin 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (50.0) 6 (26.1) 9 (25.7) Metformin hydrochloride 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 6 (26.1) 7 (20.0) Oral antidiabetics 4 (80.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (50.0) 11 (47.8) 17 (48.6) Nutritional supplements Ascorbic acid 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 2 (8.7) 4 (11.4) Calcium 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 1 (50.0) 3 (13.0) 6 (17.1) Multivitamins 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 3 (13.0) 4 (11.4) Tocopherol 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 4 (17.4) 5 (14.3) Other Levothyroxine sodium 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 3 (13.0) 4 (11.4) Sildenafil citrate 1 (20.0) 3 (50.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 4 (11.4) All other therapeutic products 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 4 (11.4) aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dAll subjects who took acetylsalicylic acid concurrently with their study treatment did so for the indication of cardiac prophylaxis and not analgesia. Use of rescue medication (acetaminophen) was limited. Only four subjects took rescue medication: one took acetaminophen on twenty-eight out of twenty-nine study days, one on sixteen study days, and two on only one study day. Overall, there was little use of rescue medication for pain during this study; subjects took rescue medication on an average of 1.3 days each (4.5% of study days). The extent of exposure to study medication is in Table 44. TABLE 44 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a Exposure 30b 60c 90 120 Total Statistic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Amount of DM Taken (mg) n 4 6 2 23 35 Mean 960.0 1442.5 2160 2321.7 2006.1 SD 667.68 682.42 42.43 121.94 609.17 Median 1095 1530 2160 2310 2310 Min/Max 30/1620 270/2370 2130/2190 2010/2640 30/2640 Amount of Q Taken (mg) n 4 6 2 23 35 Mean 1200.0 1525.0 2160.0 2321.7 2047.7 SD 781.15 682.90 42.43 121.94 562.49 Median 1575 1620 2160 2310 2310 Min/Max 30/1620 270/2370 2130/2190 2010/2640 30/2640 Days on Study Medicationd n 4 6 2 23 35 Mean 22.0 25.3 29.0 29.0 27.6 SD 14.00 9.48 0.00 1.22 6.13 Median 29 29 29 29 29 Min/Max 1/29 6/30 29/29 25/32 1/32 aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dNumber of days on study medication was calculated by using the date of the last dose of study drug minus the date of the first dose of study drug, plus 1. The number of subjects with adverse events is reported in Table 45. TABLE 45 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a 30b 60c 90 120 Total (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Category n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Adverse Events 4 (80.0) 6 (100.0) 2 (100.0) 19 (82.6) 31 (86.1) Serious 1 (20.0) 2 (33.3) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (8.3) Adverse Events Discontinued 1 (20.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (5.6) Because of Adverse Events aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. The majority of subjects had at least one adverse event during the study. Nearly all of the adverse events were mild or moderate in intensity. Four subjects had a total of seven serious adverse events. Two subjects had four severe adverse events. One subject had severe insomnia and recovered with a reduced dose of study drug; and one subject had severe fatigue and severe rigors, and recovered without change in study drug. Adverse events experienced by at least 5% of subjects overall are reported in Table 46. TABLE 46 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a 30b 60c 90 120 Total (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Adverse Event Preferred Term n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Alanine aminotransferase 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 2 (5.6) increased Appetite decreased NOSd 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.3) 2 (5.6) Back pain 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 2 (5.6) Constipation 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 3 (13.0) 3 (8.3) Diarrhea NOS 2 (40.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 3 (13.0) 6 (16.7) Dizziness (exc. vertigo) 1 (20.0) 2 (33.3) 1 (50.0) 5 (21.7) 9 (25.0) Dry mouth 2 (40.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.3) 4 (11.1) Fatigue 0 (0.0) 3 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 2 (8.7) 6 (16.7) Flatulence 2 (40.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (5.6) Gamma-glutamyltransferase 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 2 (5.6) increased Headache NOS 1 (20.0) 3 (50.0) 1 (50.0) 4 (17.4) 9 (25.0) Insomnia NECe 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 1 (4.3) 3 (8.3) Libido decreased 1 (20.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (4.3) 2 (5.6) Nausea 2 (40.0) 2 (33.3) 1 (50.0) 5 (21.7) 10 (27.8) Somnolence 2 (40.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 3 (13.0) 6 (16.7) Syncope 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 2 (5.6) Tinnitus 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (50.0) 1 (4.3) 2 (5.6) Upper respiratory tract infection 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 2 (8.7) 3 (8.3) NOS aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dNOS = Not otherwise specified. eNEC = Not elsewhere classified. Nausea was the most common adverse event experienced, occurring in 10 (27.8%) subjects overall. Nausea was judged to be mild in seven subjects (19.4%) and moderate in three subjects. Nausea was judged to be at least possibly related to treatment in all cases. There was no apparent relationship between the maximum tolerated dose and the occurrence, severity, or relationship of nausea to study drug. Dizziness was reported by nine subjects (25.0%) overall. Dizziness was mild in six subjects (16.7%) and moderate in three subjects (8.3%). For the majority of these subjects (seven versus two), dizziness was judged to be at least possibly related to treatment. Nine subjects (25.0%) reported headache. All instances of this adverse event were mild or moderate, and the majority (six out of nine) were judged to be possibly related to treatment. Two subjects withdrew from the study because of adverse events. One subject, with an MTD of 30 mg, withdrew after one dose of study medication because of a pre-existing colon polyp that required resection. The other subject, with an MTD of 60 mg, withdrew on Day 6 because of recurring, intermittent chest pain. One subject had an exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) at the time of his final visit on Day 29, was counseled to contact his primary care physician, and was hospitalized that day. On Day 33 the subject died suddenly while still in the hospital; his primary care physician indicated myocardial infarction and arrhythmia as the presumed causes of death. The investigator indicated that this subject's COPD exacerbation was not related to study drug and that his myocardial infarction and arrhythmia were unlikely to be related to study drug. One subject, whose MTD was 60 mg, had a history of hypertension (four years) and atypical chest pain (two years). She developed recurring, intermittent chest pain on Day 6 and was admitted to the hospital on Day 7. She discontinued study medication. All tests for cardiac causes were negative. The subject recovered on Day 8, was discharged on Day 9, and returned to work on Day 10. The underlying cause of this subject's chest pain was unclear and her chest pain was possibly related to study drug. All of the clinical laboratory adverse events were mild or moderate in intensity. Two subjects had elevated creatine kinase values, two subjects had elevated liver enzyme values accompanied by other abnormalities, and one subject had blood in the stool. Two subjects recovered from all of their clinical laboratory adverse events, one subject did not recover, and the outcome of the adverse events was unknown for 2 subjects because they did not return to the study clinic for follow-up testing. The majority of these adverse events were judged to have a “possible” relationship to study drug. None of the clinical laboratory adverse events were serious adverse events, and none required a dosage reduction or discontinuation of study drug. There were no clinically relevant changes from Baseline to Day 29 in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, or respiration at any MTD. There were no clinically relevant changes in the results of physical examinations during study treatment. There was no clinically relevant difference among the MTD groups in mean QT, QTc, PR, or QRS duration, or change in any electrocardiogram values during the study. There were no meaningful differences in motor conduction velocities in the distal peroneal nerve segment, between the fibular head and ankle, for each of the 4 MTD groups at Screening. The mean baseline motor conduction velocity was 39.2 m/sec (range of 26.6 to 49.0 m/sec). There were also no differences between the change in motor nerve conduction from Screening to the final visit for each of the MTDs. The mean change in motor conduction velocity in the fibular head-to-ankle segment for the total study population was 0.8 m/sec (range of −4.0 to +7.7 m/sec). There was a marked slowing of conduction velocity in the proximal peroneal nerve segment, between the fibular head and popliteal fossa, for the 120-mg MTD group (−6.7 m/sec) and for the total study population (−5.5 m/sec). However, this can be explained by the unusually high nerve conduction velocity measured in this segment at Screening (mean of 47.6 m/sec and range of 21.7 to 66.7 m/sec in the 120-mg MTD group). Twelve of the twenty-three subjects in this group had baseline motor conduction velocities greater than 50 m/sec; these unusually high values for this population could reflect the short distance over which this segment of the nerve was stimulated, which could have resulted in measurement errors. Any significant slowing of nerve conduction velocity would manifest more severely in distal segments of nerve, as is seen electrophysiologically in diabetic neuropathy, because the frequency of this condition increases with length of the nerve pathway. For these reasons, the proximal conduction velocities measured in this study were interpreted as an assessment of the presence of focal peroneal neuropathy at the fibular head, and not as a measure of safety or tolerance of the study medication. In conclusion, there was no electrophysiologic evidence to suggest that the analgesic property of DM/Q is due to a toxic effect on peripheral nerves. The combination of DM/Q, at daily doses from 30 mg DM/30 mg Q to 120 mg DM/120 mg Q, was safe and well tolerated in this subject population. The nature, frequency, and intensity of adverse events were within acceptable limits. Although five subjects had at least one laboratory adverse event, all were mild or moderate in intensity and none required a change in study drug dosing. There were no findings of clinical concern for vital signs, physical examinations, or electrocardiographic results. No clinically significant changes in nerve conduction velocity were detected. Study treatment was well tolerated; and the majority of subjects had an MTD of the highest permissible dose (120 mg DM/120 mg Q). The frequencies of subjects with each pain intensity score at each time point are reported in Table 47. TABLE 47 Pain Intensity Rating Scale Score 0 1 2 3 4 Study Visit (None) (Mild) (Moderate) (Severe) (Extreme) Total Day 1 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 20 (55.6) 15 (41.7) 1 (2.8) 36 (100.0) Day 8 3 (9.1) 14 (42.4) 14 (42.4) 2 (6.1) 0 (0.0) 33 (100.0) Day 15 5 (15.2) 18 (54.6) 10 (30.3) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 33 (100.0) Day 22 10 (30.3) 15 (45.5) 6 (18.2) 2 (6.1) 0 (0.0) 33 (100.0) Final Visit 14 (40.0) 14 (40.0) 5 (14.3) 2 (5.7) 0 (0.0) 35 (100.0) On Day 1 (baseline), all subjects had a pain intensity of 2 (moderate) or greater, as specified in the protocol inclusion criteria. By the final visit, only a minority of subjects (20.0%) had moderate or greater pain, and 40% reported no pain. The changes from baseline in the Pain Intensity Rating Scale scores are reported in Table 48. TABLE 48 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a P-value 30b 60c 90 120 Total Baseline Visit Statistic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) and MTDd Baselinee Day 8 n 3 5 2 23 33 0.9525 <0.0001 Mean −1.0 −1.0 −0.5 −1.1 −1.0 SD 1.00 1.00 0.71 0.90 0.88 Median −1.0 −1.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.0 Min/Max −2/0 −2/0 −1/0 −3/0 −3/0 Day n 3 5 2 23 33 0.4858 <0.0001 15 Mean −0.3 −1.8 −0.5 −1.4 −1.3 SD 0.58 0.45 0.71 0.84 0.85 Median 0.0 −2.0 −0.5 −1.0 −1.0 Min/Max −1/0 −2/−1 −1/0 −3/0 −3/0 Day n 3 5 2 23 33 0.2053 <0.0001 22 Mean −0.3 −1.6 −1.5 −1.6 −1.5 SD 0.58 0.55 0.71 1.08 1.00 Median 0.0 −2.0 −1.5 −2.0 −2.0 Min/Max −1/0 −2/−1 −2/−1 −3/1 −3/1 Day n 3 5 2 22 32 0.1628 <0.0001 29 Mean −0.7 −1.6 −2.5 −1.8 −1.7 SD 0.58 0.55 0.71 0.96 0.92 Median −1.0 −2.0 −2.5 −2.0 −2.0 Min/Max −1/0 −2/−1 −3/−2 −3/0 −3/0 Final n 4 6 2 23 35 0.0348 <0.0001 Visit Mean −0.5 −1.5 −2.5 −1.8 −1.6 SD 0.58 0.55 0.71 0.95 0.94 Median −0.5 −1.5 −2.5 −2.0 −2.0 Min/Max −1/0 −2/−1 −3/−2 −3/0 −3/0 aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dP-value for MTD from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of both baseline score and MTD. eP-value for mean change in score from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of baseline score. Mean scores on the Pain Intensity Rating Scale decreased between baseline and each subsequent visit for subjects overall. This decrease was highly significant (all p-values<0.0001). For the change from baseline to the final visit, the score decreases were significantly related to MTD (p=0.0348), but there was no significant effect of MTD on scores for any of the other visits (all p-values≧0.1628). Frequencies of subjects with each pain relief score at each study visit are reported in Table 49. TABLE 49 Pain Relief −1 0 1 2 3 4 Study Visit (Worse) (None) (Slight) (Moderate) (A Lot) (Complete) Total Day 8 0 (0.0) 3 (9.1) 6 (18.2) 13 (39.4) 8 (24.2) 3 (9.1) 33 (100.0) Day 15 0 (0.0) 1 (3.0) 5 (15.2) 6 (18.2) 18 (54.6) 3 (9.1) 33 (100.0) Day 22 0 (0.0) 1 (3.0) 5 (15.2) 4 (12.1) 17 (51.5) 6 (18.2) 33 (100.0) Final Visit 0 (0.0) 1 (2.9) 6 (17.7) 5 (14.7) 13 (38.2) 9 (26.5) 34 (100.0) In general, pain relief scores increased during the study. At Day 8, only 33.3% of subjects reported “a lot” or “complete” pain relief; by the final visit, the majority (64.7%) did so. No subject reported “worse” pain compared to baseline at any visit, and only 1 subject reported “None” at any visit after Day 8. Summary statistics for Pain Relief Scale scores are reported in Table 50. TABLE 50 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a P-value 30b 60c 90 120 Total Difference Visit Statistic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) MTDd from 0e Day 8 n 3 5 2 23 33 0.4880 <0.0001 Mean 2.7 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 SD 0.58 1.58 0.00 1.09 1.09 Median 3.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 Min/Max 2/3 0/4 2/2 0/4 0/4 Day n 3 5 2 23 33 0.7953 <0.0001 15 Mean 2.0 2.8 2.5 2.5 2.5 SD 1.00 1.10 0.71 0.99 0.97 Median 2.0 3.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 Min/Max 1/3 1/4 2/3 0/4 0/4 Day n 3 5 2 23 33 0.6110 <0.0001 22 Mean 2.3 2.6 3.0 2.7 2.7 SD 0.58 1.14 0.00 1.15 1.05 Median 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Min/Max 2/3 1/4 3/3 0/4 0/4 Day n 3 5 2 22 32 0.6263 <0.0001 29 Mean 2.3 2.6 3.5 2.7 2.7 SD 1.15 1.14 0.71 1.20 1.14 Median 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 Min/Max 1/3 1/4 3/4 0/4 0/4 Final n 3 6 2 23 34 0.7958 <0.0001 Visit Mean 2.3 2.7 3.5 2.7 2.7 SD 1.15 1.03 0.71 1.23 1.15 Median 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 Min/Max 1/3 1/4 3/4 0/4 0/4 aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dP-value for MTD from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of MTD. eP-value from a t-test testing that the mean of the total column is significantly different from 0. Mean scores on the Pain Relief Rating Scale increased significantly from the first assessment on Day 8 to each subsequent visit for subjects overall (all p-values<0.0001). There was no significant effect of MTD on pain relief scores at any visit (all p-values≧0.4880). The change from baseline in the composite score from the Peripheral Neuropathy QOL Instrument is reported in Table 51. TABLE 51 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a P-value Visit/ 30b 60c 90 120 Total Baseline Variable Statistic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) and MTDd Baselinee Day 1 n 4 6 2 23 35 N/Af N/A (Baseline)/ Mean 61.3 69.7 72.8 63.7 65.0 Score SD 15.26 13.68 0.18 13.48 13.26 Median 60.8 66.8 72.8 65.3 66.7 Min/Max 47.1/76.4 49.8/86.9 72.7/72.9 35.6/87.2 35.6/87.2 Day 29/ n 3 5 2 22 32 N/A N/A Score Mean 68.3 75.7 79.0 75.5 75.0 SD 13.38 15.88 4.68 9.93 10.82 Median 66.3 79.9 79.0 75.4 76.5 Min/Max 56.0/82.6 49.1/91.8 75.7/82.3 51.4/88.5 49.1/91.8 Day 29/ n 3 5 2 22 32 0.1397 <0.0001 Change Mean 2.4 8.8 6.2 12.1 10.3 from SD 10.87 13.35 4.85 10.77 10.95 Baseline Median 6.9 10.7 6.2 12.8 10.4 Min/Max −10.1/10.2 −6.8/27.7 2.7/9.6 −10.2/34.5 −10.2/34.5 Final Visit/ n 3 6 2 23 34 N/A N/A Score Mean 68.3 77.6 79.0 75.4 75.4 SD 13.38 14.99 4.68 9.71 10.71 Median 66.3 80.0 79.0 75.1 76.5 Min/Max 56.0/82.6 49.1/91.8 75.7/82.3 51.4/88.5 49.1/91.8 Final Visit/ n 3 6 2 23 34 0.1828 <0.0001 Change Mean 2.4 7.9 6.2 11.6 9.8 from SD 10.87 12.11 4.85 10.76 10.78 Baseline Median 6.9 7.2 6.2 12.7 9.9 Min/Max — −6.8/27.7 2.7/9.6 — — 10.1/10.2 10.2/34.5 10.2/34.5 aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. dP-value for MTD from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of both baseline score and MTD. eP-value for mean change in score from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of baseline score. fN/A = Not applicable. Mean composite scores on the Peripheral Neuropathy QOL Instrument increased (i.e., improved) significantly from Day 1 (baseline) to Day 29 and to the final visit for subjects overall (both p-values<0.0001). Change from baseline to either Day 29 or the final visit was not related to MTD (all p-values≧0.1837). P-values for change from baseline to the final visit in individual QOL scales are reported in Table 52. TABLE 52 Scale P-value Physical Functioning 0.0012 Role Limitations 0.0003 Disease-Targeted Pain <0.0001 Energy/Fatigue 0.0001 Upper Extremities 0.0007 Balance 0.0001 Self Esteem 0.1258 Emotional Well Being 0.0277 Stigma 0.7851 Cognitive Function 0.0313 Emotional Role Limitations 0.2956 General Health Perceptions <0.0001 Sleep <0.0001 Social Functioning <0.0001 Sexual Function 0.7714 Health Distress <0.0001 Severity 0.0129 Disability Days 0.1096 Health Change 0.0001 Overall Health Rating 0.0064 Satisfaction with Sexual Functioning 0.3413 aP-value for the change from baseline. A regression model was used to test whether the mean baseline value was different from the mean value at the final visit. The majority of individual QOL scale items improved significantly between baseline and the final visit ( 15/21, 74.1%). Sleep interference scores, calculated for Day 15, Day 29, and the final visit, are reported in Table 53. TABLE 53 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)b Total 30c 60d 90 120 (N = P-value Visit Statistic (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) 36) MTDe Day n 3 5 2 23 33 0.8509 15 Mean 1.4 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.8 SD 1.35 1.66 0.71 1.64 1.54 Median 1.7 2.0 2.2 1.3 1.7 Min/ 0/3 0/4 2/3 0/5 0/5 Max Day n 3 5 2 22 32 0.1405 29 Mean 1.6 2.5 0.2 1.2 1.4 SD 1.35 2.09 0.24 1.29 1.47 Median 1.3 2.0 0.2 0.7 0.8 Min/ 0/3 0/5 0/0 0/4 0/5 Max Final n 3 5 2 23 33 0.1077 Visit Mean 1.6 2.5 0.2 1.1 1.3 SD 1.35 2.09 0.24 1.20 1.41 Median 1.3 2.0 0.2 0.7 1.0 Min/ 0/3 0/5 0/0 0/4 0/5 Max aThe score for Day 15 is the average of the Sleep Rating Scale scores from the subject diary for Days 13, 14, and 15; the score for Day 29 is the average of the Day 27, 28, and 29 scores; and the Final Visit score is the average of the final 3 consecutive days of study treatment. bMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. cThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. dThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. eP-value for MTD from a regression model that models the efficacy variable as a function of MTD. Mean sleep interference scores declined during the study, indicating decreasing interference of the subjects' pain with their sleep. There was no significant effect of MTD on sleep interference scores at any visit (all p values≧0.1077). Results from the Sleep Rating Scale are plotted by study day in FIG. 4. Sleep scores decreased significantly (regression p<0.001) from Day 2 to the final study day (the lower the score, the less pain was judged to interfere with sleep). Results from the Present Pain Intensity Rating Scale are plotted by study day in FIG. 5. Present Pain Intensity scores decreased significantly (regression p<0.001) from Day 2 to the final study day. Results from the Activity Rating Scale are plotted by study day in FIG. 6. Activity scores decreased significantly (regression p<0.001) from Day 1 to the final study day (the lower the score, the less pain was judged to interfere with general activity). Results from the Pain Rating Scale are plotted by study day in FIG. 7. Scores for average pain over the previous twelve hours decreased significantly (regression p<0.001) from Day 1 to the final study day. An improvement in efficacy score was defined as an improvement from the first recorded value to the last recorded value, except for the Pain Relief Rating Scale, where an improvement was defined as a value>0 for the last recorded value. The frequencies of subjects whose score improved during the study are presented for each efficacy measure in Table 54. TABLE 54 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)b 30c 60d 90 120 Total (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) P-value Efficacy Variable n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) MTDe 50%f Pain Intensity Rating Scale 2 (50.0) 6 (100.0) 2 (100.0) 21 (91.3) 31 (88.6) 0.1698 <0.0001 Pain Relief Rating Scale 3 (100.0) 5 (100.0) 2 (100.0) 22 (95.7) 32 (97.0) 0.9419 <0.0001 QOL Composite Score 2 (66.7) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 19 (82.6) 28 (82.4) 0.6877 0.0002 Sleep Rating Scale (Diary) 3 (100.0) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 20 (87.0) 30 (88.2) 0.7222 <0.0001 Present Pain Intensity Rating Scale 2 (66.7) 3 (50.0) 2 (100.0) 16 (69.6) 23 (67.6) 0.5877 0.0396 (Diary) Activity Rating Scale (Diary) 2 (50.0) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 20 (87.0) 29 (82.9) 0.1668 0.0001 Pain Rating Scale (Diary) 3 (75.0) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 20 (87.0) 30 (85.7) 0.5772 <0.0001 aAn improvement in efficacy score is an improvement from the first recorded value to the last recorded value, except for the Pain Relief Rating Scale, where an improvement is a value > 0 for the last recorded value. bMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. cThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. dThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. eP-value for MTD from a regression model that models improvement in the efficacy variable as a function of MTD. fP-value from a test that the total percent of subjects whose score improved = 50%. A significant proportion of subjects improved during the study in every efficacy measure (all p-values≦0.0396). Improvement was not related to MTD for any of the efficacy measures (all p-values≧0.1668). Subjects treated with open-label DM/Q, in the dose range of 30 mg DM/30 mg Q to 120 mg DM/120 mg Q, reported a statistically significant reduction in pain from diabetic peripheral neuropathy and in the extent to which this pain interfered with general activity and sleep. Subjects receiving this treatment also experienced statistically significant improvement in their QOL. The CYP2D6 phenotypes of subjects, based upon their genotype results, are summarized in Table 55. There were no intermediate or ultra-rapid metabolizers in this study population. TABLE 55 Maximum Tolerated Dose (mg)a 30a 60c 90 120 Total (N = 5) (N = 6) (N = 2) (N = 23) (N = 36) Phenotype n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Extensive 5 (100.0) 5 (83.3) 2 (100.0) 23 (100.0) 35 (97.2) Metabolizer Poor 0 (0.0) 1 (16.7) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (2.8) Metabolizer aMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. bThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. cThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. All except one subject were extensive metabolizers. Concentrations in plasma of DM increased between the visit on Day 15 and the final visit for the 90-mg and 120-mg MTDs. A similar increase in concentration was seen for the metabolite DX and for Q. Concentrations of DM, DX, and Q in plasma of extensive metabolizers at the final visit are summarized by MTD in Table 56. TABLE 56 Drug or MTDb (mg) Metabolite 30c 60d 90 120 Total (ng/mL) Statistic N = 5 N = 5 N = 2 N = 23 N = 35 DM n 3 5 2 23 33 Mean 59.0 46.2 117.0 192.6 153.7 SD 30.28 67.38 44.47 98.93 106.01 Median 67.4 1.5 117.0 178.0 144.5 Min/Max 25.4/84.2 0.0/150.2 85.5/148.4 48.7/388.5 0.0/388.5 DX n 3 5 2 23 33 Mean 70.7 65.4 88.4 146.6 123.9 SD 48.49 67.38 34.83 96.88 91.94 Median 94.6 58.2 88.4 122.6 102.6 Min/Max 14.9/102.6 0.0/135.6 63.8/113.0 53.2/417.9 0.0/417.9 Q n 3 5 2 23 33 Mean 114.0 41.8 114.5 269.0 211.1 SD 48.75 66.72 70.00 176.88 175.28 Median 137.0 0.0 114.5 211.0 164.0 Min/Max 58/147 0/153 65/164 74/681 0/681 aOne of the thirty-six subjects was a poor metabolizer. bMaximum Tolerated Dose is the last dose taken when the subject left or completed the study. cThis group included subjects who took two 15-mg capsules/day as well as subjects who took one 30-mg capsule/day. dThis group included one subject whose MTD was 45 mg. For comparison, the poor metabolizer (MTD of 60 mg) had the following concentrations in plasma at the final visit: DM 126.4 ng/mL, DX 41.0 ng/mL, and Q 165.0 ng/mL. Correlations between the concentration of DM in plasma with pain intensity ratings on Day 15, Day 29, and the final visit are summarized in Table 57 (extensive metabolizers only). TABLE 57 Visit nb Correlation Coefficient P-value Day 15 33 −0.3479 0.0473 Day 29 30 −0.1336 0.4817 Final Visit 33 −0.1487 0.4088 aOne of the thirty-six subjects was a poor metabolizer. bData were not available for all subjects. There was a weak, negative correlation between concentration of DM in plasma and rating of pain intensity at Day 15 (coefficient of −0.3572) and negligible correlations at the other time points (≦−0.1487). The Day 15 correlation was statistically significant (p=0.0473), but the correlations at Day 29 and the final visit were not (p≧0.4088). However, a weak or nonexistent correlation between concentrations of drug in plasma and pain ratings is a typical result in pharmacodynamic studies of analgesics. The safety results demonstrate that the combination of DM/Q, in the dose range from 30 mg DM/30 mg Q to 120 mg DM/120 mg Q, is safe and well tolerated in the treatment of subjects with pain associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy, and provide indications of efficacy in pain reduction. The preferred embodiments have been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof. It will be understood that it is capable of further modification, and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practices in the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth, and as fall within the scope of the invention and any equivalents thereof. All references cited herein, including but not limited to technical literature references and patents, are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases or brain damage such as is caused by stroke or head injury often are afflicted with emotional problems associated with the disease or injury. The terms emotional lability and pseudobulbar affect are used by psychiatrists and neurologists to refer to a set of symptoms that are often observed in patients who have suffered a brain insult such as a head injury, stroke, brain tumor, or encephalitis, or who are suffering from a progressive neurodegenerative disease such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS, also called motor neuron disease or Lou Gehrig's disease), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, or multiple sclerosis. In the great majority of such cases, emotional lability occurs in patients who have bilateral damage (damage which affects both hemispheres of the brain) involving subcortical forebrain structures. Emotional lability, which is distinct from clinical forms of reactive or endogenous depression, is characterized by intermittent spasmodic outbursts of emotion (usually manifested as intense or even explosive crying or laughing) at inappropriate times or in the absence of any particular provocation. Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect is also referred to by the terms emotionalism, emotional incontinence, emotional discontrol, excessive emotionalism, and pathological laughing and crying. The feelings that accompany emotional lability are often described in words such as “disconnectedness,” since patients are fully aware that an outburst is not appropriate in a particular situation, but they do not have control over their emotional displays. Emotional lability or pseudobulbar affect becomes a clinical problem when the inability to control emotional outbursts interferes in a substantial way with the ability to engage in family, personal, or business affairs. For example, a businessman suffering from early-stage ALS or Parkinson's disease might become unable to sit through business meetings, or a patient might become unable to go out in public, such as to a restaurant or movie, due to transient but intense inability to keep from crying or laughing at inappropriate times in front of other people. These symptoms can occur even though the patient still has more than enough energy and stamina to do the physical tasks necessary to interact with other people. Such outbursts, along with the feelings of annoyance, inadequacy, and confusion that they usually generate and the visible effects they have on other people, can severely aggravate the other symptoms of the disease; they lead to feelings of ostracism, alienation, and isolation, and they can render it very difficult for friends and family members to provide tolerant and caring emotional support for the patient. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>There remains a need for additional or improved forms of treatment for emotional lability and other chronic disorders, such as chronic pain. Such a treatment preferably provides at least some degree of improvement compared to other known drugs, in at least some patients. A method for treating emotional lability in at least some patients suffering from neurologic impairment, such as a progressive neurologic disease, is desirable. A method of treating emotional lability, pseudobulbar affect, and other chronic conditions in human patients who are in need of such treatment, without oversedation or otherwise significantly interfering with consciousness or alertness is provided. The treatment involves administering dextromethorphan in combination with a minimum dosage of quinidine. In a first embodiment, a method for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the first embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a second embodiment, a method for treating neuropathic pain is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In a third embodiment, a method for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the third embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a fourth embodiment, a method for treating a brain injury is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein an amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 200 mg/day, and wherein an amount of quinidine administered includes from about 10 mg/day to less than about 50 mg/day. In an aspect of the fourth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as one combined dose per day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered as at least two combined doses per day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the amount of quinidine administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the first through fourth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered includes from about 30 mg/day to 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In a fifth embodiment, a method for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the fifth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a sixth embodiment, a method for treating neuropathic pain is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In a seventh embodiment, a method for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the seventh embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In an eighth embodiment, a method for treating a brain injury is provided, the method including administering to a patient in need thereof dextromethorphan in combination with quinidine, wherein the dextromethorphan and the quinidine are administered in a combined dose, and wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the eighth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine in the combined dose is about 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the amount of quinidine administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 45 mg/day, and wherein the amount of dextromethorphan administered includes from about 20 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, and wherein an amount of quinidine sulfate administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day and wherein an amount of dextromethorphan hydrobromide administered includes from about 30 mg/day to about 60 mg/day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, one combined dose is administered per day. In aspects of the fifth through eighth embodiments, two or more combined doses are administered per day. In a ninth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the ninth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a tenth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating neuropathic pain is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an eleventh embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the eleventh embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a twelfth embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition suitable for use in a brain injury is provided, the composition including a tablet or a capsule, the tablet or capsule including dextromethorphan and quinidine, wherein a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the twelfth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine is about 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the quinidine is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 45 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 60 mg. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the ninth through twelfth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, wherein the quinidine sulfate is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan hydrobromide is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg. In a thirteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the thirteenth embodiment, the pseudobulbar affect or emotional lability is caused by a neurodegenerative disease or condition or a brain injury. In a fourteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating neuropathic pain is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In a fifteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating a neurodegenerative disease or condition is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the fifteenth embodiment, the neurodegenerative disease or condition is selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. In a sixteenth embodiment, use of dextromethorphan and quinidine in the preparation of a medicament for treating a brain injury is provided, wherein the medicament includes a capsule or a tablet, and wherein dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:1.25 or less. In an aspect of the sixteenth embodiment, the brain injury is selected from the group consisting of stroke, traumatic brain injury, ischemic event, hypoxic event, and neuronal death. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, dextromethorphan and quinidine are present in the capsule or tablet at a weight ratio of dextromethorphan to quinidine of 1:0.75 or less. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, at least one of the quinidine and the dextromethorphan is in a form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is selected from the group consisting of salts of alkali metals, salts of lithium, salts of sodium, salts of potassium, salts of alkaline earth metals, salts of calcium, salts of magnesium, salts of lysine, salts of N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, salts of chloroprocaine, salts of choline, salts of diethanolamine, salts of ethylenediamine, salts of meglumine, salts of procaine, salts of tris, salts of free acids, salts of free bases, inorganic salts, salts of sulfate, salts of hydrochloride, and salts of hydrobromide. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the quinidine includes quinidine sulfate and the dextromethorphan includes dextromethorphan hydrobromide, wherein the quinidine sulfate is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan hydrobromide is present in an amount of from about 30 mg to about 60 mg. In aspects of the thirteenth through sixteenth embodiments, the quinidine is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 45 mg, and wherein the dextromethorphan is present in an amount of from about 20 mg to about 60 mg. | 20050112 | 20100209 | 20050915 | 99657.0 | 8 | MCMILLIAN, KARA RENITA | PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS COMPRISING DEXTROMETHORPHAN AND QUINIDINE FOR THE TREATMENT OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,242 | ACCEPTED | System and method for estimating impedance time through a road network | A method and apparatus are provided for estimating an impedance through a node at an intersection between roads in a roadway network. The impedance may be measured in time or distance, for example. Characteristic information describes at least one feature of the intersecting roads. One or more pieces of characteristic information may impact the impedance of traffic through an intersection and are used to estimate the impedance through the node. Examples of characteristic information are speed information, road-type, network routing level, intersection angle information, one-way, and cross traffic turn information. An impedance factor, or a cost, is assigned to each piece of characteristic information. The cost may be positive if the characteristic information adds impedance to the node, or negative if the characteristic information subtracts impedance from the node. | 1. A navigation system comprising: a mobile unit having a control panel configured to accept a routing request from a user, the mobile unit having a communications interface configured to transmit the routing request and receive routing information related to the routing requests, the mobile unit having a display configured to display the routing information to the user; and a route calculation module located remote from the mobile unit, the route calculation module receiving the routing request and based thereon performing at least one of navigation and route planning operations including identifying characteristic information for roads intersecting at a node in a roadway network and estimating potential delays by traffic traveling through the node based on the characteristic information for the roads, the route calculation module transmitting to the mobile unit results of the at least one of navigation and route planning operations. 2. The navigation system of claim 1, further comprising a communications network conveying the routing request from the mobile unit to the route calculation module, the communications network representing one of the internet and a wireless communications network. 3. The navigation system of claim 1, further comprising a communications network conveying the results from the route calculation module to the mobile unit, the communications network representing one of the internet and a wireless communications network. 4. The navigation system of claim 1, wherein the mobile unit includes a cellular transmitter/receiver. 5. The navigation system of claim 1, wherein the mobile unit includes a wireless input/output unit used to communicate with the route calculation module through an external network. 6. The navigation system of claim 1, wherein the mobile unit includes a buffer for temporarily storing route information based on the results received from the route calculation module. 7. The navigation system of claim 1, wherein the mobile unit includes a buffer for temporarily storing at least a portion of a data structure received from the route calculation module over a wireless connection with the route calculation module through an external network. 8. The navigation system of claim 1, further comprising a storage device that is accessed by the route calculation module, the storage device storing a data structure having data indicative of roads in a roadway network. 9. The navigation system of claim 1, further comprising a server that stores a data structure having data indicative of roads in a roadway network, the route calculation module accesses the server when planning a route. 10. The navigation system of claim 1, wherein the route calculation module calculates a planned route between a current locate of the mobile unit and a destination location entered in the mobile unit by the user. 11. A mobile unit configured to communicate with a remote navigation system, the mobile unit comprising: a control panel configured to accept a navigation-related request from a user; a communications interface configured to transmit the navigation-related request to a remote navigation system, the communications interface being configured to receive navigation-related information, from the navigation system, related to the navigation-related request, the navigation system identifying characteristic information for roads intersecting at a node in a roadway network and estimating potential delays by traffic traveling through the node based on the characteristic information for the roads,; and a display configured to display the navigation-related information to the user. 12. The mobile unit of claim 11, wherein the communications interface is configured to communicate over one of the internet and a wireless communications network. 13. The mobile unit of claim 11, wherein the communications interface includes a cellular transmitter/receiver. 14. The mobile unit of claim 11, wherein the mobile unit includes a wireless input/output unit. 15. The mobile unit of claim 11, further comprising a buffer for temporarily storing the navigation-related information received from the navigation system. 16. The mobile unit of claim 11, further comprising a buffer for temporarily storing at least a portion of a data structure received from the navigation system over a wireless connection. 17. A method of performing navigation-related communication with a mobile unit, the mobile unit accepting a routing request from a user, the method comprising: receiving a routing request from the mobile unit at a remote route calculation module located remote from the mobile unit; performing, at the route calculation module, at least one of navigation and route planning operations based on the routing request, the at least one of navigation and route planning operations including identifying characteristic information for roads intersecting at a node in a roadway network and estimating potential delays by traffic traveling through the node based on the characteristic information for the roads; and transmitting, from the route calculation module to the mobile unit, results of the at least one of navigation and route planning operations, the results being configured to be presented to the user in at least one of audio and video format. 18. The method of claim 17, further comprising utilizing a communications network to convey the routing request from the mobile unit to the route calculation module, the communications network representing one of the internet and a wireless communications network. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein the transmitting includes transmitting route information for temporarily storage in a buffer in the mobile unit. 20. The method of claim 17, further comprising storing, at the route calculation module, a data structure having data indicative of roads in a roadway network. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to navigational route planning. In particular, certain embodiments of the present invention relate to determining a route through a road network. Route planning devices are well known in the field of navigational instruments. Several algorithms utilized by planning devices calculate the route from one of the source and/or destination locations or from both simultaneously. Conventional planning algorithms operate based on a predefined stored data structure including data indicative of a geographic region containing the source and destination locations. Some devices implement a straight line approach in determining the distance between source and destination locations. In the straight line approach, the processor creates a straight line from the present location to the final destination and measures that straight line distance. For example, if a desired destination is on a mountain, the straight line distance from a current location might be only six miles. However, if the only available road to that destination is a windy road around the mountain entailing 30 miles of actual driving, the route planning distance calculated by the straight line approach will be inaccurate. Other devices implement a nodal analysis in which a number of potential paths are determined from a present location to a destination location based on stored data indicative of roadways between nodes. The nodal analysis then examines each potential path and determines an impedance or “cost” associated with each path (i.e. a measure of the amount of time or distance required to travel the path). Paths are eliminated based on criteria such as shortest distance, shortest time, lowest cost, or user inputted preferred routes. However, conventional route planning devices will not find the most efficient route since they do not take into consideration certain factors that affect travel over a particular route. For example, a user may input desired source and destination locations, and request the route that covers the shortest distance. While only one particular route may be the physically shortest distance between source and destination locations, other near-shortest routes may exist that are only slightly longer. The shortest and near-shortest routes include travel along different combinations of roads and travel through unique combinations of road intersections. Each road in the shortest and near-shortest routes has an associated travel speed, representing the speed limit or range at which traffic typically travels over the road. Also, each road in the shortest and near-shortest routes passes through a combination of intersections. The shortest and near-shortest routes may be close in length, while the shortest route may include roads with slower travel speeds and/or more intersections and/or intersections that typically require more time (e.g., stop signs, stop lights, crossing larger/busier highways, turning across traffic onto a new road, etc.) as compared to one or more near-shortest routes. Conventional route planning devices produce a shortest distance route which includes roads that are selected independent of whether the roads have slower traveling speeds. Conventional route planning devices do not include travel-time information for road intersections, nor account for delays at road intersections when planning a route. Although one route represents the shortest distance, a more efficient route may exist with a slightly longer distance (e.g., a near-shortest distance route). The difference between the length of the shortest distance route and the near-shortest distance route may be insignificant. Consequently, the user may travel for a longer period of time and encounter more traffic delays by taking the shortest distance route. Conventional route planning devices do not take into consideration travel delays experienced at intersections, such as delays due to stop signs, stop lights, crossing lanes of on-coming traffic, turning onto or off of one-way roads, the angle at which roads intersect when a route turns from one road onto another, and the like. This is not desirable. Thus, a need has long existed in the industry for a method and apparatus for determining impedance time through a road network that addresses the problems noted above and other problems previously experienced. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a method for estimating an impedance time through a node at an intersection between roads in a roadway network. The method includes identifying characteristic information that describes at least one feature of the intersecting roads. Based on the characteristic information, an impedance time associated with potential delays by traffic traveling through the node is estimated. The characteristic information may include speed information, such as speed categories or speed bands. A speed band identifies a speed range in which traffic travels on the road, and a speed differential between the speed bands of intersecting roads may be determined. Optionally, the characteristic information may include road-type or network routing level information, such as when the roadway network is divided into a hierarchy of road-types. A route level may be assigned to each road intersecting at a node, and a route level differential between the route levels of the roads may be determined. The characteristic information may include intersection angle information and/or cross traffic turn information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for calculating a navigation route between first and second geographic locations through a roadway network of roads that intersect at nodes. A data structure is provided that has data indicative of the roadway network of roads. The data includes feature data indicating traffic characteristics for the roads. Route impedance is calculated for a navigation route through the roadway between the first and second locations based on the feature data. The node impedance is determined for the navigation route where the navigation route intersects other roads. The node impedance may indicate a potential delay that traffic experiences when traveling through a node. The node impedance and route impedance are used to calculate the navigation route. The node and route impedances may be measured in time or distance. The feature data may include speed information, one-way, and/or intersection angle information. A turn penalty may be assigned when the navigation route crosses on-coming traffic. Optionally, a neighborhood penalty may be added to the node or route impedance when the navigation route travels through residential areas that are not located at the first and second geographic locations. Optionally, an exit/entry ramp penalty may be added to the node or route impedance when the navigation route travels along an exit ramp from a first road directly onto an entry ramp back onto the first road. In another embodiment of the present invention, a navigation device is provided comprising a memory and processor. The memory at least temporarily stores at least a portion of a data structure having data indicative of a roadway network of roads intersecting at nodes. The data structure includes feature data of traffic characteristics for roads. The processor accesses the memory and calculates a route through the roadway network between geographic locations from the data stored in the data structure. The processor estimates node impedances for intersection nodes, and utilizes the route impedance and node impedance to calculate the route. The feature data may include speed information, road-type information, routing level information, intersection angle information, and/or cross traffic information which is used to calculate node impedance. Optionally, the device may include an input buffer for temporarily storing a portion of the data structure received from an external storage device. In one embodiment, the device includes a display that presents the route to an operator. The device may also comprise a wireless input/output unit used to communicate with an external network and receive a portion of the data structure of a wireless connection with the external network. In another embodiment of the present invention, a navigation system is provided comprising a storage unit, a route calculation module, and a correction module. The storage unit stores a data structure having data indicative of roads and intersection nodes in a roadway network. The data includes road-type information that classifies roads into a hierarchy of route levels. The route calculation module calculates a planned route between source and destination locations over the network based on the stored data. The route calculation module may calculate the route based on a shortest distance routing algorithm, and may add a distance penalty to potential routes that include an exit or entrance ramp. The correction module identifies undesirable shortcuts by using the road-type information to avoid traveling from a road of a higher route level to a road of a lower route level. Undesirable shortcuts may be along exit and entrance ramps of a road or through neighborhoods. Optionally, the correction module may include a neighborhood progression module that updates the route to avoid residential roads that are remote from the source and destination locations. The route calculation module may receive a request from a mobile unit over a network to calculate a route. The request would include source and destination locations, and other use specific information. The route calculation module would access corresponding data structures, such as in a server, plan the route, and return the planned route to the mobile unit. The returned information would include the portion of the roadway network between the source and destination locations. The network may be the internet, a wireless connection and the like. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a navigation device formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 illustrates a front view of a navigation device formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of a navigation device formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 illustrates a navigation system formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 illustrates a roadway network formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 illustrates a flow chart of a method for estimating the impedance time through an intersection node in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart of a method for estimating turn penalties in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 illustrates a flow chart of a method for improving shortest distance routes in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments of the present invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings, embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the present invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentality shown in the attached drawings. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 illustrates a system 10 formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The system 10 includes at least one processor 12 for carrying out various processing operations discussed below in more detail. The processor 12 is connected to a cartographic database 14, memory 16, a display 18, a keyboard 20, and a buffer 22. Optionally, more than one processor 12 may be included. The cartographic database 14 may store data indicative of a roadway network (in full or in part) used in connection with embodiments of the present invention. The memory 16, while illustrated as a single block, may comprise multiple discrete memory locations and/or discs for storing various types of routines and data utilized and/or generated by embodiments of the present invention. The buffer 22 represents a memory storage area that may be within memory 16 or separate therefrom. Buffer 22 is used to temporarily store data and/or routines used in connection with embodiments of the present invention. The display 18 displays information to the user in an audio and/or video format. The keyboard 20 permits the user to input information, instructions and the like to the processor 12 during operation. By way of example only, initial operations may be carried out by an operator of the system 10, utilizing the keyboard 20 for controlling the processor 12 in the selection of parameters, defining data structures to be developed and/or accessed, and the like. The data structure(s) stored in the cartographic database 14, memory 16, and/or buffer 22 may include data indicative of features associated with a roadway network and/or a geographic area. The data may represent points, lines, areas, coordinates (longitude, latitude and altitude), or otherwise. For instance, portions of a highway, river or boundary (e.g., a state or country boundary), trails and the like may be represented by linear features stored in the data structure. In addition, cities, towns, neighborhoods, communities and the like may be represented by point features within the data structure. Also, buildings, lakes, and the like may be represented by area features. Prior to storage, various common features may be identified for cartographic data and such common features may be classified based upon predefined hierarchies. For example, interstate highways may be defined and/or organized as one feature class, state highways and roads may be defined as a second feature class, and county roads may be defined as a third feature class. Features other than roads, such as rivers and waterways, may also be classified. As a further example, geographic boundaries (e.g., state and county lines) may be assigned one or more different feature classes. FIG. 2 illustrates a portable electronic device 30 formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The electronic device 30 is oriented along a vertical axis (as illustrated) or horizontal axis when held by a user. The portable electronic device 30 includes a housing 32 having a face plate 34 and sidewalls and a back wall (not shown). The portable electronic device 30 further includes an antenna 36 mounted at one corner of the housing 32. The face plate 34 is substantially rectangular in shape. The face plate 34 securely frames the display screen 38 and houses the control panel 40. The control panel 40 includes several push button-type keys 42 that afford the user control over the portable electronic device 30. Optionally, a directional toggle pad 44 may be included within the control panel 40. In one application, such as when utilizing the portable electronic device 30 within a global positioning system, the toggle pad 44 affords the ability to scan through a large map of a geographic area, all or a portion of which is stored in memory of the portable electronic device 30. The portable electronic device 30 then displays portions of the scanned map on the display screen 38. The display screen 38 also illustrates planned routes through geographic areas between source and destination locations. Optionally, the control panel 40 may include a speaker/microphone combination, designated by reference numeral 46, to afford communication between the operator and a remote destination. The display screen 38 may be located below the control panel 40 (when oriented along a vertical axis) to afford easy data entry by the user. When vertically oriented, the display screen 38 is controlled to orient data upon the display screen 38 such that side 48 of the display screen 38 represents the top of the data to be displayed, while side 50 of the display screen 38 represents the bottom. Thus, the data is preferably displayed from the top 48 to the bottom 50 of the display screen 38. FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram for an electronic circuit of the portable electronic device 30 formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The electronic circuit includes a processor 52 that communicates via the control panel 40 through line 41. The processor 52 communicates via line 39 with the display screen 38. The electronic circuit further includes a memory 54 that is accessed by the processor .52 via line 53. The antenna 36 is connected to the processor 52 via a cellular transmitter/receiver 37 and a GPS receiver 35. The electronic circuitry of the portable electronic device 30 is powered by a power supply (not shown) housed within the device or connected thereto. A microphone 33 and a speaker 31 are also connected to, and communicate with, the processor 52. The housing 32 of the portable electronic device 30 houses the processor 52, memory 54, display 38 and key pad 40. The display screen 38 and control panel 40 are accessible at the exterior of the housing. In one embodiment, the portable electronic device 30 is utilized in conjunction with a global positioning system for acquiring signals transmitted from satellites in geosynchronous orbit. In such an embodiment, the processor 52 includes means for calculating, by triangulation, the position of the portable electronic device 30. In such an embodiment, an image file indicative of a selected map is held in memory 54. In accordance with one embodiment, the image file held in memory 54 comprises spatial data indices according to a data structure defining a geographic area of interest. An operator of the portable electronic device 30 controls the processor 52 through use of control panel 40 to display map images on the display screen 38. Utilizing the control panel 40, the operator selects various zoom levels, corresponding to layers of the data structure for a particular geographic region desired to be displayed on the display screen 38. Data indicative of the map to be displayed is accessed from the memory 54 according to the inputs by the user using the control panel 40. When performing a route planning operation, the operator enters a source location and a destination location, such as by entering addresses, geographic coordinates, well-known buildings or sites, and the like. The processor 52 accesses data structures stored in memory 54 to calculate a suggested route. FIG. 4 illustrates a navigation and routing system 70 formed in accordance with an alternative embodiment of the present invention. The system 70 includes one or more mobile units 72 capable of performing navigation and/or routing functions, a server 74 and an intervening network 76. The mobile units 72 may each include some or all of the structure and/or functionality of the portable electronic device 30. The server 74 may perform a majority of the navigation and route planning operations and transmit results and limited geographic data to the mobile units 72. Alternatively, the server 74 may simply perform minor management operations. The server 74 communicates with the mobile units 72 through communications links 78 and 80 and the network 76 which may constitute the internet, a wireless communications network supported by ground-based towers and/or satellites, and the like. The mobile units 72 may receive data structures, coordinate information, and the like over communications links 78 and 80 from the network 76. During operation, the server 76 may simply transmit data structures for requested geographic regions to the mobile units 72, after which the mobile units 72 carry out all necessary processing to perform navigation and routing operations. Alternatively, the mobile unit 72 need not store the data structures. Instead, the server 74 may maintain the data structures and carry out navigation and routing calculations based upon requests received from the mobile unit 72. For example, the user may enter source and destination locations for a desired routing operation. The source and destination coordinates are transmitted from the mobile unit 72 through the communications links 78 and 80 and network 76 to the server 74 which calculates the desired route and returns such information to the mobile unit 72. In this alternative embodiment, the mobile unit 72 need not store large cartographic data blocks or data structures that would otherwise be needed to calculate and plan a route. FIG. 5 illustrates a portion of a data structure containing data indicative of a roadway network 200 formed in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The portion of the roadway network 200 includes roads 202-214. The roadway network 200 includes multiple types of roads, such as interstate highways, state highways, country roads, and residential streets. The roads 202-214 intersect at intersection nodes 216-228. A segment is a portion of a road 202-214 that is between two nodes 216-228. Nodes at either end of a segment are adjacent. For example, segment 217 is a portion of road 214 and is between node 226 and node 228, thus nodes 226 and 228 are adjacent to one another. The terms “adjacent nodes” or simply “adjacencies” shall be used throughout to refer nodes that are adjacent to one another. FIG. 5 sets forth points A-E within the roadway network 200. Exemplary route planning operations carried out by certain embodiments of the present invention will be described below in connection with roads 216-228 and points A-E. The system 10 of FIG. 1, the portable electronic device 30 of FIG. 2 or the network of FIG. 4 may be utilized to generate a route from a first location to a second location within the roadway network 200. The processor 12 utilizes the data stored in the cartographic database 14 and data input by the user through the keyboard 20 to calculate the requested route. Optionally, the user may enter a time of day or day of the week in which the user wishes to travel. In this alternative embodiment, the device 30 uses the time at which the user desires to travel to access different characteristic information for a particular road, to account for times of day in which a road or intersection is very busy. Although the remaining Figures are discussed in relation to system 10, it should be understood that the device 30 and network 76 may also be used to perform similar functions. Travel through the roadway network 200 is described in terms of distance, time or user preferences (e.g., scenic routes, routes through/around business districts, routes through/around downtown areas and the like). The distances, times and user preferences are generally referred to as “impedances.” Route planning devices calculate shortest distances and fastest times, and maximize user preferences by calculating impedances for various routes based on characteristic information describing features of the roadway network. As previously discussed, some cartographic data may be classified based upon predefined hierarchies. For data such as roads, the hierarchy may be divided into network routing levels which are stored as characteristic data for an associated road. The roads most desirable to use for routing may be assigned to a relatively high network routing level, while roads least desirable to use for routing may be assigned to a relatively low network routing level. For example, if road 202 is an interstate highway and road 214 is a residential road, road 202 would have a higher network routing level than road 214 because road 202 is a more desirable road for routing when considering factors such as speed limit, number of lanes, and number of stop lights/signs. Cartographic data for individual roads may also include characteristic information representative of speed data. The speed data may be organized into speed categories describing a range of traveling speeds, or speed bands. Each speed band represents a range of speed, such as 0-10 miles per hour (mph) or 11-20 mph, in which traffic generally travels over a given road. Optionally, a particular road may be assigned one speed band for certain times of day (e.g., non-rush hour) and assigned a second speed band for other times of day (e.g., rush hour). To utilize different speed bands for a particular road, the user also enters the time of day that the user wishes to travel. In this instance, the route planning device takes into consideration the time of day for traveling (if known) and selects the corresponding speed band. The characteristic information may also identify whether the road is a one-way road. In FIG. 5, roads 210 and 212 are one-way roads allowing travel in opposite directions, as indicated by the arrows, while roads 208 and 214 allow travel in both directions. One-way roads impact traffic by increasing or decreasing the time necessary for travel along the road and the time generally needed to pass through an intersection node (e.g., turn onto a one-way road, turn off of a one-way road, or cross a one-way road). To compensate for the impact on overall travel time, an impedance increment is either added to or subtracted from the impedance estimate, as further described below. The impedance increment constitutes a time (e.g., seconds or minutes) when calculating a travel time. The impedance increment constitutes a distance (e.g., feet or meters) when calculating a travel distance. FIGS. 6, 7, and 8 illustrate exemplary methods for determining three distinct components which may contribute to the estimated impedance value through a node of a navigable roadway network. FIG. 6 illustrates a method for estimating impedance factors due to speed band and route level changes experienced by a path through an intersection. FIG. 7 illustrates a method for establishing impedance factors associated with a turn that is to be made through an intersection. FIG. 8 illustrates a method for applying additional impedance values through a node to discourage a route from being planned through certain portions of the roadway network, as disclosed below. These components can be applied singly, or in combination, and have the effect of producing superior routes when compared to conventional routing algorithms. The processing steps illustrated by FIGS. 6-8 are part of a larger route planning algorithm, conventionally implemented as one of a collection of methods generally known as Greedy algorithms. One such algorithm is the A* algorithm, but other algorithms may be used. The algorithm may calculate the route in one direction (e.g. from the source to the destination) or bi-directionally (e.g. from both the source and destination). By way of example only, one method may involve an iterative process in which a list of nodes to be explored is continuously analyzed and updated. The list represents a running list of nodes to be explored. The process includes selecting, from the list, a best node (e.g., a node having the least cost associated with it). The selected best node is analyzed to identify its adjacency information, namely one or more nodes adjacent to the best node. The newly identified adjacent nodes are added to the list of nodes to be explored. Then the costs associated with the newly added nodes are calculated, and the list is searched to identify a new best node (e.g., new lowest cost node). The cost assigned to a node may include several factors, such as a cost from the originating location of a search to the node and an estimate of cost from the node to a final search location. Finding a low-cost path between two points in the network with such methods involves iteratively examining the adjacencies emanating from the source and destination in the network, eventually “discovering” a low-cost path. Adjacencies represent adjacent nodes directly connected to a given node through road segments without any intervening intersections. During the adjacency expansion step for a given node, these algorithms evaluate the cost or impedance to traverse from one adjacent node through the given node, to another adjacent node. This step evaluates all appropriate adjacency information for each “best node” in sequence. During the evaluation of each best node, the operations set forth in FIGS. 6-8 are applied to emulate the real-world traversal cost experienced when passing through a given intersection node from one adjacent road to another. A separate traversal cost or impedance as disclosed below may be calculated for each possible path through the intersection from adjacent roadways. As noted above, cost or impedance values may be expressed in terms of time, distance, or other suitable metric, and may be tailored to the needs of a specific implementation or embodiment. For example, a user may input data requesting the fastest or shortest route. FIG. 6 illustrates a flow chart of a method for estimating the impedance through an intersection node of a navigable network in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. As previously discussed, FIG. 6 may be repeated for each adjacency. At step 250, a base incremental impedance factor for traffic control is set. The impedance factor may be determined by the processor, or may be input using the keyboard 20. The impedance factor may be any positive number, and determines the base cost of traversing through a given node from one adjacent node to another, effectively applying a cost penalty for going through a given road network intersection. For example, the impedance may be expressed in units of time, such as seconds, but the selected units and value associated with this base impedance may vary according to the goals of a particular implementation. The base incremental impedance is further modified as described below. Next, at Step 252, the processor 12 obtains characteristic information for the roads of interest from the cartographic database 14. The roads of interest represent the roads presently being considered by the overall route planning algorithm. The characteristic information may include speed information, network routing levels, one- way road information, left and right turn information, angle of intersection information between roads, road-type information, and the like. The characteristic information may include such data as whether the road is residential or in a neighborhood. Certain characteristic information is stored in the data structure for the associated roadway network. Other characteristic information is generated during a route calculation process by the overall route planning algorithm. For example, the overall route planning algorithm identifies right and left turn information, namely whether a potential route includes right or left turns at a particular intersection. At steps 254 and 258, the processor 12 emulates the effect of stop lights, stop signs, and other common traffic control items not conventionally provided as part of the cartographic database. For a potential path through a given node (an inbound road and outbound road through the intersection), the processor 12 utilizes information about the relative difference in speed band and routing level of the specified adjacency pair to adjust the base incremental impedance factor of step 250. At step 254, the processor 12 estimates the relative cost effect of crossing roads with differing speed bands, emulating the cost of crossing roads with higher or lower speeds. Each road in the cartographic database 14 may be assigned a speed band. For a given adjacency path through the intersection, the processor 12 identifies the maximum speed band to be crossed, and compares this to the speed band of the inbound adjacent road. For example, with reference to FIG. 5, if road 208 has been assigned a speed band of 21-30 and road 212 has been assigned a speed band of 41-54, there typically will be an impedance cost increase associated with passing through node 224 along road 208, because the adjacency must cross the higher-speed road 212. The magnitude of the modification applied to the base impedance, and the nature of the modification may be tailored in a specific implementation, and may depend on the number and nature of the speed information provided in the cartographic database, and/or the relative speed band differences between roads. At step 256, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor established at step 250 if the selected adjacency crosses a road with a greater speed band. If the selected adjacency crosses a road with a lesser speed band, the processor 12 decreases the incremental impedance factor. At step 258, the processor 12 estimates the relative cost effect of crossing roads with differing route levels. As explained previously, the roadway network may be arranged in a hierarchy of routing levels where roadway segments at a higher routing level provide preferable pathways through a given region than those assigned to a lower routing level. For example, it is likely that an adjacency path along a low route level road that must cross a higher route level road will experience impedance costs due to the presence of a traffic control structure such as a stop sign. When a higher route level road crosses a lower route level road, there is a lessened probability that a significant impedance cost will be encountered. At step 260, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor if the selected adjacency crosses a road with a greater route level. If the selected adjacency crosses a road with a lower route level, the processor 12 decreases the incremental impedance factor. The magnitude of the modification applied and the nature of the modification may be tailored in a specific implementation, and may depend on the number and nature of the route levels provided in the cartographic database, and/or the relative route level differences between roads. At step 262, the processor 12 adjusts the estimated cost of the potential path by a percentage of the impedance factor based on one-way road characteristic information. The estimated cost of crossing a one-way road at a node is weighted less because the traffic is moving in only one direction, thus the driver crossing a one-way road needs to monitor traffic in only one direction. The processor 12 determines whether the road being crossed at the node is a one-way road. In the example above, road 212 is a one-way road, thus the estimated cost of the potential path is reduced by a percentage of the impedance factor. Next, at step 264, the processor 12 increases the impedance factor if the road being crossed is not a one-way road, and decreases the impedance factor if the road being crossed is a one-way road. The processor 12 may then use the impedance factor of step 264 to adjust the estimated overall cost of a potential path. FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart of a method for estimating turn penalties in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. The sequence set forth in FIG. 7 is carried out as part of an overall route planning algorithm as explained previously for FIG. 6, and may be repeated for each adjacency. At step 270, an incremental base impedance factor for turns is set. As with the base impedance factor set in step 250 in FIG. 6, the base impedance factor of step 270 may be determined by the processor 12 or may be input using the keyboard 20. The base impedance factor of step 270 may or may not be the same value utilized in step 250. If the potential path does not include a turn, the method of FIG. 7 may not apply for the adjacency. At step 272, the processor 12 obtains the characteristic information for the roads of interest from the cartographic database 14 and from the overall route planning algorithm. The characteristic information includes the left and right turn information, angle-of-intersection information, road-type, and speed information. The left and right turn information identify whether an adjacency path through a node presently considered includes a right turn or a left turn at the intersection node. Additional characteristic information that may be considered is whether the driver is driving on the left or the right side of the road, as determined by driving convention for the region. At step 274, the processor 12 estimates one component of the relative cost effect of performing a turn at the intersection node by considering the speed bands of the adjacent roadway segments involved in the turn. At this step, a turn involving very low-speed roads would typically apply a small increase to the base impedance factor established at step 270, whereas a turn involving high-speed roads would typically apply a larger increase to the base impedance factor of step 270. This has the effect of increasing the overall turn cost as the average speeds of the adjacent roads goes up. Next, at step 276, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor a small amount if the turn involves low-speed roads. It the turn involves high-speed roads, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor a larger amount. At step 278, the processor 12 estimates the cost of the route based on the angle-turn factor. The angle-turn factor may be assigned based on several components. One component is the size of the turn angle, which is measured relative to the direction of travel. The turn angle may be divided into bands of degrees, with the number of degrees in each band depending upon the desired level of courseness in the data. For example, turn angles may be divided into 45 degree bands. Hence, a turn that is 5 degrees would be weighted the same as a turn that is 40 degrees. A turn that is 90 degrees, however, would be weighted differently than a 40 degree turn. For example, a 90 degree turn may be more “expensive”, or have a higher cost, than a 40 degree turn. Turns greater than 90 degrees get progressively more expensive, with a U-turn (180 degrees), being the costliest. Another component of the angle-turn factor is the side of the road the driver is driving on relative to the turn direction. Driving side will be discussed first in relation to the country the route is located in. For example, in the United States, drivers travel in the right hand lane in the direction of travel. In England, however, drivers travel in the left hand lane in the direction of travel. The processor 12 identifies the lane convention in the country of travel, and adjusts the angle-turn factor based upon the direction of the turn. If it is necessary to cross a lane of on-coming traffic to make a turn, the turn is more expensive. Therefore, a left turn in England, which is made from the left lane of the first road into the left lane of the second road, is less expensive than a left turn in the United States, which is made from the right lane of the first road, across at least one lane of on-coming traffic, into the right lane of the second road. The reasons stated above in relation to the country also apply when the road of travel is a one-way road. For example, a left turn in the United States made from the left lane of a one-way road is less expensive than a left turn made from the right lane of a two-way road, because oncoming traffic is not present on the one-way road. At step 280, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor based on the angle-turn factor. At step 282, the processor estimates the cost of the possible path based on one-way road information. Step 282 is similar to Step 262 of FIG. 6, wherein a percentage of the impedance factor set in Step 270 is used to decrease the impedance factor if the driver is turning onto a one-way road. Therefore, in the example of FIGS. 7 and 5, the estimate of the turn at node 224 from road 208 onto road 212 may be decreased to reflect that road 212 is a one-way road. At step 284, the processor 12 decreases the incremental impedance factor if the driver is turning from and/or onto a one-way road. The processor 12 may use the impedance factor of step 284 to adjust the estimated overall cost of the potential path. FIG. 8 illustrates a flow chart of a method for improving shortest distance routes in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. When choosing the shortest distance route between 2 points, it is possible that the shortest distance route will include undesirable shortcuts, such as traveling through a neighborhood when the neighborhood is not the destination or the point of origin, or taking the exit and entry ramps of an interstate highway rather than remaining on the highway. In addition, traveling through a neighborhood may increase overall travel time if the route is not significantly shorter than driving around the neighborhood on a road with a higher network routing level. The sequence set forth in FIG. 8 is carried out as part of an overall route planning algorithm. At Step 290, an incremental impedance factor for neighborhoods is set. As the method is used to improve the shortest distance route, the impedance factor of step 290 is measured in distance. Therefore, the incremental impedance factor of step 290 may or may not have the same value and may or may not be defined by the same unit of measure as the impedance factors defined in steps 250 and 270, and may be tailored to the implementation as needed. Next, at step 292, the processor 12 obtains characteristic information for the roads of interest from the cartographic database 14. Although other characteristic information may be obtained and used by the processor 12 for other purposes, the network routing level and road-type information is used by the method illustrated in FIG. 8. At step 294, the processor 12 estimates the cost of the possible path based on routing level information. The processor 12 compares the network routing level of the roads intersecting at each node. Referring to FIG. 5, if a route is planned from point D to point B, the processor 12 will compare the network routing levels of the roads at nodes 216 and 220. Traveling from point D, the road 202 is an interstate highway and may have a network routing level of 5. Road 204 is an exit ramp and may have a network routing level of 3. Next, at step 296, the processor 12 increases the impedance factor for traveling through a node from a road with a higher network routing level to a road with a lower network routing level. Continuing with the above example, because the network routing level of an exit ramp is lower than that of an interstate highway, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor set in step 290. If, however, a route was planned from point D to point E, it is not advantageous to exit and immediately re-enter an interstate highway to save a short distance. Increasing the incremental impedance factor in step 296 for taking the exit ramp (road 204) at node 216 may prevent the processor 12 from directing the driver off the interstate highway (road 202) at node 216 and back onto the interstate highway (road 202) via the entry ramp (road 206), even if the combined distance of the entry ramp and the exit ramp is less than the distance traveled by remaining on road 202. At step 298, the processor 12 estimates the cost of the possible path based on neighborhood, or residential, road information. For example, a distance penalty is added for traveling on road segments located in neighborhoods. The distance penalty may be a percentage of the length of the segment (i.e. the road between each node) such as 5%. Adding a penalty of 5% will tend to prevent the processor 12 from planning a shortest distance route through a neighborhood when the neighborhood is not the origin or the destination. The penalty of 5%, however, is not a large enough penalty to prevent the route from traveling through the neighborhood if the neighborhood route is significantly shorter than traveling on roads with higher network routing levels that avoid the neighborhood. At step 300, the processor 12 increases the incremental impedance factor if the path travels through a neighborhood by adding a distance penalty, as discussed previously. The processor 12 may then use the impedance factor of step 300 to adjust the estimated overall cost of the potential path. Correction modules that include one or more of the sets of steps for estimating impedance time, estimating turn penalties, and/or improving shortest distance routes by eliminating undesirable shortcuts, such as through neighborhoods, may be utilized by conventional planning algorithms and route planning systems. By using the aforementioned techniques for calculating the estimated delays that are experienced by traffic moving through a node, a more desirable route is planned. While particular elements, embodiments and applications of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be understood, of course, that the invention is not limited thereto since modifications may be made by those skilled in the art, particularly in light of the foregoing teachings. It is therefore contemplated by the appended claims to cover such modifications as incorporate those features which come within the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to navigational route planning. In particular, certain embodiments of the present invention relate to determining a route through a road network. Route planning devices are well known in the field of navigational instruments. Several algorithms utilized by planning devices calculate the route from one of the source and/or destination locations or from both simultaneously. Conventional planning algorithms operate based on a predefined stored data structure including data indicative of a geographic region containing the source and destination locations. Some devices implement a straight line approach in determining the distance between source and destination locations. In the straight line approach, the processor creates a straight line from the present location to the final destination and measures that straight line distance. For example, if a desired destination is on a mountain, the straight line distance from a current location might be only six miles. However, if the only available road to that destination is a windy road around the mountain entailing 30 miles of actual driving, the route planning distance calculated by the straight line approach will be inaccurate. Other devices implement a nodal analysis in which a number of potential paths are determined from a present location to a destination location based on stored data indicative of roadways between nodes. The nodal analysis then examines each potential path and determines an impedance or “cost” associated with each path (i.e. a measure of the amount of time or distance required to travel the path). Paths are eliminated based on criteria such as shortest distance, shortest time, lowest cost, or user inputted preferred routes. However, conventional route planning devices will not find the most efficient route since they do not take into consideration certain factors that affect travel over a particular route. For example, a user may input desired source and destination locations, and request the route that covers the shortest distance. While only one particular route may be the physically shortest distance between source and destination locations, other near-shortest routes may exist that are only slightly longer. The shortest and near-shortest routes include travel along different combinations of roads and travel through unique combinations of road intersections. Each road in the shortest and near-shortest routes has an associated travel speed, representing the speed limit or range at which traffic typically travels over the road. Also, each road in the shortest and near-shortest routes passes through a combination of intersections. The shortest and near-shortest routes may be close in length, while the shortest route may include roads with slower travel speeds and/or more intersections and/or intersections that typically require more time (e.g., stop signs, stop lights, crossing larger/busier highways, turning across traffic onto a new road, etc.) as compared to one or more near-shortest routes. Conventional route planning devices produce a shortest distance route which includes roads that are selected independent of whether the roads have slower traveling speeds. Conventional route planning devices do not include travel-time information for road intersections, nor account for delays at road intersections when planning a route. Although one route represents the shortest distance, a more efficient route may exist with a slightly longer distance (e.g., a near-shortest distance route). The difference between the length of the shortest distance route and the near-shortest distance route may be insignificant. Consequently, the user may travel for a longer period of time and encounter more traffic delays by taking the shortest distance route. Conventional route planning devices do not take into consideration travel delays experienced at intersections, such as delays due to stop signs, stop lights, crossing lanes of on-coming traffic, turning onto or off of one-way roads, the angle at which roads intersect when a route turns from one road onto another, and the like. This is not desirable. Thus, a need has long existed in the industry for a method and apparatus for determining impedance time through a road network that addresses the problems noted above and other problems previously experienced. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to a method for estimating an impedance time through a node at an intersection between roads in a roadway network. The method includes identifying characteristic information that describes at least one feature of the intersecting roads. Based on the characteristic information, an impedance time associated with potential delays by traffic traveling through the node is estimated. The characteristic information may include speed information, such as speed categories or speed bands. A speed band identifies a speed range in which traffic travels on the road, and a speed differential between the speed bands of intersecting roads may be determined. Optionally, the characteristic information may include road-type or network routing level information, such as when the roadway network is divided into a hierarchy of road-types. A route level may be assigned to each road intersecting at a node, and a route level differential between the route levels of the roads may be determined. The characteristic information may include intersection angle information and/or cross traffic turn information. In another embodiment of the present invention, a method is provided for calculating a navigation route between first and second geographic locations through a roadway network of roads that intersect at nodes. A data structure is provided that has data indicative of the roadway network of roads. The data includes feature data indicating traffic characteristics for the roads. Route impedance is calculated for a navigation route through the roadway between the first and second locations based on the feature data. The node impedance is determined for the navigation route where the navigation route intersects other roads. The node impedance may indicate a potential delay that traffic experiences when traveling through a node. The node impedance and route impedance are used to calculate the navigation route. The node and route impedances may be measured in time or distance. The feature data may include speed information, one-way, and/or intersection angle information. A turn penalty may be assigned when the navigation route crosses on-coming traffic. Optionally, a neighborhood penalty may be added to the node or route impedance when the navigation route travels through residential areas that are not located at the first and second geographic locations. Optionally, an exit/entry ramp penalty may be added to the node or route impedance when the navigation route travels along an exit ramp from a first road directly onto an entry ramp back onto the first road. In another embodiment of the present invention, a navigation device is provided comprising a memory and processor. The memory at least temporarily stores at least a portion of a data structure having data indicative of a roadway network of roads intersecting at nodes. The data structure includes feature data of traffic characteristics for roads. The processor accesses the memory and calculates a route through the roadway network between geographic locations from the data stored in the data structure. The processor estimates node impedances for intersection nodes, and utilizes the route impedance and node impedance to calculate the route. The feature data may include speed information, road-type information, routing level information, intersection angle information, and/or cross traffic information which is used to calculate node impedance. Optionally, the device may include an input buffer for temporarily storing a portion of the data structure received from an external storage device. In one embodiment, the device includes a display that presents the route to an operator. The device may also comprise a wireless input/output unit used to communicate with an external network and receive a portion of the data structure of a wireless connection with the external network. In another embodiment of the present invention, a navigation system is provided comprising a storage unit, a route calculation module, and a correction module. The storage unit stores a data structure having data indicative of roads and intersection nodes in a roadway network. The data includes road-type information that classifies roads into a hierarchy of route levels. The route calculation module calculates a planned route between source and destination locations over the network based on the stored data. The route calculation module may calculate the route based on a shortest distance routing algorithm, and may add a distance penalty to potential routes that include an exit or entrance ramp. The correction module identifies undesirable shortcuts by using the road-type information to avoid traveling from a road of a higher route level to a road of a lower route level. Undesirable shortcuts may be along exit and entrance ramps of a road or through neighborhoods. Optionally, the correction module may include a neighborhood progression module that updates the route to avoid residential roads that are remote from the source and destination locations. The route calculation module may receive a request from a mobile unit over a network to calculate a route. The request would include source and destination locations, and other use specific information. The route calculation module would access corresponding data structures, such as in a server, plan the route, and return the planned route to the mobile unit. The returned information would include the portion of the roadway network between the source and destination locations. The network may be the internet, a wireless connection and the like. | 20050113 | 20070417 | 20050616 | 95321.0 | 0 | ARTHUR JEANGLAUD, GERTRUDE | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR ESTIMATING IMPEDANCE TIME THROUGH A ROAD NETWORK | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,269 | ACCEPTED | Display device, data driving circuit, and display panel driving method | A display device includes a plurality of selection scan lines, a plurality of current lines, a selection scan driver which sequentially selects the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period, a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in the selection period and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines after applying the reset voltage, and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and supply a driving current having a current value corresponding to the current value of the designating current which flows through the plurality of current lines. | 1. A display device comprising: a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a selection scan driver which sequentially selects said plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to said plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to said plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to said plurality of selection scan lines and said plurality of current lines, and supply a driving current having a current value corresponding to the current value of the designating current which flows through said plurality of current lines. 2. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said data driving circuit comprises: a switch which switches to a state in which the reset voltage is applied to said plurality of current lines in the first part of the selection period; and a current source driver which supplies the designating current having the current value corresponding to the image signal after the reset voltage is applied by the switch within the selection period. 3. An apparatus according to claim 1, wherein In the selection period, each of said plurality of pixel circuits loads the designating current which flows through said plurality of current lines, and stores a level of a voltage converted in accordance with the current value of the designating current, and after the selection period, each of said plurality of pixel circuits shuts off the designating current which flows through said plurality of current lines, and supplies a driving current corresponding to the level of the voltage converted in accordance with the designating current. 4. An apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 3, further comprising a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of said plurality of selection scan lines and said plurality of current lines, emit light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a driving current, and each have two electrodes one of which is connected to a corresponding one of said plurality of pixel circuits. 5. An apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the reset voltage applied by the data driving circuit is set equal to or lower than a voltage of the other electrode of the light-emitting element. 6. An apparatus according to claim 1, further comprising: a plurality of voltage supply lines; and a voltage supply driver which sequentially selects said plurality of voltage supply lines in synchronism with the sequential selection of said plurality of selection scan lines by the selection scan driver. 7. An apparatus according to claim 6, wherein each of said pixel circuits comprises: a first transistor having a gate connected to the selection scan line, and a drain and source one of which is connected to the current line; a second transistor having a gate connected to the selection scan line, and a drain and source one of which is connected to the voltage supply line; a driving transistor having a gate connected to the other of the drain and source of the second transistor, and a drain and source one of which is connected to the voltage supply line, and the other of which is connected to the other of the drain and source of the first transistor; and a capacitor which stores a gate-to-one of source and drain voltage of the driving transistor by holding the voltage. 8. An apparatus according to claim 7, which further comprises a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of said plurality of selection scan lines and said plurality of current lines, emit light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a driving current, and each have two electrodes one of which is connected to a corresponding one of said plurality pixel circuits, and in which the other electrode of the light-emitting element is connected to the other of the drain and source of the driving transistor. 9. An apparatus according to claim 8, wherein in the selection period, the first transistor supplies the designating current from the voltage supply line to the current line via the drain-to-source path of the driving transistor, the driving transistor converts the current value of the designating current into a level of a gate-to-one of source and drain voltage, and the capacitor stores the level of the converted voltage, and after the selection period, the driving transistor supplies, to the light-emitting element, a driving current having a current value corresponding to the level of the gate-to-one of source and drain voltage stored by the capacitor. 10. An apparatus according to claim 8, wherein the voltage applied to the voltage supply line by the voltage supply driver in the selection period is set not higher than a voltage of the other electrode of the light-emitting element, and the voltage applied to the voltage supply line by the voltage supply driver after the selection period is set higher than the voltage of the other electrode of the light-emitting element. 11. A display device comprising: a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of said plurality of selection scan lines and said plurality of current lines, and emit light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a driving current; a selection scan driver which sequentially select said plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to said plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to said plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to said plurality of selection scan lines and said plurality of current lines, and electrically connect said plurality of current lines and said plurality of light-emitting elements to each other in the selection period. 12. A data driving circuit of an active matrix driving display device comprising a plurality of light-emitting elements connected to a plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, a selection scan driver which sequentially selects said plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period, and a plurality of pixel circuits connected to said plurality of light-emitting elements, wherein a reset voltage is applied to said plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal is supplied to said plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after the first part of the selection period. 13. A circuit according to claim 12, further comprising: a switch which switches to a state in which the reset voltage is applied to said plurality of current lines in the first part of the selection period; and a current source driver which, after the reset voltage is applied by the switch in the selection period, supplies the designating current having the current value corresponding to the image signal to said plurality of current lines. 14. A display panel driving method comprising: a selection step of sequentially selecting a plurality of selection scan lines of a display panel comprising a plurality of pixel circuits connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, and a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, each of the light-emitting elements emits light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a current flowing the current line; and a reset step of applying a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in an initial part of a period in which each of the plurality of selection scan lines is selected. 15. A method according to claim 14, further comprising: a designating current supply step of, after the reset step, supplying designating currents having current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines, and storing, in the plurality of pixel circuits, the current value of the designating currents flowing through the plurality of current lines; and a light emission step of, after the designating current supply step, allowing the plurality of pixel circuits to supply, to the plurality of light-emitting elements, driving currents having current value corresponding to the stored current value of the designating currents. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from prior Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-009146, filed Jan. 16, 2004, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a display panel driving method of driving a display panel including a light-emitting element for each pixel, a data driving circuit for driving the display panel, and a display device including the display panel, the data driving circuit, and a selection scan driver. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, liquid crystal displays are classified into active matrix driving type liquid crystal displays and simple matrix driving type liquid crystal displays. The active matrix driving type liquid crystal displays display images having contrast and resolution higher than those displayed by the simple matrix driving type liquid crystal displays. In the active matrix driving type liquid crystal display, a liquid crystal element which also functions as a capacitor, and a transistor which functions as a pixel switching element are formed for each pixel. In the active matrix driving system, when a voltage at a level representing luminance is applied to a current line by a data driver while a scan line is selected by a scan driver serving as a shift register, this voltage is applied to the liquid crystal element via the transistor. Even when the transistor is turned off in a period after the selection of the scan line is complete and before the scan line is selected again, the liquid crystal element functions as a capacitor, so the voltage level is held in this period. As described above, the light transmittance of the liquid crystal element is refreshed while the scan line is selected, and light from a backlight is transmitted through the liquid crystal element having the refreshed light transmittance. In this manner, the liquid crystal display expresses a tone. Displays using organic EL (ElecctroLuminescent) elements as self-light-emitting elements require no such a backlight as used in the liquid crystal displays, and hence are optimum for flat display devices. In addition, the viewing angle is not limited unlike in the liquid crystal display. Therefore, these organic EL displays are increasingly expected to be put into practical use as next-generation display devices. From the viewpoints of high luminance, high contrast, and high resolution, active matrix driving type organic EL displays are developed similarly to the liquid crystal displays. For example, in the conventional active matrix driving type organic EL display described in Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. 2000-221942, a pixel circuit (referred to as an organic EL element driving circuit in patent reference 1) is formed for each pixel. This pixel circuit includes an organic EL element, driving TFT, first switching element, switching TFT, and the like. When a control line is selected, a current source driver applies a voltage as luminance data to the gate of the driving TFT. Consequently, the driving TFT is turned on, and a driving current having a current value corresponding to the level of the gate voltage flows from a power supply line to the driving TFT via the organic EL element, so the organic EL element emits light at luminance corresponding to the current value of the electric current. When the selection of the control line is complete, the gate voltage of the driving TFT is held by the first switching element, so the emission of the organic EL element is also held. When a blanking signal is input to the gate of the switching TFT after that, the gate voltage of the driving TFT decreases to turn it off, and the organic EL element is also turned off to complete one frame period. Generally, the channel resistance of a transistor changes in accordance with a change in ambient temperature, or changes when the transistor is used for a long time. As a consequence, the gate threshold voltage changes with time, or differs from one transistor to another. Therefore, in the conventional voltage-controlled, active matrix driving type organic EL display in which the luminance and tone are controlled by the signal voltage, it is difficult to uniquely designate the current value of an electric current which flows through the organic EL element by the level of the gate voltage of the driving TFT, even if the current value of the electric current which flows through the organic EL element is changed by changing the level of the gate voltage of the driving TFT by using the signal voltage from the current line. That is, even when the gate voltage having the same level is applied to the driving TFTs of a plurality of pixels, the luminance of the organic EL element changes from one pixel to another. This produces variations in luminance on the display screen. Also, since the driving TFT deteriorates with time, the same gate voltage as the initial gate voltage cannot generate a driving current having the same current value as the initial current value. This also varies the luminance of the organic EL elements. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a display device, data driving circuit, and display panel driving method capable of displaying high-quality images. A display device according to an aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a selection scan driver which sequentially selects the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and supply a driving current having a current value corresponding to the current value of the designating current which flows through the plurality of current lines. A display device according to another aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and emit light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a driving current; a selection scan driver which sequentially select the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and electrically connect the plurality of current lines and the plurality of light-emitting elements to each other in the selection period. A data driving circuit according to still another aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of light-emitting elements connected to a plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, a selection scan driver which sequentially selects the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period, and a plurality of pixel circuits connected to the plurality of light-emitting elements, wherein a reset voltage is applied to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal is supplied to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after the first part of the selection period. A display panel driving method according to still another aspect of the present invention comprises, a selection step of sequentially selecting a plurality of selection scan lines of a display panel comprising a plurality of pixel circuits connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, and a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, each of the light-emitting elements emits light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a current flowing the current line; and a reset step of applying a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in an initial part of a period in which each of the plurality of selection scan lines is selected. In the present invention, it is possible not only to discharge the parasitic capacitance of a current line by applying a reset voltage in a selection period, but also to discharge the parasitic capacitance of a pixel circuit or the parasitic capacitance of a light-emitting element. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an organic electroluminescent display 1 according to the first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a plan view of a pixel Pi,j of the organic electroluminescent display 1; FIG. 3 is an equivalent circuit diagram of four adjacent pixels Pi,j, Pi+1,j, Pi,j+1 and Pi+1,j+1 of the organic electroluminescent display 1; FIG. 4 is a timing chart showing the levels of signals in the organic electroluminescent display 1; FIG. 5 is a graph showing the current-voltage characteristics of an N-channel field-effect transistor; FIG. 6 shows an equivalent circuit diagram of two adjacent pixels Pi,j and Pi,j+1 in the ith row, and the states of electric currents and voltages in a reset period TR of the ith row; FIG. 7 shows the equivalent circuit diagram of the two adjacent pixels Pi,j and Pi,j+1 in the ith row, and the states of electric currents and voltages after the reset period TR in a selection period TSE of the ith row; FIG. 8 shows the equivalent circuit diagrams of the two adjacent pixels Pi,j and Pi,j+1 in the ith row, and the states of electric currents and voltages in a non-selection period TNSE of the ith row; FIG. 9 is a timing chart showing the levels of electric currents and voltages pertaining to the pixel Pi,j; FIG. 10 is a block diagram of an organic electroluminescent display according to the second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a block diagram of an organic electroluminescent display according to the third embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 12 is a block diagram of an organic electroluminescent display according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Best modes for carrying out the invention will be described below with reference to the accompanying drawings. Various technically preferred limitations are imposed on the following embodiments in order to, carry out the present invention. However, the scope of the invention is not limited to the embodiments and examples shown in the drawing. First Embodiment FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing an organic electroluminescent display 1 according to the first embodiment to which the organic electroluminescent display of the present invention is applied. As shown in FIG. 1, the organic electroluminescent display 1 includes, as its basic configuration, an organic electroluminescent display panel 2 having m selection scan lines X1 to Xm, m voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm, n current lines Y1 to Yn, and pixels P1,1 to Pm,n. The display 1 further includes, a scan driving circuit 9 for linearly scanning the organic electroluminescent display panel 2 in the longitudinal direction, and a data driving circuit 7 for supplying a tone designating current IDATA to the current lines Y1 to Yn in cooperation with the scan driving circuit 9. Here, each of m and n is a natural number of 2 or more. The can driving circuit 9 has a selection scan driver 5 for sequentially selecting the selection scan lines X1 to Xm, and a voltage supply driver 6 for sequentially selecting the voltage supply lines Z1 to Zn in synchronism with the sequential selection of the selection scan lines X1 to Xm by the selection scan driver 5. The data driving circuit 7 has a current source driver 3. The driver 3 includes n current terminals CT1 to CTn and allows the tone designating current IDATA to flow through the current terminals CT1 to CTn, and switches S1 to Sn interposed between the current terminals CT1 to CTn and current lines Y1 to Yn. The organic electroluminescent display panel 2 has a structure in which a display unit 4 for practically displaying images is formed on a transparent substrate. The selection scan driver 5, voltage supply driver 6, current source driver 3, and switches S1 to Sn are arranged around the display unit 4. Portions or the whole of the selection scan driver 5, the voltage supply driver 6, the current source driver 3, and at least one of the switches S1 to Sn can be integrated with the organic electroluminescent display panel 2 as they are formed on the transparent substrate, or can be formed around the organic electroluminescent display panel 2 as they are formed into a chip different from the organic electroluminescent display panel 2. Note that the display unit 4 may also be formed on a flexible sheet such as a resin sheet, instead of the transparent substrate. In the display unit 4, the (m×n) pixels P1,1 to Pm,n are formed in a matrix on the transparent substrate such that m pixels are arranged in the longitudinal direction, i.e., the column direction, and n pixels are arranged in the lateral direction, i.e., the row direction. A pixel which is an ith pixel (i.e., a pixel in the ith row) from above and a jth pixel (i.e., a pixel in the jth column) from left is a pixel Pi,j. Note that i is a given natural number from 1 to m, and j is a given natural number from 1 to n. Accordingly, in the display unit 4, the m selection scan lines X1 to Xm running in the row direction are formed parallel to each other on the transparent substrate. The m voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm running in the row direction are formed parallel to each other on the transparent substrate in one-to-one correspondence with the selection scan lines X1 to Xm. The voltage supply line Zk (1≦k≦m−1) is positioned between the selection scan lines Xk and Xk+1, and the selection scan line Xm is positioned between the voltage supply lines Zm−1 and Zm. Also, the n current lines Y1 to Yn running in the column direction are formed parallel to each other on the upper side of the transparent substrate. The selection scan lines X1 to Xm, voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm, and current lines Y1 to Yn are insulated from each other as they are separated by insulating films or the like interposed between them. The n pixels Pi,1 to Pi,n arranged along the row direction are connected to the selection scan line Xi and voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. The m pixels P1,j to Pm,j arranged along the column direction are connected to the current line Yj in the jth column. The pixel Pi,j is positioned at the intersection of the selection scan line Xi and current line Yj. The selection scan lines X1 to Xm are connected to output terminals of the selection scan driver 5. The voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm are connected to output terminals of the voltage supply driver 6. The pixels P1,1 to Pm,n will be explained below with reference to FIGS. 2 and 3. FIG. 2 is a plan view showing the pixel Pi,j. FIG. 3 is an equivalent circuit diagram showing, e.g., four adjacent pixels Pi,j, Pi+1,j, Pi,j+1, and Pi+1,j+1. FIG. 2 principally shows the electrodes in the pixel Pi,j to allow better understanding. The pixel Pi,j includes an organic electroluminescent element Ei,j as a self-light-emitting element which emits light in accordance with the value of an electric current, and a pixel circuit Di,j which is formed around the organic electroluminescent element Ei,j, and drives it. Note that the organic electroluminescent element will be referred to as an organic EL element hereinafter. The organic EL element Ei,j has a stacked structure in which a pixel electrode 51, organic EL layer 52, and common electrode are stacked in this order on the transparent substrate. The pixel electrode 51 functions as an anode. The organic EL layer 52 functions as a light-emitting layer in a broad sense, i.e., transports holes and electrons injected by an electric field, recombines the transported holes and electrons, and emits light by excitons produced by the recombination. The common electrode functions as a cathode. Although the common electrode is formed to cover the entire pixel, the it is not shown in FIG. 2 so that the pixel electrode 51, organic EL layer 52, pixel circuit Di,j and the like are readily seen. The pixel electrode 51 is patterned for each of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n in each of regions surrounded by the current lines Y1 to Yn, selection scan lines X1 to Xm, and voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm. The pixel electrode 51 is a transparent electrode. That is, the pixel electrode 51 has both conductivity and transparency to visible light. Also, the pixel electrode 51 preferably has a relatively high work function, and efficiently injects holes into the organic EL layer 52. Examples of main components of the pixel electrode 51 are tin-doped indium oxide (ITO), zinc-doped indium oxide, indium oxide (In2O3), tin oxide (SnO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and cadmium-tin oxide (CTO). The organic EL layer 52 is formed on each pixel electrode 51. The organic EL layer 52 is also patterned for each of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n. The organic EL layer 52 contains a light-emitting material (phosphor) as an organic compound. This light-emitting material can be either a high- or low-molecular material. In particular, the organic EL layer 52 has a two-layered structure in which a hole transporting layer and a light-emitting layer in a narrow sense are stacked in this order on the pixel electrode 51. The hole transporting layer is made of a PEDOT (polythiophene) as a conductive polymer, and PSS (polystyrene sulfonic acid) as a dopant. The light-emitting layer in a narrow sense is made of a polyfluorene-based, light-emitting material. Note that the organic EL layer 52 may also have a three-layered structure having a hole transporting layer, a light-emitting layer in a narrow sense, and an electron transporting layer stacked in this order on the pixel electrode 51, or a single-layered structure having only a light-emitting layer in a narrow sense, instead of the two-layered structure. An electron or hole injecting layer may also be interposed between appropriate layers in any of these layered structures, and some other stacked structure may also be used. The organic EL display panel 2 can display full-color images or multicolor images. The organic EL layer 52 of each of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n is a light-emitting layer in a broad sense which has a function of emitting red, green, or blue light. That is, the organic EL layers 52 which emit red light, green light, and blue light are regularly arranged, and the display unit 4 displays images in a color tone obtained by properly synthesizing these colors. The organic EL layer 52 is desirably made of an organic compound which is neutral with respect of electrons. This allows balanced injection and transportation of holes and electrons in the organic EL layer 52. One or both of an electron transporting substance and hole transporting substance may also be properly mixed in the light-emitting layer in a narrow sense. It is also possible to cause a charge transporting layer which is an electron or hole transporting layer to function as a recombination region which recombines electrons and holes, and to emit light by mixing a phosphor in this charge transporting layer. The common electrode formed on the organic EL layers 52 is formed for all the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n. Note that instead of this common electrode formed for all the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n, it is also possible to use a plurality of divided electrodes, e.g., a plurality of stripe electrodes divided for individual columns, or a plurality of stripe electrodes divided for individual rows. Generally, the organic EL layers 52 which emit different colors are made of different materials, and the light emission characteristics with respect to the current density depend upon the material. To adjust the luminance balance between different emission colors, therefore, pixels which emit the same color can be connected together in order to set the value of an electric current for each emission color of the organic EL layer 52. That is, assuming that a first-emission-color pixel emits a predetermined luminance at a relatively low current density, and a second-emission-color pixel requires a high current density in order to emit the same luminance as the first-emission-color pixel, the emission color balance can be adjusted by supplying, to the second-emission-color pixel, a tone electric current which is larger than that of the first-emission-color pixel. The common electrode is electrically insulated from the selection scan lines X1 to Xm, current lines Y1 to Yn, and voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm. The common electrode is made of a material having a low work function. For example, the common electrode is made of indium, magnesium, calcium, lithium, barium, a rare earth metal, or an alloy containing at least one of these elements. Also, the common electrode can have a stacked structure in which layers of the various materials described above are stacked, or a stacked structure in which a metal layer is deposited in addition to these layers of the various materials. Practical examples are a stacked structure including a low-work-function, high-purity barium layer formed in the interface in contact with the organic EL layer 52, and an aluminum layer which covers this barium layer, and a stacked structure having a lithium layer as a lower layer and an aluminum layer as an upper layer. When the pixel electrode 51 is a transparent electrode and light emitted from the organic EL layer 52 is output from the transparent substrate through the pixel electrode 51, the common electrode preferably has light-shielding properties with respect to the light emitted from the organic EL layer 52, and more preferably has a high reflectance to the light emitted from the organic EL layer 52. When a forward bias voltage (by which the voltage of the pixel electrode 51 becomes higher than that of the common electrode) is applied between the pixel electrode 51 and common electrode in the organic EL element Ei,j having the stacked structure as described above, holes are injected into the organic EL layer 52 from the pixel electrode 51, and electrons are injected into the organic EL layer 52 from the common electrode. The organic EL layer 52 transports these holes and electrons, and recombines them to produce excitons. Since these excitons excite the organic EL layer 52, the organic EL layer 52 emits light. The luminance of the organic EL element Ei,j depends on the current value of an electric current which flows through the organic EL element Ei,j; the larger the electric current which flows through the organic EL element Ei,j, the higher the luminance of the organic EL element Ei,j. That is, if deterioration of the organic EL element Ei,j is not taken into consideration, the luminance of the organic EL element Ei,j is uniquely determined when the current value of the electric current which flows through the organic EL element Ei,j is determined. Each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n includes three thin-film transistors (to be simply referred to as transistors hereinafter) 21, 22, and 23, and a capacitor 24. Each of the transistors 21, 22, and 23 is an N-channel MOS field-effect transistor having a gate, drain, source, semiconductor layer 44, impurity-dosed semiconductor layer, and gate insulating film. Each transistor is particularly an a-Si transistor in which the semiconductor layer 44 (channel region) is made of amorphous silicon. However, each transistor may also be a p-Si transistor in which the semiconductor layer 44 is made of polysilicon. In either case, the transistors 21, 22, and 23 are N-channel field-effect transistors, and can have either an inverted stagger structure or a coplanar structure. Also, the transistors 21, 22, and 23 can be simultaneously formed in the same process. In this case, the compositions of the gates, drains, sources, semiconductor layers 44, impurity-dosed semiconductor layers, and gate insulating films of the transistors 21, 22, and 23 are the same, and the shapes, sizes, dimensions, channel widths, and channel lengths of the transistors 21, 22, and 23 are different from each other in accordance with the functions of the transistors 21, 22, and 23. Note that the transistors 21, 22, and 23 will be referred to as a first transistor 21, second transistor 22, and driving transistor 23, respectively, hereinafter. The capacitor 24 has a first electrode 24A connected to a gate 23g of the driving transistor 23, a second electrode 24B connected to a source 23s of the transistor 23, and a gate insulating film (dielectric film) interposed between these two electrodes. The capacitor 24 has a function of storing electric charges between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23. In the second transistor 22 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row, a gate 22g is connected to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row, and a drain 22d is connected to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. In the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row, a drain 23d is connected to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row through a contact hole 26. In the first transistor 21 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row, a gate 21g is connected to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row. In the first transistor 21 of each of the pixel circuits D1,j to Dm,j in the jth column, a source 21s is connected to the current line Yj in the jth column. In each of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n, a source 22s of the second transistor 22 is connected to the gate 23g of the driving transistor 23 through a contact hole 25, and to one electrode of the capacitor 24. The source 23s of the driving transistor 23 is connected to the other electrode of the capacitor 24, and to a drain 21d of the first transistor 21. The source 23s of the driving transistor 23, the other electrode of the capacitor 24, and the drain 21d of the first transistor 21 are connected to the pixel electrode 51. The voltage of the common electrode of the organic EL elements E1,1, to Em,n is held at a predetermined reference voltage VSS. In this embodiment, the reference voltage VSS is set at 0 [V] by grounding the common electrode of the organic EL elements E1,1, to Em,n. The pixel electrodes 51 are divided by patterning for individual pixels surrounded by regions surrounded by the current lines Y1 to Yn, selection scan lines X1 to Xm, and voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm. In addition, the edges of each pixel electrode 51 are covered with an interlayer dielectric film made of silicon nitride or silicon oxide which covers the three transistors 21, 22, and 23 of each pixel circuit, and the upper surface of the center of the pixel electrode 51 is exposed through a contact hole 55 formed in this interlayer dielectric film. Note that the interlayer dielectric film can have a first layer made of silicon nitride or silicon oxide, and a second layer formed on the first layer by using an insulating film made of, e.g., polyimide. Between the selection scan line Xi and current line Yj, and between the voltage supply line Zi and current line Yj, a protective film 44A is formed by patterning the same film as the semiconductor layer 44 of each of the transistors 21 to 23, in addition to the gate insulating film. Note that in order to protect the surface, which serves as a channel, of the semiconductor layer 44 of each of the transistors 21, 22, and 23 from being roughened by an etchant used in patterning, a blocking insulating layer made of silicon nitride or the like may also be formed except for the two end portions of the semiconductor layer 44. In this case, a protective film may be formed by patterning the same film as the blocking insulating layer between the selection scan line Xi and current line Yj, and between the voltage supply line Zi and current line Yj. This protective film and the protective film 44A may also be overlapped. The selection scan driver 5, voltage supply driver 6, switches S1 to Sn, and current source driver 3 will be described below with reference to FIG. 4. FIG. 4 is a timing chart showing, from above, the voltage of the selection scan line X1, the voltage of the voltage supply line Z1, the voltage of the selection scan line X2, the voltage of the voltage supply line Z2, the voltage of the selection scan line X3, the voltage of the voltage supply line Z3, the voltage of the selection scan line Xm, the voltage of the voltage supply line Zm, the level (voltage value) of a switching signal inv.Φ, the level of a switching signal Φ, the voltage of the current line Yj, the voltage of the pixel electrode 51 of the organic EL element E1,j, the luminance of the organic EL element E1,j, the voltage of the pixel electrode 51 of the organic EL element E2,j, and the luminance of the organic EL element E2,j. Referring to FIG. 4, the abscissa represents the common time. The selection scan driver 5 is a so-called shift register, and has an arrangement in which m flip-flop circuits and the like are connected in series. That is, the selection scan driver 5 sequentially selects the selection scan lines X1 to Xm by sequentially outputting selection signals in order from the selection scan line X1 to the selection scan line Xm (the selection scan line Xm is followed by the selection scan line X1), thereby sequentially selecting the first and second transistors 21 and 22 in these rows connected to the selection scan lines X1 to Xm. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 4, the selection scan driver 5 individually applies, to the selection scan lines X1 to Xm, a high-level (ON-level) ON voltage VON (much higher than the reference voltage VSS) as a selection signal or a low-level OFF voltage VOFF (equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS) as a non-selection signal, thereby sequentially selecting the selection scan lines X1 to Xm. That is, when the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi, the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is selected. A period in which the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row and thereby selects the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is called a selection period TSE of the ith row. Note that while applying the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi, the selection scan driver 5 applies the OFF voltage VOFF to the other selection scan lines X1 to Xm (except for the selection scan line Xi). Accordingly, the selection periods TSE of the selection scan lines X1 to Xm do not overlap each other. When the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row, the first and second transistors 21 and 22 are turned on in each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n connected to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row. Since the first transistors 21 are turned on, an electric current which flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn can flow through the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n. After the selection period TSE in which the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is selected, the selection scan driver 5 applies the OFF voltage VOFF to the selection scan line Xi to cancel the selection of the selection scan line Xi. As a consequence, in each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n connected to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row, the first and second transistors 21 and 22 are turned off. Since the first transistors 21 are turned off, the electric current which flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn cannot flow through the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n any longer. Note that a period in which the selection scan driver 5 applies the OFF voltage VOFF to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row and thereby keeps the selection scan line Xi in the ith row unselected is called a non-selection period TNSE of the ith row. In this case, a period represented by TSE+TNSE=TSC, i.e., a period from the start time of the selection period TSE of the selection scan line Xi in the ith row to the start time of the next selection period TSE of the selection scan line Xi in the ith row, is one frame period of the ith row. The voltage supply driver 6 is a so-called shift register, and has an arrangement in which m flip-flop circuits are connected in series. That is, in synchronism with the selection scan driver 5, the voltage supply driver 6 sequentially selects the voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm by sequentially outputting selection signals in order from the voltage supply line Z1 to the voltage supply line Zm (the voltage supply line Zm is followed by the voltage supply line Z1), thereby sequentially selecting the driving transistors 23 in these rows connected to the voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm. More specifically, as shown in FIG. 4, the voltage supply driver 6 individually supplies, to the voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm, a low-level tone designating current reference voltage VLOW (which is equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS) as a selection signal or a high-level driving current reference voltage VHIGH (which is higher than both the reference voltage VSS and tone designating current reference voltage VLOW) as a non-selection signal, thereby sequentially selecting the voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm. That is, in the selection period TSE in which the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is selected, the voltage supply driver 6 applies the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row, thereby selecting the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. While applying the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW to the voltage supply line Zi, the voltage supply driver 6 applies the driving current reference voltage VHIGH to the other voltage supply lines Z1 to Zm (except for the voltage supply line Zi). On the other hand, in the non-selection period TNSE in which the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is not selected, the voltage supply driver 6 applies the driving current reference voltage VHIGH to the voltage supply line Zi to cancel the selection of the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. Since the driving current reference voltage VHIGH is higher than the reference voltage VSS, an electric current flows from the voltage supply line Zi to the organic EL element Ei,j if the driving transistor 23 is ON and the transistor 21 is OFF. The tone designating current reference voltage VLOW applied by the voltage supply driver 6 is equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS. Therefore, even when the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n is turned on in the selection period TSE, a zero voltage or reverse bias voltage is applied between the anode and cathode of each of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n. Accordingly, no electric current flows through the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n in the selection period TSE, so the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n do not emit light. On the other hand, the driving current reference voltage VHIGH applied by the voltage supply driver 6 is higher than the reference voltage VSS. As shown in FIG. 5, the driving current reference voltage VHIGH is so set that a source-to-drain voltage VDS of the driving transistor 23 is in a saturated region. Accordingly, when the driving transistors 23 are ON in the non-selection period TNSE, a forward bias voltage is applied to the organic EL elements E1,1, to Em,n. In the non-selection period TNSE, therefore, an electric current flows through the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n, and the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n emit light. The driving current reference voltage VHIGH will be explained below. FIG. 5 is a graph showing the current-voltage characteristics of the N-channel field-effect transistor. Referring to FIG. 5, the abscissa indicates the divided voltage of the driving transistor and the divided voltage of the organic EL element connected in series to the driving transistor, and the ordinate indicates the current value of an electric current in the drain-to-source path. In an unsaturated region (a region where source-to-drain voltage VDS<drain saturated threshold voltage VTH: the drain saturated threshold voltage VTH is a function of a gate-to-source voltage VGS, and is uniquely determined by the gate-to-source voltage VGS if the gate-to-source voltage VGS is determined) shown in FIG. 5, if the gate-to-source voltage VGS is constant, a drain-to-source current IDS increases as the source-to-drain voltage VDS increases. In addition, in a saturated region (in which source-to-drain voltage VDS≧drain saturated threshold voltage VTH) shown in FIG. 5, if the gate-to-source voltage VGS is constant, the drain-to-source current IDS is substantially constant even when the source-to-drain voltage VDS increases. Also, in FIG. 5, gate-to-source voltages VGS1 to VGSMAX have the relationship 0 [V]<VGS1<VGS2<VGS3<VGS4<VGSMAX. That is, as is apparent from FIG. 5, if the source-to-drain voltage VDS is constant, the drain-to-source current IDS increases in both the unsaturated and saturated regions as the gate-to-source voltage VGS increases. In addition, the drain saturated threshold voltage VTH increases as the gate-to-source voltage VGS increases. From the foregoing, in the unsaturated region, the drain-to-source current IDS changes if the source-to-drain voltage VDS slightly changes while the gate-to-source voltage VGS is constant. In the saturated region, however, the drain-to-source current IDS is uniquely determined by the gate-to-source voltage VGS. The drain-to-source current IDS when the maximum gate-to-source voltage VGSMAX is applied to the driving transistor 23 is set to be an electric current which flows between the common electrode and the pixel electrode 51 of the organic EL element Ei,j which emits light at the maximum luminance. Also, the following equation is met so that the driving transistor 23 maintains the saturated region in the selection period TSE even when the gate-to-source voltage VGS of the driving transistor 23 is the maximum voltage VGSMAX in the non-selection period. VLOW=VHIGH−VE−VSS−VTHMAX where VE is the anode-to-cathode voltage which the organic EL element Ei,j requires to emit light at the maximum luminance in the light emission life period, and VTHMAX is the source-to-drain saturated voltage level of the driving transistor 23 when the voltage is VGSMAX. The driving current reference voltage VHIGH is set to satisfy the above equation. Accordingly, even when the source-to-drain voltage VDS of the driving transistor 23 decreases by the divided voltage of the organic EL element Ei,j connected in series to the driving transistor 23, the source-to-drain voltage VDS always falls within the range of the saturated state, so the drain-to-source current IDS is uniquely determined by the gate-to-source voltage VGS. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 3, the current lines Y1 to Yn are connected to the current terminals CT1 to CTn of the current source driver 3 via the switches S1 to Sn. An 8-bit digital tone image signal is input to the current source driver 3. This digital tone image signal input to the current source driver 3 is converted into an analog signal by an internal D/A converter of the current source driver 3. The current source driver 3 generates, at the current terminals CT1 to CTn, a tone designating current IDATA having a current value corresponding to the converted analog signal. As shown in FIG. 4, the current source driver 3 controls the current value of the tone designating current IDATA at the current terminals CT1 to CTn in accordance with the image signal for each selection period TSE of each row, and holds the current value of the tone designating current IDATA constant in a period from the end of each reset period TR to the end of the corresponding selection period TSE. The current source driver 3 supplies the tone designating current IDATA from the current lines Y1 to Yn to the current terminals CT1 to CTn via the switches S1 to Sn. As shown in FIGS. 1 and 3, the switches S1 to Sn are connected to the current lines Y1 to Yn, and the current terminals CT1 to CTn of the current source driver 3 are connected to the switches S1 to Sn. In addition, the switches S1 to Sn are connected to a reset input terminal 41, and a reset voltage VR is applied to the switches S1 to Sn via the reset input terminal 41. The switches S1 to Sn are also connected to a switching signal input terminal 42, and a switching signal Φ is input to the switches S1 to Sn via the switching signal input terminal 42. Furthermore, the switches S1 to Sn are connected to a switching signal input terminal 43, and a switching signal inv.Φ obtained by inverting the switching signal Φ is input to the switches S1 to Sn via the switching signal input terminal 43. The reset voltage VR is constant and has the same level (voltage value) as the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW. More specifically, the reset voltage VR is set at 0 [V] by grounding the reset input terminal 41. Especially when the reset voltage VR of the ith row is made equal to the voltage of the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row in the selection period TSE, the voltages of the electrodes 24A and 24B of the capacitor 24 become equal to each other. Consequently, the capacitor 24 is discharged, so the gate-to-source voltage of the driving transistor 23 is set at 0V. The switch Sj (which is interposed between the current line Yj in the jth column and the current terminal CTj in the jth column) switches the state in which the current source driver 3 supplies the tone designating current IDATA to the current line Yj, and the state in which the reset voltage VR is applied to the current line Yj. That is, as shown in FIG. 4, if the switching signal Φ is at high level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at low level, the switch Sj shuts off the electric current of the current terminal CTj, and applies the reset voltage VR to the current line Yj, the drain 21d of the first transistor 21, the electrode 24B of the capacitor 24, the source 23s of the driving transistor 23, and the pixel electrode 51 of the organic EL element Ex,j (1≦x≦m), thereby discharging the electric charge stored in these components in the preceding selection period TSE. On the other hand, if the switching signal Φ is at low level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at high level, the switch Sj allows the electric current of the current terminal CTj to flow through the current line Yj, and shuts down the application of the reset voltage VR to the current line Yj. The cycle of the switching signals Φ and inv.Φ will be explained below. As shown in FIG. 4, the cycle of the switching signals Φ and inv.Φ is the same as the selection period TSE. That is, when the selection scan driver 5 starts applying the ON voltage VON to one of the selection scan lines X1 to Xm (i.e., when the selection period TSE of each row starts), the switching signal Φ changes from high level to low level, and the switching signal inv.Φ changes from low level to high level. While the selection scan driver 5 is applying the ON voltage VON to one of the selection scan lines X1 to Xm (i.e., in the selection period TSE of each row), the switching signal Φ changes from low level to high level, and the switching signal inv.Φ changes from high level to low level. A period in which the switching signal Φ is at high level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at low level in the selection period TSE of the selection scan line Xi in the ith row is called the reset period TR of the ith row. An example of the switch Sj will be explained below. The switch Sj is made up of first and second N-channel field-effect transistors 31 and 32. The gate of the first transistor 31 is connected to the switching signal input terminal 43, and thus the switching signal inv.Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 31. Also, the gate of the second transistor 32 is connected to the switching signal input terminal 42, and thus the switching signal Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 32. The drain of the first transistor 31 is connected to the current line Yj, and the source of the transistor 31 is connected to the current terminal CTj. The drain of the transistor 32 is connected to the current line Yj. The source of the transistor 32 is connected to the reset input terminal 41, and the reset voltage VR which is a constant voltage is applied to the source of the transistor 32. In this arrangement, when the switching signal Φ is at high level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at low level, the transistor 32 is turned on, and the transistor 31 is turned off. When the switching signal Φ is at low level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at high level, the transistor 31 is turned on, and the transistor 32 is turned off. The transistors 31 and 32 can be fabricated in the same steps as the transistors 21 to 23 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. The functions of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n will be described below with reference to FIGS. 6 to 8. In FIGS. 6 to 8, the flows of electric currents are indicated by arrows. FIG. 6 is a circuit diagram showing the states of the voltages in the reset period TR of the selection period TSE of the ith row. As shown in FIG. 6, in the reset period TR of the ith row, the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi, and the voltage supply driver 6 applies the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW to the voltage supply line Zi. In addition, in the reset period TR of the ith row, the switches S1 to Sn apply the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn. In the reset period TR of the ith row, therefore, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are ON. Consequently, as shown in FIG. 4, the voltages of the pixel electrodes 51 of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n, the drains 21d of the first transistors 21 in the ith row, the electrodes 24B of the capacitors 24 in the ith row, the sources 23s of the driving transistors 23 in the ith row, and the current lines Y1 to Yn are set in a steady state by the reset voltage VR, thereby discharging the electric charge stored by these parasitic capacitances in the preceding selection period TSE. Accordingly, the tone designating current IDATA having a steady current value can be rapidly written in the next selection period TSE. The parasitic capacitances of the organic. EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n are particularly large. Therefore, when the tone designating current IDATA having a low current value is written, it takes a long time to make the current value steady by resetting the electric charge written in the organic EL element in the preceding frame period TSC if the reset voltage VR is not applied in the selection period TSE. However, the reset voltage VR is forcedly applied in the selection period TSE, so the parasitic capacitance of the organic EL element can be rapidly discharged. Also, when the reset voltage VR of the ith row, which is applied in the selection period TSE is made equal to that of the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row, the voltages of the electrodes 24A and 24B of the capacitor 24 become equal to each other, so the electric charges written in the capacitor 24 in the preceding frame period TSC are removed. In addition, although the second transistors 22 and driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are ON, the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS is applied to the voltage supply line Zi, so the tone designating current IDATA which flows from the voltage supply line Zi to the driving transistors 23 does not flow through the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n. FIG. 7 is a circuit diagram showing the states of the electric currents and voltages after the reset period TR in the selection period TSE of the ith row. As shown in FIG. 7, after the reset period TR in the selection period TSE of the ith row, the selection scan driver 5 keeps applying the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi, and the voltage supply driver 6 keeps applying the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW to the voltage supply line Zi. In addition, after the reset period TR in the selection period TSE of the ith row, the current source driver 3 controls the switches S1 to Sn to supply the tone designating current IDATA from the current lines Y1 to Yn to the current terminals CT1 to CTn. In the selection period TSE of the ith row, the second transistors 22 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are ON. Since the second transistors 22 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are ON, the voltage is also applied to the gates 23g of the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n, so the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are turned on. Furthermore, since the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are also ON, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n supply the tone designating current IDATA from the voltage supply line Zi to the current lines Y1 to Yn via the drains 23d and sources 23s of the driving transistors 23. In this state, as shown in FIG. 4, the voltage of the current line Yj drops until the tone designating current IDATA becomes steady. Also, although the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are ON, the low-level tone designating current reference voltage VLOW is applied to the voltage supply line Zi, so no electric current flows from the voltage supply line Z1 to the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n. Therefore, the current value of the tone designating current IDATA flowing through the current lines Y1 to Yn becomes equal to the current value of the electric current IDS between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor 23. In addition, the level of the voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 follows the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows from the drain 23d to the source 23s. Accordingly, the driving transistor 23 converts the current value of the tone designating current IDATA into the level of the voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s, and electric charges corresponding to the level of the voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 are held in the capacitor 24. Note that the gate 23g and drain 23d of the driving transistor 23 are connected via the second transistor 22, and the ON resistance of the second transistor 22 upon selection is negligibly low. Therefore, the voltage applied to the gate 23g and the voltage applied to the drain 23d of the driving transistor 23 are substantially equal, so the tone designating current IDATA becomes the electric current IDS which changes on the broken line VTH shown in FIG. 5. That is, when the voltages of the gate 23g and drain 23d of the driving transistor 23 are equal, the voltage VDS between the source 23s and drain 23d is equal to the threshold voltage VTH between the unsaturated and saturated regions. FIG. 8 is a circuit diagram showing the states of the electric currents and voltages in the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row. As shown in FIG. 8, in the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row, the selection scan driver 5 applies the OFF voltage VOFF to the selection scan line Xi, and the voltage supply driver 6 applies the driving current reference voltage VHIGH to the voltage supply line Zi. In the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n are OFF. Therefore, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n shut off the tone designating current IDATA flowing through the current lines Y1 to Yn, thereby preventing an electric current from flowing from the voltage supply line Zi to the current lines Y1 to Yn via the driving transistors 23. In addition, since the second transistor 22 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row is turned off, the second transistor 22 confines the electric charges in the capacitor 24. In this manner, the second transistor 22 holds the level of the converted voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23, thereby storing the current value of the electric current which flows through the source-to-drain path of the driving transistor 23. In this state, the high-level driving current reference voltage VHIGH by which the source-to-drain voltage VDS of the driving transistor 23 maintains the saturated region is applied to the voltage supply line Zi, and the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n is ON. Accordingly, each driving transistor 23 supplies the driving current from the voltage supply line Zi to a corresponding one of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n to allow it to emit light at luminance corresponding to the current value of the driving current. In this state, the level of the converted voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n is held by the capacitor 24 so as to be equal to the level of the voltage when the tone designating current IDATA flows through a corresponding one of the current lines Y1 to Yn in the second half of the selection period TSE. As shown in FIG. 5, a divided voltage VEL of each of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the non-selection period TNSE is obtained by subtracting, from the driving current reference voltage VHIGH, the voltage VDS on the EL load border line indicated by the alternate long and short dashed line, which is obtained when a driving current (equivalent to IDS shown in FIG. 5) having a current value equal to that of the tone designating current IDATA flows. That is, the voltage difference on the right side of the EL load border line is the divided voltage of one organic EL element. As described above, the divided voltage VEL of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n rises as the luminance tone rises. In the non-selection period TNSE, the driving current reference voltage VHIGH is set higher than a voltage obtained by adding the divided voltage VEL when the luminance tone of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n is a minimum to the ON resistance VDS between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor at that time, and higher than a voltage obtained by adding the divided voltage VEL when the luminance tone of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n is a maximum to the ON resistance VDS between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor at that time. Also, in the non-selection period TNSE, the voltage of the source 23s of the driving transistor 23 rises as the voltage VGS between the gate 23g and source 23s, which is held in the selection period TSE rises. Although the capacitor 24 changes the electric charge in the electrode 24B connected to the source 23s accordingly, the voltage VGS between the gate 23g and source 23s is held constant by equally changing the electric charge in the electrode 24A. As shown in FIG. 5, therefore, between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 in the non-selection period TNSE is always applied a saturated region voltage, and the current value of the driving current which flows through each of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the non-selection period TNSE is made equal to the current value of the tone designating current IDATA by the electric charges held between the gate 23g and source 23s in the selection period TSE. Also, as shown in FIG. 4, the voltage of the pixel electrodes 51 of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the non-selection period TNSE rises as the luminance tone rises. This increases the voltage difference between the pixel electrodes 51 and the common electrode as a cathode, and increases the luminance of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n. As described above, the luminance (the unit is nit.) of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n is uniquely determined by the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the selection period TSE. A method of driving the organic EL display panel 2 by the current source driver 3, selection scan driver 5, voltage supply driver 6, and switches S1 to Sn, and the display operation of the organic EL display 1 will be described below. As shown in FIG. 4, the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON in order from the selection scan line X1 in the first row to the selection scan line Xm in the mth row (the selection scan line Xm in the mth row is followed by the selection scan line X1 in the first row), thereby selecting these selection scan lines. In synchronism with this selection by the selection scan driver 5, the voltage supply driver 6 applies the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW in order from the voltage supply line Z1 in the first row to the voltage supply line Zm in the mth row (the voltage supply line Zm in the mth row is followed by the voltage supply line Z1 in the first row), thereby selecting these voltage supply lines. In the selection period TSE of each row, the current source driver 3 controls the current terminals CT1 to CTn to generate the tone designating current IDATA having a current value corresponding to the image signal. Also, at the start of the selection period TSE of each row (at the end of the selection period TSE of the preceding row), the switching signal Φ changes from low level to high level, the switching signal inv. Φ changes from high level to low level, and the reset voltage VR which removes the electric charges stored in the current lines Y1 to Yn and the electric charges stored in the pixel electrodes 51 via the first transistors 21 is applied. In the selection period TSE of each row (at the end of the reset period TR of each row), the switching signal Φ changes from high level to low level, and the switching signal inv.Φ changes from low level to high level. In the reset period TR in the initial part of the selection period TSE, therefore, the switches S1 to Sn allow the tone designating current IDATA to flow between the current terminals CT1 to CTn and current lines Y1 to Yn, and shut down the application of the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn. After the reset period TR in the selection period TSE, the switches S1 to Sn shut off the flow of the electric current between the current terminals CT1 to CTn and current lines Y1 to Yn, and allow the application of the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn. The current value of the tone designating current IDATA decreases as the luminance tone lowers. In this state, the voltages of the current lines Y1 to Yn and pixel electrodes 51 approximate to the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW, i.e., to the reset voltage VR. Also, if the tone designating current IDATA having a large current value flows in the selection period TSE of the preceding row or of the preceding frame period TSC, the voltage of the pixel electrodes 51 become much lower than the reset voltage VR via the current lines Y1 to Yn and first transistors 21. If, therefore, no reset voltage is applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn without forming the switches S1 to Sn, and the tone designating current IDATA having a low luminance tone and low current value is to be kept supplied to the ith row, the amount of electric charges to be modulated is large because the electric charges of the current lines Y1 to Yn, which are stored in accordance with the tone designating current IDATA having a large current value in the selection period TSE of the (i−1)th row are held in the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn. Accordingly, it takes a long time to obtain a desired current value of the tone designating current IDATA. Likewise, if no reset voltage is applied to the pixel electrodes 51 in the selection period without forming the switches S1 to Sn, and the tone designating current IDATA having a low luminance tone and low current value is to be kept supplied in the next frame period TSC, the amount of electric charges to be modulated are large because the electric charges of the pixel electrodes 51 in the ith row, which are stored in accordance with the tone designating current IDATA having a large current value in the selection period TSE of the frame period TSC before the next frame period TSC are held in the parasitic capacitances of the pixel electrodes 51 in the ith row. Accordingly, it takes a long time to obtain a desired current value of the tone designating current IDATA. In the selection period TSE, therefore, no sufficient electric charges can be held so that the required voltage is obtained between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23. As a consequence, the driving current in the non-selection period TNSE becomes different from the tone designating current IDATA, and this makes accurate tone display impossible. Since, however, the switches S1 to Sn which apply the reset voltage VR in the reset period TR are provided, the electric charges stored in the current lines Y1 to Yn and the electric charges stored in the pixel electrodes 51 via the first transistors 21 can be rapidly removed. Accordingly, the voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 can be rapidly set to a voltage by which the tone designating current IDATA having a low luminance tone and low current value flows. Since this makes high-speed display possible, images particularly excellent in motion image characteristics can be displayed. FIG. 9 is a timing chart showing, from above, the voltage of the selection scan line X1, the voltage of the voltage supply line Z1, the switching signal inv. Φ, the switching signal Φ, the current value of the current terminal CTj, the current value of an electric current which flows through the driving transistor 23 of the pixel circuit Di,j, the voltage of the pixel electrode 51 of the organic EL element Ei,j, and the current value of an electric current which flows through the organic EL element Ei,j. Referring to FIG. 9, the abscissa represents the common time. As shown in FIGS. 6 and 9, when the selection scan driver 5 applies the ON voltage VON to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row (i.e., in the selection period TSE of the ith row), the OFF voltage VOFF is applied to the other selection scan lines X1 to Xm (except for Xi). In the selection period TSE of the ith row, therefore, the first and second transistors 21 and 22 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are ON, and the first and second transistors 21 and 22 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n (except for Di,1 to Di,n) in the other rows are OFF. As described above, in the selection period TSE of the ith row, the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW is applied to the voltage supply line Zi, and the second transistors 22 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are ON. Accordingly, the voltage is also applied to the gates 23g of the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row, so the driving transistors 23 are turned on. In the reset period TR in the initial part of the selection period TSE of the ith row, the transistors 32 of the switches S1 to Sn are turned on. Therefore, the voltage supply line Zi is electrically connected to the reset input terminal 41 via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n and the current lines Y1 to Yn. In this state, the voltage applied from the voltage supply line Zi to the reset input terminal 41 via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n and the current lines Y1 to Yn is equal to the reset voltage VR (=tone designating current reference voltage VLOW) which is equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS. Accordingly, the voltage of the pixel electrodes 51 of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n is also equal to the reset voltage VR. In addition, since the reset voltage VR is applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn, the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn and the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n including the pixel electrodes 51 are removed, so the voltage of these components becomes equal to the reset voltage VR. As a consequence, the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n stop emitting light immediately after the start of the reset period TR of the ith row. As shown in FIGS. 7 and 9, in the second half of the selection period TSE after the reset period TR, the ON voltage VON is applied to the selection scan line Xi in the ith row, and the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW is applied to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. Therefore, the first transistors 21, second transistors 22, and driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are ON. After the reset period TR in the selection period TSE, the transistors 31 of the switches S1 to Sn are turned on, so the switches S1 to Sn allow an electric current to flow between the current terminals CT1 to CTn and current lines Y1 to Yn. As a consequence, the current terminals CT1 to CTn are electrically connected to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. In this state, the current source driver 3 supplies the tone designating current IDATA from the voltage supply line Zi to the current terminals CT1 to CTn via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n the current lines Y1 to Yn, and the switches S1 to Sn. Until the end of the selection period TSE of the ith row, the current source driver 3 controls the current value of the tone designating current IDATA supplied to the current lines Y1 to Yn such that the current value is held constant in accordance with the image signal. In the second half of the selection period TSE of the ith row, the tone designating current IDATA flows along the voltage supply line Zi→the path between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n→the path between the drain 21d and source 21s of the first transistor 21 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n→the current lines Y1 to Yn→the transistors 31 of the switches S1 to Sn→the current terminals CT1 to CTn of the current source driver 3. In the selection period TSE of the ith row, therefore, the voltage applied from the voltage supply line Zi to the current terminals CT1 to CTn via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n and the current lines Y1 to Yn becomes steady. That is, since the voltage applied from the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row to the current terminals CT1 to CTn becomes steady, the voltage having a level corresponding to the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the driving transistor 23 is applied between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23, so electric charges corresponding to the level of this voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 is held in the capacitor 24. Consequently, the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row is converted into the level of the voltage between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23. In the reset period TR of the ith row as described above, the reset voltage VR is applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn. Therefore, the voltage applied from the voltage supply line Zi to the reset input terminal 41 via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n and the current lines Y1 to Yn can be made steady. Accordingly, even if a weak tone designating current IDATA flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn after the reset period TR of the ith row, electric charges corresponding to the tone designating current IDATA can be rapidly held in the capacitors 24 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n. As described above, the current value of the electric current which flows between the drain 23d and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row and the level of the voltage between the source 23s and gate 23g are overwritten from those of the preceding frame period TSC. In the selection period TSE Of the ith row, therefore, the magnitude of the electric charges which are held in the capacitor 24 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row is overwritten from that of the preceding frame period TSC. The potential at arbitrary points in the paths from the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n to the current lines Y1 to Yn via the first transistors 21 changes in accordance with, e.g., the internal resistances of the transistors 21, 22, and 23, which change with time. In this embodiment, however, in the selection period TSE, the current source driver 3 forcedly supplies the tone designating current IDATA from the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n to the current lines Y1 to Yn via the first transistors 21. Therefore, even if the internal resistances of the transistors 21, 22, and 23 change with time, the tone designating current IDATA takes a desired current value. Also, in the selection period TSE of the ith row, the common electrode of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the ith row is at the reference voltage VSS, and the voltage supply line Zi is at the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW which is equal to or lower than the reference voltage VSS. As a consequence, a reverse bias voltage is applied to the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the ith row. Accordingly, no electric current flows through the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the ith row, so the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n do not emit light. Subsequently, as shown in FIGS. 8 and 9, at the end time of the selection period TSE of the ith row (at the start time of the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row), a signal output from the selection scan driver 5 to the selection scan line Xi changes from the high-level ON voltage VON to the low-level OFF voltage VOFF. That is, the selection scan driver 5 applies the OFF voltage VOFF to the gate 21g of the first transistor 21 and the gate 22g of the second transistor 22 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row. In the non-selection period TNSE Of the ith row, therefore, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are turned off to prevent the electric current from flowing from the voltage supply line Zi to the current lines Y1 to Yn. In addition, in the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row, when the second transistors 22 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are turned off, the electric charges held in the capacitors 24 in the immediately preceding selection period TSE of the ith row are confined by the second transistors 22. Accordingly, the driving transistor 23 of each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row is kept ON in the non-selection period TNSE. That is, in each of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row, the voltage VGS between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 in the non-selection period TNSE becomes equal to the voltage VGS between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 in the immediately preceding selection period TSE, i.e., the capacitor 24 in which the electric charges on the side of the electrode 24A are held by the second transistor 22 holds the voltage VGS between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23. Also, in the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row, the voltage supply driver 6 applies the driving current reference voltage VHIGH to the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row. In the non-selection period TNSE, the common electrode of the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the ith row is at the reference voltage VSS, and the voltage supply line Zi in the ith row is at the driving current reference voltage VHIGH which is higher than the reference voltage VSS, so the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the ith row are ON. As a consequence, a forward bias voltage is applied to the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n. In the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n, therefore, a driving current flows from the voltage supply line Zi to the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n via the driving transistors 23, and thus the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n emit light. More specifically, in the pixel circuit Di,j in the non-selection period TNSE of the ith row, the first transistor 21 electrically shuts off the path between the current line Yj and driving transistor 23, and the second transistor 22 confines the electric charges in the capacitor 24. In this manner, the level of the voltage, which is converted in the selection period TSE, between the gate 23g and source 23s of the driving transistor 23 is held, and a driving current having a current value corresponding to the level of this voltage held between the gate 23g and source 23s is supplied to the organic EL element Ei,j by the driving transistor 23. In this state, the current value of the driving current which flows through the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n in the selection period TSE of the ith row is equal to the current value of the electric current which flows through the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n, and therefore equal to the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n in the selection period TSE. As described above, in the selection period TSE, the current value of the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n is a desired current value. Therefore, a driving current having a desired current value can be supplied to the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n, so the organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n can emit light at a desired tone luminance. In the reset period TR of the (i+1)th row after the selection period TSE of the ith row, as in the reset period TR of the ith row, the transistors 31 of the switches S1 to Sn are turned off, and the transistors 32 of the switches S1 to Sn are turned on. Accordingly, in the reset period TR of the (i+1)th row, the tone designating current IDATA does not flow through any of the current lines Y1 to Yn, but the reset voltage VR is applied to all the current lines Y1 to Yn, the pixel electrodes 51 in the (i+1)th row, the electrodes 24B of the capacitors 24 in the (I+1)th row, and the sources 23s of the driving transistors 23 in the (i+1)th row. After the reset period TR in the selection period TSE of the (i+1)th row, as in the case of the ith row, the selection scan driver 5 selects the selection scan line Xi+1 in the (i+1)th row, so the tone designating current IDATA flows from the voltage supply line Zi to the current terminals CT1 to CTn via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n, the current lines Y1 to Yn, and the switches Di,1 to Di,n. As described above, in the reset period TR, the reset voltage VR is forcedly applied to, e.g., the current lines Y1 to Yn and the pixel electrodes 51. Therefore, the charge amount of the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn and the like approximates to the charge amount in a steady state in which a small electric current flows. Accordingly, even when the electric current which flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn after the reset period TR of the (i+1)th row is weak, a steady state can be immediately obtained. In this embodiment as described above, the current value of the driving current which flows through the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n in the non-selection period TNSE is represented by the current value of the tone designating current IDATA after the reset period TR of the selection period TSE. Therefore, even when variations are produced in characteristics of the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, no variations are produced in luminance of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n if the current value of the tone designating current IDATA remains the same for all the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. That is, this embodiment can suppress planar variations by which pixels have different luminance values even though luminance tone signals having the same level are output to these pixels. Accordingly, the organic EL display 1 of this embodiment can display high-quality images. The tone designating current IDATA is very weak because it is equal to the current value of the electric current which flows through the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n in accordance with the luminance of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n which emit light. The wiring capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn delay the tone designating current IDATA which flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn. If the selection period TSE is short, therefore, electric charges corresponding to the tone designating current IDATA cannot be held in the gate-to-source path of the driving transistor 23. In this embodiment, however, the reset voltage VR is forcedly applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn in the reset period TR of each row. Therefore, even if the tone designating current IDATA is weak or the selection period TSE is short, electric charges corresponding to the tone designating current IDATA can be held in the gate-to-source path of the driving transistor 23 within the selection period TSE. Also, in this embodiment, the data driving circuit 7 applies the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn in the selection period TSE. Therefore, the first transistor 21 has both the function of a switching element which loads the reset voltage VR into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, and the function of a switching element which loads the tone designating current IDATA into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. This makes it unnecessary to form any switching TFT, which loads a blanking signal into a pixel circuit as in the conventional device (Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. 2000-221942), in the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n in addition to the first transistors 21. Accordingly, the number of transistors necessary for the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n does not increase. When the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n are formed on the same surface as the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, therefore, the aperture ratio of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n does not decrease. Second Embodiment FIG. 10 is a block diagram showing an organic EL display 101 according to the second embodiment to which the organic EL display of the present invention is applied. In FIG. 10, the same reference numerals and symbols as in the organic EL display 1 of the first embodiment denote the same parts in the organic EL display 101, and an explanation thereof will be omitted. Similar to the organic EL display 1 shown in FIG. 1, the organic EL display 101 includes an organic EL display panel 2, scan driving circuit 9, and data driving circuit 107. The organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 are the same as the organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 of the first embodiment. The data driving circuit 107 is different from the data driving circuit 7 of the first embodiment. The data driving circuit 107 includes n current terminals DT1 to DTn, a current control driver 103 which supplies a pull current IL1 to the current terminals DT1 to DTn, first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 and second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 which convert the pull current IL1 flowing through the current terminals DT1 to DTn into a tone designating current IDATA, and switches T1 to Tn interposed between current lines Y1 to Yn, the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1, and the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2. An 8-bit digital tone image signal is input to the current control driver 103. This digital tone image signal loaded into the current control driver 103 is converted into an analog signal by an internal D/A converter of the current control driver 103. The driver 103 generates the pull current IL1 having a current value corresponding to the analog image signal at the current terminals DT1 to DTn. The driver 103 supplies the pull current IL1 from the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 formed for individual rows to the current terminals DT1 to DTn. In accordance with the pull current IL1, the current control driver 103 supplies the tone designating current IDATA from driving transistors 23 in the individual rows to the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 via the current lines Y1 to Yn. The operation timings of the current control driver 103 are the same as those of the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. That is, the current control driver 103 controls the current value of the pull current IL1 at the current terminals DT1 to DTn in each selection period TSE of each row in accordance with the image signal, and makes the current value of the pull current IL1 steady in a period from the end of each reset period TR to the end of the corresponding selection period TSE. The pull current IL1 supplied by the current control driver 103 is larger than and proportional to the tone designating current IDATA supplied by the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. The first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 and second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 convert the pull current IL1 which flows through the current terminals DT1 to DTn into the tone designating current IDATA at a predetermined conversion ratio. Each of the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 is made up of two P-channel MOS transistors 61 and 62. The transistors 61 and 62 can be fabricated by the same steps as the transistors 21 to 23 of each of pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. Each of the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 is made up of two N-channel MOS transistors 63 and 64. The transistors 63 and 64 can be partially fabricated by the same steps as the transistors 21 to 23 of each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. In the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1, the gates and drains of the transistors 61 and the gates of the transistors 62 are connected to the current terminals DT1 to DTn. The sources of the transistors 61 and 62 are connected to a reset input terminal 41 which outputs a reset voltage VR as a ground voltage. In the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2, the gates and drains of the transistors 63 and the gates of the transistors 64 are connected together to the drains of the transistors 62. The sources of the transistors 63 and 64 are connected to a constant-voltage input terminal 45 to which a negative voltage VCC is applied, and the drains of the transistors 64 are connected to the sources of transistors 34 of the switches T1 to Tn (to be described later). In each of the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1, the channel resistance of the transistor 61 is lower than that of the transistor 62. In each of the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2, the channel resistance of the transistor 63 is lower than that of the transistor 64. Each of the switches T1 to Tn has an N-channel MOS transistor 33 and the N-channel MOS transistor 34. The transistors 33 and 34 can be fabricated by the same steps as the transistors 21 to 23 of each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. An example of the switch Tj will be explained below. The gate of the transistor 34 of the switch Tj is connected to a switching signal input terminal 43, and thus a switching signal inv.Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 34. Also, the gate of the transistor 33 is connected to a switching signal input terminal 42, and thus a switching signal Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 33. The drains of the transistors 33 and 34 are connected to the current line Yj, the source of the transistor 33 is connected to the source of the transistor 61 of the first current mirror circuit Mi1 and the reset input terminal 41, and the source of the transistor 34 is connected to the drain of the transistor 64 of the second current mirror circuit Mi2. In this arrangement, when the switching signal Φ is at high level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at low level, the transistor 33 is turned on, and the transistor 34 is turned off. The switching signals Φ and inv.Φ have the same waveforms as in FIG. 4 of the first embodiment. Accordingly, the switches T1 to Tn switch the state in which the tone designating current IDATA obtained by modulating the current value of the pull current IL1 by the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 and second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 is supplied to the driving transistors 23 and current lines Y1 to Yn, and the state in which the reset voltage VR is applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn. When the current control driver 103 supplies the pull current IL1 to the current terminal DTj, an electric current which flows through the drain-to-source path of the transistor 62 in the first current mirror circuit Mj1 has a value obtained by multiplying the ratio of the channel resistance of the transistor 62 to that of the transistor 61 by the current value of the pull current IL1 in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 61. In the second current mirror circuit Mj2, an electric current which flows through the drain-to-source path of the transistor 64 has a value obtained by multiplying the ratio of the channel resistance of the transistor 64 to that of the transistor 63 by the current value of an electric current in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 63. The current value of the electric current in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 63 matches the electric current which flows through the drain-to-source path of the transistor 62. Therefore, the current value of the tone designating current IDATA is obtained by multiplying the ratio of the channel resistance of the transistor 64 to that of the transistor 63 by the value which is obtained by multiplying the ratio of the channel resistance of the transistor 62 to that of the transistor 61 by the current value of the pull current IL1 in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 61. As described above, the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 and second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 convert the pull current IL1 which flows through the current terminals DT1 to DTn into the tone designating current IDATA. Since the tone designating current IDATA flows through the output sides of the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2, i.e., the drains of the transistors 64, these drains of the transistors 64 of the second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 are equivalent to the current terminal CTj of the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. That is, an arrangement obtained by combining the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1, second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2, and current control driver 103 is equivalent to the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. In the first embodiment, the reset voltage VR is at the same level as the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW. In the second embodiment, however, the reset voltage VR is set at 0 [V]. Therefore, when a voltage VSS is set at the ground voltage, no voltage difference is produced between pixel electrodes 51 as the anodes of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n and the common electrode as the cathode. As a consequence, electric charges stored in the pixel electrodes 51 can be easily removed. In order for the switches T1 to Tn to perform the switching operation, as in the first embodiment, the switching signal Φ is input to the switching signal input terminal 42, and the switching signal inv.Φ is input to the switching signal input terminal 43. The relationship between the timings of the switching signals Φ and inv.Φ and the selection timings of a selection scan driver 5 and voltage supply driver 6 is the same as in the first embodiment. Also, the operation timings of the selection scan driver 5 and voltage supply driver 6 in the second embodiment are the same as in the first embodiment. In the second embodiment, as in the first embodiment, in the reset period TR of the former period in the selection period TSE of the ith row, the transistors 33 of the switches T1 to Tn are turned on, so a voltage supply line Zi is electrically connected to the reset input terminal 41 via the driving transistors 23 and first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n and the current lines Y1 to Yn. Also, in the reset period TR of the ith row, the reset voltage VR is applied to the current lines Y1 to Yn and pixel electrodes 51, so the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn and the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the pixel electrodes 51 can be rapidly removed. Accordingly, even when the weak tone designating current IDATA flows through the current lines Y1 to Yn after the reset period TR of the ith row, electric charges corresponding to the tone designating current IDATA can be rapidly held in capacitors 24 of the pixel circuits Di,1 to Di,n. In addition, in a non-selection period TNSE, the current value of a driving current which flows through the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n is represented by the current value of the tone designating current IDATA after the reset period TR of each selection period TSE. Therefore, even if variations are produced in characteristics of the driving transistors 23 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, no variations are produced in driving current because the tone designating current IDATA is forcedly supplied to the driving transistors 23. As a consequence, no variations are produced in luminance of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n. Furthermore, since the first current mirror circuits M11 to Mn1 and second current mirror circuits M12 to Mn2 are formed, the current value of the tone designating current IDATA of the current lines Y1 to Yn is proportional to and smaller than the pull current IL1 at the current terminals DT1 to DTn. Accordingly, even if the pull current IL1 at the current terminals DT1 to DTn is unexpectedly reduced by a leakage current produced in the current control driver 103 or the like, the tone designating current IDATA of the current lines Y1 to Yn does not largely reduce. That is, even a decrease in output from the current control drive 103 caused by a current leak has no large influence on the tone designating current IDATA Of the current lines Y1 to Yn, so the luminance of the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n does not largely decrease. In the second embodiment, the data driving circuit 107 can well generate the tone designating current IDATA even when the current control driver 103 cannot generate a weak electric current close to the tone designating current IDATA matching the light emission characteristics of the organic EL elements. The data driving circuit 107 applies the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn in the selection period TSE in the second embodiment as well. Therefore, the first transistor 21 has both the function of a switching element which loads the reset voltage VR into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, and the function of a switching element which loads the tone designating current IDATA into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. Accordingly, the number of transistors necessary for the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n does not increase. When the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n are formed on the same surface as the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, therefore, the aperture ratio of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n does not decrease. Third Embodiment FIG. 11 is a block diagram showing an organic EL display 201 according to the third embodiment to which the organic EL display of the present invention is applied. In FIG. 11, the same reference numerals and symbols as in the organic EL display 1 of the first embodiment denote the same parts in the organic EL display 201, and an explanation thereof will be omitted. Similar to the organic EL display 1, the organic EL display 201 includes an organic EL display panel 2, scan driving circuit 9, and data driving circuit 207. The organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 are the same as the organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 of the first embodiment. The data driving circuit 207 is different from the data driving circuit 7 of the first embodiment. The data driving circuit 207 includes a current control driver 203 which has n current terminals FT1 to FTn and supplies a push current IL2 to the current terminals FT1 to FTn, current mirror circuits M1 to Mn for converting the push current IL2 flowing through the current terminals FT1 to FTn, and switches S1 to Sn interposed between current lines Y1 to Yn and the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn. In the second embodiment, the current control driver 103 supplies the pull current IL1 from the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn to the current terminals DT1 to DTn. In the third embodiment, the current control driver 203 supplies the push current IL2 from the current terminals FT1 to FTn to the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn. Each of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn is made up of two N-channel MOS transistors 161 and 162. The transistors 161 and 162 can be fabricated by the same steps as transistors 21 to 23 of pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. In each of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn, the gate and drain of the transistor 161 and the gate of the transistor 162 are connected together, and the sources of the transistors 161 and 162 are connected to a constant-voltage input terminal 45. A constant voltage VCC is applied to the constant-voltage input terminal 45. The level of the constant voltage VCC is lower than a tone designating current reference voltage VLOW and reference voltage VSS. When the reference voltage VSS or tone designating current reference voltage VLOW is 0 [V] as in the first embodiment, the constant voltage VCC is a negative voltage. An example of the switch Sj will be explained below. The switch Sj is made up of N-channel field-effect transistors 31 and 32. The gate of the transistor 31 is connected to a switching signal input terminal 43, and thus a switching signal inv.Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 31. Also, the gate of the transistor 32 is connected to a switching signal input terminal 42, and thus a switching signal Φ is input to the gate of the transistor 32. The drain of the transistor 31 is connected to the current line Yj, and the source of the transistor 31 is connected to the drain of the transistor 162. The drain of the transistor 32 is connected to the current line Yj. The source of the transistor 32 is connected to a reset input terminal 41, and thus a reset voltage VR as a constant voltage is applied to the source of the transistor 32. In this arrangement, when the switching signal Φ is at high level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at low level, the transistor 32 is turned on, and the transistor 31 is turned off. When the switching signal Φ is at low level and the switching signal inv.Φ is at high level, the transistor 31 is turned on, and the transistor 32 is turned off. The transistors 31 and 32 can be fabricated by the same steps as the transistors 21 to 23 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. The reset voltage VR is preferably 0 [V] in order to completely discharge, e.g., the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn and the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of pixel electrodes 51. The current control driver 203 controls the current value of the push current IL2 at the current terminals FT1 to FTn in accordance with the image signal in each selection period TSE of each row, and holds the magnitude of the push current IL2 constant in a period from the end of each reset period TR to the end of the corresponding selection period TSE. The push current IL2 supplied by the current control driver 203 is larger than and proportional to the tone designating current IDATA supplied by the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. The channel resistance of the transistor 161 is lower than that of the transistor 162. Therefore, the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn convert the push current IL2 which flows through the current terminals FT1 to FTn into a tone designating current IDATA. The current value of the tone designating current IDATA is substantially a value obtained by multiplying the ratio of the cannel resistance of the transistor 161 to that of the transistor 162 by the current value of the push current IL2 in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 161. Since the tone designating current IDATA flows through the output sides of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn, i.e., the drains of the transistors 162, these drains of the transistors 162 of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn are equivalent to the current terminals CT1 to CTn of the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. That is, an arrangement obtained by combining the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn and current control driver 203 is equivalent to the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment. The relationship between the timings of the switching signals Φ and inv.Φ and the selection timings of the selection scan driver 5 and voltage supply driver 6 in this embodiment is the same as in the first embodiment. Also, the operation timings of the selection scan driver 5 and voltage supply driver 6 in the third embodiment are the same as in the first embodiment. Therefore, in the reset period TR of the ith row, the first transistors 21 of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n are ON in the third embodiment as well. Accordingly, the voltages of the pixel electrodes 51 of organic EL elements Ei,1 to Ei,n, drains 21d of the first transistors 21 in the ith row, electrodes 24B of capacitors 24 in the ith row, sources 23s of the driving transistors 23 in the ith row, and the current lines Y1 to Yn are set in a steady state, thereby removing the electric charges stored in these parasitic capacitances in the preceding selection period TSE. Consequently, the tone designating current IDATA can be rapidly and accurately written in the next selection period TSE. The data driving circuit 207 applies the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn in the selection period TSE in the third embodiment as well. Therefore, the first transistor 21 has both the function of a switching element which loads the reset voltage VR into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, and the function of a switching element which loads the tone designating current IDATA into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. Accordingly, the number of transistors necessary for the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n does not increase. When the organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n are formed on the same surface as the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, therefore, the aperture ratio of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n does not decrease. Fourth Embodiment FIG. 12 is a block diagram showing an organic EL display 301 according to the fourth embodiment to which the organic EL display of the present invention is applied. In FIG. 12, the same reference numerals and symbols as in the organic EL display 1 of the first embodiment denote the same parts in the organic EL display 301, and an explanation thereof will be omitted. Similar to the organic EL display 1, the organic EL display 301 includes an organic EL display panel 2, scan driving circuit 9, and data driving circuit 307. The organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 are the same as the organic EL display panel 2 and scan driving circuit 9 of the third embodiment. The data driving circuit 307 is different from the data driving circuit 7 of the first embodiment. The data driving circuit 307 includes a current control driver 303, current mirror circuits M1 to Mn, switching elements K1 to Kn, and switching elements W1 to Wn as switches. The current control driver 303 has n current terminals GT1 to GTn. An 8-bit digital tone image signal is input to the current control driver 303. This digital tone image signal loaded into the current control driver 303 is converted into an analog signal by an internal D/A converter of the current control driver 303. The current control driver 303 generates a push current IL3 having a current value corresponding to the analog image signal at the current terminals GT1 to GTn. The current control driver 303 controls the current value of the push current IL3 at the current terminals GT1 to GTn in each selection period TSE of each row in accordance with the image signal, and holds the current value of the push current IL3 constant in a period from the end of each reset period TR to the end of the corresponding selection period TSE. The push current IL3 supplied by the current control driver 303 is larger than the tone designating current IDATA supplied by the current source driver 3 of the first embodiment, and proportional to a tone designating current IDATA which flows through a transistor 362 (to be described later). The current mirror circuits M1 to M1 convert the push current IL3 which flows through the current terminals GT1 to GTn into the tone designating current IDATA. Each of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn has two transistors 361 and 362. In the current mirror circuit Mj, the gate of the transistor 361 is connected to the gate of the transistor 362, and the drain of the transistor 361 is connected to the current terminal and to the gates of the transistors 361 and 362. The drain of the transistor 362 is connected to a current line Yj. The sources of the transistors 361 and 362 are connected to a common voltage terminal 344. A constant voltage VCC is applied to the voltage terminal 344. The level of the constant voltage VCC is lower than a tone designating current reference voltage VLOW and reference voltage VSS. When the reference voltage VSS or tone designating current reference voltage VLOW is 0 [V] as in the first embodiment, the constant voltage VCC is a negative voltage. The current value of the tone designating current IDATA is substantially a value obtained by multiplying the ratio of the cannel resistance of the transistor 362 to that of the transistor 361 by the current value of the push current IL3 in the drain-to-source path of the transistor 361. That is, an arrangement obtained by combining the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn and current control driver 303 is equivalent to the current source driver. The drains of the transistors or switching elements W1 to Wn are connected to the current terminals GT1 to GTn and to the drains and gates of the transistors 361 of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn. The sources of the switching elements W1 to Wn are connected to the voltage terminal 344. The gates of the switching elements W1 to Wn are connected to a switching signal input terminal 42. The switching elements W1 to Wn switch the application of the constant voltage VCC to the drains of the transistors 361 of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn. Note that the switching elements W1 to Wn may also be incorporated into the current control driver 303. The relationship between the timings of switching signals and the selection timings of a selection scan driver 5 and voltage supply driver 6 in this embodiment is the same as in the first embodiment. In the reset period TR in the initial part of the selection period TSE of the ith row, therefore, the transistors W1 to Wn are turned on, so the voltages of the sources and drains of the transistors 361 become equal to each other. Accordingly, after the reset period TR of the selection period TSE, the influence of the parasitic capacitances of the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn on the current lines Y1 to Yn can be removed. In each of switching elements K1 to Kn, one of the drain and source is connected to a reset input terminal 41, the other of the drain and source is connected to a corresponding one of the current lines Y1 to Yn, and the gate is connected to the switching signal input terminal 42. The switching elements K1 to Kn switch the application of the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn. The reset voltage VR is set at 0 [V]. Note that on the opposite side of the connecting portion between each of the current lines Y1 to Yn and the transistor 362, the other of the drain and source of a corresponding one of the switching elements K1 to Kn may also be connected to a corresponding one of the current lines Y1 to Yn, and the switching elements K1 to Kn may also be formed on the organic EL display panel 2. In the reset period TR in the initial part of the selection period TSE of the ith row, the switching elements K1 to Kn are turned on, so pixel electrodes 51 and the current lines Y1 to Yn electrically conduct to the reset input terminal 41 to apply the grounded reset voltage VR. Therefore, immediately after the start of the reset period TR of the ith row, it is possible to remove the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the current lines Y1 to Yn, the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the pixel electrodes 51, the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of electrodes 24B of capacitors 24, and the electric charges stored in the parasitic capacitances of the sources of driving transistors 23. Accordingly, the tone designating current IDATA having a very small current value can be accurately and rapidly supplied. After the reset period TR, the switching elements K1 to Kn and W1 to Wn are turned off, and an electric current having a current value corresponding to the tone flows through the current terminals GT1 to GTn of the current control driver 303. Consequently, the tone designating current IDATA modulated by the current mirror circuits M1 to Mn flow through the current lines Y1 to Yn and driving transistor 23. The data driving circuit 307 applies the reset voltage VR to the current lines Y1 to Yn in the selection period TSE in the fourth embodiment as well. Therefore, a first transistor 21 has both the function of a switching element which loads the reset voltage VR into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, and the function of a switching element which loads the tone designating current IDATA into each of the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n. Accordingly, the number of transistors necessary for the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n does not increase. When organic EL elements E1,1 to Em,n are formed on the same surface as the pixel circuits D1,1 to Dm,n, therefore, the aperture ratio of the pixels P1,1 to Pm,n does not decrease. The present invention is not limited to the above embodiments, and various improvements and design changes can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. For example, an organic EL element is used as a light-emitting element in each of the above embodiments. However, another light-emitting element having rectification characteristics may also be used. That is, it is also possible to use a light-emitting element in which no electric current flows if a reverse bias voltage is applied and an electric current flows if a forward bias voltage is applied, and which emits light at luminance corresponding to the current value of the flowing electric current. An example of the light-emitting element having rectification characteristics is an LED (Light-Emitting Diode). In addition, the tone designating current reference voltage VLOW of the voltage supply driver 6 may also be positioned on the right side of the EL load border line corresponding to the maximum luminance tone shown in FIG. 4, provided that a portion or the whole of the tone designating current IDATA does not flow through the organic EL elements in the selection period TSE. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a display panel driving method of driving a display panel including a light-emitting element for each pixel, a data driving circuit for driving the display panel, and a display device including the display panel, the data driving circuit, and a selection scan driver. 2. Description of the Related Art Generally, liquid crystal displays are classified into active matrix driving type liquid crystal displays and simple matrix driving type liquid crystal displays. The active matrix driving type liquid crystal displays display images having contrast and resolution higher than those displayed by the simple matrix driving type liquid crystal displays. In the active matrix driving type liquid crystal display, a liquid crystal element which also functions as a capacitor, and a transistor which functions as a pixel switching element are formed for each pixel. In the active matrix driving system, when a voltage at a level representing luminance is applied to a current line by a data driver while a scan line is selected by a scan driver serving as a shift register, this voltage is applied to the liquid crystal element via the transistor. Even when the transistor is turned off in a period after the selection of the scan line is complete and before the scan line is selected again, the liquid crystal element functions as a capacitor, so the voltage level is held in this period. As described above, the light transmittance of the liquid crystal element is refreshed while the scan line is selected, and light from a backlight is transmitted through the liquid crystal element having the refreshed light transmittance. In this manner, the liquid crystal display expresses a tone. Displays using organic EL (ElecctroLuminescent) elements as self-light-emitting elements require no such a backlight as used in the liquid crystal displays, and hence are optimum for flat display devices. In addition, the viewing angle is not limited unlike in the liquid crystal display. Therefore, these organic EL displays are increasingly expected to be put into practical use as next-generation display devices. From the viewpoints of high luminance, high contrast, and high resolution, active matrix driving type organic EL displays are developed similarly to the liquid crystal displays. For example, in the conventional active matrix driving type organic EL display described in Jpn. Pat. Appln. KOKAI Publication No. 2000-221942, a pixel circuit (referred to as an organic EL element driving circuit in patent reference 1 ) is formed for each pixel. This pixel circuit includes an organic EL element, driving TFT, first switching element, switching TFT, and the like. When a control line is selected, a current source driver applies a voltage as luminance data to the gate of the driving TFT. Consequently, the driving TFT is turned on, and a driving current having a current value corresponding to the level of the gate voltage flows from a power supply line to the driving TFT via the organic EL element, so the organic EL element emits light at luminance corresponding to the current value of the electric current. When the selection of the control line is complete, the gate voltage of the driving TFT is held by the first switching element, so the emission of the organic EL element is also held. When a blanking signal is input to the gate of the switching TFT after that, the gate voltage of the driving TFT decreases to turn it off, and the organic EL element is also turned off to complete one frame period. Generally, the channel resistance of a transistor changes in accordance with a change in ambient temperature, or changes when the transistor is used for a long time. As a consequence, the gate threshold voltage changes with time, or differs from one transistor to another. Therefore, in the conventional voltage-controlled, active matrix driving type organic EL display in which the luminance and tone are controlled by the signal voltage, it is difficult to uniquely designate the current value of an electric current which flows through the organic EL element by the level of the gate voltage of the driving TFT, even if the current value of the electric current which flows through the organic EL element is changed by changing the level of the gate voltage of the driving TFT by using the signal voltage from the current line. That is, even when the gate voltage having the same level is applied to the driving TFTs of a plurality of pixels, the luminance of the organic EL element changes from one pixel to another. This produces variations in luminance on the display screen. Also, since the driving TFT deteriorates with time, the same gate voltage as the initial gate voltage cannot generate a driving current having the same current value as the initial current value. This also varies the luminance of the organic EL elements. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide a display device, data driving circuit, and display panel driving method capable of displaying high-quality images. A display device according to an aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a selection scan driver which sequentially selects the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and supply a driving current having a current value corresponding to the current value of the designating current which flows through the plurality of current lines. A display device according to another aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of selection scan lines; a plurality of current lines; a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and emit light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a driving current; a selection scan driver which sequentially select the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period; a data driving circuit which applies a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and supplies a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after applying the reset voltage in the selection period; and a plurality of pixel circuits which are connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, and electrically connect the plurality of current lines and the plurality of light-emitting elements to each other in the selection period. A data driving circuit according to still another aspect of the present invention comprises, a plurality of light-emitting elements connected to a plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, a selection scan driver which sequentially selects the plurality of selection scan lines in each selection period, and a plurality of pixel circuits connected to the plurality of light-emitting elements, wherein a reset voltage is applied to the plurality of current lines in a first part of the selection period, and a designating current having a current value corresponding to an image signal is supplied to the plurality of current lines in a second part of the selection period after the first part of the selection period. A display panel driving method according to still another aspect of the present invention comprises, a selection step of sequentially selecting a plurality of selection scan lines of a display panel comprising a plurality of pixel circuits connected to the plurality of selection scan lines and a plurality of current lines, and a plurality of light-emitting elements which are arranged at intersections of the plurality of selection scan lines and the plurality of current lines, each of the light-emitting elements emits light at luminance corresponding to a current value of a current flowing the current line; and a reset step of applying a reset voltage to the plurality of current lines in an initial part of a period in which each of the plurality of selection scan lines is selected. In the present invention, it is possible not only to discharge the parasitic capacitance of a current line by applying a reset voltage in a selection period, but also to discharge the parasitic capacitance of a pixel circuit or the parasitic capacitance of a light-emitting element. | 20050112 | 20090303 | 20050721 | 63595.0 | 6 | SHAPIRO, LEONID | DISPLAY DEVICE, DATA DRIVING CIRCUIT, AND DISPLAY PANEL DRIVING METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,350 | ACCEPTED | Cost-conscious pre-emptive cache line displacement and relocation mechanisms | A hardware based method for determining when to migrate cache lines to the cache bank closest to the requesting processor to avoid remote access penalty for future requests. In a preferred embodiment, decay counters are enhanced and used in determining the cost of retaining a line as opposed to replacing it while not losing the data. In one embodiment, a minimization of off-chip communication is sought; this may be particularly useful in a CMP environment. | 1. An apparatus for effecting cache management, said apparatus comprising: an arrangement for displacing data from a cache block; an arrangement for ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; said ascertaining arrangement being adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 2. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said ascertaining arrangement being adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via all three of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 3. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to seek an on-chip peer cache as a suitable candidate for a new cache location. 4. The apparatus according to claim 3, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to seek a peer L2 cache as a suitable candidate for a new cache location. 5. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data. 6. The apparatus according to claim 5, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to determine the cost of re-fetching based on a state of a candidate cache block. 7. The apparatus according to claim 6, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to estimate that a cost of re-fetching is cost-effective if a candidate cache block is an exclusive copy, or represents the only copy of a shared cache block within a chip. 8. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data. 9. The apparatus according to claim 8, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to employ a decay counter corresponding to each candidate cache block to determine a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data. 10. The apparatus according to claim 9, wherein: said ascertaining arrangement is further adapted to employ a residency counter per congruence class to determine a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and the likelihood of future reference to replaced data corresponds to a threshold being reached in the residency counter. 11. The apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the residency counter threshold is 2−1, where n represents a count of instances in which a cache block belonging to a corresponding congruence class is replaced before the decay counter reaches a predetermined decay threshold. 12. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 13. The apparatus according to claim 12, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to employ cache block usage data among candidates for a new cache location. 14. The apparatus according to claim 13, wherein said ascertaining arrangement is adapted to employ cache block usage data wherein the most recent requester of a candidate cache block is tracked. 15. A method of effecting cache management, said method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; said ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 16. The method according to claim 15, wherein said ascertaining step comprises determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via all three of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 17. The method according to claim 15, wherein said ascertaining step comprises seeking an on-chip peer cache as a suitable candidate for a new cache location. 18. The method according to claim 17, wherein said seeking step comprises seeking a peer L2 cache as a suitable candidate for a new cache location. 19. The method according to claim 15, wherein said ascertaining step comprises determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data. 20. The method according to claim 19, wherein said step of determining a cost of re-fetching comprises determining the cost of re-fetching based on a state of a candidate cache block. 21. The method according to claim 20, wherein said step of determining the cost of re-fetching based on a state of a candidate cache block comprises estimating that a cost of re-fetching is cost-effective if a candidate cache block is in an exclusive state or represents the only or last copy of a shared cache block. 22. The method according to claim 15, wherein said ascertaining step comprises determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data. 23. The method according to claim 22, wherein said step of determining a likelihood of future reference comprises employing a decay counter corresponding to each candidate cache block. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein: said step of determining a likelihood of future reference further comprises employing a residency counter per congruence class to determine a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data, wherein the likelihood of future reference to replaced data corresponds to a threshold being reached in the residency counter. 25. The method according to claim 24, wherein the residency counter threshold is 2n−1, where n represents a count of instances in which a cache block belonging to a corresponding congruence class is replaced before the decay counter reaches a predetermined decay threshold. 26. The method according to claim 15, wherein said ascertaining step comprises determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. 27. The method according to claim 26, wherein said step of determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data comprises employing cache block usage data among candidates for a new cache location. 28. The method according to claim 27, wherein said step of employing cache block usage data comprises tracking the most recent requester of a candidate cache block. 29. A program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for effecting cache management, said method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; said ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. | This invention was made with Government support under Contract No.: NBCH30390004 awarded by DARPA. The Government has certain rights in this invention. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention generally relates to the management of caches in a multiple processor system. More specifically, the invention relates to the relocation of cache lines among multiple caches in a system with coherent cache memories using cost-based mechanisms. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention deals with cache line relocation among multiple caches in systems with coherent cache memories. Related art includes mechanisms for data forwarding in shared-memory multiprocessors as described in “Data Forwarding in Scalable Shared Memory Multiprocessors”, Koufaty et al, IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, vol. 7, no. 12, December 1996, pages 1250-1264. In this approach, usage patterns based on traces or compile-time analysis are used to determine cases where one data item, when used by one processor, should be forwarded to the caches of other processors identified as consumers of the data item. This approach is limited in that (1) producer/consumer relationships must be identified using offline analysis of traces or compile-time analysis; (2) data items are forwarded using only identified producer/consumer relationships; and (3) data items are forwarded without regard to cost, for example without consideration as to whether the forwarded data item replaces more “useful” (in terms of improving system performance) data. Among other related efforts is U.S. Pat. No. 6,711,651, Moreno et al, assigned to IBM, issued Mar. 23, 2004, “Method and Apparatus for History-Based Movement of Shared-Data in Coherent Cache Memories of a Multiprocessor System using Push Prefetching”. In this approach, a consume-after-produce table, implemented in hardware as part of the cache controller, is used to identify producer/consumer relationships for cache lines among multiple caches in a coherent cache memory system. A limitation of this approach is that cache lines are prefetched without regard to cost, for example (as previously described) without consideration as to whether the cache line replaces a more “useful” (in terms of improving system performance) cache line. It would therefore be advantageous to relocate cache lines among multiple caches in a coherent cache memory system using cost-based mechanisms, that is, in such a fashion that overall system performance is always expected to be improved. One issue in evaluating the cost of relocating a cache line, which in general will replace another cache line, is the probability of re-reference for the two respective cache lines. As is well-known, this is highly correlated with cache line age, with more recently accessed cache lines being far more likely to be re-referenced than less recently accessed cache lines. In view of the foregoing, a need has been recognized in connection with overcoming the shortcomings and disadvantages presented by conventional arrangements. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with at least one presently preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is broadly contemplated a hardware based method for determining when to migrate cache lines to the cache bank closest to the requesting processor to avoid remote access penalty for future requests. In a preferred embodiment, decay counters are enhanced and used in determining the cost of retaining a line as opposed to replacing it while not losing the data. Decay counters have previously been studied for power saving applications, as described for example in Kaxiras, Hu, and Martonosi, Cache Decay: Exploiting Generational Behavior to Reduce Cache Leakage Power, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer Architecture, 2001, pp. 240-251. In contrast, in one aspect of the present invention, decay counters may be used in order to determine whether a cache line will be relocated using a cost-based mechanism. In one embodiment of the present invention, a minimization of off-chip communication is sought; this may be particularly useful in CMP environment. In summary, one aspect of the invention provides an apparatus for effecting cache management, the apparatus comprising: an arrangement for displacing data from a cache block; an arrangement for ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement being adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. Another aspect of the invention provides a method of effecting cache management, the method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. Furthermore, an additional aspect of the invention provides a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for effecting cache management, the method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. For a better understanding of the present invention, together with other and further features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and the scope of the invention will be pointed out in the appended claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a multiprocessor system with shared cache banks. FIG. 2 is flow chart of a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flow chart in accordance with the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a data processing system which includes multiple processors 100, multiple banks of cache 120, and a fabric controller 110, residing on-chip. The data processing system also includes an off-chip L3 cache. In the computer system shown in FIG. 1, data of an address can often be placed in more than one place. For simplicity of explanation it may be assumed that the cache banks Ci (where i=1, 2, . . . n) form the second level of the memory hierarchy, namely, the L2 cache. In such a computer system the access time of the shared cache banks (Ci) is not uniform from all the processors Pi (where i=1, 2, . . . . n), and for best performance cache blocks are duplicated across multiple banks in order to be accessible to the processors with the minimum access time possible. For example, shared data of an address can be cached in multiple caches at the same time, and exclusive data can be migrated from one cache to another when a request is made. For a more detailed description of the structure of multiprocessor caches see (for example) Section 1.2.2 in “Scalable Shared Memory Multi-Processing”, by Lenoski and Weber, pages 16-20, Morgan-Kaufman, 1995. Although an exemplary chip multi-processing (CMP) system is used in discussions of the present invention, it is understood that the present invention can be applied to symmetric multi-processing (SMP) systems that include multiple chips, or multiprocessor systems in general. In such a computer system, it is generally desirable to displace (or replace) data from a cache block if the data is unlikely to be needed for a reasonable amount of time in the future. After the data is replaced (or displaced), the cache block can be turned off to reduce power consumption, or can be used to hold data of another address. When a cache block is replaced from an L2 cache bank, it is often desirable to relocate the replaced data in a peer L2 cache bank if the replaced data is the only copy on the chip, and if the replaced data is likely to be used (by a processor on the same chip) in the near future. Caching the replaced data in a peer cache can reduce latency of a future cache miss regarding the replaced data, since latency of accessing data from an on-chip L2 cache is usually much smaller than latency of retrieving data from the off-chip L3 cache. Furthermore, it can reduce bandwidth consumption of off-chip communications, especially when the replaced cache block has been modified. A desirable objective addressed herein is found in determining the usefulness of a candidate chosen for replacement and to accommodate useful candidates in peer L2 cache banks. The structure and operations of the cost-conscious method to determine the candidate for replacement, and to accommodate the chosen candidate in a peer L2 cache bank is now described. FIG. 2 shows a high-level flowchart describing three key operations proposed herein, namely, (a) Determine cost of re-fetching the replaced block (b) Determine likelihood of future reference to replaced block (c) Determine which peer L2 will retain the replaced block These operations are discussed in more detail herebelow. a) Determine cost of re-fetching the replaced block (300): When a block is chosen for replacement, the cost of re-fetching the block (if needed) from an off-chip L3 is estimated. In one illustrative embodiment the state of the cache block can be used as an estimator of this cost. For example, if the cache block is in “exclusive” state (or if it is the only copy, shared or exclusive, in this chip), then it is estimated that it is cost-effective to retain this block (if possible) in other peer L2 caches on the same chip instead of replacing it to the L3 cache. In other embodiments it is possible to estimate the cost by at least one or more of the following: the latency of off-chip accesses, off-chip bandwidth, the state of the cache block, and power consumption. For example, if the estimated power consumption to access the block from off-chip L3 cache exceeds a set threshold value, it is determined to be cost-effective to retain this block (if possible) in other peer L2 caches on the same chip. b) Estimate likelihood of future reference to replaced block (310): When a block that has been chosen for replacement is unlikely to be needed in the (near) future, it may be cost-effective to evict this block, independent of whether the cost of re-fetching the block is determined to be high in step 300. Therefore, the usefulness of the block in future has to be estimated before replacing it. In one illustrative embodiment, a decay counter is maintained per block, and an n-bit saturating residency counter is maintained per congruence class (or set) of the cache. All the counters are initialized to zero at the beginning. When a block is replaced before the decay counter value reaches a threshold (as explained in Kaxiras et al., supra) the residency counter of the congruence class is incremented by 1. Otherwise, it is decremented by 1. When the n-bit counter value is greater than or equal to 2n−1 then the cache set (congruence class) can be marked “hot”. Any block replaced from a “hot” set is deemed useful in the near future. In other embodiments, the likelihood of referencing the block in future can be determined by one of more of the following: the conflict misses in the given cache set, and the frequency of accesses to the block. For example, last-access timestamp can be maintained per congruence class, and an n-bit counter can track the frequency of accesses to a congruence class. When a congruence class is accessed, if the difference between the last-access timestamp and the current time is less than a set threshold number of cycles, the n-bit counter can be incremented by 1. Otherwise, it can be decremented by 1. When the n-bit counter value is greater than or equal to 2n−1 the congruence class can be deemed to be frequently accessed. Blocks chosen from frequently accessed congruence classes can be deemed useful in future. c) Determine which peer L2 will retain the replaced block (320): When a cache block is replaced, the relocation prediction can be performed at the displacing side (i.e. the cache from which the data is replaced), the targeting side (i.e. a cache that can potentially accept the replaced data), or both. In one illustrative embodiment, the cache block usage by other processors on-chip can be tracked. For example, by tracking the most recent requester of the block (other than self), the block can be forwarded to that requester. This can be accomplished by maintaining the identifier (the processor number) of the most recent requestor for each block. In another embodiment, the “hot” sets of the caches can be tracked, and the data can be forwarded to that L2 with a relatively “cold” set. When the block is relocated, the target cache can determine the cost accepting the relocated block using the method explained in step (b) above. FIG. 3 summarizes the operation of the above embodiment. When cache block B is chosen for replacement, if it is an “exclusive” block, i.e., block B is the only copy of that block in the L2 cache, 400, it is deemed that the cost of re-fetching block B from the L3 cache in the future is high. If on the other hand, block B is a “shared” block present in one or more peer L2 caches, then block B is replaced with the assumption that a future request may be satisfied by one of the other copies present in the cache, 410. If block B is “exclusive”, the usage of the corresponding cache set is analyzed, 420. As explained in step (b) above, if the n-bit counter value is greater than or equal to 2n−1 then the cache set (congruence class) is marked “hot”, and block B is deemed to be useful in the near future. If the corresponding cache set is not “hot”, then block B is replaced, 460. For each cache block, the most recent processor that requested that cache block (other than self) is also tracked as explained in (c) above. If block B is determined to be useful in the future, then the most recent requester of block B is queried to find if it will accept block B, 430. The most recent requester can also use the same policy described in 400 and 410 to determine if there is victim block ready for replacement. If a victim is found in the most recent requester's L2 cache, 440, then block B is moved to the most recent requester's L2 cache, and the victim is replaced, 450. If the most recent requester determines that all its currently resident blocks are useful, then block B is replaced, 470. It is to be understood that the present invention, in accordance with at least one presently preferred embodiment, includes an arrangement for displacing data from a cache block and an arrangement for ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data. Together, these elements may be implemented on at least one general-purpose computer running suitable software programs. These may also be implemented on at least one Integrated Circuit or part of at least one Integrated Circuit. Thus, it is to be understood that the invention may be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination of both. If not otherwise stated herein, it is to be assumed that all patents, patent applications, patent publications and other publications (including web-based publications) mentioned and cited herein are hereby fully incorporated by reference herein as if set forth in their entirety herein. Although illustrative embodiments of the present invention have been described herein with reference to the accompanying drawings, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to those precise embodiments, and that various other changes and modifications may be affected therein by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention deals with cache line relocation among multiple caches in systems with coherent cache memories. Related art includes mechanisms for data forwarding in shared-memory multiprocessors as described in “Data Forwarding in Scalable Shared Memory Multiprocessors”, Koufaty et al, IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, vol. 7, no. 12, December 1996, pages 1250-1264. In this approach, usage patterns based on traces or compile-time analysis are used to determine cases where one data item, when used by one processor, should be forwarded to the caches of other processors identified as consumers of the data item. This approach is limited in that (1) producer/consumer relationships must be identified using offline analysis of traces or compile-time analysis; (2) data items are forwarded using only identified producer/consumer relationships; and (3) data items are forwarded without regard to cost, for example without consideration as to whether the forwarded data item replaces more “useful” (in terms of improving system performance) data. Among other related efforts is U.S. Pat. No. 6,711,651, Moreno et al, assigned to IBM, issued Mar. 23, 2004, “Method and Apparatus for History-Based Movement of Shared-Data in Coherent Cache Memories of a Multiprocessor System using Push Prefetching”. In this approach, a consume-after-produce table, implemented in hardware as part of the cache controller, is used to identify producer/consumer relationships for cache lines among multiple caches in a coherent cache memory system. A limitation of this approach is that cache lines are prefetched without regard to cost, for example (as previously described) without consideration as to whether the cache line replaces a more “useful” (in terms of improving system performance) cache line. It would therefore be advantageous to relocate cache lines among multiple caches in a coherent cache memory system using cost-based mechanisms, that is, in such a fashion that overall system performance is always expected to be improved. One issue in evaluating the cost of relocating a cache line, which in general will replace another cache line, is the probability of re-reference for the two respective cache lines. As is well-known, this is highly correlated with cache line age, with more recently accessed cache lines being far more likely to be re-referenced than less recently accessed cache lines. In view of the foregoing, a need has been recognized in connection with overcoming the shortcomings and disadvantages presented by conventional arrangements. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with at least one presently preferred embodiment of the present invention, there is broadly contemplated a hardware based method for determining when to migrate cache lines to the cache bank closest to the requesting processor to avoid remote access penalty for future requests. In a preferred embodiment, decay counters are enhanced and used in determining the cost of retaining a line as opposed to replacing it while not losing the data. Decay counters have previously been studied for power saving applications, as described for example in Kaxiras, Hu, and Martonosi, Cache Decay: Exploiting Generational Behavior to Reduce Cache Leakage Power, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer Architecture, 2001, pp. 240-251. In contrast, in one aspect of the present invention, decay counters may be used in order to determine whether a cache line will be relocated using a cost-based mechanism. In one embodiment of the present invention, a minimization of off-chip communication is sought; this may be particularly useful in CMP environment. In summary, one aspect of the invention provides an apparatus for effecting cache management, the apparatus comprising: an arrangement for displacing data from a cache block; an arrangement for ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement being adapted to determine the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. Another aspect of the invention provides a method of effecting cache management, the method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. Furthermore, an additional aspect of the invention provides a program storage device readable by machine, tangibly embodying a program of instructions executable by the machine to perform method steps for effecting cache management, the method comprising the steps of: displacing data from a cache block; ascertaining a new cache location for displaced data; the ascertaining arrangement step comprising determining the suitability of one or more candidates for a new cache location via at least one of: determining a cost of re-fetching the replaced data; determining a likelihood of future reference to the replaced data; and determining whether a candidate is able to retain the replaced data. For a better understanding of the present invention, together with other and further features and advantages thereof, reference is made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and the scope of the invention will be pointed out in the appended claims. | 20050113 | 20081118 | 20060713 | 79156.0 | G06F1200 | 0 | BERTRAM, RYAN | COST-CONSCIOUS PRE-EMPTIVE CACHE LINE DISPLACEMENT AND RELOCATION MECHANISMS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,005 |
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11,035,385 | ACCEPTED | Device for sealing foodstuff containers and foodstuff container provided with such a device | The invention relates to a device for sealing foodstuff containers, in particular drink containers, comprising: a sealing element adapted to engage on a wall of a foodstuff container around a wall opening arranged in the wall, and an operating element adapted to co-act with the sealing element for displacing the sealing element between an opened position leaving the wall opening clear and a closed position sealing the wall opening. The invention also relates to a foodstuff container provided with such a device. | 1. Device for sealing foodstuff containers, in particular drink containers, comprising: a sealing element adapted to engage on a wall of a foodstuff container around a wall opening arranged in the wall, and an operating element adapted to co-act with the sealing element for displacing the sealing element between an opened position leaving the wall opening clear and a closed position sealing the wall opening, the operating element being provided with coupling means for coupling to the foodstuff container, wherein the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element can be changed such that the operating element can cause the sealing element in the closed position to engage under bias on the wall for substantially medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container, characterized in that said coupling means being adapted to engage on a peripheral edge of the wall opening. 2. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the operating element is partially situated in the wall opening such that the operating element engages bilaterally on the wall. 3. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element and the operating element are adapted to mutually enclose a part of the wall of the foodstuff container. 4. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element is located at least substantially inside the foodstuff container. 5. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element is positioned partially within the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element. 6. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the mutual distance between the sealing element and the operating element can be changed. 7. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element can be changed by means of rotating the sealing element relative to the operating element. 8. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element engages via a seal on the wall of the foodstuff container provided with the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element. 9. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element engages under bias on, or at least near, a peripheral edge of the wall of the foodstuff container provided with the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element. 10. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the operating element and the sealing element are mutually coupled by means of a threaded connection. 11. Device as claimed in claim 10, characterized in that the threaded connection is substantially enclosed by the sealing element and at least one of the wall of the foodstuff container and the operating element, at least in the closed position of the sealing element. 12. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element is provided with at least one receiving space for a pin projecting from the wall. 13. Device as claimed in claim 12, characterized in that the pin forms part of an intermediate element connected to the wall. 14. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the operating element is provided with a projecting engaging member for a user. 15. Device as claimed in claim 14, characterized in that the projecting engaging member is substantially fin shaped. 16. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the operating element is provided with a passage opening for the foodstuff held in the foodstuff container. 17. Device as claimed in claim 16, characterized in that the sealing element is provided with a screening element projecting in the direction of the operating element and adapted for positioning in the passage opening in a closed situation of the device. 18. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the device is provided with venting means in particular for de-aeration of the foodstuff container via the wall opening. 19. Device as claimed in claim 18, characterized in that the venting means comprises a first venting member making part of the operating element and a second venting member making part of the sealing element, said second venting member being adapted to co-act with the first venting member such that the mutual orientation of the first venting member and the second venting member can be changed to allow venting respectively block venting through the venting means. 20. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the device is initially sealed in the closed situation of the device. 21. Device as claimed in claim 20, characterized in that the seal is formed by a mutual breakable connection between the sealing element and the operating element. 22. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the operating element can be fixed relative to the sealing element in at least one preferred position, in which the sealing element, co-acting with the operating element, is at least substantially situated in the closed position. 23. Device as claimed in claim 22, characterized in that the operating element can be fixed relative to the sealing element by means of a substantially hook-shaped member. 24. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the sealing element is provided with reinforcement means. 25. Device as claimed in claim 1, characterized in that the device is provided with barrier means for substantially preventing scouring water and other compounds to enter the foodstuff container in the closed position of the sealing element. 26. Foodstuff container provided with a device as claimed in claim 1. 27. Foodstuff container as claimed in claim 26, characterized in that the foodstuff container is formed by a drink container. 28. Foodstuff container as claimed in claim 27, characterized in that the foodstuff container is formed by a drink can. 29. Foodstuff container as claimed in claim 26, characterized in that the device is arranged on an upper wall of the foodstuff container. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of Provisional Application No. 60/536,082, filed Jan. 13, 2004, entitled “Device for Sealing Foodstuff Containers and Foodstuff Container Provided with such a Device”. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a device for sealing foodstuff containers, in particular drink containers, comprising: a sealing element adapted to engage on a wall of a foodstuff container around a wall opening arranged in the wall, and an operating element adapted to co-act with the sealing element for displacing the sealing element between an opened position leaving the wall opening clear and a closed position sealing the wall opening, the operating element being provided with coupling means for coupling to the foodstuff container, wherein the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element can be changed such that the operating element can cause the sealing element in the closed position to engage under bias on the wall for substantially medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container. The invention also relates to a foodstuff container provided with such a device. 2. Description of Related Art Reclosable liquid containers have already been known for a long time. The American patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 4,077,538 thus describes a reclosable can for drinks or other foodstuffs. The known can is closed at the top by a seam-folded upper wall or cover. The upper wall is herein provided with a wall opening for passage of drink held in the can. The can is further provided with a device connected to the upper wall for closing the can. The device herein comprises a rotatable sealing element and a standing operating element connected to the sealing element. The sealing element is preferably constructed from a non-permeable lip which, after rotation of the operating element, can cover or leave clear the wall opening whereby the passage of drink can thus be respectively prevented or made possible. The advantage of the known can is that the can is reclosable, whereby the content of the can does not have to be consumed all at once but can, if desired, be consumed in portions at different times. Closing the passage opening of the can by means of the lip does somewhat enhance conservation of the content of the can, but mainly prevents the content of the can leaving or being able to leave the can in simple manner. As well as the above stated advantage, the known can also has drawbacks. A significant drawback of the known can is that only mediocre sealing of the can is realizable. The sealing element cannot seal the can completely in liquid-tight manner, or can do so only briefly. In the sealing situation of the can the content of the can is however still accessible to micro-organisms and gas exchange can take place freely between the atmosphere surrounding the can and the local atmosphere prevailing in the can. Particularly when the drink held in the can is carbonated, whereby an internal pressure will be built up in the can, the sealing element will be unable to seal the can sufficiently, as a result of which the carbon dioxide can and will escape. As already generally known, a reduction in the carbon dioxide content of drink results in a—usually unwanted—change in the taste of this drink. An improved device for sealing beverage containers, in particular beverage containers filled with a carbonated beverage, is disclosed in the American patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 6,626,314. This device comprises an operating element and a sealing element which are mutually coupled by means of a screw connection via a central wall opening in the wall of the beverage container. By rotating the operating element the sealing element can be lowered or raised thereby clearing respectively blocking another wall opening to open respectively seal the beverage container. Although with the known device a significantly improved closure for (carbonated) beverage containers is provided, the known device also has multiple drawbacks. A first major drawback of the device is that the device is constructively relatively complex. Due to this constructive complexity the prime costs to manufacture the known device are commonly considerable. Moreover, since the top wall of the beverage container is provided with multiple wall openings the device is relatively sensitive for leakage and which is to the prejudice of the reliability of the known device. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention has for its object, while retaining the above stated advantage of the prior art, to provide a relatively simple device for sealing a foodstuff container, using which the foodstuff container can be sealed reliably in a substantially medium-tight manner. The invention provides for this purpose a device for sealing foodstuff containers with the feature that said coupling means being adapted to engage on a peripheral edge of the wall opening around which the sealing element may engage under bias. By adapting the device according to the invention to a single wall opening, instead of to multiple wall openings, a relatively simple device can be obtained, which can be manufactured in a relatively simple and inexpensive manner. Since the single joint (or common) wall opening has a multilateral functionality, whereas the same wall opening is adapted for both passage of foodstuff on one side and for passage of a part of the operating element to allow coupling of the device to the foodstuff container, a relatively efficient device is provided. Moreover, since the single, joint (or common) wall opening is applied, instead of the application of multiple wall openings, the risk of leakage is reduced considerably, thereby making the device relatively suitable and reliable to be applied in combination with beverage containers containing carbonated beverages. The coupling means can be formed for instance by a projecting flange adapted to engage on a side of the wall remote from another part of the operating element. However, preferably the coupling means comprises multiple resilient lips to achieve a solid connection between the operating element and the wall of the foodstuff container. The operating element will thus be partially situated in the wall opening such that the operating element engages bilaterally on the wall. The projecting flange(s) herein lock(s) the mutual position of the operating element relative to the wall. The flange(s) can herein engage on a part of the peripheral edge of the wall opening or can be positioned along the whole peripheral edge of the wall opening. Besides application of the single multifunctional joint wall opening, it is still important that sealing element engages under bias on the wall of the foodstuff container (provided with the wall opening). By causing the sealing element to engage under bias on the wall of the foodstuff container, the foodstuff container is sealed in substantially medium-tight manner. This not only prevents the possibility of the liquid and/or solid foodstuff leaving the foodstuff container in the closed position of the foodstuff container, but also prevents gas exchange being able to take place between an atmosphere surrounding the foodstuff container and an atmosphere prevailing in the foodstuff container. In the case the foodstuff is formed by a carbonated drink, the carbon dioxide will remain confined in the foodstuff container in the closed situation, whereby it will also be possible to maintain the carbon dioxide content in the foodstuff container, which enhances the preservation of taste and the like. Using a device according to the invention it is moreover possible to prevent micro-organisms being able to move, in the closed situation, from outside the foodstuff container to a location inside the foodstuff container. A constant composition of the foodstuff can therefore be guaranteed with the device according to the invention in closed position, wherein the foodstuff can also be conserved in relatively hygienic manner in the closed foodstuff container. In the opened situation of the sealing element, the sealing element is generally situated substantially at a distance from the wall, whereby removal of foodstuff along the sealing element and via the wall opening can take place freely and preferably unimpeded. After sufficient removal of the foodstuff, the sealing element can be displaced once again to the closed position, wherein a bias will be exerted directly or indirectly on the wall in order to realize the medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container. The bias exerted on the wall by the sealing element can be adjusted in discrete or continuous manner by means of the operating element for a user. The sealing element and the operating element can be located substantially on one side relative to the wall, but the sealing element and the operating element are preferably adapted to mutually enclose a part of the wall of the foodstuff container. The operating element generally has to be readily accessible to the user and will usually be positioned substantially on an outer side of the wall. The sealing element is preferably located at least substantially inside the foodstuff container. In this manner it is possible to prevent, or at least counter, the sealing part—usually a sealing edge—of the sealing element becoming dirty relatively easily, which is often at the expense of the reliability of the medium-tight sealing. After removal of a quantity of foodstuff out of the foodstuff container commonly a residue of foodstuff remains within the single multi-purpose wall opening by sticking to the edge of the wall opening, which could easily lead to unhygienic situations. To prevent remaining of a foodstuff residue within the wall opening, the sealing element is preferably designed such that the sealing element is positioned partially within the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element thereby pushing this residue out of the wall opening. The operating element is preferably provided with a passage opening for the foodstuff held in the foodstuff container. From a hygienic viewpoint the passage opening can more preferably be sealed by a screening element forming part of the sealing element and projecting in the direction of the operating element. This applies particularly in the case liquid foodstuffs, in particular drinks, are held in the foodstuff container. This screening element is preferably congruent to the passage opening formed in the operating element. To facilitate direct consumption of the foodstuff, both the passage opening and the screening element are preferably substantially reniform (or kidney) shaped. The passage opening bounded by the operating element will then generally result in an improved sensation the user when the drink is consumed directly from the foodstuff container, since the operating element—generally manufactured from plastic—will provide a better sensation than the generally sharp peripheral edge of the wall opening. Furthermore, injuries to the user resulting from cuts from the peripheral edge can thus be prevented, or at least countered. In a preferred embodiment the mutual distance between the sealing element and the operating element can be changed. The mutual co-action of the sealing element and the operating element is herein such that, in the case of translation and/or rotation of the operating element in the closed situation of the device, the sealing element will displace in a direction away from the operating element. In a closed position the sealing element will then rest under bias against the wall around the wall opening, and in an opened position the sealing element will be positioned at least partially, but preferably wholly at a distance of the wall. Because the operating element—after mounting on a foodstuff container—will be coupled by means of coupling means to the foodstuff container, preferably to the wall, the possibility for translation of the operating element relative to the foodstuff container will generally be limited, and will usually even be minimized and become zero. In that case the operating element will only be rotatable relative to the wall. After rotation of the operating element relative to the wall and the sealing element, the sealing element will hereby be forced to displace relative to the wall and the operating element. It is noted that foodstuff container should be interpreted in a broad sense. Understood here are all kinds of conventional containers and packages which are used to conserve foodstuffs. The foodstuffs can herein be formed by (carbonated) drinks, syrups, tablets, sweets, consumable sprinkling materials, etc. The sealing element preferably engages via a seal on the wall of the foodstuff container which is provided with the wall opening, in the closed position of the sealing element. In order to guarantee the medium-tight sealing in the closed situation of the device, a sealing layer will be advantageous. The seal will generally be formed by a flexible, sealing strip of material which is arranged on a part of the sealing element that is adapted to support under bias on the wall. It is also possible to envisage arranging the sealing strip of material on the wall itself at the location where the sealing element will support in the closed situation. Preferably, the sealing strip is provided with a projecting flange to give the sealing strip a non-planar geometry. It has been found that in this manner, an improved sealing effect can be obtained with the non-planar strip. Various conventional materials can be applied as sealing material. Preferably used is a thermoplastic rubber (TPR), such as a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), and/or a flexible foam with a closed cell structure. Examples of applicable materials are: ethylene vinyl acetate rubber (EVA), ethylene vinyl ethanol (EvOH) and silicone rubber. The operating element and a remaining part of the sealing element may be made of plastic, such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). In a preferred embodiment the sealing element engages under bias on, or at least near, a peripheral edge of the wall of the foodstuff container provided with the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element. In this manner the actual seal is not formed directly around the wall opening, but rather at or at least near the peripheral edge of the wall containing said opening. In this manner a stable, reliable seal can be obtained by means of the device according to the invention, while maintaining a relatively simple construction. The coupling between the operating element and the sealing element can be of various nature. However, preferably the operating element and the sealing element are mutually coupled by means of a threaded connection. When the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element is changed, the mutual distance of the two components will thus also be changed. In addition to screw (thread) connections, the use of other types of co-acting connections can also be envisaged, such as for instance a bayonet connection (bayonet fitting). In a particular preferred embodiment the threaded connection is substantially enclosed by the sealing element and at least one of the wall of the food container and the operating element, at least in the closed position of the sealing element. In this way, fouling of the threaded connection by residue(s) of the foodstuff can be prevented, as a result of which unhygienic situations and malfunctioning of the threaded connection can be prevented. Optionally, at least a part of the threads of the threaded connection is interrupted to allow conditionally a certain degree of venting, in particular de-aeration, between the space within the foodstuff container and the surrounding atmosphere. In another preferred embodiment the sealing element is provided with at least one receiving space for a pin projecting from the wall. The pin preferably projects in the direction of a space enclosed by the foodstuff container, so as to minimize the number of components protruding in the direction of the user. The pin is preferably formed by a cylindrical body, but can optionally also be designed in another manner. More preferably, the pin is provided with a elongated flattened part for facilitating receipt of the pin by the (substantially cylindrical) receiving space, since liquids eventually contained within the receiving space can be removed relatively easily when receiving the pin. The mutual co-action of the pin and the receiving space prevents rotation of the sealing element. The sealing element is however displaceable along the pin, whereby translation of the sealing element relative to the wall and the operating element, for instance after rotation of the operating element, remains possible. The pin can be formed by a bent and/or folded part of the wall, but may also form part of an intermediate element, for instance a stationary intermediate ring, placed separately between the sealing element and the operating element. The intermediate ring is then preferably connected fixedly to the wall, wherein the pin preferably projects via the wall opening in the direction of the sealing element. To this end, the intermediate ring can be attached by means of injection moulding directly onto the (aluminium) wall of the foodstuff container. The advantage of the intermediate ring is that the existing structure of a conventional foodstuff container need not be changed in order to apply the pin in order to prevent rotation of the sealing element. It is then possible to suffice with an intermediate ring or other type of intermediate element separately manufactured and arranged at a later stage. In order to further stabilize prevention of rotation of the sealing element, a plurality of (spaced-apart) projecting pins may be applied. Preferably, the intermediate ring is provided with a guiding projecting flange to facilitate removal of foodstuff out of the foodstuff container. The operating element is preferably provided with a projecting engaging member for a user. The projecting engaging member generally facilitates opening and respectively closing of the foodstuff container. The engaging member is preferably formed by a fin-like member. This fin-like member is more preferably slightly curved to facilitate a user to engage the operating element. In addition to serving as a handle, the projecting member can also serve to bound the maximum rotation of the operating element, since in particular foodstuff containers, such as drink cans, the wall opening is arranged asymmetrically in the wall, wherein after a determined rotation the projecting engaging member will engage on a seam-folded part of the wall, whereby further rotation of the operating element can be prevented. An outer edge of the operating element can also be given a profiled form, whereby this outer edge can effectively also function as engaging member for the user. Preferably, substantially all tactile edges and other pointed parts of the operating element, in particular the engaging member, are rounded to prevent injuries by a user, in particular children, when operating the device according to the invention. The foodstuff container is adapted to contain various kinds of foodstuffs. Certain foodstuffs, such as carbonated beverages, build up pressure within the food container in closed state. To facilitate opening of the pressurized food container, the device is preferably provided with venting means in particular for de-aeration of the foodstuff container via the wall opening. After this de-aeration the device and hence the food container can be opened relatively easily. Particularly in the case of liquid foodstuffs, usually drinks, a venting opening will also be advantageous, particularly during removal of the drink from the drink container. Gurgling removal of drink can thus be prevented, or at least countered. Since de-aeration also occurs via the (joint) wall opening, the wall opening obtains an additional functionality. It may be clear that the venting means can also be used for aeration, instead of de-aeration, of the food container, which may be conceivable in case a vacuum fraction is present within the food container. Preferably, the venting means comprises a first venting member making part of the operating element and a second venting member making part of the sealing element, said second venting member being adapted to co-act with the first venting member such that the mutual orientation of the first venting member and the second venting member can be changed to allow venting respectively block venting through the venting means. Commonly, the first venting member and the second venting member are mutually rotatable, wherein one venting member surrounds the other venting member. Both venting members are commonly provided with a flattened part. In that case, venting is solely possible in case both flattened parts are positioned in line, or are at least positioned such that both flattened parts are in mutual communication. In a preferred embodiment the device is initially sealed in the closed situation of the device. In this manner a user can ascertain at the time of purchase whether the foodstuff container has previously been (improperly) opened, and whether the content corresponds to a content with specific quality standards guaranteed by the manufacturer. In a particular preferred embodiment the tamper-evident seal is formed by a mutual breakable connection between the sealing element and the operating element. The connection can for instance be formed by a rod and/or by a hook-shaped member. Said hook-shaped member is preferably applied in or near the wall opening to prevent or counter any tampering with the device, wherein the hook-shaped member may be coupled to both an upper surface of the sealing element and a lower surface of the operating element. Besides the functionality as tamper-evident seal, the hook-shaped member can subsequently be used to close the device in a locked member, by fixing the mutual orientation of the operating element and the sealing element. In this latter case, the device can merely be opened by firstly de-hooking the operating element relative to the sealing element. The seal is more preferably visible to the user, so that the user can see at a glance whether or not the device has been opened at an earlier stage. In a particular preferred embodiment, the rod is initially connected to the peripheral edge of the venting opening incorporated in the operating element. The rod is thus visible to the user. During initial opening of the device the rod will be permanently detached from the peripheral edge, whereby the seal is visibly broken and wherein the venting hole can actually function as aeration and venting of the foodstuff container. In a preferred embodiment the operating element can be fixed relative to the top element in at least one preferred position, in which the sealing element, co-acting with the operating element, is at least substantially situated in the closed position. The device can thus be closed in locked manner, whereby undesired and unexpected changes of the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element from a closed position to an open position can be prevented. The device according to the embodiment can thus not be opened in uncontrolled manner by for instance a (slight) external load, but only by one or more controlled operations, which are performed—in an optionally specific sequence—by a user. If the user fixes the relative orientation of the operating element and the sealing element, further removal of the foodstuff, such as a beverage, from the device will thus only be possible after release of the sealing element fixed relative to the operating element. It is also conceivable that other states of the device, besides the closed state, may be lockable. It is therefore for example imaginable that the open state of the device is also lockable, or at least restricted, to prevent excessive opening of the device, which could lead to malfunctioning of the device. The sealing element is preferably provided with reinforcement means. The reinforcement means preferably comprises a single or multiple reinforcement ribs, thereby each rib extending in a radial direction of the sealing element. In this manner, the sealing element is provided sufficient strength and stiffness to resist internal pressures more than 7 bar. Moreover, the ribs can be used as gate during manufacturing of the sealing element by injection moulding. In another preferred embodiment the device is provided with barrier means for substantially preventing scouring water and other compounds to enter the foodstuff container in the closed position of the sealing element. During manufacturing of the assembly of the foodstuff container and the device commonly the assembly is cleaned by scouring water. Moreover, the foodstuff contained by the foodstuff container is often pasteurised by the (hot) scouring water. To prevent the scouring water from entering the assembly, the barrier means are provided. This barrier means may be formed e.g. by a rubber strip, e.g. made of TPE or TPR, or by a labyrinth. Preferably, the operating element and the barrier means as a two-components-system is preferably manufactured in a single process step by particular injection moulding. Commonly, this barrier means is applied after filling of the container and before pouring or pasteurising (the content of) the container. The invention also relates to a foodstuff container provided with such a device according to the invention. As already noted, the device can be applied in diverse types of (substantially) conventional foodstuff container. The device is preferably positioned in an upper wall of the foodstuff container, since removal of the relevant foodstuff generally takes place via the upper wall of the foodstuff container. The foodstuff container is preferably formed by a drink container such as, for instance, a bottle, carton or can. In a drink container the wall opening through which the drink can be removed is generally also situated on the upper wall, or at least one of the upper walls of the relevant drink container. The device will usually already be connected to the upper wall during the manufacturing process of the relevant drink container. During manufacture of a drink can, a cover will first of all be provided with the device according to the invention, before the cover is seam-folded onto a body filled with drink. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention will be elucidated on the basis of the non-limitative embodiments shown in the following Figs. herein: FIG. 1a shows a perspective view of a device for closing a foodstuff container according to the invention. FIG. 1b shows a semi-transparent, perspective top view of the device according to FIG. 1a. FIG. 1c is a semi-transparent, perspective bottom view of the device according to FIGS. 1a and 1b. FIG. 1d is a semi-transparent side view of the device according to FIGS. 1a-1c. FIG. 2a shows a perspective view of another device according to the invention in the closed situation. FIG. 2b shows a perspective view of the device according FIG. 2a in the opened situation. FIG. 2c is a perspective top view of the device according to FIGS. 2a and 2b in closed situation. FIG. 3a shows a perspective cross-section of an alternative device according to the invention in closed situation. FIG. 3b shows a perspective cross-section of the device according to FIG. 3a in opened situation. FIG. 3c is a perspective bottom view of the device according to FIGS. 3a and 3b in closed situation. FIG. 3d is a perspective top view of the device according to FIGS. 3a-3c in closed situation. FIG. 4 shows a schematic cross-section of a soft drink can provided with a device according to the invention. FIG. 5a shows a perspective view of an assembly of a wall of a beverage can and a part of a device according to the invention. FIG. 5b shows a perspective view of an upper side of a complementary part of the device shown in FIG. 5a. FIG. 5c shows a perspective view of a bottom side the complementary part shown in FIG. 5b. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS FIG. 1a shows a perspective view of a device 1 for closing a foodstuff container (not shown) according to the invention in closed situation. The device 1 comprises a sealing element 2 and an operating element 3 connected rotatably to sealing element 2. Sealing element 2 is adapted to be positioned inside the foodstuff container, and operating element 3 (for a user) is adapted to be positioned outside the foodstuff container. Sealing element 2 and operating element 3 mutually co-act by means of a screw thread connection (see FIGS. 1b-1d). The mutual distance between operating element 3 and sealing element 2 can be changed by means of rotating the operating element 3 relative to sealing element 2. In order to prevent simultaneous rotation of sealing element 2 during rotation of operating element 3, sealing element 2 is locked two-dimensionally by means of two stationary pins (see FIGS. 1c and 1d). The pins herein form part of an intermediate ring (see FIGS. 1c and 1d). Sealing element 2 is provided for this purpose with two receiving spaces 4 for the two pins. Operating element 3 is provided with a projecting coupling flange 5 for clamping the operating element 3 in a wall opening of the foodstuff container. Operating element 3 is provided with a moon-shaped passage opening 6 for the foodstuff held in the foodstuff container. In the shown closed situation of device 1, the passage opening is filled by a likewise moon-shaped projection 7 in order to enable hygienic sealing of the space situated below operating element 3. Operating element 3 is provided with a fin-like projection 8 to facilitate rotation of operating element 3 by the user. In the shown situation the device 1 is closed, whereby removal of foodstuff from the foodstuff container will not be possible. After arranging the shown device 1 on the wall of the foodstuff container, an edge 9 forming part of sealing element 2 will support under bias on the wall, whereby a medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container can be realized. In the shown device 1 however, there is no physical contact present between the edge 9 of sealing element 2 and the wall, since a sealing layer 10 is arranged between the two. This layer 10 can be fixed by means of an adhesive to the wall or to the edge 9 of sealing element 2. Operating element 3 is provided with a venting opening 11 in order to facilitate removal of—particularly liquid—foodstuff. In venting opening 11 a free end of a rod 12 connected to sealing element 2 is now visible. The rod will break and/or deform permanently once the operating element 3 is rotated relative to sealing element 2. Rod 12 therefore functions in fact as an indicator of whether the device 1 is still sealed or not. Device 1 is arranged in the shown situation on the foodstuff container and marketed commercially as an assembly. Device 1 is preferably manufactured wholly, or in any case at least partially, from plastic. It is also conceivable to manufacture the device 1 from a different material, such as for instance metal. FIG. 1b shows a semi-transparent perspective top view of the device 1 of FIG. 1a. In the present view the operating element 3 is shown semi-transparently. The other components are shown in the normal situation of device 1. FIG. 1b shows clearly that the sealing element is provided with a centrally located tubular member 11 provided with an internal screw thread 12. The tubular member 11 is also provided with a protrusion 13 located at a distance from screw thread 12 for the purpose of bounding the maximum relative rotation of operating element 3 and sealing element 2. In the present embodiment the maximum angle of rotation amounts to (substantially) 120°. An opposite boundary of this maximum angle of rotation is formed by the moon-like projection 7, which is bounded in the closed situation by mutual co-action with passage opening 6. The mutual distance between screw thread 12 and protrusion 13 is here minimally the wall thickness of a projecting tubular member which forms part of operating element 3 and which is provided with an external screw thread (see FIG. 1c). Also shown clearly in FIG. 1b is the intermediate ring 14, which is positioned concentrically relative to sealing element 2. The intermediate ring 14 is usually manufactured from plastic and is generally connected fixedly to the wall of the foodstuff container. FIG. 1c shows a semi-transparent, perspective bottom view of the device 1 of FIGS. 1a and 1b. In FIG. 1c the sealing element 2 is shown semi-transparently. The other components of device 1 are however shown normally. In the present Fig. the projecting tubular body 15 forming part of operating element 3 is clearly shown. The body 15 is herein provided with an external screw thread 16 and is provided on an inner side with a projecting counter-protrusion 17. Screw thread 16 is adapted to co-act with the screw thread 12 forming part of sealing element 2. The counter-protrusion 17 is herein adapted to co-act with the protrusion 13 forming part of sealing element 2, as already stated above. The intermediate ring 14 is now also clearly shown, wherein the intermediate ring is provided with the above mentioned pins 18. Pins 18 are herein received in the receiving spaces 4 of sealing element 2, whereby only one-dimensional displacement of sealing element 2 is possible during rotation of operating element 3. FIG. 1d shows a semi-transparent side view of the device 1 of FIGS. 1a-1c. Sealing element 2 is once again shown semi-transparently. The wall of the foodstuff container is now shown by means of a broken line 19. After rotation of operating element 3, sealing element 2 will be displaced linearly along the pins 18 in a (downward) direction away from operating element 3, whereby sealing element 2 comes to lie at a distance from wall 19. In this opened situation the foodstuff can be removed along the sealing element and via the wall opening (not shown). In an alternative embodiment the pins 18 are formed integrally by a deformed part of the wall of the foodstuff container. Pins 18 can thus be formed by downward deformation of (punched) parts of the foodstuff container, whereby a passage opening for the foodstuff is also provided situated between pins 18. FIG. 2a shows a perspective view of another device 20 according to the invention in the closed situation. The operation very largely corresponds with the operation of the device 1 shown in FIGS. 1a-1d. Device 20 comprises a top element 21, an intermediate layer 22 rotatably connected to top element 21, and a cover element 23 co-acting with top element 21 and intermediate layer 22. Arranged between intermediate layer 22 and cover element 23 is a sealing ring 24, which is connected to intermediate layer 22. Cover element 23 is provided with a receiving opening 25 for a pin 26 forming part of intermediate layer 22. Top element 21 is provided with a handgrip 27 and a profiled edge 28 to facilitate rotation of top element 21. Top element 21 is also provided with a venting opening 29 in which a flexible rod-like member 30 is received in the closed situation. The rod-like member 30 in fact seals the venting opening 29 in the closed situation. When top element 21 is rotated relative to intermediate layer 22 and cover element 23, the rod-like member 30 will be removed from venting opening 29. The cover element will simultaneously be displaced linearly along the pin 26, whereby removal of the relevant foodstuff, usually drink, from the foodstuff container can take place along cover element 23 and via intermediate layer 22 and a passage opening 32 arranged in top element 21 (see FIG. 2b). FIG. 2b shows a perspective view of the device 20 of FIG. 2a in the opened situation. FIG. 2b shows clearly that top element 21 and cover element 23 are located a distance from each other, whereby removal of foodstuff from the foodstuff container can take place (see arrow A). Also shown is that rod-like member 30, temporarily deformed, rests against an underside of top element 21 until top element 21 is rotated back to the situation shown in FIG. 2a, after which the rod-like member 30 will once again extend into venting opening 29. FIG. 2c shows a perspective top view of the device 20 of FIG. 2a and 2b in closed situation. In the closed situation the passage opening 32 is sealed by means of a raised part 33 forming part of cover element 23. Also shown is that handgrip 27 is provided with an eye 34 which co-acts with an elevated member 35 arranged in intermediate layer 22. The elevated member 35 prevents the top element 21 from being able to rotate in undesired and simple manner. Only after overcoming a determined bias can the eye 34 be carried over the elevated member 35, whereafter unimpeded rotation of top element 21 through a determined angle is made possible. Top element 21 can in fact therefore be locked in the closed position of device 20. FIG. 3a shows a perspective cross-section of an alternative device 36 according to the invention in closed situation. Device 36 is arranged on a cover 37 of a drink can. Device 36 comprises an internal element 38 and an external element 39 co-acting with internal element 38. Internal element 38 is provided for this purpose with a cylindrical member 40 provided with an internal screw thread 41, and external element 39 is likewise provided with a cylindrical member 42 provided with an external screw thread 43. Rotation of internal element 38 is prevented by locking of internal element 38 on one side. The one-sided locking is realized by mutual co-action of an irregular portion 44 arranged in cover 37 on the one hand and two fixation protrusions 45 forming part of internal element 38 and engaging on either side on the irregular portion 44 on the other. A part of external element 39 is arranged with clamp fitting in a passage opening for drink arranged in cover 37. External element 39 herein engages on cover 37 on two sides. External element 39 is provided for this purpose with a projecting flange 46 for engaging on the inner side of cover 37, and a supporting edge 47 for engaging on an outer side of cover 37. External element 39 is also provided with a drinking opening 48 for a user, which drinking opening 48 is filled in the shown, closed situation by a plunger member 49 forming part of internal element 38. In the shown situation a sealing edge 50 forming part of internal element 38 engages under bias on cover 37. A sealing edge (not shown) is preferably arranged between sealing edge 50 and cover 37 in order to ensure a long-term medium-tight sealing of the drink can. When external element 39 is rotated, internal element 38 will move linearly in a direction away from cover 37, whereafter sealing edge 50 also comes to lie at a distance from cover 37, whereby the can is thus opened and removal of drink is made possible. This opened situation is shown in FIG. 3b. In the shown situation the maximum rotation of external element 39 has been reached, as a lip 51 forming part of external element 39 engages on an edge 52 forming part of cover 37. FIG. 3b also shows that plunger member 49 of internal element 38 has a surface with an inclining orientation relative to a remaining part of device 36. The higher situated part of plunger member 49 herein forms a boundary to excessive rotation of external element 39 in the direction of the closed position as shown in FIG. 3a. FIG. 3c shows a perspective bottom view of device 36 of FIGS. 3a and 3b in closed situation. FIG. 3c shows in particular the mutual co-action of the irregular portion 44 and the fixation protrusions 45 enclosing the irregular portion 44, whereby rotation of internal element 38 relative to cover 37 and external element 39 can be prevented. FIG. 3d shows a perspective top view of device 36 of FIGS. 3a-3c in closed situation. Passage opening 48 of external element 39 is now filled by plunger member 49. FIG. 3d also shows that external element 39 is provided with venting opening 53 to make it possible to prevent gurgling removal of drink. External element 39 is moreover provided with a profiled edge 54 to facilitate rotation of external element 39 for the user. FIG. 4 shows a schematic cross-section of a soft drink can 55 provided with a device 56 according to the invention. Can 55 is filled with a carbonated soft drink 56. Can 55 is constructed from a base element 57, a body 58 connected to base element 57 and a cover 59 seam-folded round body 58. Cover 59 is provided with a passage opening 60 for drink. Device 56 is coupled to cover 59 and is adapted for renewed medium-tight sealing of cover 59. Cover 59 comprises for this purpose a guide means 61 connected fixedly to cover 59 and provided with a receiving space 62 for a slide 63 connected in guiding manner to guide means 61. Slide 63 is coupled by means of a flexible element 64 to a sealing element 64 located in can 55. By sliding the slide 63 along guide means 61 (arrow A) and positioning it on receiving space 62, sealing element 64 can be pulled firmly against cover 59 (arrow B) such that a medium-tight sealing is created. Cover 59 is however now provided with a rubber ring 65 to ensure the medium-tight sealing. So as to stabilize the position of sealing element 64 to some extent, cover element 64 is provided with a pin 66 which protrudes with clamp fitting through an opening 67 arranged in cover 59. A seal 68 is likewise arranged between pin 66 and opening 67. In order to facilitate displacement of slide 63, this latter is provided with a handgrip 69. FIG. 5a shows a perspective view of an assembly 70 of a wall 71 of a beverage can and a part of a device 72 according to the invention. The shown part of the device 72 comprises an operating element 73 provided with an external screw thread 74. The shown part of the device 72 further comprises an intermediate ring 75 provided with two pins 76 extending downwards. Both the operating element 73 and the ring 75 are adapted to be coupled to a sealing element 77 as shown in FIGS. 5b and 5c. The ring 75 is provided with a rounded edge thereby forming a flange to optimise the sealing capacity of the ring 75. The operating element 73 further comprises a protruding pen 78 provided with a flattened part 79, said pen 78 being adapted to block or clear a venting passage 80 enclosed by the sealing element 77. Said protruding pen 78 may alternatively be provided with a groove instead of a flattened part. As is shown in FIG. 5b, the sealing element 77 comprises a protruding hollow cylindrical body 81 adapted to receive said pen 78. Said hollow body 81 is provided with a recess 82 to allow de-aeration of the beverage can via the flattened part 79 of said pen 78. To secure substantially free, unhindered flow of gas during de-aeration of the beverage can an inner screw thread 83 of the sealing element 77 is interrupted. The sealing element 77 also comprises two slots 84 for receiving the pins 76 of the intermediate ring 75. The sealing element 77 is provided with a sealing ring 86 to secure medium-tight engaging of the sealing element onto the wall 71. Said sealing ring 86 is preferably made of a TPE or TPE, while the sealing element 77 is preferably made of a polymer like PE or PP. However, preferably, the sealing element 77 and the sealing ring 86 as a two-components-system is preferably manufactured in a single process step by particular injection moulding. A lower surface of the sealing element 77 is provided with multiple reinforcement ribs 85 to strengthen and stiffen the sealing element to resist relatively high pressures of above 7 bar. The working principle of the device as shown in FIGS. 5a-5c is substantially identical to the working principle of the device 1 shown in FIGS. 1a-1d and elucidated above in a comprehensive manner. It will be apparent that the invention is not limited to the exemplary embodiments shown and described here, but that numerous variants, which will be obvious to the skilled person in the field, are possible within the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a device for sealing foodstuff containers, in particular drink containers, comprising: a sealing element adapted to engage on a wall of a foodstuff container around a wall opening arranged in the wall, and an operating element adapted to co-act with the sealing element for displacing the sealing element between an opened position leaving the wall opening clear and a closed position sealing the wall opening, the operating element being provided with coupling means for coupling to the foodstuff container, wherein the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element can be changed such that the operating element can cause the sealing element in the closed position to engage under bias on the wall for substantially medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container. The invention also relates to a foodstuff container provided with such a device. 2. Description of Related Art Reclosable liquid containers have already been known for a long time. The American patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 4,077,538 thus describes a reclosable can for drinks or other foodstuffs. The known can is closed at the top by a seam-folded upper wall or cover. The upper wall is herein provided with a wall opening for passage of drink held in the can. The can is further provided with a device connected to the upper wall for closing the can. The device herein comprises a rotatable sealing element and a standing operating element connected to the sealing element. The sealing element is preferably constructed from a non-permeable lip which, after rotation of the operating element, can cover or leave clear the wall opening whereby the passage of drink can thus be respectively prevented or made possible. The advantage of the known can is that the can is reclosable, whereby the content of the can does not have to be consumed all at once but can, if desired, be consumed in portions at different times. Closing the passage opening of the can by means of the lip does somewhat enhance conservation of the content of the can, but mainly prevents the content of the can leaving or being able to leave the can in simple manner. As well as the above stated advantage, the known can also has drawbacks. A significant drawback of the known can is that only mediocre sealing of the can is realizable. The sealing element cannot seal the can completely in liquid-tight manner, or can do so only briefly. In the sealing situation of the can the content of the can is however still accessible to micro-organisms and gas exchange can take place freely between the atmosphere surrounding the can and the local atmosphere prevailing in the can. Particularly when the drink held in the can is carbonated, whereby an internal pressure will be built up in the can, the sealing element will be unable to seal the can sufficiently, as a result of which the carbon dioxide can and will escape. As already generally known, a reduction in the carbon dioxide content of drink results in a—usually unwanted—change in the taste of this drink. An improved device for sealing beverage containers, in particular beverage containers filled with a carbonated beverage, is disclosed in the American patent specification U.S. Pat. No. 6,626,314. This device comprises an operating element and a sealing element which are mutually coupled by means of a screw connection via a central wall opening in the wall of the beverage container. By rotating the operating element the sealing element can be lowered or raised thereby clearing respectively blocking another wall opening to open respectively seal the beverage container. Although with the known device a significantly improved closure for (carbonated) beverage containers is provided, the known device also has multiple drawbacks. A first major drawback of the device is that the device is constructively relatively complex. Due to this constructive complexity the prime costs to manufacture the known device are commonly considerable. Moreover, since the top wall of the beverage container is provided with multiple wall openings the device is relatively sensitive for leakage and which is to the prejudice of the reliability of the known device. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention has for its object, while retaining the above stated advantage of the prior art, to provide a relatively simple device for sealing a foodstuff container, using which the foodstuff container can be sealed reliably in a substantially medium-tight manner. The invention provides for this purpose a device for sealing foodstuff containers with the feature that said coupling means being adapted to engage on a peripheral edge of the wall opening around which the sealing element may engage under bias. By adapting the device according to the invention to a single wall opening, instead of to multiple wall openings, a relatively simple device can be obtained, which can be manufactured in a relatively simple and inexpensive manner. Since the single joint (or common) wall opening has a multilateral functionality, whereas the same wall opening is adapted for both passage of foodstuff on one side and for passage of a part of the operating element to allow coupling of the device to the foodstuff container, a relatively efficient device is provided. Moreover, since the single, joint (or common) wall opening is applied, instead of the application of multiple wall openings, the risk of leakage is reduced considerably, thereby making the device relatively suitable and reliable to be applied in combination with beverage containers containing carbonated beverages. The coupling means can be formed for instance by a projecting flange adapted to engage on a side of the wall remote from another part of the operating element. However, preferably the coupling means comprises multiple resilient lips to achieve a solid connection between the operating element and the wall of the foodstuff container. The operating element will thus be partially situated in the wall opening such that the operating element engages bilaterally on the wall. The projecting flange(s) herein lock(s) the mutual position of the operating element relative to the wall. The flange(s) can herein engage on a part of the peripheral edge of the wall opening or can be positioned along the whole peripheral edge of the wall opening. Besides application of the single multifunctional joint wall opening, it is still important that sealing element engages under bias on the wall of the foodstuff container (provided with the wall opening). By causing the sealing element to engage under bias on the wall of the foodstuff container, the foodstuff container is sealed in substantially medium-tight manner. This not only prevents the possibility of the liquid and/or solid foodstuff leaving the foodstuff container in the closed position of the foodstuff container, but also prevents gas exchange being able to take place between an atmosphere surrounding the foodstuff container and an atmosphere prevailing in the foodstuff container. In the case the foodstuff is formed by a carbonated drink, the carbon dioxide will remain confined in the foodstuff container in the closed situation, whereby it will also be possible to maintain the carbon dioxide content in the foodstuff container, which enhances the preservation of taste and the like. Using a device according to the invention it is moreover possible to prevent micro-organisms being able to move, in the closed situation, from outside the foodstuff container to a location inside the foodstuff container. A constant composition of the foodstuff can therefore be guaranteed with the device according to the invention in closed position, wherein the foodstuff can also be conserved in relatively hygienic manner in the closed foodstuff container. In the opened situation of the sealing element, the sealing element is generally situated substantially at a distance from the wall, whereby removal of foodstuff along the sealing element and via the wall opening can take place freely and preferably unimpeded. After sufficient removal of the foodstuff, the sealing element can be displaced once again to the closed position, wherein a bias will be exerted directly or indirectly on the wall in order to realize the medium-tight sealing of the foodstuff container. The bias exerted on the wall by the sealing element can be adjusted in discrete or continuous manner by means of the operating element for a user. The sealing element and the operating element can be located substantially on one side relative to the wall, but the sealing element and the operating element are preferably adapted to mutually enclose a part of the wall of the foodstuff container. The operating element generally has to be readily accessible to the user and will usually be positioned substantially on an outer side of the wall. The sealing element is preferably located at least substantially inside the foodstuff container. In this manner it is possible to prevent, or at least counter, the sealing part—usually a sealing edge—of the sealing element becoming dirty relatively easily, which is often at the expense of the reliability of the medium-tight sealing. After removal of a quantity of foodstuff out of the foodstuff container commonly a residue of foodstuff remains within the single multi-purpose wall opening by sticking to the edge of the wall opening, which could easily lead to unhygienic situations. To prevent remaining of a foodstuff residue within the wall opening, the sealing element is preferably designed such that the sealing element is positioned partially within the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element thereby pushing this residue out of the wall opening. The operating element is preferably provided with a passage opening for the foodstuff held in the foodstuff container. From a hygienic viewpoint the passage opening can more preferably be sealed by a screening element forming part of the sealing element and projecting in the direction of the operating element. This applies particularly in the case liquid foodstuffs, in particular drinks, are held in the foodstuff container. This screening element is preferably congruent to the passage opening formed in the operating element. To facilitate direct consumption of the foodstuff, both the passage opening and the screening element are preferably substantially reniform (or kidney) shaped. The passage opening bounded by the operating element will then generally result in an improved sensation the user when the drink is consumed directly from the foodstuff container, since the operating element—generally manufactured from plastic—will provide a better sensation than the generally sharp peripheral edge of the wall opening. Furthermore, injuries to the user resulting from cuts from the peripheral edge can thus be prevented, or at least countered. In a preferred embodiment the mutual distance between the sealing element and the operating element can be changed. The mutual co-action of the sealing element and the operating element is herein such that, in the case of translation and/or rotation of the operating element in the closed situation of the device, the sealing element will displace in a direction away from the operating element. In a closed position the sealing element will then rest under bias against the wall around the wall opening, and in an opened position the sealing element will be positioned at least partially, but preferably wholly at a distance of the wall. Because the operating element—after mounting on a foodstuff container—will be coupled by means of coupling means to the foodstuff container, preferably to the wall, the possibility for translation of the operating element relative to the foodstuff container will generally be limited, and will usually even be minimized and become zero. In that case the operating element will only be rotatable relative to the wall. After rotation of the operating element relative to the wall and the sealing element, the sealing element will hereby be forced to displace relative to the wall and the operating element. It is noted that foodstuff container should be interpreted in a broad sense. Understood here are all kinds of conventional containers and packages which are used to conserve foodstuffs. The foodstuffs can herein be formed by (carbonated) drinks, syrups, tablets, sweets, consumable sprinkling materials, etc. The sealing element preferably engages via a seal on the wall of the foodstuff container which is provided with the wall opening, in the closed position of the sealing element. In order to guarantee the medium-tight sealing in the closed situation of the device, a sealing layer will be advantageous. The seal will generally be formed by a flexible, sealing strip of material which is arranged on a part of the sealing element that is adapted to support under bias on the wall. It is also possible to envisage arranging the sealing strip of material on the wall itself at the location where the sealing element will support in the closed situation. Preferably, the sealing strip is provided with a projecting flange to give the sealing strip a non-planar geometry. It has been found that in this manner, an improved sealing effect can be obtained with the non-planar strip. Various conventional materials can be applied as sealing material. Preferably used is a thermoplastic rubber (TPR), such as a thermoplastic elastomer (TPE), and/or a flexible foam with a closed cell structure. Examples of applicable materials are: ethylene vinyl acetate rubber (EVA), ethylene vinyl ethanol (EvOH) and silicone rubber. The operating element and a remaining part of the sealing element may be made of plastic, such as polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP). In a preferred embodiment the sealing element engages under bias on, or at least near, a peripheral edge of the wall of the foodstuff container provided with the wall opening in the closed position of the sealing element. In this manner the actual seal is not formed directly around the wall opening, but rather at or at least near the peripheral edge of the wall containing said opening. In this manner a stable, reliable seal can be obtained by means of the device according to the invention, while maintaining a relatively simple construction. The coupling between the operating element and the sealing element can be of various nature. However, preferably the operating element and the sealing element are mutually coupled by means of a threaded connection. When the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element is changed, the mutual distance of the two components will thus also be changed. In addition to screw (thread) connections, the use of other types of co-acting connections can also be envisaged, such as for instance a bayonet connection (bayonet fitting). In a particular preferred embodiment the threaded connection is substantially enclosed by the sealing element and at least one of the wall of the food container and the operating element, at least in the closed position of the sealing element. In this way, fouling of the threaded connection by residue(s) of the foodstuff can be prevented, as a result of which unhygienic situations and malfunctioning of the threaded connection can be prevented. Optionally, at least a part of the threads of the threaded connection is interrupted to allow conditionally a certain degree of venting, in particular de-aeration, between the space within the foodstuff container and the surrounding atmosphere. In another preferred embodiment the sealing element is provided with at least one receiving space for a pin projecting from the wall. The pin preferably projects in the direction of a space enclosed by the foodstuff container, so as to minimize the number of components protruding in the direction of the user. The pin is preferably formed by a cylindrical body, but can optionally also be designed in another manner. More preferably, the pin is provided with a elongated flattened part for facilitating receipt of the pin by the (substantially cylindrical) receiving space, since liquids eventually contained within the receiving space can be removed relatively easily when receiving the pin. The mutual co-action of the pin and the receiving space prevents rotation of the sealing element. The sealing element is however displaceable along the pin, whereby translation of the sealing element relative to the wall and the operating element, for instance after rotation of the operating element, remains possible. The pin can be formed by a bent and/or folded part of the wall, but may also form part of an intermediate element, for instance a stationary intermediate ring, placed separately between the sealing element and the operating element. The intermediate ring is then preferably connected fixedly to the wall, wherein the pin preferably projects via the wall opening in the direction of the sealing element. To this end, the intermediate ring can be attached by means of injection moulding directly onto the (aluminium) wall of the foodstuff container. The advantage of the intermediate ring is that the existing structure of a conventional foodstuff container need not be changed in order to apply the pin in order to prevent rotation of the sealing element. It is then possible to suffice with an intermediate ring or other type of intermediate element separately manufactured and arranged at a later stage. In order to further stabilize prevention of rotation of the sealing element, a plurality of (spaced-apart) projecting pins may be applied. Preferably, the intermediate ring is provided with a guiding projecting flange to facilitate removal of foodstuff out of the foodstuff container. The operating element is preferably provided with a projecting engaging member for a user. The projecting engaging member generally facilitates opening and respectively closing of the foodstuff container. The engaging member is preferably formed by a fin-like member. This fin-like member is more preferably slightly curved to facilitate a user to engage the operating element. In addition to serving as a handle, the projecting member can also serve to bound the maximum rotation of the operating element, since in particular foodstuff containers, such as drink cans, the wall opening is arranged asymmetrically in the wall, wherein after a determined rotation the projecting engaging member will engage on a seam-folded part of the wall, whereby further rotation of the operating element can be prevented. An outer edge of the operating element can also be given a profiled form, whereby this outer edge can effectively also function as engaging member for the user. Preferably, substantially all tactile edges and other pointed parts of the operating element, in particular the engaging member, are rounded to prevent injuries by a user, in particular children, when operating the device according to the invention. The foodstuff container is adapted to contain various kinds of foodstuffs. Certain foodstuffs, such as carbonated beverages, build up pressure within the food container in closed state. To facilitate opening of the pressurized food container, the device is preferably provided with venting means in particular for de-aeration of the foodstuff container via the wall opening. After this de-aeration the device and hence the food container can be opened relatively easily. Particularly in the case of liquid foodstuffs, usually drinks, a venting opening will also be advantageous, particularly during removal of the drink from the drink container. Gurgling removal of drink can thus be prevented, or at least countered. Since de-aeration also occurs via the (joint) wall opening, the wall opening obtains an additional functionality. It may be clear that the venting means can also be used for aeration, instead of de-aeration, of the food container, which may be conceivable in case a vacuum fraction is present within the food container. Preferably, the venting means comprises a first venting member making part of the operating element and a second venting member making part of the sealing element, said second venting member being adapted to co-act with the first venting member such that the mutual orientation of the first venting member and the second venting member can be changed to allow venting respectively block venting through the venting means. Commonly, the first venting member and the second venting member are mutually rotatable, wherein one venting member surrounds the other venting member. Both venting members are commonly provided with a flattened part. In that case, venting is solely possible in case both flattened parts are positioned in line, or are at least positioned such that both flattened parts are in mutual communication. In a preferred embodiment the device is initially sealed in the closed situation of the device. In this manner a user can ascertain at the time of purchase whether the foodstuff container has previously been (improperly) opened, and whether the content corresponds to a content with specific quality standards guaranteed by the manufacturer. In a particular preferred embodiment the tamper-evident seal is formed by a mutual breakable connection between the sealing element and the operating element. The connection can for instance be formed by a rod and/or by a hook-shaped member. Said hook-shaped member is preferably applied in or near the wall opening to prevent or counter any tampering with the device, wherein the hook-shaped member may be coupled to both an upper surface of the sealing element and a lower surface of the operating element. Besides the functionality as tamper-evident seal, the hook-shaped member can subsequently be used to close the device in a locked member, by fixing the mutual orientation of the operating element and the sealing element. In this latter case, the device can merely be opened by firstly de-hooking the operating element relative to the sealing element. The seal is more preferably visible to the user, so that the user can see at a glance whether or not the device has been opened at an earlier stage. In a particular preferred embodiment, the rod is initially connected to the peripheral edge of the venting opening incorporated in the operating element. The rod is thus visible to the user. During initial opening of the device the rod will be permanently detached from the peripheral edge, whereby the seal is visibly broken and wherein the venting hole can actually function as aeration and venting of the foodstuff container. In a preferred embodiment the operating element can be fixed relative to the top element in at least one preferred position, in which the sealing element, co-acting with the operating element, is at least substantially situated in the closed position. The device can thus be closed in locked manner, whereby undesired and unexpected changes of the relative orientation of the sealing element and the operating element from a closed position to an open position can be prevented. The device according to the embodiment can thus not be opened in uncontrolled manner by for instance a (slight) external load, but only by one or more controlled operations, which are performed—in an optionally specific sequence—by a user. If the user fixes the relative orientation of the operating element and the sealing element, further removal of the foodstuff, such as a beverage, from the device will thus only be possible after release of the sealing element fixed relative to the operating element. It is also conceivable that other states of the device, besides the closed state, may be lockable. It is therefore for example imaginable that the open state of the device is also lockable, or at least restricted, to prevent excessive opening of the device, which could lead to malfunctioning of the device. The sealing element is preferably provided with reinforcement means. The reinforcement means preferably comprises a single or multiple reinforcement ribs, thereby each rib extending in a radial direction of the sealing element. In this manner, the sealing element is provided sufficient strength and stiffness to resist internal pressures more than 7 bar. Moreover, the ribs can be used as gate during manufacturing of the sealing element by injection moulding. In another preferred embodiment the device is provided with barrier means for substantially preventing scouring water and other compounds to enter the foodstuff container in the closed position of the sealing element. During manufacturing of the assembly of the foodstuff container and the device commonly the assembly is cleaned by scouring water. Moreover, the foodstuff contained by the foodstuff container is often pasteurised by the (hot) scouring water. To prevent the scouring water from entering the assembly, the barrier means are provided. This barrier means may be formed e.g. by a rubber strip, e.g. made of TPE or TPR, or by a labyrinth. Preferably, the operating element and the barrier means as a two-components-system is preferably manufactured in a single process step by particular injection moulding. Commonly, this barrier means is applied after filling of the container and before pouring or pasteurising (the content of) the container. The invention also relates to a foodstuff container provided with such a device according to the invention. As already noted, the device can be applied in diverse types of (substantially) conventional foodstuff container. The device is preferably positioned in an upper wall of the foodstuff container, since removal of the relevant foodstuff generally takes place via the upper wall of the foodstuff container. The foodstuff container is preferably formed by a drink container such as, for instance, a bottle, carton or can. In a drink container the wall opening through which the drink can be removed is generally also situated on the upper wall, or at least one of the upper walls of the relevant drink container. The device will usually already be connected to the upper wall during the manufacturing process of the relevant drink container. During manufacture of a drink can, a cover will first of all be provided with the device according to the invention, before the cover is seam-folded onto a body filled with drink. | 20050113 | 20101102 | 20050714 | 75969.0 | 2 | MCKINLEY, CHRISTOPHER BRIAN | DEVICE FOR SEALING FOODSTUFF CONTAINERS AND FOODSTUFF CONTAINER PROVIDED WITH SUCH A DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,463 | ACCEPTED | Method and apparatus for vibrating a substrate during material formation | A method and apparatus for affecting the properties of a material comprise vibrating the material during its formation (i.e., “surface sifting”). The method comprises the steps of providing a material formation device and applying a plurality of vibrations to the material during formation, which vibrations comprise oscillations having dissimilar, non-harmonic frequencies and at least two different directions. The apparatus comprises a plurality of vibration sources that impart vibrations to the material. | 1. A method comprising the steps of: a. providing a material formation device; and b. applying a plurality of vibrations to a material during formation of said material, wherein said vibrations comprise dissimilar, nonharmonic frequencies and at least two different directions of oscillations; thereby altering properties of said material. 2. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said frequencies are each greater than or equal to approximately 1 kHz. 3. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said vibrations comprise oscillations not normal to a target surface on said material. 4. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said applying occurs through an article contacting said material. 5. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said applying comprises employing a vibration source, said vibration source comprising a device selected from the group consisting of piezoelectric transducers, mechanical motors, electromagnetic devices, laser-based sources, acoustic devices, and combinations thereof. 6. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said vibrations are applied at a plurality of locations. 7. The method as recited in claim 6, said plurality of locations comprising two vibration sources having approximately orthogonal oscillation directions and having planes of oscillation approximately parallel to a target surface, wherein said target surface is substantially planar. 8. The method as recited in claim 6, said plurality of locations comprising at least three vibration sources having nonparallel planes of oscillation. 9. The method as recited in claim 6, said plurality of locations comprising a substantially tetrahedral arrangement of four vibration sources, wherein a target surface is non-planar. 10. The method as recited in claim 1, wherein said material formation device is selected from the group consisting of apparatuses for material deposition, film growth, fabrication, surface repair, bulk growth, component joining, molding, coating, ESD, spray coating, welding, spin coating, casting, high-velocity oxide spraying, and combinations thereof. 11. An apparatus comprising a plurality of vibration sources imparting vibrations to a material, thereby altering properties of said material, wherein said vibrations have dissimilar, nonharmonic frequencies and at least two different directions of oscillation. 12. The apparatus as recited in claim 11, said material generated by a material deposition device selected from the group consisting of apparatuses for material deposition, film growth, fabrication, surface repair, bulk growth, component joining, molding, coating, ESD, spray coating, welding, spin coating, casting, high-velocity oxide spraying, and combinations thereof. 13. The apparatus as recited in claim 11, wherein said vibrations comprise oscillations not normal to a target surface. 14. The apparatus as recited in claim 11, wherein said vibration sources are applied to an article contacting said material. 15. The apparatus as recited in claim 11, wherein said vibration source comprises a device selected from the group consisting of piezoelectric transducers, mechanical motors, electromagnetic devices, laser-based sources, acoustic devices, and combinations thereof. 16. The apparatus as recited in claim 11, wherein said vibration sources are positioned at a plurality of locations. 17. The apparatus as recited in claim 16, comprising two vibration sources having approximately orthogonal oscillation directions and having planes of oscillation approximately parallel to a target surface, wherein said target surface is substantially planar. 18. The apparatus as recited in claim 16, comprising at least three vibration sources having nonparallel planes of oscillation. 19. The apparatus as recited in claim 16, comprising a substantially tetrahedral arrangement of four vibration sources, wherein a target surface is non-planar. 20. An apparatus comprising an ESD apparatus operably coupled to a plurality of vibration sources imparting vibrations to a substrate, thereby altering properties of an ESD deposit on said substrate, wherein said vibrations have dissimilar, nonharmonic frequencies and oscillations in at least two different directions. | STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT This invention was made with Government support under Contract DE-AC0576RLO1830 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the invention. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present invention encompass methods and apparatus for vibrating a material during its formation (i.e., “surface sifting”), thereby affecting the properties of the material. The method comprises the steps of providing a material formation device and applying a plurality of vibrations to the material during formation. The plurality of vibrations comprises oscillations having dissimilar, non-harmonic frequencies and at least two different directions. The apparatus comprises a plurality of vibration sources imparting vibrations to a material. The vibration sources generate vibrations having dissimilar, non-harmonic frequencies and oscillations in at least two different directions. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Embodiments of the invention are described below with reference to the following accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of one embodiment comprising two vibration sources. FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of one embodiment having oscillations parallel to a surface normal. FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of one embodiment comprising a tetrahedral arrangement of vibration sources. FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of the test pattern used in an experiment comparing deposits generated with and without surface sifting. DETAILED DESCRIPTION For a clear and concise understanding of the specification and claims, including the scope given to such terms, the following definition is provided. A material formation device, as used herein, comprises an apparatus for forming materials, especially when the material changes phases from a solid, a fluid, or a solid powder, to a cohesive solid. The device can be applied to processes including, but not limited to, material deposition, film growth, fabrication, surface repair, bulk growth, component joining, molding, and coating. Specific examples of a material formation device can include, but are not limited to, apparatuses for electro-spark deposition (ESD), spray coating, welding, spin coating, casting, high-velocity oxide spraying (HVOS), chemical electroplating, crystal fabrication,.polymer molding, and combinations thereof. A target surface, as used herein, can refer to the region proximal to the formation front during material formation. For example, when repairing a relatively small defect on the surface of a large component, the target surface can encompass the region of the defect, where material formation occurs and is intended. Vibrations during material formation can alter the properties of a material of interest. For example, according to embodiments of the present invention, semi-random movement resulting from vibrations during material formation can distribute stresses associated with a particular formation process and reduce/eliminate cumulative stresses, which can lead to cracks and other defects in the material. Additionally, vibrations during material formation can minimize porosity and the number of inclusions in the material by “sifting” out such defects. Suitable oscillation frequencies can be application and material dependent, yet still fall within the scope the present invention. In one embodiment, the frequencies of each vibration can be greater than or equal to approximately 1 kHz, and would not result in net movement. The vibrations can be applied and/or transmitted directly to the material with a variety of vibration sources including, but not limited to piezoelectric transducers, mechanical motors, electromagnetic devices, laser-based sources, acoustic devices, and combinations thereof. In addition to, or as an alternative to, applying vibrations directly to the material, the vibrations can be applied to an article that contacts the material of interest. Instances of applying vibrations to an article can include, but are not limited to, coupling the vibrations to substrates for films/coatings, molds for forming ceramic articles, components having surface damage, and vessels containing molten material for crystal growth. For example, a substrate on which a coating will be formed can be coupled to a vibration source. By vibrating the substrate, the deposited material will itself be vibrated during formation of the coating. Selection of a particular vibration source would depend on the intended application. For example, a target surface surrounded by fluid that damps oscillations might couple less effectively to an acoustic vibrator than to an electromagnetic or laser-based device, which could transmit vibrations through the fluid to the target surface. Similarly for applications in vacuum, an optically-based system can be effective. A mechanical motor can be utilized to vibrate the molds for forming a large ceramic article, while piezoelectric transducers can be used to vibrate a substrate for film deposition. A non-limiting example of an electromagnetic device comprises an electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT). An EMAT can comprise a static magnetic field and a current-carrying wire, which can induce an eddy current in a nearby material. EMATs can transmit vibrations to a nearby substrate without the use of a coupling material such as oils. Laser-based sources can comprise devices utilizing lasers to generate a pulse and/or vibration. For example, a focused laser beam can produce enough localized heat to generate a spark at the focal point, which can be accompanied by an acoustic shock wave. Thus, one example of a laser-based vibration source can comprise a train of laser-induced acoustic waves. Another example can comprise impinging a component with a laser having a wavelength that the component absorbs. The interaction can result in rapid localized heating and produce thermal shock waves in the component. In order to minimize unintended and/or undesirable temperature effects, the laser-heated area should be sufficiently distant from the target surface where material formation occurs. Furthermore, when necessary, the vibration sources should be electrically insulated from the material of interest and/or the articles contacting the material of interest. The vibration sources listed herein are examples and are not intended to be limitations of the present invention. Regardless of the source, the vibrations can be applied at a plurality of locations and in a variety of orientations. Each vibration can have a different, non-harmonic frequency and a different direction of oscillation, wherein the resulting cumulative force vector generates a semi-random movement of the material. A separate vibration source can generate each of the vibrations. Each of the vibration sources can utilize and operably connect to separate power supplies and/or frequency generators. In the embodiment shown schematically in FIG. 1, for example, two vibration sources (102 and 103) are applied to a substrate 101 that is substantially planar. The substrate 101 can be secured by a substrate mounting device 104. The two vibration sources comprise piezoelectric transducers (102 and 103) oriented such that the direction of oscillation is not normal to the target surface (i.e., the surface of interest) of the substrate. The oscillations of both sources lie substantially in the x-y plane, wherein oscillations from 102 are approximately parallel to the x-axis and oscillations from 103 are approximately parallel to the y-axis (i.e., the two sources have approximately orthogonal oscillation directions). Since many vibration sources, for instance piezoelectric transducers, can operate as vibration “transmitters” or “receivers,” they provide a method for setting up the multiple vibration sources. For example, when using two sources, the first source can generate vibrations while the second detects them. The amplitude and frequency of the first source can be tuned according to the values detected by the second. The process is then repeated with the second source now generating vibrations and the first source detecting them. Similar tuning procedures can be utilized with multiple sources of various types, including laser-based and electromagnetic-based sources. While some applications can utilize vibrations normal to the target surface, in other cases, such vibrations are ineffective at randomizing stress vectors in the deposit. Referring to FIG. 2, one instance when surface-normal vibrations can be utilized includes, but is not limited by, deposition schemes wherein the deposit material 201 impinges the target surface 202 at an angle 203 off the surface normal, n. Another embodiment can comprise at least three vibration sources wherein at least two of the sources have nonparallel planes of oscillation. For vibration sources having parallel planes of oscillation, the directions of oscillation should not be parallel. The present embodiment can be applied to substrates having a target surface that is non-planar. Referring to FIG. 3, another configuration can utilize four vibration sources placed in a substantially tetrahedral arrangement on a non-planar substrate. The embodiments of the present invention are compatible with material systems in which stresses build during formation and can include, but are not limited to metals, alloys, ceramics, cermets, and polymers. Example of Surface Sifting during Electrospark Deposition ESD is a pulsed-arc, micro-welding process that uses short-duration, high-current electrical pulses to deposit a consumable electrode material on a conductive work piece. ESD has been described in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,835,908 by Bailey et al., which details are incorporated herein by reference. Two ESD coatings were applied to each of two sets of three steel coupons (316 SS). Coatings applied to one set of coupons utilized a spring shock absorber on the ESD application torch. Coatings applied to the other set of coupons had a rigid brace mounted across the shock absorber. Each set of coupons had coatings comprising three materials—FeAl (FAP alloy), Stellite 6, and Inconel 625. The FAP alloy does not normally crack and served as a control to ensure that surface sifting did not introduce new problems. Stellite 6 and Inconel 625 typically suffer from moderate and significant cracking, respectively. On each coupon, one coating was generated with Surface Sifting and one coating without. Thus, the experiment contained six pairs of deposits under a variety of conditions. In the present example, two piezoelectric transducers (i.e., vibration sources) were coupled to the stainless steel coupon (i.e., substrate) in a configuration similar to the one shown in FIG. 1. The transducers were mounted between machine-workable ceramic pieces for electrical insulation. The two piezoelectric transducers operated at frequencies of approximately 1.3 and 2 MHz with 25 V and 40 V peak-to-peak amplitudes, respectively. Argon was used as a cover gas during deposition. Each coating was then evaluated by metallographic examination for evidence of micro-cracking, porosity, and inclusions. Table 1 summarizes the results and suggests that vibrating the work piece according to embodiments of the present invention reduces the number of observable defects, thereby altering the properties of the coating. TABLE 1 Summary of results from ESD coatings on vibrating and non-vibrating work pieces. Number of Number of Coating Material Defects Defects (ESD Torch Config.) (no vibration) (vibration) Comments FeAl 15 7 (Rigid Torch) FeAl 13 6 (Sprung Torch) Stellite 6 11 6 (Rigid Torch) Stellite 6 15 22 Coating from (Sprung Torch) surface-sifted coating was almost 2 times thicker. Inconel 625 n/a n/a Inconel 625 is not (Rigid Torch) prone to cracking Inconel 625 n/a n/a and served as a (Sprung Torch) control. However, the number of trapped bubbles in the coatings was significantly less in the vibrated sample. While a number of embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many changes and modifications may be made without departing from the invention in its broader aspects. The appended claims, therefore, are intended to cover all such changes and modifications as they fall within the true spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention encompass methods and apparatus for vibrating a material during its formation (i.e., “surface sifting”), thereby affecting the properties of the material. The method comprises the steps of providing a material formation device and applying a plurality of vibrations to the material during formation. The plurality of vibrations comprises oscillations having dissimilar, non-harmonic frequencies and at least two different directions. The apparatus comprises a plurality of vibration sources imparting vibrations to a material. The vibration sources generate vibrations having dissimilar, non-harmonic frequencies and oscillations in at least two different directions. | 20050113 | 20081021 | 20060713 | 99485.0 | C21D1000 | 0 | KERNS, KEVIN P | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR VIBRATING A SUBSTRATE DURING MATERIAL FORMATION | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | C21D | 2,005 |
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11,035,504 | ACCEPTED | Motor-driven pump for pool or spa | An improved motor-driven pump is provided for delivering a flow of water in a swimming pool or spa environment or the like. The improved pump includes a motor mounted within a motor housing having a seal plate mounted at one end thereof. The seal plate carries a shaft bearing for rotatably supporting a drive shaft having an outboard end connected to an impeller disposed within a pump chamber defined cooperatively by the seal plate and a volute housing mounted thereon. A primary seal assembly includes an axially spring-loaded dynamic seal ring carried on the drive shaft for rotation therewith and for running engagement with a stationary bushing carried by the seal plate. A secondary seal assembly is positioned axially between the primary seal assembly and motor bearing, and includes at least one slinger disk for radially outwardly slinging any water leaking past the primary seal assembly through a vent chamber. | 1. A motor-driven pump, comprising: a motor mounted within a motor housing and adapted for rotatably driving a drive shaft; a seal plate at one end of said motor housing; a shaft bearing within said motor housing and rotatably supporting said drive shaft extending through a bore formed in said seal plate; a pump housing member cooperating with said seal plate to define a pump chamber having a suction intake port and a pressure discharge port; an impeller carried by said drive shaft within said pump chamber for rotatable driving therein to pump fluid from said suction intake port to said pressure discharge port; and seal means for preventing fluid leakage past said seal plate into said motor housing. 2. The motor-driven pump of claim 1 wherein said shaft bearing is carried at an inboard side of said seal plate. 3. The motor-driven pump of claim 1 wherein said seal means is disposed along said drive shaft axially between said shaft bearing and said impeller. 4. The motor-driven pump of claim 1 wherein said seal means includes at least one slinger disk carried on said drive shaft for rotation therewith within a vent chamber defined by said seal disk, said at least one slinger disk rotatably slinging fluid leaking axially along said drive shaft in a radially outwardly direction. 5. The motor-driven pump of claim 1 wherein said seal means comprises an axially spaced pair of slinger disks carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith within a vent chamber defined by said seal disk, and an expansion washer carried by said seal disk axially between said pair of slinger disks and in running clearance with said drive shaft, said pair of slinger disks and said expansion washer cooperatively defining a tortuous path for fluid leakage along said drive shaft, and said slinger disks slinging fluid leaking axially along said drive shaft in a radially outward direction. 6. The motor-driven pump of claim 1 wherein said seal means comprises a bushing carried by said seal plate in running clearance with said drive shaft, and a dynamic seal ring carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith and in running engagement with said bushing. 7. The motor-driven pump of claim 6 wherein said dynamic seal ring is carried in axial running engagement with said bushing. 8. The motor-driven pump of claim 6 wherein said bushing and said dynamic seal ring are formed from materials selected for relatively low friction running engagement. 9. The motor-driven pump of claim 8 wherein said bushing is formed from a ceramic material, and wherein said dynamic seal ring is formed from a carbon-based material. 10. The motor-driven pump of claim 6 further including a compliant base ring for supporting said dynamic seal ring for rotation with said drive shaft and in running engagement with said bushing. 11. The motor-drive pump of claim 10 further including a compliant support ring for supporting said bushing relative to said seal plate. 12. The motor-driven pump of claim 11 wherein said compliant support ring and said compliant base ring are formed from a rubber-based material. 13. The motor-driven pump of claim 6 further including spring means for urging said dynamic seal ring into running engagement with said bushing. 14. The motor-driven pump of claim 13 further including a base ring carried on said drive shaft for rotation therewith and disposed axially between said impeller and said bushing, said base ring being formed from a compliant material and defining a radially outwardly open recessed circumferential groove formed therein with axially opposed ends of said circumferential groove defining a pair of radially outwardly projecting stepped shoulders, said dynamic seal ring being carried at one axial end of said base ring for running engagement with said bushing, said spring means comprising a biasing spring seated within said circumferential groove and reacting axially against said shoulders for urging said one axial end of said base ring to position and retain said dynamic seal ring in running engagement with said bushing. 15. The motor-driven pump of claim 14 wherein said dynamic seal ring is seated within an axially open annular groove formed in said one axial end of said base ring. 16. The motor-driven pump of claim 14 further including a reinforcement lining within said circumferential groove of said base ring. 17. The motor-driven pump of claim 6 wherein said means further includes at least one slinger disk carried on said drive shaft for rotation therewith within a vent chamber defined by said seal disk and disposed axially between said bushing and said shaft bearing, said at least one slinger disk rotatably slinging fluid leaking axially along said drive shaft in a radially outwardly direction. 18. A motor-driven pump, comprising: a motor mounted within a motor housing and adapted for rotatably driving a drive shaft; a seal plate at one end of said motor housing, said seal plate having an outboard side and an inboard side relative to said motor housing, and said seal plate further defining a vent chamber formed between said outboard and inboard sides; a shaft bearing within said motor housing and rotatably supporting said drive shaft extending through a bore formed in said seal plate; a pump housing member defining a pump chamber having a suction intake port and a pressure discharge port; an impeller carried by said drive shaft within said pump chamber for rotatable driving therein to pump fluid from said suction intake port to said pressure discharge port; a primary seal assembly at said outboard side of said seal plate for preventing fluid leakage from said pump chamber along said drive shaft and into contact with said shaft bearing within said motor housing; and a secondary seal assembly disposed generally at said inboard side of said seal plate, said secondary seal assembly including at least one slinger disk rotatable within said vent chamber for slinging fluid leaking along said drive shaft in a radially outward direction. 19. The motor-driven pump of claim 18 wherein said seal plate cooperates with said pump housing member to define said pump chamber. 20. The motor-driven pump of claim 18 wherein said shaft bearing is carried at said inboard side of said seal plate. 21. The motor-driven pump of claim 18 wherein said primary seal assembly comprises a bushing carried by said seal plate in running clearance with said drive shaft, and a dynamic seal ring carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith and in running engagement with said bushing. 22. The motor-driven pump of claim 21 wherein said dynamic seal ring is carried in axial running engagement with said bushing. 23. The motor-driven pump of claim 21 wherein said bushing and said dynamic seal ring are formed from materials selected for relatively low friction running engagement. 24. The motor-driven pump of claim 23 wherein said bushing is formed from a ceramic material, and wherein said dynamic seal ring is formed from a carbon-based material. 25. The motor-driven pump of claim 21 further including a compliant base ring for supporting said dynamic seal ring for rotation with said drive shaft and in running engagement with said bushing. 26. The motor-driven pump of claim 25 further including a compliant support ring for supporting said bushing relative to said seal plate. 27. The motor-driven pump of claim 26 wherein said compliant support ring and said compliant base ring are formed from a rubber-based material. 28. The motor-driven pump of claim 21 further including spring means for urging said dynamic seal ring into running engagement with said bushing. 29. The motor-driven pump of claim 28 further including a base ring carried on said drive shaft for rotation therewith and disposed axially between said impeller and said bushing, said base ring being formed from a compliant material and defining a radially outwardly open recessed circumferential groove formed therein with axially opposed ends of said circumferential groove defining a pair of radially outwardly projecting stepped shoulders, said dynamic seal ring being carried at one axial end of said base ring for running engagement with said bushing, said spring means comprising a biasing spring seated within said circumferential groove and reacting axially against said shoulders for urging said one axial end of said base ring to position and retain said dynamic seal ring in running engagement with said bushing. 30. The motor-driven pump of claim 29 wherein said dynamic seal ring is seated within an axially open annular groove formed in said one axial end of said base ring. 31. The motor-driven pump of claim 18 wherein said secondary seal assembly comprises an axially spaced pair of slinger disks carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith within said vent chamber, and an expansion washer carried by said seal disk axially between said pair of slinger disks and in running clearance with said drive shaft, said pair of slinger disks and said expansion washer cooperatively defining a tortuous path for fluid leakage along said drive shaft, and said slinger disks slinging fluid leaking axially along said drive shaft in a radially outward direction. 32. A motor-driven pump, comprising: a motor mounted within a motor housing and adapted for rotatably driving a drive shaft; a seal plate at one end of said motor housing, said seal plate having an outboard side and an inboard side relative to said motor housing, and said seal plate further defining a vent chamber formed between said outboard and inboard sides; a shaft bearing within said motor housing and rotatably supporting said drive shaft extending through a bore formed in said seal plate; a pump housing member defining a pump chamber having a suction intake port and a pressure discharge port; an impeller carried by said drive shaft within said pump chamber for rotatable driving therein to pump fluid from said suction intake port to said pressure discharge port; a primary seal assembly at said outboard side of said seal plate for preventing fluid leakage from said pump chamber along said drive shaft and into contact with said shaft bearing within said motor housing, said primary seal assembly comprising a bushing, a dynamic seal ring, and a compliant base ring carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith and for supporting said dynamic seal ring in axially running engagement with said bushing; and a secondary seal assembly at said inboard side of said seal plate, said secondary seal assembly including at least one slinger disk rotatable within said vent chamber for slinging fluid leaking along said drive shaft in a radially outward direction. 33. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 wherein said seal plate cooperates with said pump housing member to define said pump chamber. 34. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 wherein said shaft bearing is carried at said inboard side of said seal plate. 35. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 wherein said bushing and said dynamic seal ring are formed from materials selected for relatively low friction running engagement. 36. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 further including spring means for urging said dynamic seal ring into running engagement with said bushing. 37. The motor-driven pump of claim 36 further including a radially outwardly open recessed circumferential groove formed in said base ring with axially opposed ends of said circumferential groove defining a pair of radially outwardly projecting stepped shoulders, said dynamic seal ring being carried at one axial end of said base ring for running engagement with said bushing, said spring means comprising a biasing spring seated within said circumferential groove and reacting axially against said shoulders for urging said one axial end of said base ring to position and retain said dynamic seal ring in running engagement with said bushing. 38. The motor-driven pump of claim 37 wherein said dynamic seal ring is seated within an axially open annular groove formed in said one axial end of said base ring. 39. The motor-driven pump of claim 37 further including a reinforcement lining within said circumferential groove of said base ring. 40. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 a compliant support ring for supporting said bushing relative to said seal plate. 41. The motor-driven pump of claim 32 wherein said secondary seal assembly comprises an axially spaced pair of slinger disks carried by said drive shaft for rotation therewith within said vent chamber, and an expansion washer carried by said seal disk axially between said pair of slinger disks and in running clearance with said drive shaft, said pair of slinger disks and said expansion washer cooperatively defining a tortuous path for fluid leakage along said drive shaft, and said slinger disks slinging fluid leaking axially along said drive shaft in a radially outward direction. | This application claims the benefit of copending U.S. Provisional Application 60/537,083, filed Jan. 16, 2004. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to improvements in motor-driven pumps of the type used, for example, for circulating water in a swimming pool or spa environment or the like. More particularly, this invention relates to an improved, relatively simplified and more compact pump of the type having a seal plate mounted at one end of a motor housing and adapted to support multiple seal components to prevent water leakage past the seal plate and into the motor housing. Motor-driven pumps for use with a swimming pool or spa are generally known in the art, wherein the pump is adapted to deliver a flow of water under pressure to one or more pool equipment items prior to recirculation of the water to the pool or spa. For example, modern swimming pool and/or spa facilities typically include a filtration unit containing an appropriate filter media for collecting and thus removing solid debris such as fine grit and silt, twigs, leaves, insects, and other particulate matter from water circulated therethrough. A motor-driven pump draws water from the pool and/or spa for delivery to and through the filtration unit, and for subsequent return circulation to the pool and/or spa. This pump is typically operated on a regular schedule to maintain the water in a desired state of cleanliness and clarity. The pump may also circulate the water through additional equipment items such as heating and chemical treatment units and the like. In some installations, the water can be circulated from the filtration unit to and through an hydraulically driven pool cleaner device mounted in the pool or spa and adapted for dislodging and collecting debris and particulate which has settled onto submerged surfaces. Exemplary hydraulically driven pool cleaner devices are shown and described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,863,425; 4,558,479; 4,589,986; and 3,822,754. In some pool equipment configurations, a secondary or so-called booster pump is provided for boosting the pressure of water supplied to the pool cleaner device for insuring proper operation thereof. Such motor-driven pumps for pool and/or spa use commonly comprise an electric-powered motor of suitable size encased within a motor housing mounted at a suitable and relatively dry location near the associated pool or spa, typically alongside the associated filtration unit and other pool equipment items. The electric motor rotatably drives an output drive shaft which protrudes outwardly through a shaft bearing on the motor housing and is connected to an impeller positioned within a pump chamber defining a suction intake coupled to the body of water within the pool and/or spa, and a discharge outlet coupled to the filtration unit and/or other pool equipment items. A shaft seal arrangement is provided for preventing water leakage from the pump chamber, and resultant axial water migration along the drive shaft in a direction toward the motor housing and into potentially damaging contact with the shaft bearing and/or the electric-powered motor contained therein. In a common shaft seal arrangement, a ventilated or open cylindrical extension bracket is mounted onto the motor housing in surrounding relation to the protruding drive shaft, and supports a pump housing defining the pump chamber at an outboard end of the extension bracket in axially spaced relation to the motor housing. A primary seal component is provided for sealing passage of the rotatable drive shaft through the pump housing into the pump chamber. With this arrangement, in the event of water leakage past the primary seal component and along the drive shaft in a direction toward the motor housing, such water leakage is normally and harmlessly discharged into the open ventilated space of the extension bracket. A slinger element may be provided on the drive shaft for insuring radial discharge of any such leaking water into the ventilated space of the extension bracket, thereby precluding axial water migration into contact with the motor housing, the shaft bearing, or the electric-powered drive motor. While such seal arrangements in motor-driven pumps have performed generally in a satisfactory manner, the inclusion of the extension bracket inherently results in a motor-driven pump configuration of extended length which may be unsuitable or undesirable for some mounting locations. In addition, the extension bracket inherently requires the impeller on the drive shaft to be cantilevered a significant axial distance from the shaft bearing on the motor housing, wherein this cantilevered distance can adversely contribute to vibration, noise, and increased bearing wear. Accordingly, there exists a need for further improvements in and to motor-driven pumps of the type used for circulating water in a swimming pool and/or spa and the like, wherein the extension bracket is eliminated to result in an overall motor-driven pump construction of significantly reduced length, and further wherein an effective seal arrangement is provided for safeguarding the shaft bearing and drive motor against contact with any water leaking along the drive shaft. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides further related advantages. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the invention, an improved motor-driven pump is provided for circulating a flow of water in a swimming pool and/or spa environment or the like. The improved motor-driven pump comprises a drive motor contained within a motor housing having a seal plate mounted at one end thereof and carrying a shaft bearing for rotatably supporting an outwardly protruding drive shaft. An outboard end of the drive shaft is connected to an impeller disposed within a pump chamber defined cooperatively by the seal plate and a volute housing mounted thereon. The seal plate further supports multiple seal components for effectively preventing water leakage from the pump chamber and along the drive shaft into contact with the shaft bearing or drive motor. In the preferred form, the multiple seal components comprise a primary seal assembly including a stationary annular bushing carried by the seal plate in axially outboard spaced relation to the shaft bearing. This bushing defines an annular outboard face for running engagement by a dynamic seal ring carried on the drive shaft for rotation therewith. In the preferred form, the stationary bushing is constructed from a ceramic material, and the dynamic seal ring is constructed from carbon or the like to provide a low friction sealed interface. The dynamic seal ring is carried at an inboard end of a compliant annular base ring mounted on the drive shaft for rotation therewith, at an axial position between the stationary bushing and a central hub on the impeller. This compliant base ring includes a circumferential outer groove defining an axially opposed pair of shoulders, with a spring seated within said groove for axially expanding the base ring to retain the dynamic seal ring in running engagement with the stationary bushing, and to retain an axial outboard end of the base ring against the impeller hub. The multiple seal components further include a secondary seal assembly positioned axially between the stationary bushing of the primary seal assembly and the shaft bearing, and within a vent chamber defined by the seal plate. In the preferred form, the secondary seal assembly comprises at least one slinger element or disk for radially outwardly slinging any water leaking past the primary seal assembly in an inboard direction toward the shaft bearing. The vent chamber communicates with a drain channel formed in the seal plate, whereby water displaced radially outwardly by the slinger disk is discharged to atmosphere through the vent chamber and drain channel. Other features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings which illustrate, by way of example, the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings illustrate the invention. In such drawings: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a pump for pool or spa use, constructed in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 2 is an enlarged and exploded perspective view illustrating assembly of components forming the pump of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an enlarged fragmented sectional view taken generally on the line 3-3 of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is an enlarged fragmented sectional view corresponding generally with the encircled region 4 of FIG. 3; and FIG. 5 is an enlarged fragmented sectional view corresponding generally with the encircled region 5 of FIG. 3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT As shown in the exemplary drawings, an improved motor-driven pump referred to generally in FIGS. 1-3 by the reference numeral 10 is provided for circulating a flow of a liquid such as water in a swimming pool or spa environment or the like. The improved pump 10 incorporates a drive shaft 12 (FIGS. 2-4) for rotatably driving an impeller 14 to draw water from the pool and/or spa, and to pump or discharge the water under pressure to one or more items of pool equipment (not shown), such as a water filtration unit, or hydraulically driven pool cleaner device, or the like. In accordance with the invention, the improved pump 10 has a relatively compact and simplified construction to include a seal plate 16 (FIGS. 2-5) at one end of a motor housing 18, wherein this seal plate 16 supports multiple seal components for effectively safeguarding against water leakage into potentially damaging contact with a drive motor 20 (FIG. 2) encased within the motor housing 18, and/or with a shaft bearing 22 (FIGS. 3 and 5) which rotatably supports the drive shaft 12. In general, the motor-driven pump 10 comprises an electric-powered drive motor 20 of suitable size and power output, for rotatably driving the impeller 14 within a pump chamber 24 (FIGS. 3-4) having a suction intake port 26 and a pressure discharge port 28 (FIGS. 1-2). As illustrated in dotted lines in FIG. 1, the suction intake port 26 may comprise an axial inflow port adapted for connection to a suction conduit 30 which is coupled to the body of water contained within a swimming pool and/or spa (not shown) in a manner known to persons skilled in the art. The pressure discharge port 28 may be tangentially oriented and adapted for connection to a pressure-side discharge conduit 32 which is coupled to one or more pool equipment items (also not shown) such as a water filtration unit, or hydraulically driven pool cleaner device, or the like, again in a manner which is well known to persons skilled in the art. The drive motor 20 is encased within the motor housing 18 having a typically cylindrical shape and adapted for secure and stable mounting by means of bolts 34 (FIG. 2) or the like onto a cradle-shaped stand 36, which is in turn adapted for bolt-down or similar mounting onto a concrete base (not shown) or the like positioned typically at a relatively dry location near or adjacent the associated pool and/or spa, and the associated pool equipment items. The drive motor 20, when turned on, rotatably drives the drive shaft 12, for rotatably driving the impeller 14 mounted onto one end of the drive shaft. In this regard, the drive shaft 12 protrudes axially outwardly from one end of the motor housing 18, to extend through a central bore 38 (FIGS. 3 and 5) formed in the seal plate 16 which is mounted by bolts (not shown) or the like to extend over and substantially close said one end of the motor housing 18. A shaft bearing 22 is seated within an inboard-side counterbore 40 lining this central bore 38 in the seal plate 16 for rotatably supporting the drive shaft 12. An outboard end of the drive shaft 12 is suitably configured for rotary drive connection with a central hub 42 of the impeller 14. More particularly, as shown best in FIGS. 3-4, the outboard end of the drive shaft 12 may be formed to define an external thread 44 configured for thread-in connection with an internal thread 46 defined by a cup-shaped insert 48 seated as by co-molding or the like within the central hub 42 of the impeller 14. This insert 48 may be formed from brass or the like, whereas the impeller 14 may be constructed from a sturdy molded plastic or the like. Importantly, the direction of the interengaged threads 44, 46 is selected to prevent loosening of the threaded interface upon rotary driving of the impeller to pump water. The impeller 14 is rotatably driven within the pump chamber 24, and is configured for drawing water axially inwardly through the section intake port 26 and for discharging the water outwardly through the tangentially oriented pressure discharge port 28. In accordance with one aspect of the invention, the pump chamber 24 is defined by a shell-shaped volute housing member 50 which in turn forms the intake and discharge ports 26, 28. This volute housing 50 has a size and shape for seated engagement with a peripheral rim 52 on the seal plate 16, with a circumferential band clamp 54 or the like being tightly secured about the peripheries of the volute housing 50 and the seal plate rim 52. As shown best in FIG. 2, the band clamp 54 may include a threaded stud 56 extending between circumferentially spaced-apart stops 58 and 60, with a rotary knob 62 threaded onto the stud 56 for drawing the stops 58, 60 toward each other for tightly retaining the components together. A seal ring 64 such as a large diameter elastomeric O-ring seal or the like is clamped between the periphery of the volute housing 50 and the seal plate rim 52 to prevent water leakage therebetween. An inboard face of the volute housing 50 thus cooperates with an outboard face of the seal plate 16 to define the pump chamber 24 having the rotary driven impeller 14 therein. In a typical geometry as shown (FIG. 1), the volute housing 50 is oriented relative to the seal plate 16 with a generally tangential tubular segment 66 defining the discharge port 28 projecting vertically upwardly. In this orientation, a drain port 68 formed in the volute housing 50, and normally closed by a removable drain plug 70, is positioned generally at the bottom of the pump chamber 24. However, persons skilled in the art will recognize and appreciate that the clamp-mounted volute housing 50 can be assembled with the seal plate 16 in alternative orientations to accommodate specialized or atypical plumbing connection requirements. In accordance with further important aspects of the invention, multiple seal components are carried by the seal plate 16, for substantially preventing leakage of water from an inboard side of the pump chamber 24, along the drive shaft 12, into potentially damaging contact with the shaft bearing 22 or the electric-powered drive motor 20. These multiple seal components include a primary seal assembly 72 (FIGS. 2-4) for sealing passage of the drive shaft 12 through the seal plate 16 and into the water environment of the pump chamber 24. A secondary seal assembly 74 (FIGS. 2 and 5) is additionally provided at a location axially between the shaft bearing 22 and the primary seal assembly 72, to provide a secondary safeguard against water migration in an inboard direction along the drive shaft 12 into contact with the shaft bearing 22. More particularly, as viewed best in FIGS. 3-5, the shaft bearing 22 is seated within the counterbore 40 at an inboard side or face of an inner wall segment 76 of the seal plate 16. By contrast, the primary seal assembly 72 includes a stationary annular bushing 78 seated within a counterbore 80 formed in an outboard side or face of an outboard wall segment 82 of the seal plate 16. These inboard and outboard wall segments 76 and 82 of the seal plate 16 are axially separated by a vent chamber 84 having a lower end communicating with a drain channel 86 that is open to the atmosphere at a lower margin of the seal plate 16. The secondary seal assembly 74 is positioned within the vent chamber 84, at a location axially between the primary seal assembly 72 and the shaft bearing 22. The stationary bushing 78 of the primary seal assembly 72 is shown in seated or nested relation within a cup-shaped annular support ring 88 which may be formed from a compliant rubber-based material or the like. This compliant support ring 88 thus sealingly supports the outer diameter of the bushing 78 relative to the outboard wall segment 82 of the seal plate 14, whereas the inner diameter of the bushing 78 is sized for at least slight running clearance relative to the rotary drive shaft 12. An annular outboard-presented face of the stationary bushing 78 is engaged by an axially spring-loaded dynamic seal ring 90 which is mounted onto the drive shaft 12 for rotation therewith. Accordingly, an axially inboard-presented annular face of the dynamic seal ring 90 is springably retained in running engagement with the stationary bushing 78, upon drive shaft rotation. In the preferred form, for relatively low friction running engagement between these components, the stationary bushing 78 is formed from a ceramic material, and the dynamic seal ring 90 is formed from a carbon-based or similar material. The dynamic seal ring 90 is supported at an axially inboard end of a compliant annular base ring 92, formed from a rubber-based or other suitable elastomer and mounted onto the drive shaft 12 for rotation therewith. FIG. 4 shows this compliant base ring to include at least one and preferably multiple internal annular lands 94 which sealingly engage with the outer diameter of the drive shaft 12, and thus prevent water leakage between the inner diameter of the base ring 92 and the outer diameter of the drive shaft 12. The dynamic seal ring 90 is physically seated within an axially inboard-presented groove 96 at the rearmost or inboard end of the base ring. A mid-section of the compliant base ring 92 defines a radially outwardly open circumferential recessed groove 98 which separates an axially spaced-apart pair of shoulders 100 and 102. A biasing spring 104 is seated within this circumferential groove 98 to react against these shoulders 100, 102, for normally urging said shoulders 100, 102 axially apart, or axially away from each other. As shown in FIG. 4, the groove 98 and adjoining portions of the outer diameter of the base ring 92 can be surface-reinforced by a relatively thin layer 106 of metal or the like, such as a thin lining of stainless steel or the like. The compliant base ring 92 is sufficiently expanded in an axial direction by the biasing spring 104 for applying a spring force to retain the dynamic seal ring 90 in spring-loaded running engagement with the stationary bushing 78. That is, as shown, the spring 104 retains an axial outboard end of the compliant base ring 92 in seated and substantially sealed engagement with an axial inboard-presented face on the central hub 42 of the impeller 14, and also retains the dynamic seal ring 90 in low friction running engagement with the stationary bushing 78. The running engagement between the dynamic seal ring 90 and the bushing 78 provides a high quality seal between these components to prevent water leakage therebetween. Conveniently, these components are each located at least partially within the pump chamber 24 where water circulating therethrough provides sufficient cooling of the sealing components to prevent friction-caused overheating. In the event that the primary seal assembly 72, as described, permits any water leakage along the drive shaft 12 in an inboard direction toward the shaft bearing 22, the secondary seal assembly 74 intercepts such leaking water and physically re-directs it to the drain channel 86. More particularly, as shown best in FIG. 5 in accordance with one example of the invention, the secondary seal assembly 74 comprises at least one and preferably multiple slinger disks such as the illustrative axially spaced pair of slinger disks 108 and 110 carried on the drive shaft 12 for rotation therewith at a position within the vent chamber 84. An intermediate expansion washer 112 is desirably mounted onto the seal plate 16 between these two slinger disks 108 and 110, wherein this washer 112 is sized for relatively close running clearance relative to the drive shaft. Accordingly, any water leaking in an inboard direction along the drive shaft 12 is initially re-directly radially outwardly by the first slinger disk 108. In the event that any residual water remains and continues to leak axially in an inboard direction along the drive shaft, such water must travel through a tortuous or labyrinthine path initially radially outwardly and then radially inwardly to pass through the narrow clearance at the inner diameter of the washer 112. In the unlikely event that continued leakage occurs, the second slinger disk 110 functions to again re-direct the leaking water in a radially outward direction for discharge through the drain channel 86. Persons skilled in the art will understand that alternative constructions for the secondary seal assembly 74 may be used, including but not limited to alternative seal arrangements including one or more slinger disks. The improved motor-driven pump 10 of the present application thus provides a relatively short and compact overall pump length, attributable to combining multiple seal components including the primary and secondary seal assemblies 72 and 74 into the common seal plate 16 on the motor housing 18. With this construction, the primary seal assembly which seals passage of the drive shaft 12 into the pump chamber 24 is positioned relatively close to the shaft bearing 22, thereby reducing overall pump length while additionally providing a smooth-running and long-lived pump construction. Additional components such as mounting brackets of the type used in the prior art for spacing the pump chamber from the shaft bearing on the motor housing are thereby avoided. A variety of further modifications and improvements in and to the improved motor-drive pump 10 of the present invention will be apparent to those persons skilled in the art. Accordingly, no limitation on the invention is intended by way of the foregoing description and accompanying drawings, except as set forth in the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention relates generally to improvements in motor-driven pumps of the type used, for example, for circulating water in a swimming pool or spa environment or the like. More particularly, this invention relates to an improved, relatively simplified and more compact pump of the type having a seal plate mounted at one end of a motor housing and adapted to support multiple seal components to prevent water leakage past the seal plate and into the motor housing. Motor-driven pumps for use with a swimming pool or spa are generally known in the art, wherein the pump is adapted to deliver a flow of water under pressure to one or more pool equipment items prior to recirculation of the water to the pool or spa. For example, modern swimming pool and/or spa facilities typically include a filtration unit containing an appropriate filter media for collecting and thus removing solid debris such as fine grit and silt, twigs, leaves, insects, and other particulate matter from water circulated therethrough. A motor-driven pump draws water from the pool and/or spa for delivery to and through the filtration unit, and for subsequent return circulation to the pool and/or spa. This pump is typically operated on a regular schedule to maintain the water in a desired state of cleanliness and clarity. The pump may also circulate the water through additional equipment items such as heating and chemical treatment units and the like. In some installations, the water can be circulated from the filtration unit to and through an hydraulically driven pool cleaner device mounted in the pool or spa and adapted for dislodging and collecting debris and particulate which has settled onto submerged surfaces. Exemplary hydraulically driven pool cleaner devices are shown and described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,863,425; 4,558,479; 4,589,986; and 3,822,754. In some pool equipment configurations, a secondary or so-called booster pump is provided for boosting the pressure of water supplied to the pool cleaner device for insuring proper operation thereof. Such motor-driven pumps for pool and/or spa use commonly comprise an electric-powered motor of suitable size encased within a motor housing mounted at a suitable and relatively dry location near the associated pool or spa, typically alongside the associated filtration unit and other pool equipment items. The electric motor rotatably drives an output drive shaft which protrudes outwardly through a shaft bearing on the motor housing and is connected to an impeller positioned within a pump chamber defining a suction intake coupled to the body of water within the pool and/or spa, and a discharge outlet coupled to the filtration unit and/or other pool equipment items. A shaft seal arrangement is provided for preventing water leakage from the pump chamber, and resultant axial water migration along the drive shaft in a direction toward the motor housing and into potentially damaging contact with the shaft bearing and/or the electric-powered motor contained therein. In a common shaft seal arrangement, a ventilated or open cylindrical extension bracket is mounted onto the motor housing in surrounding relation to the protruding drive shaft, and supports a pump housing defining the pump chamber at an outboard end of the extension bracket in axially spaced relation to the motor housing. A primary seal component is provided for sealing passage of the rotatable drive shaft through the pump housing into the pump chamber. With this arrangement, in the event of water leakage past the primary seal component and along the drive shaft in a direction toward the motor housing, such water leakage is normally and harmlessly discharged into the open ventilated space of the extension bracket. A slinger element may be provided on the drive shaft for insuring radial discharge of any such leaking water into the ventilated space of the extension bracket, thereby precluding axial water migration into contact with the motor housing, the shaft bearing, or the electric-powered drive motor. While such seal arrangements in motor-driven pumps have performed generally in a satisfactory manner, the inclusion of the extension bracket inherently results in a motor-driven pump configuration of extended length which may be unsuitable or undesirable for some mounting locations. In addition, the extension bracket inherently requires the impeller on the drive shaft to be cantilevered a significant axial distance from the shaft bearing on the motor housing, wherein this cantilevered distance can adversely contribute to vibration, noise, and increased bearing wear. Accordingly, there exists a need for further improvements in and to motor-driven pumps of the type used for circulating water in a swimming pool and/or spa and the like, wherein the extension bracket is eliminated to result in an overall motor-driven pump construction of significantly reduced length, and further wherein an effective seal arrangement is provided for safeguarding the shaft bearing and drive motor against contact with any water leaking along the drive shaft. The present invention fulfills these needs and provides further related advantages. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the invention, an improved motor-driven pump is provided for circulating a flow of water in a swimming pool and/or spa environment or the like. The improved motor-driven pump comprises a drive motor contained within a motor housing having a seal plate mounted at one end thereof and carrying a shaft bearing for rotatably supporting an outwardly protruding drive shaft. An outboard end of the drive shaft is connected to an impeller disposed within a pump chamber defined cooperatively by the seal plate and a volute housing mounted thereon. The seal plate further supports multiple seal components for effectively preventing water leakage from the pump chamber and along the drive shaft into contact with the shaft bearing or drive motor. In the preferred form, the multiple seal components comprise a primary seal assembly including a stationary annular bushing carried by the seal plate in axially outboard spaced relation to the shaft bearing. This bushing defines an annular outboard face for running engagement by a dynamic seal ring carried on the drive shaft for rotation therewith. In the preferred form, the stationary bushing is constructed from a ceramic material, and the dynamic seal ring is constructed from carbon or the like to provide a low friction sealed interface. The dynamic seal ring is carried at an inboard end of a compliant annular base ring mounted on the drive shaft for rotation therewith, at an axial position between the stationary bushing and a central hub on the impeller. This compliant base ring includes a circumferential outer groove defining an axially opposed pair of shoulders, with a spring seated within said groove for axially expanding the base ring to retain the dynamic seal ring in running engagement with the stationary bushing, and to retain an axial outboard end of the base ring against the impeller hub. The multiple seal components further include a secondary seal assembly positioned axially between the stationary bushing of the primary seal assembly and the shaft bearing, and within a vent chamber defined by the seal plate. In the preferred form, the secondary seal assembly comprises at least one slinger element or disk for radially outwardly slinging any water leaking past the primary seal assembly in an inboard direction toward the shaft bearing. The vent chamber communicates with a drain channel formed in the seal plate, whereby water displaced radially outwardly by the slinger disk is discharged to atmosphere through the vent chamber and drain channel. Other features and advantages of the invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings which illustrate, by way of example, the principles of the invention. | 20050113 | 20060221 | 20050721 | 98701.0 | 0 | KOCZO JR, MICHAEL | MOTOR-DRIVEN PUMP FOR POOL OR SPA | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,537 | ACCEPTED | System and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a horizontal well bore | A method and system for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a horizontal well bore includes determining a drilling profile for the horizontal well bore. At least one characteristic of the drilling profile is selected to aid in stabilizing the horizontal well bore during drilling. A liner is inserted into the horizontal well bore. The well bore is collapsed to increase permeability of the subterranean zone at the horizontal well bore. | 1. A method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a well bore, comprising: determining a drilling profile for drilling a horizontal well bore in a subterranean zone, at least one characteristic of the drilling profile selected to aid in stabilizing the horizontal well bore during drilling; inserting a liner into the horizontal well bore; and collapsing the horizontal well bore. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the drilling profile comprises a non-invasive drilling fluid. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising injecting fluid into the horizontal well bore to facilitate removal and recovery of fluids from the subterranean zone. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the non-invasive drilling fluid forms a filter cake comprising a depth of to four centimeters or less. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the subterranean zone comprises a coal seam. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising reducing a pressure in the horizontal well bore to collapse the horizontal well bore. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein reducing a pressure in the horizontal well bore comprises pumping the drilling fluid from the horizontal well bore to decrease the down-hole hydrostatic pressure in the horizontal well bore. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein forming a horizontal well bore in a subterranean zone comprises forming the horizontal well bore in a subterranean zone proximate one or more aquifers. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the liner is perforated. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the drilling profile includes a sealing filter cake. 11. A method for producing gas from a coal seam, comprising: drilling a horizontal well bore in a coal seam using a non-invasive drilling fluid in an over-balanced drilling condition; forming on the horizontal well bore with the non-invasive drilling fluid a filter cake having a depth of less than four centimeters; inserting a liner into the horizontal well bore; reducing a down-hole hydrostatic pressure in the horizontal well bore by removing fluid from the well bore; collapsing the horizontal well bore around the liner; and producing fluids flowing from the coal seam into the horizontal well bore. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the non-invasive drilling fluid comprises micelles. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the liner is perforated. 14. A method for obtaining resources from a coal seam, comprising: forming an articulated well bore having a substantially horizontal portion formed in the coal seam, the coal seam disposed proximate at least one aquifer; and enhancing production of resources from the coal seam into the well bore without hydraulically fracturing the coal seam. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein enhancing production of resources from the coal seam into the well bore without hydraulically fracturing the coal seam comprises collapsing at least a portion of the well bore to enhance the production of the resources from the coal seam into the well bore. 16. A method for producing gas from a coal seam, comprising: drilling a horizontal well bore in a subterranean zone, the well bore sized to collapse in response to a down-hole pressure condition; maintaining down-hole pressure in the well bore above the down-hole pressure condition during drilling; and reducing the down-hole pressure to the down-hole pressure condition to purposefully collapse the well bore. 17. The method of claim 16, further comprising forming a filter cake in the well bore to help maintain the down-hole pressure in the well bore above the down-hole pressure condition during drilling. 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the subterranean zone comprises a coal seam. 19. A system for producing gas from a subterranean zone, comprising: a well bore including a horizontal portion in the subterranean zone; a liner in the horizontal portion; and a plurality of apertures in the liner. 20. The system of claim 19, wherein the liner is uncemented. 21. The system of claim 19, wherein the subterranean zone comprises a coal seam. | RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation-in-part of, and therefore claims priority from, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/723,322, filed on Nov. 26, 2003. TECHNICAL FIELD This disclosure relates generally to the field of recovery of subterranean resources, and more particularly to a system and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a well bore. BACKGROUND Reservoirs are subterranean formations of rock containing oil, gas, and/or water. Unconventional reservoirs include coal and shale formations containing gas and, in some cases, water. A coal bed, for example, may contain natural gas and water. Coal bed methane (CBM) is often produced using vertical wells drilled from the surface into a coal bed. Vertical wells drain a very small radius of methane gas in low permeability formations. As a result, after gas in the vicinity of the vertical well has been produced, further production from the coal seam through the vertical well is limited. To enhance production through vertical wells, the wells have been fractured using conventional and/or other stimulation techniques. Horizontal patterns have also been formed in coal seams to increase and/or accelerate gas production. SUMMARY A system and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a horizontal well bore are provided. In one embodiment, the method determines a drilling profile for drilling a horizontal well in a subterranean zone. At least one characteristic of the drilling profile is selected to aid in well bore stability during drilling. A liner is inserted into the horizontal well bore. The horizontal well bore is collapsed around the liner. More specifically, in accordance with a particular embodiment, a non-invasive drilling fluid may be used to control a filter cake formed on the well bore during drilling. In these and other embodiments, the filter cake may seal the boundary of the well bore. In another embodiment, a method is provided for obtaining resources from a coal seam disposed between a first aquifer and/or a second aquifer. The method includes forming a well bore including a substantially horizontal well bore formed in the coal seam. The well bore may in certain embodiments be collapsed or spalled. The well bore may also or instead include one or more laterals. Technical advantages of certain embodiments include providing a system and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a well bore. In particular, a subterranean zone, such as a coal seam, may be collapsed around a liner to increase the localized permeability of the subterranean zone and thereby, resource production. Another technical advantage of certain embodiments may be the use of non-invasive drilling fluid to create a filter cake in the well bore. The filter cake may seal the well bore and allow stability to be controlled. For example, negative pressure differential may be used to instigate collapse of the well bore. A positive pressure differential may be maintained during drilling and completion to stabilize the well bore. Other technical advantages will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, description, and claims. Moreover, while specific advantages have been enumerated above, various embodiments may include all, some, or none of the enumerated advantages. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of drilling a well into a subterranean zone; FIG. 2 illustrates one embodiment of a well bore pattern for the well of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 illustrates one embodiment of completion of the well of FIG. 3; FIG. 4 is a cross sectional diagram illustrating one embodiment of the well bore of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional diagram illustrating collapse of the well bore of FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is a flow chart illustrating an example method for forming a collapsed well bore in a subterranean zone; and FIG. 7 illustrates an example system having a well bore that penetrates a subterranean zone proximate to one or more aquifers. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 illustrates an example system 10 during drilling of a well in a subterranean zone. As described in more detail below, localized permeability of the subterranean zone may be enhanced based on drilling, completion and/or production conditions and operations. Localized permeability is the permeability of all or part of an area around, otherwise about, or local to a well bore. Localized permeability may be enhanced by spalling or cleaving the subterranean zone around the well bore and/or collapsing the well bore. Cleaving refers to splitting or separating portions of the subterranean zone. Spalling refers to breaking portions of the subterranean zone into fragments and may be localized collapse, fracturing, splitting and/or shearing. The term spalling will hereinafter be used to collectively refer to spalling and/or cleaving. Collapse refers to portions of the subterranean zone falling downwardly or inwardly into the well bore or a caving in of the well bore from loss of support. Collapse will hereinafter be used to collectively refer to collapse and spalling. In the illustrated embodiment, system 10 includes an articulated well bore 40 extending from surface 20 to penetrate subterranean zone 30. In particular embodiments, the subterranean zone 30 may be a coal seam. Subterranean zone 30, such as a coal seam, may be accessed to remove and/or produce water, hydrocarbons, and other fluids in the subterranean zone 30, to sequester carbon dioxide or other pollutants in the subterranean zone 30, and/or for other operations. Subterranean zone 30 may be a fractured or other shale or other suitable formation operable to collapse under one or more controllable conditions. For ease of reference and purposes of example, subterranean zone 30 will be referred to as coal seam 30. However, it should be understood that the method and system for enhancing permeability may be implemented in any appropriate subterranean zone. In certain embodiments, the efficiency of gas production from coal seam 30 may be improved by collapsing the well bore 40 in the coal seam 30 to increase the localized permeability of the coal seam 30. The increased localized permeability provides more drainage surface area without hydraulically fracturing the coal seam 30. Hydraulic fracturing comprises pumping a fracturing fluid down-hole under high pressure, for example, 1000 psi, 5000 psi, 10,000 psi or more. Although FIG. 1 illustrates an articulated well bore 40, system 10 may be implemented in substantially horizontal wells, slant wells, dual or multi-well systems or any other suitable types of wells or well systems. Well bore 40 may be drilled to intersect more natural passages and other fractures, such as “cleats” of a coal seam 30, that allow the flow of fluids from seam into well bore 40, thereby increasing the productivity of the well. In certain embodiments, articulated well bore 40 includes a vertical portion 42, a horizontal portion 44, and a curved or radiused portion 46 interconnecting the substantially vertical and substantially horizontal portions 42 and 44. The horizontal portion 44 may be substantially horizontal and/or in the seam of coal seam 30, may track the depth of the coal seam 30, may undulate in the seam or be otherwise suitably disposed in or about the coal seam 30. The vertical portion 42 of articulated well bore 40 may be substantially vertical and/or sloped and/or lined with a suitable casing 48. Articulated well bore 40 is drilled using articulated drill string 50 that includes a suitable down-hole motor and drill bit 52. Well bore 40 may include a well bore pattern with a plurality of lateral or other horizontal well bores, as it discussed in more detail with respect to FIG. 2. In another embodiment, the well bore 40 may be a single bore without laterals. During the process of drilling well bore 40, drilling fluid or mud is pumped down articulated drill string 50, as illustrated by arrows 60, and circulated out of drill string 50 in the vicinity of drill bit 52, as illustrated by arrows 62. The drilling fluid flows into the annulus between drill string 50 and well bore walls 49 where the drilling fluid is used to scour the formation and to remove formation cuttings and coal fines. The cuttings and coal fines (hereinafter referred to as “debris”) are entrained in the drilling fluid, which circulates up through the annulus between the drill string 40 and the well bore walls 49, as illustrated by arrows 63, until it reaches surface 20, where the debris is removed from the drilling fluid and the fluid is re-circulated through well bore 40. This drilling operation may produce a standard column of drilling fluid having a vertical height equal to the depth of the well bore 40 and produces a hydrostatic pressure on well bore 40 corresponding to the depth of well bore 40. Because coal seams, such as coal seam 30, tend to be porous, their formation pressure may be less than such hydrostatic pressure, even if formation water is also present in coal seam 30. Accordingly, when the full hydrostatic pressure is allowed to act on coal seam 30, the result may be a loss of drilling fluid and entrained debris into the cleats of the formation, as illustrated by arrows 64. Such a circumstance is referred to as an over-balanced drilling operation in which the hydrostatic fluid pressure in well bore 40 exceeds the pressure in the formation. In certain embodiments, the drilling fluid may comprise a brine. The brine may be fluid produced from another well in the subterranean zone 30 or other zone. If brine loss exceeds supply during drilling, solids may be added to form a filter cake 100 along the walls of the well bore 40. Filter cake 100 may prevent or significantly restrict drilling fluids from flowing into coal seam 30 from the well bore 40. The filter cake 100 may also provide a pressure boundary or seal between coal seam 30 and well bore 40 which may allow hydrostatic pressure in the well bore 40 to be used to control stability of the well bore 40 to prevent or allow collapse. For example, during drilling, the filter cake 100 aids well bore stability by allowing the hydrostatic pressure to act against the walls of the well bore 40. The depth of the filter cake 100 is dependent upon many factors including the composition of the drilling fluid. As described in more detail below, the drilling fluid may be selected or otherwise designed based on rock mechanics, pressure and other characteristics of the coal seam 30 to form a filter cake that reduces or minimizes fluid loss during drilling and/or to reduces or minimizes skin damage to the well bore 40. The filter cake 100 may be formed with low-loss, ultra low-loss, or other non-invasive or other suitable drilling fluids. In one embodiment, the solids may comprise micelles that form microscopic spheres, rods, and/or plates in solutions. The micelles may comprise polymers with a range of water and oil solubilities. The micelles form a low permeability seal over pore throats of the coal seam 30 to greatly limit further fluid invasion or otherwise seal the coal seam boundary. FIG. 2 illustrates an example of horizontal well bore pattern 65 for use in connection with well bore 40. In this embodiment, the pattern 65 may include a main horizontal well bore 67 extending diagonally across the coverage area 66. A plurality of lateral or other horizontal well bores 68 may extend from the main bore 67. The lateral bore 68 may mirror each other on opposite sides of the main bore 67 or may be offset from each other along the main bore 67. Each of the laterals 68 may be drilled at a radius off the main bore 67. The horizontal pattern 65 may be otherwise formed, may otherwise include a plurality of horizontal bores or may be omitted. For example, the pattern 65 may comprise a pinnate pattern. The horizontal bores may be bores that are fully or substantially in the coal seam 30, or horizontal and/or substantially horizontal. FIG. 3 illustrates completion of example system 10. Drill string 50 has been removed and a fluid extraction system 70 inserted into well bore 40. Fluid extraction system 70 may include any appropriate components capable of circulating and/or removing fluid from well bore 40 and lowering the pressure within well bore 40. For example, fluid extraction system 70 may comprise a tubing string 72 coupled to a fluid movement apparatus 74. Fluid movement apparatus 74 may comprise any appropriate device for circulating and/or removing fluid from well bore 40, such as a pump or a fluid injector. Although fluid movement apparatus 74 is illustrated as being located on surface 20, in certain embodiments, fluid movement apparatus 74 may be located within well bore 40, such as would be the case if fluid movement apparatus 74 comprised a down-hole pump. The fluid may be a liquid and/or a gas. In certain embodiments, fluid movement apparatus 72 may comprise a pump coupled to tubing string 72 that is operable to draw fluid from well bore 40 through tubing string 72 to surface 25 and reduce the pressure within well bore 40. In the illustrated embodiment, fluid movement apparatus 74 comprises a fluid injector, which may inject gas, liquid, or foam into well bore 40. Any suitable type of injection fluid may be used in conjunction with system 70. Examples of injection fluid may include, but are not limited to: (1) production gas, such as natural gas, (2) water, (3) air, and (4) any combination of production gas, water, air and/or treating foam. In particular embodiments, production gas, water, air, or any combination of these may be provided from a source outside of well bore 40. In other embodiments, gas recovered from well bore 40 may be used as the injection fluid by re-circulating the gas back into well bore 40. Rod, positive displacement and other pumps may be used. In these and other embodiments, a cavity may be formed in the well bore 40 in or proximate to curved portion 46 with the pump inlet positioned in the cavity. The cavity may form a junction with a vertical or other well in which the pump is disposed. The fluid extraction system 70 may also include a liner 75. The liner 75 may be a perforated liner including a plurality of apertures and may be loose in the well bore or otherwise uncemented. The apertures may be holes, slots, or openings of any other suitable size and shape. The apertures may allow water and gas to enter into the liner 75 from the coal seal 30 for production to the surface. The liner 75 may be perforated when installed or may be perforated after installation. For example, the liner may comprise a drill or other string perforated after another use in well bore 40. The size and/or shape of apertures in the liner 75 may in one embodiment be determined based on rock mechanics of the coal seam. In this embodiment, for example, a representative formation sample may be taken and tested in a tri-axial cell with pressures on all sides. During testing, pressure may be adjusted to simulate pressure in down-hole conditions. For example, pressure may be changed to simulate drilling conditions by increasing hydrostatic pressure on one side of the sample. Pressure may also be adjusted to simulate production conditions. During testing, water may be flowed through the formation sample to determine changes in permeability of the coal at the well bore in different conditions. The tests may provide permeability, solids flow and solids bridging information which may be used in sizing the slots, determining the periodicity of the slots, and determining the shape of the slots. Based on testing, if the coal fails in blocks without generating a large number of fines that can flow into the well bore, large perforations and/or high clearance liners with a loose fit may be used. High clearance liners may comprise liners one or more casing sizes smaller than a conventional liner for the hole size. The apertures may, in a particular embodiment, for example, be holes that are ½ inch in size. In operation of the illustrated embodiment, fluid injector 74 injects a fluid, such as water or natural gas, into tubing string 72, as illustrated by arrows 76. The injection fluid travels through tubing string 72 and is injected into the liner 75 in the well bore 40, as illustrated by arrows 78. As the injection fluid flows through the liner 75 and annulus between liner 75 and tubing string 72, the injection fluid mixes with water, debris, and resources, such as natural gas, in well bore 40. Thus, the flow of injection fluid removes water and coal fines in conjunction with the resources. The mixture of injection fluid, water, debris, and resources is collected at a separator (not illustrated) that separates the resource from the injection fluid carrying the resource. Tubing string 72 and fuel injector 74 may be omitted in some embodiments. For example, if coal fines or other debris are not produced from the coal seam 30 into the liner 75, fluid injection may be omitted. In certain embodiments, the separated fluid is re-circulated into well bore 40. In a particular embodiment, liquid, such as water, may be injected into well bore 40. Because liquid has a higher viscosity than air, liquid may pick up any potential obstructive material, such as debris in well bore 40, and remove such obstructive material from well bore 40. In another particular embodiment, air may be injected into well bore 40. Although certain types of injection fluids are described, any combination of air, water, and/or gas that are provided from an outside source and/or re-circulated from the separator may be injected back into well bore 40. In certain embodiments, after drilling is completed, the drilling fluid may be left in well bore 40 while drill string 50 is removed and tubing string 72 and liner 75 are inserted. The drilling fluid, and possibly other fluids flowing from the coal seam 30, may be pumped or gas lifted (for example, using a fluid injector) to surface 20 to reduce, or “draw down,” the pressure within well bore 40. As pressure is drawn down below reservoir pressure, fluid from the coal seam 30 may begin to flow into the well bore 40. This flow may wash out the filter cake 100 when non-invasive or other suitable drilling fluids are used. In other embodiments, the filter cake 100 may remain. In response to the initial reduction in pressure and/or friction reduction in pressure, the well bore 40 collapses, as described below. Collapse may occur before or after production begins. Collapse may be beneficial in situations where coal seam 30 has low permeability. However, coal seams 30 having other levels of permeability may also benefit from collapse. In certain embodiments, the drilling fluid may be removed before the pressure drop in well bore 40. In other embodiments, the pressure within well bore 40 may be reduced by removing the drilling fluid. FIG. 4 is a cross sectional diagram along lines 4-7 of FIG. 3 illustrating well bore 40 in the subterranean zone 30. Filter cake 100 is formed along walls 49 of the well bore 40. As discussed above, filter cake 100 may occur in over-balanced drilling conditions where the drilling fluid pressure is greater that of the coal seam 30. Filter cake 100 may be otherwise suitably generated and may comprise any partial or full blockage of pores, cleats 102 or fractures in order to seal the well bore 40, which may include at least substantially limiting or reducing fluid flow between the coal seam 30 and well bore 40. As previously described, use of a non-invasive fluid may create a relatively shallow filter cake 100, resulting in a relatively low amount of drilling fluid lost into the cleats 102 of the coal seam 30. In certain embodiments, a filter cake 100 may have depth 110 between two and four centimeters thick. A thin filter cake 100 may be advantageous because it will not cause a permanent blockage, yet strong enough to form a seal between coal seam 30 and well bore 40 to facilitate stability of the well bore 40 during drilling. Optimum properties of the filter cake 100 may be determined based on formation type, rock mechanics of the formation, formation pressure, drilling profile such as fluids and pressure and production profile. FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional diagram illustrating collapse of the well bore 40. Collapse may be initiated in response to the pressure reduction. As used herein, in response to means in response to at least the identified event. Thus, one more events may intervene, be needed, or also be present. In one embodiment, the well bore 40 may collapse when the mechanical strength of the coal cannot support the overburden at the hydrostatic pressure in the well bore 40. The well bore 40 may collapse, for example, when pressure in the well bore 40 is 100-300 psi less than the coal seam 30. During collapse, a shear plane 120 may be formed along the sides of the well bore 40. The shear planes 120 may extend into the coal seam 30 and form high permeability pathways connected to cleats 102. In some embodiments, multiple shear planes 120 may be formed during spalling. Each shear plane 120 may extend about the well bore 40. Collapse may generate an area of high permeability within and around the pre-existing walls 49 of the well bore 40. This enhancement and localized permeability may permit a substantially improved flow of gas or other resources from the coal seam 30 into liner 75 than would have occurred without collapse. In an embodiment where the well bore 40 includes a multi-lateral pattern, the main horizontal bore and lateral bores may each be lined with liner 75 and collapsed by reducing hydrostatic pressure in the well bores. FIG. 6 is a flow chart illustrating an example method for forming a collapsed well bore in a subterranean zone 30. The method begins at step 202, where a drilling profile is determined. The drilling profile may be determined based on the type, rock mechanics, pressure, and other characteristics of the coal seam 30. The drilling profile may comprise the size of the well bore 40, composition of the drilling fluid, the properties of the filter cake 100 and/or down-hole hydrostatic pressure in the well bore during drilling. The drilling fluid and hydrostatic pressure in the well bore 40 may be selected or otherwise determined to stabilize the well bore 40 during drilling while leaving a filter cake 100 that can be removed or that does not interfere with collapse or production. In a particular embodiment, the optimized filter cake may comprise a depth of approximately two to four centimeters with a structural integrity operable to seal the well bore 40. In a particular embodiment, the drilling fluid may comprise FLC 2000 manufactured by IMPACT SOLUTIONS GROUP which may create a shallow filter cake 100 and minimize drilling fluid losses into coal seam 30. The drilling profile may also include under, at, near or over balanced conditions at which the well bore 40 is drilled. At step 204, the well bore 40 is drilled in the coal seam 30. As previously described, the well bore 40 may be drilled using the drill string 50 in connection with the drilling fluid determined at step 202. Drilling may be performed at the down-hole hydrostatic pressure determined at step 202. During drilling, the drilling fluid forms the filter cake 100 on the walls 49 of the well bore 40. At step 206, the drill string 50 used to form well bore 40 is removed from well bore 40. At step 208, at least a portion of fluid extraction system 70 is inserted into well bore 40. As previously described, the fluid extraction system 70 may include a liner 75. In a particular embodiment, the drill string 50 may remain in the well bore and be perforated to form the liner 75. In this and other embodiments, ejection tube 72 may be omitted or may be run outside the perforated drill string. At step 210, fluid extraction system 70 is used to pump out the drilling fluid in well bore 40 to reduce hydrostatic pressure. In an alternate embodiment of step 210, the pressure reduction may be created by using fluid extraction system 70 to inject a fluid into well bore 40 to force out the drilling fluid and/or other fluids. At step 212, the pressure reduction or other down-hole pressure condition causes collapse of at least a portion of the coal seam 30. Collapse increase the permeability of coal seam 30 at the well bore 40, thereby increasing resource production from coal seam 30. At step 214, fluid extraction system 70 is used to remove the fluids, such as water and methane, draining from coal seam 30. Although an example method is illustrated, the present disclosure contemplates two or more steps taking place substantially simultaneously or in a different order. In addition, the present disclosure contemplates using methods with additional steps, fewer steps, or different steps, so long as the steps remain appropriate for subterranean zones. FIG. 7 illustrates an example well bore system 300 having a well bore 320 that penetrates a subterranean zone 330 proximate one or more aquifers 340. In certain embodiments, system 300 includes an articulated well bore 320 extending from surface 310 to penetrate subterranean zone 330 formed between two aquifers 340 and two relatively thin aquacludes and/or aquatards 350. The articulated well bore 320 includes a substantially vertical portion 322, a substantially horizontal portion 324, and a curved or radiused portion 326 interconnecting the substantially vertical and substantially horizontal portions 322 and 324. The substantially horizontal portion 324 lies substantially in the plane of subterranean zone 330. Substantially vertical portion 322 and at least a portion of radiused portion 326 may be lined with a suitable casing 328 to prevent fluid contained within aquifer 340 and aquaclude and/or aquatards 350, through which well bore 320 is formed, from flowing into well bore 320. Articulated well bore 320 is formed using articulated drill string that includes a suitable down-hole motor and drill bit, such as drill string 50 and drill bit 52 of FIG. 1. Articulated well bore 320 may be completed and produced as described in connection with well bore 40. In the illustrated embodiment, the subterranean zone is a coal seam 330. Subterranean zones, such as coal seam 330, may be accessed to remove and/or produce water, hydrocarbons, and other fluids in the subterranean zone. In certain embodiments, well bore 320 may be formed in a substantially similar manner to well bore 40, discussed above. The use of a horizontal well bore 320 in this circumstance may be advantageous because the horizontal well bore 320 has enough drainage surface area within subterranean zone 330 that hydraulic fracturing is not required. In contrast, if a vertical well bore was drilled into subterranean zone 330, fracturing may be required to create sufficient drainage surface area, thus creating a substantial or other risk that a fracture could propagate into the adjacent aquifers 340 and through aquacludes or aquatards 350. The use of collapse may be beneficial for well bore 320 is drilled between two aquifers 340. As discussed above, collapse may be advantageous because it allows for the increase in drainage surface area of the coal seam 330, while avoiding the need to hydraulically fracture the coal seam 330. The increase in drainage surface area enhances production from the coal seam by allowing, for example, water and gas to more readily flow into well bore 320 for production to the surface 310. In a system such as system 300, hydraulically fracturing coal seam 330 to increase resource production may be undesirable because there is a substantial risk that a fracture could propagate vertically into the adjacent aquifers 340 and aquacludes or aquatards 350. This would cause the water in aquifers 340 to flow past the aquacludes or aquatards 350 and into coal seam 330, which would detrimentally affect the ability to reduce pressure in the coal seam and make it difficult to maintain a sufficient pressure differential for resource production. Although the present disclosure has been described with several embodiments, various changes and modifications may be suggested to one skilled in the art. It is intended that the present invention encompasses such changes and modifications as fall within the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Reservoirs are subterranean formations of rock containing oil, gas, and/or water. Unconventional reservoirs include coal and shale formations containing gas and, in some cases, water. A coal bed, for example, may contain natural gas and water. Coal bed methane (CBM) is often produced using vertical wells drilled from the surface into a coal bed. Vertical wells drain a very small radius of methane gas in low permeability formations. As a result, after gas in the vicinity of the vertical well has been produced, further production from the coal seam through the vertical well is limited. To enhance production through vertical wells, the wells have been fractured using conventional and/or other stimulation techniques. Horizontal patterns have also been formed in coal seams to increase and/or accelerate gas production. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A system and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a horizontal well bore are provided. In one embodiment, the method determines a drilling profile for drilling a horizontal well in a subterranean zone. At least one characteristic of the drilling profile is selected to aid in well bore stability during drilling. A liner is inserted into the horizontal well bore. The horizontal well bore is collapsed around the liner. More specifically, in accordance with a particular embodiment, a non-invasive drilling fluid may be used to control a filter cake formed on the well bore during drilling. In these and other embodiments, the filter cake may seal the boundary of the well bore. In another embodiment, a method is provided for obtaining resources from a coal seam disposed between a first aquifer and/or a second aquifer. The method includes forming a well bore including a substantially horizontal well bore formed in the coal seam. The well bore may in certain embodiments be collapsed or spalled. The well bore may also or instead include one or more laterals. Technical advantages of certain embodiments include providing a system and method for enhancing permeability of a subterranean zone at a well bore. In particular, a subterranean zone, such as a coal seam, may be collapsed around a liner to increase the localized permeability of the subterranean zone and thereby, resource production. Another technical advantage of certain embodiments may be the use of non-invasive drilling fluid to create a filter cake in the well bore. The filter cake may seal the well bore and allow stability to be controlled. For example, negative pressure differential may be used to instigate collapse of the well bore. A positive pressure differential may be maintained during drilling and completion to stabilize the well bore. Other technical advantages will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, description, and claims. Moreover, while specific advantages have been enumerated above, various embodiments may include all, some, or none of the enumerated advantages. | 20050114 | 20080902 | 20050825 | 66434.0 | 0 | NEUDER, WILLIAM P | SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR ENHANCING PERMEABILITY OF A SUBTERRANEAN ZONE AT A HORIZONTAL WELL BORE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,548 | ACCEPTED | Environmentally resilient corrugated building products and methods of manufacture | An environmentally resilient building product of a vinyl laminated formed-sheet metallic substrate wherein the vinyl laminate is adhesively attached to the formed-sheet metallic substrate to provide a durable and attractive surface. Possible decorative and resilient surfaces include, but are not limited to solid colors, metallic finishes, and graphical images or patterns, all available in a variety of textures. | 1. An environmentally resilient structural product, comprising: a vinyl laminate; and a formed-sheet metallic substrate having a first side; wherein the vinyl laminate is adhesively attached to the first side. 2. The product of claim 1, wherein the formed-sheet metallic substrate comprises steel. 3. The product of claim 1, wherein the formed-sheet metallic substrate comprises a plurality of parallel ribs. 4. The product of claim 1, wherein the vinyl film comprises a resistance to deterioration from a plurality of outdoor elements. 5. The product of claim 4, wherein the plurality of outdoor elements is selected from the group comprising: ultra-violet light exposure; precipitation, and a wide range of ambient temperatures. 6. The product of claim 1, wherein the vinyl comprises a resistance to delamination. 7. The product of claim 1, wherein the vinyl film comprises a graphical pattern. 8. An environmentally resilient outdoor building, comprising: at least one formed-sheet metallic panel, the panel comprising a vinyl layer, and a corrugated metallic substrate having a first side, wherein the vinyl layer is bonded to the first side. 9. The building of claim 8, further comprising a roof constructed utilizing the at least one formed-sheet metallic panel, wherein the corrugated metallic substrate has a thickness of a range between 18 gauge and 30 gauge, endpoints inclusive. 10. The building of claim 8, further comprising at least one wall constructed utilizing the at least one formed-sheet metallic panel, wherein the corrugated metallic substrate has a thickness of a range between 18 gauge and 30 gauge, inclusively. 11. The building of claim 8, the vinyl layer further comprising: a first side configured to bond to the formed-sheet metallic panel; and a second side, comprising graphical content. 12. The building of claim 11, wherein the graphical content is selected from the group comprising: wood grain; brushed metal; smooth metal; and an outdoor environment blending pattern. 13. A method for providing a decorative, environmentally resilient, structurally significant panel, comprising the steps of: bonding a first side of a vinyl layer to a first side of a flat metallic sheet; and deforming the flat metallic sheet to create a plurality of parallel ribs in the first side of the metallic sheet. 14. The method of claim 13, further comprising removing a carrier film in contact with a second side of the vinyl layer before the deforming step. 15. The method of claim 13, wherein the second side of the vinyl layer comprises a graphical appearance. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the graphical appearance is selected from the group comprising: wood grain; metallic; solid color, and an outdoor environment blending pattern. 17. The method of claim 13, wherein the vinyl layer comprises a ultra-violet light degradation resistance. 18. The method of claim 13, wherein the vinyl layer comprises a thickness of at least 0.0005 inches. 19. The method of claim 13, wherein the flat metallic sheet comprises steel having a thickness between 10 gauge and 35 gauge, inclusively. 20. The method of claim 13, further comprising the step of trimming the vinyl layer, wherein a portion of the vinyl layer comprises unbonded excess material. | TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure is generally related to building products and, more particularly, is related to products and manufacturing methods for environmentally resilient building products. BACKGROUND Many different products have utilized, and continue to utilize, sheet metal as a raw material for constructing various components. Sheet metal generally possesses a high tensile strength, but is often very flexible. For structural purposes, the flexibility can be reduced through the use of additional structure attached to the sheet metal, such as beams, purlins, bars, and posts, among others. Additional structural components, however, increase the cost for the additional materials and increase the size and weight of the assembled component. One method for avoiding the requirement for additional structure is to break or bend the sheet along a line where the reduction in flexibility is desired. When done as a series of parallel bends to form channels or ridges, this is known as corrugating. Corrugating is known to produce metal sheet products with significantly reduced flexibility along at least one axis. Although the corrugation may be produced by performing a series of independent breaks on a metal sheet, corrugating machines also referred to as roll forming machines have been developed to provide corrugation to flat sheet metal in a continuous process. An example of the prior art relating to roll forming machines can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 4,269,055, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Metal sheets are often used in applications where specific aesthetic properties are desirable on at least one surface of the metal sheet. In some cases, the aesthetic property may constitute a specific color. Methods for applying a solid color to corrugated metallic products have previously been performed using spraying or coating processes 100, as illustrated in FIG. 1. Referring to FIG. 1, the flat metallic product 110 is unrolled from a coil 102 and made proximate to, for example, spray nozzles 120, which deliver a sprayed paint or coating 130 to the surface of the flat metallic product 110. After coating or painting, the flat metallic product is dried or cured using, for example, a heater or oven 140 and then rolled into a coil 104. Other cases may require specific graphical images or patterns in lieu of a solid color. Some methods of applying a graphical image or pattern to flat metallic product include immersion graphics methods where, for example, an inked film is applied to the flat metallic product, which is then immersed to dissolve the film, leaving the ink image or pattern on the flat metallic product. Like the painted coating products discussed above, the immersion graphics products may not provide a surface that is sufficiently resistant to scratching, abrasion, weathering, or fading due to outdoor exposure or mechanical impact associated with subsequent processing, assembly, or use. One technique for providing mechanically resilient protection for metallic sheet products includes laminating. The laminating process 200 in this context, as illustrated in FIG. 2, includes adhesively bonding a graphic film 202 to at least one surface of a flat metallic sheet 201. By way of example, the graphic film 202 may be applied using the pressure of a laminating roll 220. Additionally, the laminating roll 220 may possess specific surface properties which are transferred or embossed into the surface of the graphic film 202 during application. The resulting laminated metallic sheet 210 includes a graphic film 202, which may possess specific aesthetic properties including solid colors, metallic finishes, patterns, and graphical images. Additionally, if embossing was performed, the graphic film 202 may possess specific surface finish properties such as brushed, matte, or pebbled, among others. This process, however, has only been applicable to flat products because the manufacturing impracticality of continuously processing laminated corrugated products. For example, previous attempts to corrugate a laminated sheet have resulted in a graphic film that weakens and cracks during subsequent processing and is not resistant to damaging elements associated with an outdoor environment. Thus, a heretofore-unaddressed need exists in the industry to address the aforementioned deficiencies and inadequacies. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present disclosure provide an environmentally resilient structural product, comprising: a vinyl laminate and a formed-sheet metallic substrate having a first side; wherein the vinyl laminate is adhesively attached to the first side. Briefly described, other embodiments of the present disclosure provide an environmentally resilient outdoor building, comprising: at least one formed-sheet metallic panel, the panel comprising a vinyl layer, and a corrugated metallic substrate having a first side, wherein the vinyl layer is bonded to the first side. Embodiments of the present disclosure can also be viewed as methods for providing a decorative, environmentally resilient, structurally significant panel. In this regard, one embodiment of such a method, among others, can be broadly summarized by the following steps: bonding a first side of a vinyl layer to a first side of a flat metallic sheet; and deforming the flat metallic sheet to create a plurality of parallel ribs in the first side of the metallic sheet. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present disclosure, and be protected by the accompanying claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure. Moreover, in the drawings, like reference numerals designate corresponding parts throughout the several views. FIG. 1 is a side view of a coating/painting process for metal products as is known in the prior art. FIG. 2 is a side view of a process of applying a laminate to flat metallic sheet as is known in the prior art. FIG. 3 is an illustration of a side-elevational view of an exemplary roll former used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. FIG. 4 is an illustration of a partial top view of the exemplary roll former of FIG. 3 used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. FIG. 5 is an illustration of a partial end view of a set of complementary rollers and a partial cross-sectional view of a vinyl laminated metallic sheet of the exemplary roll former of FIG. 3 used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. FIG. 6 is a side cross-sectional view of a flat metallic sheet with a vinyl laminate. FIG. 7 is an end cross-sectional view of a vinyl-laminated corrugated metal sheet, as disclosed herein. FIG. 8 is an illustration of side-elevational view of an exemplary roll former used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. FIG. 9 is an illustration of a partial cross-sectional front view of a set of complementary forming rollers of the exemplary roll former and a partial cross-sectional view of a vinyl laminated metallic sheet of FIG. 8 used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. FIGS. 10A-10D are end cross-sectional views of exemplary formed-sheet vinyl laminated metallic products, as disclosed herein. FIG. 11 is a block diagram of an exemplary method of producing environmentally resilient products as disclosed herein. FIG. 12 is a perspective view of an exemplary building constructed using environmentally resilient corrugated metallic products, as disclosed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference is now made in detail to the description of the embodiments as illustrated in the drawings. While several embodiments are described in connection with these drawings, there is no intent to limit the invention to the embodiment or embodiments disclosed herein. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents. Reference is made to FIG. 3, which illustrates a side-elevational view of an exemplary roll former used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. The roll former 300 begins with a vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 305, as manufactured in a device consistent with the prior art, as discussed in reference to FIG. 2 addressed in the preceding Background section. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 305 of FIG. 3 retains a carrier film (not shown) associated with the vinyl laminating material. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 305 is propelled in direction A and drawn between a first set of complementary forming rollers 322 and 323 to form a first set of channels/ridges, creating a partially formed sheet 306. The partially formed sheet 306 is propelled from the first set of complementary forming rollers 322 and 323 and drawn between a second set of complementary rollers 324 and 325. The second complementary forming rollers 324 and 325 form additional channels/ridges to create partially formed sheet 307. Similarly, the partially formed sheet 307 proceeds through complementary forming rollers 326 and 327 to form a final set of channels/ridges such that the corrugated sheet 308 is created. The corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 308 is then fed into a shear 340, where the continuous sheet is cut into panels for subsequent packaging or manufacturing (not shown). Reference is now made to FIG. 4, which illustrates a partial top view of the exemplary forming roller table of FIG. 3, as discussed above. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 305 is propelled in a direction A between a first top forming roller 322 and a first bottom forming roller, which is not visible in this view. The partially formed sheet 306 produced by the first complementary forming rollers 322 and 323 (see FIG. 3) has channels/ridges 316 corresponding to the profile of the gap between the first forming rollers 322 and 323 (see FIG. 3). The partially formed sheet 306 is then drawn into the gap between a second top forming roller 324 and a second bottom forming roller, which is not visible in this view. The partially formed sheet 307 produced by the first and second complementary forming rollers 322, 323 (see FIG. 3), 324, and 325 (see FIG. 3) has channels/ridges 317 corresponding to the cumulative profile of the gaps between the two sets of complementary forming rollers 322, 323, 324, and 325. The partially formed sheet 307 is similarly drawn between a third top forming roller 326 and a complementary third bottom forming roller, which is not visible in this view. A final set of channels/ridges 318 is formed resulting in a corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 308. Note that as the vinyl laminated metallic sheet progresses through each of the sets of complementary forming rollers, the width of the sheet is reduced by the portion of the sheet profile which is deformed to create the depth and height of the channels/ridges, respectively. In other words, the final corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 308 is not as wide as the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 305 that entered the forming roller table 320. One of ordinary skill in the art knows, or will know, that the complementary forming roller configurations of FIGS. 3 and 4 are merely exemplary and that a roll former 300 configured with any number, combination, or configuration of forming rollers is consistent with this disclosure. For example, an alternative roll former 300 may have four or more complementary sets of forming rollers, each configured to produce a single channel or ridge in a vinyl laminated metallic sheet. Reference is briefly made to FIG. 5, which is an illustration of a partial end view of a set of complementary rollers with a partial cross-sectional view of a vinyl laminated metallic sheet. As discussed above, the top forming roller 322 has a complementary profile with the bottom-forming roller 323. As the vinyl laminated metallic sheet 306 is drawn through the gap between the two forming rollers 322 and 323, the channel/ridge 316 is formed. One of ordinary skill in the art knows or will know that the multiple channels/ridges 316 may be formed by multiple serially arranged forming roller sets configured at specific widths across the vinyl laminated metallic sheet and that the multiple channels/ridges may aggregate to form a corrugated sheet. Further, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the channels/ridges may have different depths, widths, and shape profiles. Further, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that a roll former is but one way to produce formed-sheet products. For example, in addition to roll forming, sheets can be formed using bends, breaks, or folds for introducing the additional dimensional characteristics associated with formed-sheet products. Additionally, one of ordinary skill in the art knows or will know that a formed-sheet product includes any sheet product subsequently processed to introduced additional dimensional characteristics including products with any number, configuration, or combination of bends, breaks, folds, curls, or rolls. Reference is now made to FIGS. 6 and 7, which illustrate cross-sectional end views of a vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet and a vinyl-laminated corrugated metal sheet, respectively. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 600 is formed by a laminating process, such as the process disclosed in the above discussion of FIG. 2, and includes a vinyl laminate 602, which has a thickness of at least 0.0005 inches, bonded to at least one side of the flat metallic sheet 601, which has an exemplary thickness ranging from 10 gauge to 35 gauge. The corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 700 of FIG. 7 includes the corrugated metallic substrate 701 and a vinyl layer 702 bonded to at least one side of the corrugated metallic substrate 701. Additionally, the corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 700 includes multiple parallel channels 710 and ridges 720. The metallic sheets or substrates as disclosed herein may be steel, aluminum, tin, copper, or brass, among others. The bonding of the vinyl layer 602 to the metallic sheet 601 is performed on a flat metallic sheet, as previously discussed in reference to FIG. 2. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet may be processed using the methods herein to produce the corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet. Although the corrugated profile of the product 700 is illustrated as including three primary ribs 720 per section with two secondary ribs 710 between each of the primary ribs 720, one of ordinary skill in the art knows or will know that the methods herein may be utilized to produce numerous combinations of ribs having various and varied geometric profiles and dimensional characteristics. The product 700 also includes a vinyl layer 702 bonded to one side of the metallic sheet 701. The vinyl layer 702, which has a thickness of at least 0.0005 inches, is UV-stabilized and provides an ultra-violet light resistant protective covering for the metallic sheet 701. Additionally, the product 700 provides a vinyl layer 702 that is resistant to delamination. The vinyl layer 702 also provides a decorative finish for the product 700. For example, the vinyl layer 702 may have solid color or some graphical representation. Exemplary graphical representations include, but are not limited to, metallic finishes such as gold or silver including different textures such as brushed, matte, pebbled, or gloss, among others. Other exemplary graphical representations include, but are not limited to, natural finishes such as wood grain or an outdoor environment blending pattern such as, for example, one sold under the registered trademark, REALTREE®. Reference is now made to FIG. 8, which illustrates a side-elevational view of an exemplary roll former used in an embodiment, as disclosed herein. The roll former 800 begins with a vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 805, as manufactured in a device consistent with the prior art, as previously discussed in reference to FIG. 2. The vinyl layer 815 of the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 805 includes a carrier film 832, that may be removed from the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 805 or it may be left in place during the forming operation. If the carrier film 832 is removed before the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 805 enters the forming roller table 820, the carrier film is wound onto a separate roll 830. Although, as illustrated, only one side of the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet is shown as having a vinyl laminate, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that both sides of the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet may have a vinyl laminate applied. In an embodiment having two sides of vinyl laminate, the removal of a second carrier film may be performed prior to the roll forming process or the second carrier film may remain attached during subsequent processing. After removing the carrier film 832, the vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet 806 is drawn between a first set of complementary forming rollers 822 and 823 to form a first set of channels/ridges, creating a partially formed sheet 806. The partially formed sheet 806 is propelled from the first set of complementary forming rollers 822 and 823 and drawn between a second set of complementary rollers 824 and 825. The second set of complementary forming rollers 824 and 825 forms additional channels/ridges to create partially formed sheet 807. Similarly, the partially formed sheet 807 proceeds through complementary forming rollers 826 and 827 to form another set of ridges/channels such that the corrugated sheet 808 is produced without the carrier film 832. One of ordinary skill in the art knows or will know that the roll forming process may be performed by four or more sets of forming rollers, each configured to generate an element of the overall profile. The corrugated vinyl laminated metallic sheet 808 may then be fed into a shear 840, where the continuous sheet is cut into panels for subsequent packaging or manufacturing (not shown). Additionally, excess vinyl laminate may be trimmed at one or more of numerous different stages of the manufacturing. For example, the vinyl laminate may be trimmed before or after the roll forming 820 or before, after, or during the shear function 840. Reference is now made to FIGS. 9A-9D, which illustrate end cross-sectional views of exemplary formed-sheet vinyl laminated metallic products, as disclosed herein. The exemplary profile of FIG. 9A includes five primary ribs 902, each separated by two wide, shallow ribs 904. The exemplary profile of FIG. 19B similarly includes four primary ribs 912, each separated by two wide, shallow ribs 914. As is shown, the primary ribs 912 of FIG. 9B illustrate a different geometrical and dimensional profile than the primary ribs 902 of FIG. 9A. The exemplary profile of FIG. 9C similarly includes four primary channels 922, each separated by two wide, shallow channels 924. The exemplary profile illustrated in FIG. 9D includes four wide, shallow channels 932, one standing seam locking surface 934, and one standing seam locking tab 936. Reference is now made to FIG. 10, which is a block diagram of an exemplary method of producing environmentally resilient products, as disclosed herein. The method 1000 first bonds a vinyl layer to a flat metallic sheet in step 1010. Next, optional step 1020 constitutes removing the carrier film component of the vinyl layer. The vinyl laminated flat metallic sheet is deformed using, for example, a roll forming device, to produce channels/ridges in block 1030. In block 1040 the excess vinyl material is trimmed from the edges of the metallic sheet, if present. This step may be optionally performed before or after the deforming step. Reference is now made to FIG. 11, which illustrates a perspective view of an exemplary building constructed using environmentally resilient corrugated products, as disclosed herein. The building 1100 may be fully or partially constructed utilizing corrugated vinyl laminated metallic wall panels 1110 consistent with the disclosure herein. Corrugated vinyl laminated metallic wall panels 1110 may be produced from metallic substrate in the exemplary thickness range from 18 gauge to 30 gauge. As discussed above, the vinyl laminated panels are environmentally resilient. Additionally, or in the alternative, the building 1100 may also utilize one or more corrugated vinyl laminated metallic roof panels 1120 for all or part of the roof. Corrugated vinyl laminated metallic roof panels 1120 may be produced from metallic substrate in the exemplary thickness range from 18 gauge to 30 gauge. It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the present disclosure, particularly, any illustrated embodiments, are merely possible examples of implementations, merely to provide a clear understanding of the principles of the disclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiment(s) of the disclosure without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and the present disclosure and protected by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Many different products have utilized, and continue to utilize, sheet metal as a raw material for constructing various components. Sheet metal generally possesses a high tensile strength, but is often very flexible. For structural purposes, the flexibility can be reduced through the use of additional structure attached to the sheet metal, such as beams, purlins, bars, and posts, among others. Additional structural components, however, increase the cost for the additional materials and increase the size and weight of the assembled component. One method for avoiding the requirement for additional structure is to break or bend the sheet along a line where the reduction in flexibility is desired. When done as a series of parallel bends to form channels or ridges, this is known as corrugating. Corrugating is known to produce metal sheet products with significantly reduced flexibility along at least one axis. Although the corrugation may be produced by performing a series of independent breaks on a metal sheet, corrugating machines also referred to as roll forming machines have been developed to provide corrugation to flat sheet metal in a continuous process. An example of the prior art relating to roll forming machines can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 4,269,055, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Metal sheets are often used in applications where specific aesthetic properties are desirable on at least one surface of the metal sheet. In some cases, the aesthetic property may constitute a specific color. Methods for applying a solid color to corrugated metallic products have previously been performed using spraying or coating processes 100 , as illustrated in FIG. 1 . Referring to FIG. 1 , the flat metallic product 110 is unrolled from a coil 102 and made proximate to, for example, spray nozzles 120 , which deliver a sprayed paint or coating 130 to the surface of the flat metallic product 110 . After coating or painting, the flat metallic product is dried or cured using, for example, a heater or oven 140 and then rolled into a coil 104 . Other cases may require specific graphical images or patterns in lieu of a solid color. Some methods of applying a graphical image or pattern to flat metallic product include immersion graphics methods where, for example, an inked film is applied to the flat metallic product, which is then immersed to dissolve the film, leaving the ink image or pattern on the flat metallic product. Like the painted coating products discussed above, the immersion graphics products may not provide a surface that is sufficiently resistant to scratching, abrasion, weathering, or fading due to outdoor exposure or mechanical impact associated with subsequent processing, assembly, or use. One technique for providing mechanically resilient protection for metallic sheet products includes laminating. The laminating process 200 in this context, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , includes adhesively bonding a graphic film 202 to at least one surface of a flat metallic sheet 201 . By way of example, the graphic film 202 may be applied using the pressure of a laminating roll 220 . Additionally, the laminating roll 220 may possess specific surface properties which are transferred or embossed into the surface of the graphic film 202 during application. The resulting laminated metallic sheet 210 includes a graphic film 202 , which may possess specific aesthetic properties including solid colors, metallic finishes, patterns, and graphical images. Additionally, if embossing was performed, the graphic film 202 may possess specific surface finish properties such as brushed, matte, or pebbled, among others. This process, however, has only been applicable to flat products because the manufacturing impracticality of continuously processing laminated corrugated products. For example, previous attempts to corrugate a laminated sheet have resulted in a graphic film that weakens and cracks during subsequent processing and is not resistant to damaging elements associated with an outdoor environment. Thus, a heretofore-unaddressed need exists in the industry to address the aforementioned deficiencies and inadequacies. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present disclosure provide an environmentally resilient structural product, comprising: a vinyl laminate and a formed-sheet metallic substrate having a first side; wherein the vinyl laminate is adhesively attached to the first side. Briefly described, other embodiments of the present disclosure provide an environmentally resilient outdoor building, comprising: at least one formed-sheet metallic panel, the panel comprising a vinyl layer, and a corrugated metallic substrate having a first side, wherein the vinyl layer is bonded to the first side. Embodiments of the present disclosure can also be viewed as methods for providing a decorative, environmentally resilient, structurally significant panel. In this regard, one embodiment of such a method, among others, can be broadly summarized by the following steps: bonding a first side of a vinyl layer to a first side of a flat metallic sheet; and deforming the flat metallic sheet to create a plurality of parallel ribs in the first side of the metallic sheet. Other systems, methods, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present disclosure, and be protected by the accompanying claims. | 20050113 | 20121204 | 20060713 | 63180.0 | E04B100 | 0 | SIMONE, CATHERINE A | ENVIRONMENTALLY RESILIENT CORRUGATED BUILDING PRODUCTS AND METHODS OF MANUFACTURE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | E04B | 2,005 |
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11,035,606 | ACCEPTED | Control system for a flying vehicle | In one embodiment of the present invention there is described a vehicle having a propeller mechanism for propelling the vehicle in a horizontal direction. The vehicle includes a transmitter positioned on the bottom of the vehicle for transmitting a signal from the vehicle downwardly away from the vehicle. A receiver is positioned on the bottom of the vehicle for receiving the signal as it is bounced off of a surface, defined as a bounced signal. A control system is also provided that automatically sets a speed of the propeller mechanism in response to the receiver. The control system sets the speed of the propeller mechanism to a first speed when the receiver receives the bounced signal and the control system sets the speed of the propeller mechanism to a second speed when the receiver does not receive the bounced signal. The first speed is predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to gain altitude, while the second speed is predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to lose altitude. When the vehicle reaches a predetermined distance away from the surface of the object, the vehicle will hover at the predetermined distance as the control system toggles between the first and second speeds. | 1. A vehicle having a means for propelling in a vertical direction, further comprising: a transmitter positioned on the bottom of said vehicle for transmitting a signal from the vehicle downwardly away from said vehicle; a receiver positioned on the bottom of said vehicle for receiving said signal as it is bounced off of a surface, defined as a bounced signal; and a control system that automatically sets a speed of the propelling means in response to the receiver, said control system having a first means to set the speed of the propelling means to a first speed when the receiver receives the bounced signal and the control system having a second means to set the speed of the propelling means to a second speed when the receiver does not receive the bounced signal, the first speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to gain altitude and the second speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to lose altitude. 2. The vehicle of claim 1, wherein the receiver is positioned such that the receiver is blind to the signal transmitted from the transmitter and is only capable of receiving said bounced signal. 3. The vehicle of claim 2, wherein the transmitter is recessed in a tube. 4. The vehicle of claim 1, wherein the control system further monitors the speed of the propelling means by incorporating a hall effect sensor mounted to the vehicle used in conjunction with a magnet mounted to a rotating propeller defined by the propelling means, wherein by monitoring the speed of the propelling means, the control system can maintain the speed of the propelling means as defined by the first speed and the second speed. 5. The vehicle of claim 1, wherein the control system further includes a means to increment the first speed and second speed as functions of time. 6. A system to control a direction of movement of a flying vehicle, the control system comprising: a transmitter/receiver pair positioned on the vehicle, the transmitter transmitting a signal from the vehicle in a predetermined direction; a means to fly said vehicle in a direction opposite of said predetermined direction when said signal is bounced off of a surface and received back by the receiver; and a means to fly said vehicle in a direction similar to said predetermined direction when said receiver does not receive said signal. 7. The system of claim 6, wherein the receiver is positioned such that the receiver is blind to the signal transmitted from the transmitter and is capable of receiving said signal when bounced off of the surface. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the transmitter/receiver pair is orientated such that the signal is transmitted downwardly away from the vehicle. 9. The system of claim 8 further comprising a means for propelling the vehicle in a horizontal direction. 10. The system of claim 9 further comprising a means to monitor a speed of propelling means. 11. The system of claim 9 further comprising a means to increase a speed of the propelling means as a function of time. 12. A flying vehicle comprising: a body; a rotating propeller assembly secured to a top portion defined by the body, the propeller assembly includes a propeller mount with at least one blade extending from said centered propeller mount, the centered propeller mount includes an aperture and a channel extending away from the aperture; and a ball joint driven by a motor mechanism, the ball joint is received in said aperture and the ball joint has a pin extending therefrom into the channel, such that when the ball joint is rotating, the pin contacts an interior portion of the channel driving the propeller assembly, and wherein the ball joint and the propeller mount permit the rotor assembly to freely pivot about the ball joint independently from the body of the vehicle, wherein when the rotor assembly is rotating and begins to pitch, the rotating rotor assembly having a centrifugal force created by the rotation thereof will tend to pivot about the ball joint in a manner that offsets the pitch such that the vehicle remains in a substantially horizontal position. 13. The vehicle of claim 12 wherein when the rotor assembly begins to pitch, the pin of the ball joint contacts an interior portion of the channel to limit the pitch of the rotor assembly. 14. The vehicle of claim 12 wherein the propeller assembly includes an odd number of blades, and wherein the ball joint and the propeller mount permit the propeller assembly to pivot in any plane perpendicular to the blades. 15. The vehicle of claim 12, wherein the rotating propeller assembly is defined by having stacked counter rotating rotor assemblies and wherein the channels defined on each of said counter rotating rotor assemblies are sized to prevent blades defined by each counter rotating rotor assemblies from contacting one and other. 16. The vehicle of claim 12 further including a system to control the directional movement of the body, the control system including: a transmitter positioned on the bottom of said body for transmitting a signal from the vehicle downwardly away from said body; a receiver positioned on the bottom of said body for receiving said signal as it is bounced off of a surface, defined as a bounced signal; and a control system that automatically sets a speed of the counter rotating propeller assembly in response to the receiver, said control system sets the speed of the counter rotating propeller assembly to a first speed when the receiver receives the bounced signal and the control system sets the speed of the counter rotating propeller assembly to a second speed when the receiver does not receive the bounced signal, the first speed being predefined as a speed that causes the body to gain altitude and the second speed being predefined as a speed that causes the body to lose altitude. 17. A process of controlling an altitude of a flying vehicle having a vertical propelling means in a vertical direction comprising: providing a hover speed of said propelling means that has a tendency to maintain the vehicle at a substantially constant altitude; transmitting a signal downwardly away from said vehicle; providing a means for receiving said signal as it is bounced off of a surface, monitoring said receiving means and adjusting said propelling means in response to the following: when said receiving means does not receive said bounced signal adjusting, said propelling means to a speed lower than said hover speed, and when said receiving means receives said bounced signal, adjusting said propelling means to a speed higher than said hover speed. 18. The process of claim 17 further comprising: monitoring said receiving means and adjusting said propelling means in response to the following: when said receiving means does not receive said bounced signal for a first predetermined time adjusting said propelling means to a speed lower than said hover speed, when said receiving means receives said bounced signal for a second predetermined time adjusting said propelling means to a speed higher than said hover speed, and adjusting said propelling means to the hover speed when said receiving means changes for receiving said bounced signal to not receiving said bounced signal and visa versa. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to a flying vehicle and more specifically to a hovering vehicle that includes a control system to automatically control the height of the vehicle above a surface or another object. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION While the present invention is related in part to vehicles developed in the toy and hobby industry, there are many types of vehicles that use propellers as a source of lift or as a means for propulsion for which the present invention is applicable. The more common types of these vehicles, which use propellers as a source of propulsion or lift, are air/space based vehicles such as airplanes, helicopters, or unconventional aircraft. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,609,312 is directed to a model helicopter that describes an improved fuselage with a structure that supports radio-control components, and drive train components in an attempt to provide a simple structure; U.S. Pat. No. 5,836,545 is directed to a rotary wing model aircraft that includes a power distribution system that efficiently distributes engine power to the rotary wings and tail rotor system; U.S. Pat. No. 5,879,131 is directed to a main propeller system for model helicopters, which are capable of surviving repeated crashes; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,604,075 is directed to a toy helicopter that includes a removable control unit, which a user may plug into the toy helicopter. In addition, the ability to maintain a stable flight or hover is difficult to implement without the user constantly adjusting the speed of the propellers. A self-hovering vehicle would be capable of adjusting itself to a predetermined height above another a surface or object, even when the object changes the distance between itself and the hovering vehicle. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A vehicle is provided with a self-hovering control mechanism to control the height of the vehicle above a surface or another object. The vehicle includes a means for propelling the vehicle in a horizontal direction. A transmitter positioned on the bottom of the vehicle transmits a signal from the vehicle downwardly away from the vehicle. A receiver is also positioned on the bottom of the vehicle for receiving the signal as it is bounced off of a surface. A control system is provided that automatically sets a speed of the propelling means in response to the receiver. The control system sets the speed of the propelling means to a first speed when the receiver receives the bounced signal and the control system sets the speed of the propelling means to a second speed when the receiver does not receive the bounced signal. The first speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to gain altitude and the second speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to lose altitude. The vehicle will position itself at a predetermined distance away from the object, by toggling between the two speeds when the bounced signal becomes intermittent. In another embodiment the vehicle includes a horizontal stabilizing counter rotating propeller assembly secured to the vehicle. The counter rotating propeller assembly includes a pair of stacked rotor assemblies. Each rotor assembly includes a centered propeller mount with blades extending from the centered propeller mount. A ball joint with pins extending from the ball joint is also provided. A cap is secured to the centered propeller mount for capturing the ball joint between the cap and the centered propeller mount. The centered propeller mount and the cap include channels when assembled for receipt of the pins of the ball joint. When a rotor assembly begins to pitch, the pins of the ball joint contact interior walls defined by the channels to limit the pitch of the rotor assembly. In yet another embodiment, a process of controlling an altitude of a flying vehicle having a vertical propelling means in a vertical direction is provided. The process includes providing a hover speed of the propelling means that has a tendency to maintain the vehicle at a substantially constant altitude. Transmitting a signal downwardly away from the vehicle and providing a means for receiving the signal as it is bounced off of a surface. The process monitors the receiving means and adjusts the propelling means in response to the following conditions. First, when the receiving means does not receive the bounced signal for a predetermined time, the propelling means is adjusted to a speed lower than the hover speed. Second, when the receiving means receives the bounced signal for a predetermined time, the propelling means is adjusted to a speed higher than the hover speed. Third, the propelling means is adjusting to the hover speed when the receiving means changes from receiving the bounced signal to not receiving the bounced signal and visa versa. Numerous advantages and features of the invention will become readily apparent from the following detailed description of the invention and the embodiments thereof, and from the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A fuller understanding of the foregoing may be had by reference to the accompanying drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a figure with a counter-rotating propelling means and a automatic hovering control system; FIG. 2 is a partially exploded view of FIG. 1; FIG. 3a is an enlarged view of the hovering control system; FIG. 3b is the hovering control system of FIG. 3a illustrating an intermittent signal; FIG. 3c is the hovering control system of FIG. 3a illustrating the signal being bounced off of the surface of an object; FIG. 4 is an exploded view of FIG. 1; FIG. 5a is an exploded enlarged view of the lower rotor assembly; FIG. 5b is an exploded enlarged view of the upper rotor assembly; FIG. 6a is a sectional view of the upper rotor assembly; FIG. 6b illustrates the upper rotor assembly from FIG. 6a showing the pitch limiting means; and FIG. 7 is a control system diagram of the hovering control system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION While the invention is susceptible to embodiments in many different forms, there are shown in the drawings and will be described herein, in detail, the preferred embodiments of the present invention. It should be understood, however, that the present disclosure is to be considered an exemplification of the principles of the invention and is not intended to limit the spirit or scope of the invention and/or the embodiments illustrated. Referring now to FIGS. 1 and 2 a vehicle 100 is provided with a system to control the height or distance of the vehicle away from a surface or another object. The vehicle 100 includes a means for propelling 110 the vehicle 100 in a specified direction, an airframe or body 120, the control system 130, and a power supply 140. In the present invention the propelling means 110 is a counter-rotating propeller assembly. However, the propelling means may be replaced with a single rotor assembly and a separate counter-torque assembly such as but not limited to a tail rotor if such was being implemented in a helicopter. Alternatively, a single rotor assembly may be used by itself if the vehicle was completely rotating such as a flying saucer. Referring now to FIG. 3a, the control system 130 includes a transmitter 132 and a receiver 134 in communication with a circuit board 136 which is further in communication with and control of the propelling means 110. The transmitter and receiver pair are preferably an infra-red pair, however other transmitter/receiver pairs may be incorporated. One important aspect of the present invention is that the receiver must be kept blind to the transmitter, such that the receiver is unable to register a transmission signal ts from the transmitter as it is being transmitted there from. The receiver will therefore only receive the transmission signal ts when the signal is bounced off of a surface S or object referred to as a bounced signal bs. In the present invention the receiver 134 is kept blind from the transmission signal ts by placing the transmitter 132 within a black tube 138 that is positioned adjacent to the receiver 134. Other means of blinding the receiver may be incorporated without effecting the scope of the invention. The control system 130 may either be a closed loop system or an open loop system. In the closed loop system, the control system also monitors the speed of the propelling means (discussed in greater detail below). By monitoring the propelling means the control system can maintain a preset speed of the propelling means throughout the battery life, ensuring that the loss of battery power does not effect the speed of the propelling means and the hovering of the vehicle. In an open loop system, the control system does not monitor the speed of the propelling means but compensates for the power drain by slightly increasing the speeds over time. This can be accomplished by including a compensation timer on the circuit board that increases the speed of the propelling means as time increases. In one embodiment, a hover speed is predetermined. The hover speed is determined by a number of factors such as the rotor assembly design, rotation of the propelling means, and weight of the entire vehicle. The hover speed will lift the vehicle off of a surface, such that when the speed of the rotating propelling means (referred to as rotor speed) is decreased slightly from the hover speed, the vehicle will decrease altitude or not lift off of the ground. Once the hover speed is determined the control system is given an upper range and lower range of rotor speeds. These include, in the least, a speed higher than hover speed to provide a climbing speed and a speed lower than hover speed to provide a fall speed. However, a range could also be established, for example, 5% above the hover speed for a climbing speed and 2% below the hover speed for fall speed. Once the vehicle is activated, through a remote control or an on switch, the circuit board sends the vehicle into a climbing phase, by increasing the rotor speed to the climbing speed. In addition, the circuit board begins transmitting a signal. When the vehicle is close to a surface or object, the receiver will receive the transmission signal that is bounced off of the surface. As long as the receiver receives the signal, the circuit board maintains a climbing phase (FIG. 3a). As the vehicle moves further from the surface, the receiver will eventually lose the signal that is bounced off of the surface. At the moment the receiver loses the signal, the circuit board will switch to the fall speed and enter a deceleration phase. The control system may also decrement to the deceleration speed in steps, so the movement of the vehicle is not too severe. As the receiver regains the signal connection, the circuit board switches back to the climbing phase (again the control system may increment from the deceleration speed to the climbing speed to control the movement of the vehicle). Eventually, the vehicle will toggle back and forth between the deceleration and climbing phase as the signal strength rests on the fringe of being received and not received. In the preferred embodiment, the transmitter transmits an infra-red frequency signal ts. The circuit board monitors the receiver's output, in that upon detecting the signal bounced off of a surface the receiver's output is off (referred to as surface detected) and upon not detecting the signal the receiver's output is on (referred to as no surface detected). When the surface is detected for a predetermined time the propelling means is set to the climb speed and when the surface is not detected for a predetermined time the propelling means is set to the fall speed. Moreover, whenever there is a change in the receiver's output (from surface detected to surface not detected or visa versa) the propelling means is set to the hover speed. FIG. 7 illustrates a process of coritrolling the vehicle. The process initially resets a timer, Step 200. The timer is used to time how long the receiver's output has been in a particular state. The receiver's output is monitored and checked to determine if a surface is detected, Step 205. If the receiver's output does not indicate a surface is detected, then the process goes to Step 255, where the output must be no surface detected. Continuing from Step 205, the receiver's output is continually monitored to determine if there has been a change, Step 210. If there has been a changed, the propelling means 110 is set to hover speed and the timer is reset, Step 215. Since the receiver's output changed from surface detected to no surface detected, the process moves from Step 215 (out of the surface detected section) to Point A (into the no surface detected section, discussed in further detail below). From Step 210, if the receiver's output has not changed, the process checks to see if the time is equal to a predetermined set time, Step 220. If the timer is not equal to the predetermined set time, then the process increments the timer, Step 225, and moves back to Step 210. If the timer is equal to the predetermined set time, then the propelling means 110 is set to the climb speed, Step 230. Following Step 255 or Point A, when the receiver's output equals no surface detected, the receiver's output is checked to determine if there has been a change 260. If there has been a change in the output, the propelling means is set to hover speed and the timer is reset, Step 265. Since the receiver's output changed from no surface detected to surface detected, the process moves from Step 265 (out of the surface detected section) to Point B (into the surface detected section). From Step 260, if the receiver's output has not changed, the process checks to see if the time is equal to a predetermined set time, Step 270. If the timer is not equal to the predetermined set time, then the process increments the timer, Step 275, and moves back to Step 260. If the timer is equal to the predetermined set time, then the propelling means 110 is set to the fall speed, Step 280. The process then goes back to Step 260 to monitor the output. In the preferred embodiment, the two predetermined times T1 and T2 described on FIG. 7, may be the same time, such as 0.2 seconds. However, these times may also be different. By adjusting these two timers the size and position of all three speed ranges can be altered, relative to the maximum sensing distance. From the hover state, as soon as the receiver's output detects the surface, the timer is started and if the receiver's output detects the surface for a first predetermined time (i.e. 0.2 seconds) the propelling means is set to climb speed. As long as the receiver's output is maintained to surface detected, the propelling. means will remain set to the climb speed. As soon as the receiver's output is changed, the propelling means will be set to hover and the timer reset. If the receiver does not detects the surface for a second predetermined time (i.e. 0.2 seconds) the propelling means is set to fall speed. The propelling means will not change from a hover speed unless the receiver's output is maintained for at least the predetermined time. If the receiver's output is interrupted (meaning the receiver's output toggles or changes) within the predetermined time, the timer is reset. Once the vehicle is in a hover position, if the user places an object between the surface and the bottom of the vehicle (for example, the user's hand, FIG. 3c), the vehicle will sense the transmission being bounced off of the object and enter into a climbing phase until the vehicle is the predetermined distance from the object. Similarly, if the vehicle is hovering above the object and the object changes its altitude, the vehicle will adjust itself accordingly, by entering the deceleration or climbing phase, depending upon whether the object moved closer to or further away from the vehicle. In another aspect of the present invention the control system can adjust the speed of the propeller means 110 depending upon the signal strength received by the receiver 132. At that point, the vehicle will hover at a predetermined distance from the surface (FIG. 3b). The predetermined distance from the surface is determined mostly by the signal strength. A strong transmission signal will cause the vehicle to move further away from the surface until the bounced signal becomes too faint or weak such that the control system toggles between the deceleration and climbing phases. In a broad aspect of the invention the control system moves or flies a vehicle. A transmitter/receiver pair is positioned on the vehicle and the transmitter transmits a signal from the vehicle in a specified direction. When the signal is bounced off of a surface (including a surface of an object) and received back by the receiver, the control system flies the vehicle in a direction opposite to the specified direction. In addition, when the receiver does not receive the signal, the control system flies the vehicle in the specified direction. For the example discussed above, the direction in downwardly, such that the control system will hover the vehicle above a surface. However, if the vehicle had directional controls, the control system could be positioned on the side of the vehicle such that the vehicle would be capable of keeping a predetermined distance away from a wall or a surface of a wall (including any objects positioned along the wall). Referring again to FIG. 1, to assist in the vehicles stability in the hover, the propelling means 110 includes a means of stabilizing the vehicle 100 in a horizontal position. The propelling means 110 is secured to the top portion 105of the vehicle body 120. In the embodiment illustrated, the body 120 is a character or figure. The propelling means 110 is a counter rotating propeller mechanism, since the body 120 does not include additional means to counter the torque of a motor included thererin and this specific embodiment does not call for the rotation of the body. Turning now to FIGS. 4 through 7, the propelling means 110 includes a motor 150 attached to a body mount 151 and secured to a lower gear housing 152. The motor 150 drives a motor shaft 154 that has a drive gear 156 attached thereto. The drive gear 156 is meshed to a first spur 158 and idler gears 160. The idler gears 160 do not effect the gear ratio but will change the direction such that a second spur 162 meshed to the idler gears 160 is rotating in the opposite direction as the first spur 158. The second spur 162 is mounted above an upper gear housing 164. In the present embodiment, the control system is a closed loop system requiring the control system to monitor the speed of the rotor. The monitoring of the speed is accomplished by including a hall effect sensor 166 mounted to the upper gear housing 164 and a magnet 168 is mounted to the first spur 158. As the first spur 158 rotates, the revolutions per second are calculated providing the ability to calculate speed. Secured to the second spur 162 is a rod 170 that has a lower ball joint 172 secured on its end. The lower ball joint 172 includes a pair of pins 174 extending outwardly therefrom. The lower ball joint 172 is secured to a lower propeller mount 176. The lower propeller mount 176 pivotally attaches a lower rotor assembly 178 to the lower ball joint 172. The rod 170 and the lower ball joint 172 are bored there-through to permit the passage of a drive shaft 180 that is secured to the first spur 158, such that the drive shaft rotates along with and in the same direction of the rotation of the first spur 158 without effecting the opposite rotation of the second spur 162. The drive shaft 180 traverses through the lower propeller mount 176 and has an upper ball joint 182 with pins 184 secured on its end. The upper ball joint 182 is secured to an upper propeller mount 186. The upper propeller mount 186 pivotally attaches an upper rotor assembly 188 to the upper ball joint 182. Both the lower and upper rotor assemblies include a plurality of blades 190 extending from its respective propeller mount. The ends of each blade are further connected to a safety ring 192. Each propeller mount further includes a cap. In FIG. 5a the lower cap 177 includes a notch 179 to permit the lower cap 177 to fit around the rod 170. The lower cap 177 is secured to the lower propeller mount 176 capturing lower ball joint 172 in an aperture 175 defined in the center of the lower propeller mount 176, with the pins 174 positioned in channels 194. In FIG. 5b, an upper cap 187 is secured to the upper propeller mount 186 capturing the upper ball joint 182 in an aperture 185 defined on the upper propeller mount 186. The pins 184 on the upper ball joint 182 are positioned in channels 194 defined on the upper propeller mount 186. While each rotor assembly works in the same manner, FIGS. 6a and 6b only reference numerals to the upper rotor assembly 188, while the following discussion pertains to both the upper rotor assembly 188 and the lower rotor assembly, only numerals to the upper rotor assembly are made. This is not done to limit the scope of the invention. The ball joints 182 are unique because when the ball joints 182 rotate, the pins 184 extending into the channels 194 to drive the rotor assemblies 188. However, the channels 194 are sized such if the rotor assembly 188 pitches slightly or the body 120 of the vehicle 100 moves, the pins 184 have clearance to permit the ball joint 182 to move in any plane perpendicular to the plane of the rotor assembly 188. This free movement of the ball joint 182 aids in horizontally stabilizing the rotor assembly 188 while maintaining a vertically aligned body. The ball joint 182 is a simple pivot that allows the rotor assembly 188 to include more than two blades 190. If only two blades 190 were included opposed from one another, then the rotor assembly 188 would need to pivot in just one axis (parallel to the blades) to level out. But the ball joint 182 allows the rotor assembly 188 to pivot in a number of different directions and thus allows for any number of blade 190 configurations, by creating a pivoting plane about each blade 190. If the rotor assembly 188 begins to pitch, the blades 190 and safety ring 192 will begin to move off of a horizontal plane. The ball joint 182 permits the rotor assembly to freely pivot about the rod or drive shaft independently from the body of the vehicle, wherein when the rotor assembly is rotating and begins to pitch, the rotating rotor assembly having a centrifugal force created by the rotation thereof will tend to pivot about the ball joint in a manner that offsets the pitch such that the vehicle remains in a substantially horizontal position. As such the ball joint 182 and the rotor assembly 188 horizontally stabilize the rotating rotor assembly. The ball joint 182 also keeps the body of the body 120 vertically straight during flight. The ball joint 182 and the weight of the body 120 will automatically pull the body 120 back to a straight vertical position because of gravity. If the body 120 touched something and the rotor assembly 188 was rigidly attached to the body, then the resulting tilt of the center axis would cause the whole vehicle to propel itself at that angle instead of straight upwards. Lastly, while the rotor assembly 188 is pitching, the pins 184 extending from the ball joint 182 move inside the channels 194 until the pins 184 come into contact with the interior walls of the channels 194 (FIG. 6b). This pitch limiting means prevents the pitch of the rotor assembly 188 becoming too extreme, which could happen with a large gust of wind. In addition, if the counter rotating rotor assemblies did not have safety rings, it would be possible for a blade from the lower rotor assembly to contact and entangle with a blade from the upper rotor assembly which would be detrimental to the flying vehicle. The pitch limiting means defined and described above would prevent the rotor assemblies from colliding. From the foregoing and as mentioned above, it will be observed that numerous variations and modifications may be effected without departing from the spirit and scope of the novel concept of the invention. It is to be understood that no limitation with respect to the specific methods and apparatus illustrated herein is intended or should be inferred. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>While the present invention is related in part to vehicles developed in the toy and hobby industry, there are many types of vehicles that use propellers as a source of lift or as a means for propulsion for which the present invention is applicable. The more common types of these vehicles, which use propellers as a source of propulsion or lift, are air/space based vehicles such as airplanes, helicopters, or unconventional aircraft. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,609,312 is directed to a model helicopter that describes an improved fuselage with a structure that supports radio-control components, and drive train components in an attempt to provide a simple structure; U.S. Pat. No. 5,836,545 is directed to a rotary wing model aircraft that includes a power distribution system that efficiently distributes engine power to the rotary wings and tail rotor system; U.S. Pat. No. 5,879,131 is directed to a main propeller system for model helicopters, which are capable of surviving repeated crashes; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,604,075 is directed to a toy helicopter that includes a removable control unit, which a user may plug into the toy helicopter. In addition, the ability to maintain a stable flight or hover is difficult to implement without the user constantly adjusting the speed of the propellers. A self-hovering vehicle would be capable of adjusting itself to a predetermined height above another a surface or object, even when the object changes the distance between itself and the hovering vehicle. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A vehicle is provided with a self-hovering control mechanism to control the height of the vehicle above a surface or another object. The vehicle includes a means for propelling the vehicle in a horizontal direction. A transmitter positioned on the bottom of the vehicle transmits a signal from the vehicle downwardly away from the vehicle. A receiver is also positioned on the bottom of the vehicle for receiving the signal as it is bounced off of a surface. A control system is provided that automatically sets a speed of the propelling means in response to the receiver. The control system sets the speed of the propelling means to a first speed when the receiver receives the bounced signal and the control system sets the speed of the propelling means to a second speed when the receiver does not receive the bounced signal. The first speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to gain altitude and the second speed being predefined as a speed that causes the vehicle to lose altitude. The vehicle will position itself at a predetermined distance away from the object, by toggling between the two speeds when the bounced signal becomes intermittent. In another embodiment the vehicle includes a horizontal stabilizing counter rotating propeller assembly secured to the vehicle. The counter rotating propeller assembly includes a pair of stacked rotor assemblies. Each rotor assembly includes a centered propeller mount with blades extending from the centered propeller mount. A ball joint with pins extending from the ball joint is also provided. A cap is secured to the centered propeller mount for capturing the ball joint between the cap and the centered propeller mount. The centered propeller mount and the cap include channels when assembled for receipt of the pins of the ball joint. When a rotor assembly begins to pitch, the pins of the ball joint contact interior walls defined by the channels to limit the pitch of the rotor assembly. In yet another embodiment, a process of controlling an altitude of a flying vehicle having a vertical propelling means in a vertical direction is provided. The process includes providing a hover speed of the propelling means that has a tendency to maintain the vehicle at a substantially constant altitude. Transmitting a signal downwardly away from the vehicle and providing a means for receiving the signal as it is bounced off of a surface. The process monitors the receiving means and adjusts the propelling means in response to the following conditions. First, when the receiving means does not receive the bounced signal for a predetermined time, the propelling means is adjusted to a speed lower than the hover speed. Second, when the receiving means receives the bounced signal for a predetermined time, the propelling means is adjusted to a speed higher than the hover speed. Third, the propelling means is adjusting to the hover speed when the receiving means changes from receiving the bounced signal to not receiving the bounced signal and visa versa. Numerous advantages and features of the invention will become readily apparent from the following detailed description of the invention and the embodiments thereof, and from the accompanying drawings. | 20050114 | 20060905 | 20060720 | 66219.0 | B64C2754 | 2 | BAREFOOT, GALEN L | CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A FLYING VEHICLE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B64C | 2,005 |
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11,035,667 | ACCEPTED | Post protein hydrolysis removal of a potent ribonuclease inhibitor and the enzymatic capture of DNA | The present invention concerns compositions and methods of extracting infectious pathogens from a volume of blood. In one embodiment, the method includes the steps of creating a fibrin aggregate confining the pathogens and introducing a fibrin lysis reagent to expose the pathogens for analysis. The present invention also concerns materials and methods for removing aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) from a sample. | 1. A method for removing ATA from a sample, comprising contacting the sample with a composition comprising urea and bringing the pH of the sample to about 8.0. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said composition further comprises sodium citrate. 3. The method according to any preceding claim, wherein said composition further comprises proteinase K. 4. The method according to any preceding claim, wherein said composition further comprises methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside. 5. The method according to any preceding claim, wherein the pH is brought to about 8.0 by sodium hydroxide. 6. The method according to any preceding claim, wherein said composition further comprises EDTA or DTPA or both EDTA and DTPA. 7. A method of removing aurintricarboxylic acid from samples to facilitate efficient subsequent nucleic acid extraction or direct RNA array analysis, the method comprising: exposing a whole blood sample to reagents detailed in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779 and/or according to claim 23; and subsequently adding a urea containing solution prior to subsequent processing such as nucleic acid binding to a matrix in the presence of a chaotrophic salt or precipitation of nucleic acid followed by purification according to methods available in the art. 8. The method according to claim 7, where the addition of urea to an ATA containing sample will provide for ATA removal when classic chaotrophic salts and binding matrices such as silica are used for nucleic acid extraction and where the chaotrophic salt is heated between about 55-65° C. during binding of nucleic acid to the silica matrix or washing of that silica matrix or prior to and or during precipitation and centrifugation. 9. The method according to claim 7, wherein the urea and DTPA solution is heated during production to about 400-600° C. for 1-4 hours, drying under vacuum, grinding to a powder; and adding directly to ATA containing samples followed by any nucleic acid extraction method. 10. The method according to claim 9, further comprising the step of adding one or all of the following compounds during production of the urea/DTPA reagent; adding EDTA and or sodium citrate and/or sodium hydroxide. 11. The method according to claim 9, further comprising the step of adding proteinase K to the dried urea and DTPA powder and one or all of the compounds in claim 10. 12. The method according to claim 9, further comprising the step of adding methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)α-D-glucopyranoside to the dried urea and DTPA powder and one or all of the compounds in claim 10 and 11. 13. The method according to claim 9, further comprising the step of adding urease of about 1,000-10,000 U/ml to the sample after treatment with the urea/DTPA reagents that can be derived from any combination according to claims 9, 10, 11, and/or 12. 14. The method according to claim 9, further comprising the step of hybridizing RNA directly out of the whole blood sample (treated first with ATA and reagents listed in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779 and according to claim 23, and treated second the urea/DTPA, and treated last with urease) and onto DNA oligos functionalized onto a hyaluronic acid matrix that is cross linked with biotin and strepavidin or any other commercially available substrate for nucleic acids. 15. A method where an insoluble form of calcium is labeled onto a protein such as a mutated RNase H that in turn bonds to but does not degrade RNA/DNA hybrids; and said protein carries an insoluble form of calcium to the site of wild type RNA binding to complementary DNA oligos functionalized on the cross linked hyaluronic acid matrix. 16. The method according to claim 15, where an insoluble form of calcium is labeled onto proteins such as bioactive peptides that aggregate on the outside of bacterial cell walls or viral protein structures and said protein carries an insoluble form of calcium to the site of bacterial or viral binding to bioactive peptides functionalized on a hyaluronic acid matrix. 17. The method according to claim 15, where the localized calcium is made soluble and hence released by an electrical potential induced local pH shift close to the surface of the cross linked hyaluronic acid structure. 18. The method according to claim 15, where fibrinogen labeled with reporter molecules that allow flourimetric, calorimetric, electrochemical, electromagnetic, or potentiometric detection is present in solution with thrombin when a local pH shift is generated by an induced electrical potential; and the fibrinogen is converted to insoluble fibrin by the activity of thrombin in the presence of calcium being released at the site of bacterial, viral, or RNA binding to bioactive peptides or DNA oligos respectively. 19. The method according to claim 15, further comprising the step where the cross linked hyaluronic acid acts as a wave guide for optical and electronic emissions. 20. The method according to claim 15, further comprising the step where the cross linked hyaluronic acid acts as a wave guide for optical and electronic emissions resulting from the aggregation of labeled fibrin; and where the conversion of labeled fibrinogen to fibrin aggregated has been precipitated by the release of soluble calcium in the presence of thrombin. 21. The method according to claim 15, where the RNA array is composed of cross linked hyaluronic acid posts extending into a flow stream of enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent; and where signals are read from the ends of the hyaluronic acid wave guide posts. 22. The method according to claim 15, further comprising the step of using hyaluronic acid cross linked with biotin and strepavidin and functionalized with bioactive peptides used to capture pathogens where the hyaluronic acid deposited inside a pathogen capture device is subsequently broken down via hyaluronidase so that the sample may be extruded out. 23. A method for isolating and detecting analytes in a biological sample, said method comprising preparing a fibrin aggregate of said sample to confine analyte therein or not preparing a fibrin aggregate while leaving the entire sample intact; contacting said fibrin aggregate or intact sample with an enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent to release said analyte and promote analyte analysis by breaking down the sample matrix; contacting the resulting sample to a biosensor; contacting resulting sample with a reagent capable of lysing said analyte and further breaking down the sample matrix; extracting or isolating a nucleic acid from said lysed analyte; identifying said analyte from said nucleic acid. 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein components for the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent contains Phospholipase A2. 25. The method according to claim 23, wherein components for the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may be selected from any group of enzymes that specifically break down the phospholipid bilayer of human cells while leaving bacterial cell walls intact. 26. The method according to claim 23, wherein said enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent comprises a nuclease. 27. The method according to claim 26, wherein said nuclease is selected from the group consisting of DNAse, endonuclease, and exonuclease. 28. The method according to claim 23, wherein said enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent comprises the enzymes plasminogen and streptokinase. 29. The method according to claim 23, wherein components of the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent can alternatively be selected from the group consisting of, staphylokinase, urokinase, plasmin, warfarin, monteplase, tenecteplase, reteplase, lanoteplase, pamiteplase, or any other modified tissue type-plasminogen activator, antithrombolytic enzymes derived from leeches such as Hirudo medicincalis, Hirdinaria manillensis or Haementeria ghillanii, plasminogen activators from the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), mutants of plasminogen activators, chimeric plasminogen activators, conjugates of plasminogen activators, and any other plasminogen activators from animal or bacterial origin. 30. The method according to claim 23, wherein said solution further comprises the nuclease inhibitor aurintricarboxylic acid. 31. The method according to claim 23, wherein said solution further comprises one or more of the following nuclease inhibitors: Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,,-tetraacetic acid, Netropsin dihydrochloride, 1,10-Phenanthroline monohydrate, formaurin-dicarboxylic acid, Evans Blue (a structural analogue of suramin), vanadyl ribonucleoside complexes, and poly vinylsulfonate. 32. The method according to claim 23, wherein said solution further comprises the nuclease inhibition enhancer ZnCl2. 33. The method according to claim 23, wherein said solution further comprises the nuclease inhibitor ATA triammonium salt. 34. The method according to claim 23, wherein said solution further comprises any nuclease inhibitor where the end result is alteration of any nuclease DNA processing pathway to the point that, post nuclease processing, the said DNA no longer inhibits nucleic acid based detection assays despite that DNA being present at concentrations that would normally inhibit the assay. 35. The method according to claim 23, wherein after sample exposure to the enzyme-detergent combination the sample is exposed to immobilized Single Strand Binding Protein to remove nicked human DNA while leaving bacterial DNA behind 36. The method according to claim 23, wherein analytes are selected from a group consisting of prions, toxins, metabolic markers, cancerous matter, disease state markers, bacteria, virus, and fungi. 37. The method according to claim 23, further comprising the step of replicating the analytes through PCR or detection by biosensor. 38. The method according to claim 23, where potassium phosphate is included as an essential element to produce efficient whole blood matrix disassembly driven by the enzymes selected from claims 24, 27 28, and, 29; where the efficiency matrix disassembly is clearly increased when potassium phosphate is included with enzymes selected from claims 24, 27 28, and, 29 as indicated by sediment reduction post centrifugation of blood after treatment with the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent according to claim 23. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation-in-part of International application No. PCT/US04/26606, filed Aug. 16, 2004; and this application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, filed Aug. 15, 2003; and this application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 60/481,892, filed Jan. 14, 2004; the disclosure of all of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The present invention was made with the support of the U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command under Grant No. DAAD13-01-C-0045. The Government may have certain rights to this invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The threat of bioterrorism (BT) and biological warfare presents challenges for the clinical setting that are best met with rapid and sensitive technologies to detect BT agents. Peripheral blood samples could contribute to early and specific clinical and epidemiological management of a biological attack if detection could take place when the concentration of the infecting organism is still very low. The worried well and recently infected patients would benefit, both psychologically and physically, from early pharmacological intervention. Infection with Bacillus anthracis or Yersinia pestis often present initially as a nonspecific febrile or flu-like illness. The mediastinitis associated with inhalational anthrax ultimately results in bacilli entering the blood once the efferent lymphatics become laden with organisms. When bacteremia (the presence of bacteria in the blood) and sepsis (the invasion of bodily tissue by pathogenic bacteria) have initiated, the number of bacilli may increase quickly, doubling every 48 minutes, most often resulting in death of the patient. It has been reported that microbiological studies on patient blood samples are useful for diagnosing pneumonic plague. The potential for Yersinia pestis bacilli to be present in peripheral circulating blood suggests that a PCR assay would make a useful diagnostic tool. Testing for pneumonic plague or inhalational anthrax would be effective when healthy patients present with “flu-like” symptoms (malaise, fever, cough, chest pain and shortness of breath) that may accompany other nonspecific symptoms. However, in order to maximize the probability of successful treatment, detection of the infecting organism must take place early in the disease process, when the concentration of circulating bacteria is very low. Extraction of pathogen DNA from whole blood typically requires between 200 μl to 500 μl of whole peripheral blood patient sample for each preparation event. Detection of early bacteremia is improved by using an entire 6 to 10 ml tube of patient blood for a single sample preparation event. Prior art literature describes a single tube blood culture system exploiting the selective lysis of blood elements, followed by centrifugation to pellet bacteria for plating on solid media. The technique has been examined thoroughly in conjunction with microbiological testing. Previous methods basedon lyses of blood cells followed by centrifugation have not proven to be useful for nucleic acid or biosensor based detectio protocols. Accordingly, what is needed in the art is: 1) a method of destroying and making soluble the spectrum of blood element components (erythrocytes, leukocytes, nuclear membranes, fibrin, and host nucleic acid) without damaging analyte particles (bacteria, virus, fungi, toxin, metabolic markers, disease state markers, or chemical agents) in order to expose and rapidly concentrate (via centrifugation, filtration, or capture) the analyte particles from large volumes of blood, 2) processing to minimize inhibition and/or removal of the host DNA and the matrix associated biomass present in the large volume blood sample using a single step enzyme detergent cocktail that is amenable to automation and portable systems, and 3) an analyte particle concentration method that can be coupled to existing manual or automated processes for nucleic acid extraction, biosensor testing, or liquid chromatography separation and mass spectrometry analysis. It is, therefore, to the effective resolution of the aforementioned problems and shortcomings of the prior art that the present invention is directed. Fibrin is an insoluble protein precipitated from blood that forms a network of fibers. In vivo, this process is central to blood clotting. Fibrin is created by the proteolytic cleavage of terminal peptides in fibrinogen. In the laboratory analysis of blood, an aggregate (pellet) of fibrin combined with other blood elements sediments at the bottom of a tube when blood is centrifuged. Within the fibrin aggregate, pathogens are trapped. The analysis of these pathogens is highly desirable. However, like coins embedded in a slab of concrete, the captured pathogens are substantially hidden from analysis, trapped in the fibrin aggregate. For individuals potentially exposed to dangerous pathogens, time is of the essence and rapid identification of the captured pathogens is paramount. Rapid identification of nucleic acid, proteins, or other molecules associated with bacteria, virus, fungi, toxin, metabolic markers, disease state markers, or chemical agents is important for individual clinical management as well as forensic and epidemiological investigation. Plasmin is a substance in blood capable of converting fibrin to fibrinogen monomers. Plasminogen is a precursor of plasmin in the blood. Streptokinase is an enzyme that activates plasminogen to form plasmin. The combination of plasminogen and streptokinase in the presence of the fibrin aggregate containing blood elements and bacteria (formally present in peripheral circulation) allows the conversion of the fibrin aggregate to a liquid state. Plasminogen activators are naturally occurring enzymes found in most all vertebrate species. These enzymes in any combination can also be used to derive beneficial blood matrix disassembly where the downstream application require clots or blood element aggregates to be dissolved in order to facilitate sample flow and analyte interrogation. Aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) is a polymeric anion that has been demonstrated in the literature to be a potent ribonuclease inhibitor. The compound has been described previously as an additive to sample lysis buffers where the objective is to extract RNA species from tissue samples. The nucleic acid extract derived from such procedures has been shown to be suitable for hybridization and gel electrophoresis analysis. However, ATA is a potent inhibitor of reverse transcriptase, which is essential for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection of RNA species. Published procedures to remove ATA from nucleic acid containing compositions have revolved around chromatographic procedures that eliminate or remove only a portion of the ATA. The use of ATA in a proteinase K lysis buffer is potentially superior to 1) chaothrophic salts (since they tend to reduce the efficiency of proteinase K driven protein hydrolysis as evidenced by PCR results); 2) protein based ribonuclease inhibitors (since these inhibitors would be broken down by proteinase K); and 3) EDTA (which only indirectly inhibits nucleases via chelation of the divalent cations used by those nucleases). In fact, divalent cations must be added to RNA preparations where enzymatic DNA hydrolysis is conducted. What has not been demonstrated in prior art is a method where, once added, the complete downstream removal of ATA from nucleic acid extracts can be achieved to the point that downstream reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) will function. Also not previously described is a way to utilize ATA in a lyses buffer to treat a large volume (1 to 10 ml) of whole blood sample and after several reagents addition steps move directly to RNA array hybridization using the entire blood sample for one analysis event hence bypassing RNA extraction and amplification. Also not previously described is a way to selectively allow non diagnostic RNA species residing outside the nucleus of leukocytes to be degraded by endogenous and or exogenous nucleases while diagnostic RNA which mostly resides inside the nucleus (RNA that for instance indicates up or down regulation of genes) is preserved enough for array or amplification based detection. Typically, chemistries that do not provide abundant intact ribosomal RNA are not further examined because end users skilled in the art use such non diagnostic RNA species to judge overall RNA integrity. Based on biochemical and phenotypical differences between phospholipid membranes found in various blood elements and the combined biochemical activity characteristics of the reagent cocktail, RNA species such as globin and ribosomal RNA are destroyed but the diagnostic mRNA which is used to detect presence or absence of various disease and or pathological processes is preserved enough for identification. Also, by allowing for the bulk of non diagnostic RNA to be destroyed, there is less inhibition of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) contributed by the nucleic acid extract. ATA also serves an important function in the protection of bacterial DNA when that bacteria is present in a blood sample processed with reagents containing high levels (≧100 U/ml) of DNase I as is used in various embodiments contained within U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779. In order to achieve RNA detection capabilities that are superior to what can be achieved with technology descried in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, and to do so without additional steps or requirements, the present invention is utilized in combination with blood sample treatment technology described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779 and prior art nucleic acid extraction methods that utilize chaotrophic salts such as guanidine thiocyanate in the presence of capture matrices such as silica or methods that utilize precipitation methods to concentrate nucleic acids out of crude samples. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention concerns compositions and methods of extracting and detecting infectious pathogens from a volume of blood. In one embodiment, the method includes the steps of creating a fibrin aggregate confining the pathogens; introducing an enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent to expose the pathogens for analysis and to facilitate pathogen DNA extraction. In one embodiment, the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may be composed of DNAse, plasminogen and streptokinase frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed whereby streptokinase enzymatically reacts with plasminogen to form plasmin upon thawing and introduction into the fibrin aggregate sample. The DNAse enzyme is used to facilitate the chemical and physical disruption of pelleted blood elements that result from the previously described protocol in addition to other benefits described herein. Preferably, the plasminogen is suspended in an aqueous salt solution, including NaCl and Na3PO4, prior to freezing. The fibrin lysis reagent can also comprise Phospholipase A2. Phospholipase A2 is used to help non-pathogen DNA digestion by destroying phospholipid bilayers and, hence, destruction of the nuclear membrane. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for efficiently removing ATA from a nucleic acid composition. The subject methods provide a nucleic acid composition sufficiently free of ATA such that a RT-PCR reaction and other reactions involving reverse transcriptase can be performed. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for a mixture of ATA, magnesium chloride, potassium phosphate, and sodium chloride that is dried and combined with other dried components such as those described herein. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for heating a solution of urea, DTPA, optionally containing EDTA, sodium citrate, and sodium chloride, to between about 400 to 600° C. for 1 to 4 hours followed by drying and combination with proteinase K and optionally Methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside and the use of this sample Lyses Reagent to allow ATA removal from nucleic acid extracts made with existing prior art methods based on chaotrophic salts or nucleic acid precipitation followed by centrifugation or methods descried herein to allow downstream hybridization of RNA species directly out of treated whole blood samples. The subject invention also concerns the urea/DTPA sample Lyses Reagent that was heat treated to 400 to 600° C. for 1 to 4 hours during production and used in sample treatment as descried above followed by the combination of urease to break down the urea followed by RNA array analysis. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for pathogen capture using bioactive peptides functionalized on hyaluronic acid as described herein where the hyaluronic acid in turn acts as a polymeric waveguide. The subject invention also concerns a way to cause a calcium release at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species so as to trigger the conversion of reporter molecule labeled fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species upon the matrix of the hyaluronic acid polymeric waveguide. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods where the hyaluronic acid matrix that is cross linked utilizing biotin and strepavidin and functionalized with bioactive peptides, such as those described herein, can be subsequently broken down with hyaluronidase in order to facilitate pathogen elution. The subject invention is practiced in conjunction with methods and materials for extracting infectious pathogens from a volume of a sample, such as blood, including the steps of creating a fibrin aggregate confining the pathogens and introducing an enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent to expose the pathogens for analysis and DNAse to facilitate DNA extraction specified in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, filed Aug. 15, 2003. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may be composed of DNAse, plasminogen and streptokinase frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed whereby streptokinase enzymatically reacts with plasminogen to form plasmin upon thawing and introduction into the fibrin sample. Preferably, the plasminogen is suspended in an aqueous salt solution prior to freezing including NaCl and Na3PO4. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent is preferably composed of DNAse and Phospholipase A2. The DNAse enzyme is used to facilitate the chemical and physical disruption of pelleted blood elements that result from the previously described protocol. Phospholipase A2 is used to help human DNA digestion by destroying phospholipid bilayers and, hence, destruction of the nuclear membrane. The subject invention also pertains to materials and methods for efficiently removing human DNA that has been processed or cleaved by DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease while pathogen DNA remains inside intact pathogens. Single Strand Binding (SSB) proteins are known in the art to enhance PCR kinetics through binding to DNA and can also be used in the methods of the invention. In an exemplified embodiment, the SSB is biotinylated and the solid matrix has avidin or streptavidin attached to the surface, and the SSB is bound to the matrix via the biotin-avidin binding. In one embodiment of the method, a purified nucleic acid extract sample is optionally combined with proline at 2 to 20 mM and or DTT at 2 to 5 mM then circulated for several minutes at about 37° C. with the immobilized SSB. The SSB-matrix and bound human DNA is separated from the sample and the remaining sample collected. The remaining sample contains nucleic acid with a reduced human DNA load and can be used for PCR testing. Since DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease will nick human DNA in the presence of ATA and or other nuclease inhibitors described herein combined with the other biochemical elements described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, while pathogen DNA residing inside intact pathogen structures is not nicked, a portion of the inhibitory human DNA can be selectively removed in this way post nucleic acid extraction. The subject invention also pertains to the use of nuclease inhibitors with or without ATA plus high levels of DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease (over 200 U/ml). The combination of nuclease inhibitors and nucleases teaches against the art but leads to processing of human DNA so that said DNA presents a small inhibitory contribution to PCR reactions compared to the same amount of human DNA that is not contacted with this reagent mixture. In applications when RNA purification is desired, solutions used in the subject methods should be RNase-free. RNase-free solutions can be prepared using methods known in the art, including treatment with DEPC, typically at about 0.1%. DEPC treated water should be used to wash and rinse any glass or plasticware used in RNA isolation methods that is not RNase-free. Residual DEPC should always be eliminated from solutions or glassware/plasticware by autoclaving or heating to 100° C. for 15 minutes. BRIEF DESCTIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic view of the method according to the invention according to the invention. FIG. 2 is a diagrammatic view of the preparation of the fibrin lysis reagent according to Protocol 1 of the invention. FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic view of the setup of extraction reagents according to Protocol 1 of the invention. FIGS. 4-5 are diagrammatic views of bacterial recovery and fibrin lysis according to Protocol 1 of the invention. FIG. 6-9 are diagrammatic views of bacterial lysis and nucleic acid extraction according to Protocol 1 of the invention. FIG. 10A is a diagrammatic view of the steps of extracting reagents according to Protocol 2 of the invention. FIG. 10B is a diagrammatic view of the steps of extracting reagents according to Protocol 2 of the invention. FIG. 11 is a diagrammatic view of the steps of extracting reagents according to Protocol 3 of the invention. FIG. 12A is a diagrammatic view of the steps of extracting reagents according to Protocol 4 of the invention. FIG. 12B is a diagrammatic view of the steps of extracting reagents according to Protocol 4 of the invention. FIG. 13 is a table providing data on noise band crossing points for blood samples spiked with B. anthracis and processed with plasminogen, streptokinase, phospholipase A2, DNase I, and lipase with centrifugation or filtration. FIG. 14 shows sedimentation and solublization of tissue aggregates from 6 ml blood samples exposed to various detergent and enzyme treatments. FIG. 15 shows filtration characteristics of 6 ml blood samples exposed to various detergent and enzyme treatments. FIG. 16 shows the results pathogen detection by canonical SNP analysis using the present invention. FIG. 17 is a bar chart showing detection of CRP in whole blood treated in a Blood Processing reagent of the present invention. DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The present invention concerns compositions and methods of extracting and detecting infectious pathogens, components thereof, or other matter, such as prions, toxins, metabolic markers, cancerous matter or markers, disease state markers, and the like, from a volume of blood or other biological sample from a patient, such as a human or other mammal. In one embodiment, the method comprises preparing a fibrin aggregate of a blood sample to confine pathogens; contacting the fibrin aggregate with a fibrin lyses reagent to release pathogens or pathogen components trapped in the aggregate; lysing pathogens and/or extracting pathogen nucleic acids or other pathogen components; and detecting the pathogens, nucleic acids and/or components. Pathogen analysis can be accomplished by any appropriate means including, but not limited to, blood culture, antibody based testing, or nucleic acid sequence based testing (PCR, Reverse Transcription PCR, NASBA, TMA or the like). In one embodiment, the fibrin lysis reagent may be composed of a nuclease, plasminogen and streptokinase frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed. Upon thawing and introduction into the fibrin aggregate sample, streptokinase enzymatically reacts with plasminogen to form plasmin. The nuclease enzyme facilitates the chemical and physical disruption of pelleted blood elements. Nucleases contemplated within the scope of the present invention include, but are not limited to, DNAses, endonucleases, and exonucleases. Preferably, the plasminogen is suspended in an aqueous salt solution, including NaCl and Na3PO4, prior to freezing. The fibrin lysis reagent can also comprise Phospholipase A2. Phospholipase A2 is useful to help non-pathogen DNA digestion by destroying phospholipid bilayers and, hence, destruction of the nuclear membrane. In another embodiment, the enzymes of the fibrin lysis reagent can be provided in a dried form and then when ready to be used in the present methods resuspended in a buffer solution using Potassium Phosphate as an aide to blood element solublization. It is imperative that the streptokinase and plasminogen are not mixed with the buffer solution until immediately prior to addition to the blood sample. The Potassium Phosphate pH range can be about 7.8 to about 8.0, differentiated from prior art claiming an effective pH range of 7.2 to 7.6. The prior art teaches the use of phosphate ion solutions with lower pH to act as a true buffer; however, the method of the present invention allows for optimal Phospholipase A2 activity and Magnesium solubility. The Potassium Phosphate acts as an essential component for blood matrix disassembly when any of the enzyme combinations described herein are used. This contribution to blood matrix disassembly is comprised of biochemical interactions that are unrelated to buffering of pH. This contribution of Potassium Phosphate to enzymatic driven blood matrix disassembly has never been described before. When Potassium Phosphate is omitted and replaced with another buffer such as Tris-HCL, blood element disassembly dose not occur and the blood sample matrix remains incompatible for analysis. Magnesium can be present in the buffer solution as a divalent cation driving the activity of Phospholipase A2 in the presence of DNase. Prior art uses calcium as the classic divalent cation for driving Phospholipase A2 activity; however, calcium is not compatible with the phosphate ions essential for blood element solublization. Enzymes that may be used in addition to or in place of plasminogen and/or streptokinase fall into five categories: 1) mutants or variants of single chain urokinase type plasminogen activator; 2) mutants or variants of tissue type plasminogen activator; 3) recombinant chimaeric plasminogen activators; 4) conjugates of plasminogen activators and anti-fibrin monoclonal antibodies; and 5) compounds derived from haemophagous animals (including salivary plasminogen activator from vampire bats), venom from southern copperhead snakes, antithrombolytic enzymes derived from leeches such as Hirudo medicincalis, Hirdinaria manillensis or Haementeria ghillanii, and staphylokinase from bacteria. By including DNAse in the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent, sample processing is facilitated by the conversion of DNA of the patient's blood cells into short fragments thereby contributing to a more rapid and efficient protein hydrolysis process during DNA extraction and lowering the burden of inhibitory DNA. Similarly, introduction of an endonuclease or an exonuclease produces a similar advantage. The addition of DNAse (a DNA nuclease), endonuclease, and/or exonuclease in the methods of the invention provides for the conversion of DNA into short fragments. This conversion of DNA into short fragments contributes to a more rapid and efficient protein hydrolysis process during DNA extraction. This conversion of the patient's blood DNA into short fragments is done while the bacterial DNA is protected. The short fragment DNA is carried less efficiently through the DNA extraction process and hence represents a smaller proportion of total DNA product. As a result, the reduced patient DNA level presents less of an inhibitory component to the nucleic acid sequence based reactions. What human DNA that does carry over into the sample extract is processed by DNAse, endonuclease, and/or exonuclease, preferably in the presence of aurintricarboxylic acid. Other nuclease inhibitors that can be used include salts of ATA, e.g., ATA triammonium salt, Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,,-tetraacetic acid, Netropsin dihydrochloride, or 1,10-Phenanthroline monohydrate, formaurin-dicarboxylic acid, Evans Blue (a structural analogue of suramin), vanadyl ribonucleoside complexes, nuclease inhibitors based on poly vinylsulfonate, and the nuclease inhibition enhancer ZnCl2 in such a way that the human does not inhibit downstream nucleic acid based detection systems. The use of nuclease inhibitors such as these, in reactions intended to hydrolyze DNA with nucleases, teaches against the art. The outcome is preservation of pathogen DNA contained within intact pathogens while patient DNA is processed to facilitate proteinase K digestion plus overall breakdown of the blood sample components when other reagents specified herein are used and also to process the patient DNA so that it will not inhibit downstream nucleic acid detection reactions. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent comprising plasminogen may further comprise Phospholipase A2, DNase, Endonuclease, Exonuclease, Lipase, plasminogen, streptokinase, staphylokinase, urokinase, plasmin, warfarin, monteplase, tenecteplase, reteplase, lanoteplase, pamiteplase, or any other modified tissue type-plasminogen activator, antithrombolytic enzymes derived from leeches such as Hirudo medicincalis, Hirdinaria manillensis or Haementeria ghillanii, plasminogen activators from the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), mutants of plasminogen activators, chimeric plasminogen activators, conjugates of plasminogen activators, and any other plasminogen activators from animal or bacterial origin, and combinations thereof. Dried lysis reagent may be suspended in pellets of trehalose buffer and packaged into tubes as a dry reagent. The dried reagents may then be resuspended in a buffer, added to a 1 to 10 ml volume of blood and incubated for 5 to 20 minutes at room temperature. More specifically, the dried reagent can comprise 1,500 to 4,500 KU Phospholipase A2, 5,000 to 10,000 U Streptokinase, 2 to 10 U Plasminogen, 200 to 3,650 U DNase, 200 to 4,000 U Endonuclease, and 10,000 to 100,000 U Lipase, and optionally one to fifty milligrams of purified (85 to 98% pure) staphylokinase, urokinase, plasmin, warfarin, monteplase, tenecteplase, reteplase, lanoteplase, pamiteplase, or any other modified tissue type-plasminogen activator, antithrombolytic enzymes derived from leeches such as Hirudo medicincalis, Hirdinaria manillensis or Haementeria ghillanii, plasminogen activators from the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus), mutants of plasminogen activators, chimeric plasminogen activators, conjugates of plasminogen activators, and any other plasminogen activators from animal or bacterial origin, and combinations thereby. One embodiment of the present invention includes concentrating and extracting analytes such as prions, toxins, metabolic markers, cancerous matter, disease state markers, and/or pathogens such as bacteria, virus, and fungi from a volume of blood by introducing a Blood Processing Reagent to expose analytes and/or pathogens in an aggregated blood sample and analyzing the blood sample for the particles and/or pathogens now readily identifiable following extraction from the aggregate. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may comprise plasminogen and streptokinase. The plasminogen and streptokinase may be frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed. The streptokinase then reacts with the plasminogen to form plasmin upon thawing. The plasminogen may be suspended in an aqueous salt solution prior to freezing. Suitable salt solutions may include NaCl, NaPO4 or the like. Suitable detergents include methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside, Trition X-100 and Saponin. To enhance analysis, nucleic acid from particles and/or pathogens may be amplified via polymerase chain reactions (PCR). As an alternative to freezing, enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may include dried streptokinase and dried plasminogen as the fibrin lysis reagents. The dried reagents may then be mixed and distributed into disposable test containers. This embodiment may be particularly useful for field-testing in locations where sophisticated laboratory equipment and controls are unavailable. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent treated sample solution may be centrifuged for approximately 20 minutes at 5,000 to 5,500×g at a temperature of 10 to 20° C., the supernatant decanted, and the pellet washed. The pellet may be washed three times with a 10 to 20 mM solution of Ecotine/20 mM HEPES ph 7.7 and/or a 10 to 20 mM solution of sucrose/20 mM HEPES ph 7.7. The resultant sample may then be subjected to nucleic acid extraction methods. Materials and methods for nucleic acid extraction are commercially available. The Blood Processing Reagent may be used to treat whole blood samples for 10 minutes. The sample may then be exposed to various embodiments of the Lyses Reagent or filtered with a 0.22 to 0.45 μm Polyethersulfone (PES) filter unit, optionally washed with 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic Acid, subjected again to lyses and nuclease inactivation using a solution comprising 12.5 to 25 mg proteinase K, preferably 0.5-1.6% methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-αD-glucopyranoside or less desirably 1-1.5% SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate), and 10 to 20 mM sodium citrate buffer pH 7.8 to pH 8.4 may be utilized. Lysate may be eluted from the filter surface by addition of 3.5 to 4.2 M guanidine isothiocyanate pH 6.4 and extracted according to various embodiments of prior art nucleic acid extraction known commonly as the “Boom” method. Optionally dried reagent may be added. Nuclease inhibitors that can be used in place of or in conjunction with ATA in the materials and methods of the present invention include Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,,-tetraacetic, Netropsin dihydrochloridem 1,10-Phenanthroline monohydrate, formaurin-dicarboxylic acid, GR144053F, Evans Blue, vanadyl ribonucleoside complexes, and Melittin. The pathogens, components, or other matter obtained from a sample according to the present methods can be analyzed and identified using any suitable means known in the art. For example, the solution obtained following the above steps may be applied directly to a biosensor device which can capture and detect pathogenic or native disease state markers developed by the animal against pathogens present in its blood. Alternatively, the solution may be applied directly to a liquid chromatography mass spectrometry device which can detect mass signatures associated with the structural components of the pathogens. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent can comprise detergent and salts. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may aid blood element solublization by introducing 10 to 30 mM Potassium Phosphate at a pH range of 7.8 to 8.0, driving Phospholipase A2 activity by adding 10 to 80 mM Magnesium Chloride as the divalent cation, adding 20 to 150 mM Sodium Chloride, and including 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic Acid during the DNase incubation process. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may also include 1.0 to 1.2% Triton X-100 or alternatively the reagents may include combining 20 to 35 mM methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside and 0.05 to 0.1% Saponin or 20 to 35 mM methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)α-D-glucopyranosid by itself; and storing the enzymes by using a trehalose buffer. Storing the enzymes is accomplished by using a trehalose buffer in combination with methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside. The trehalose storage buffer comprises 10 mM Potassium Phosphate, 0.01 to 0.04% Triton X-100, 1 to 5 mM Dithiothreitol, and 0.3 to 0.5 M Trehalose. In one embodiment, the sample Lyses Reagent used with the invention contains urea. The sample Lyses Reagent is preferably provided in a dried form so as to minimize the downstream sample volumes and obviate the procedure of having to prepare a proteinase K (PK) solution (since a solution comprising PK in 3.5 to 7.0 M urea is not stable for long periods of time of time). The Lyses Reagent can also contain a detergent such as methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside. This detergent can be dehydrated with the urea and proteinase K and provided in dry form. The detergent helps to disaggregate proteins but does not denature them. In another embodiment the nuclease present in the enzyme driven Blood Processing Reagent can be used to nick human DNA while bacterial DNA is left intact. The human DNA may then be removed after nucleic acid extraction by any method by using Single Strand Binding Protein immobilized on magnetic beads. PCR inhibition presented by the human DNA found in large volume blood samples extracts can be reduced as evidenced by testing where said human DNA removal produced earlier PCR noise band crossing points and improved sensitivity compared to no human DNA removal (Table 6). In FIG. 1, a blood draw 30 is performed on a patient. A solution of PBS, pH 7.4 and 1.2% Triton X-100 is added, the blood is vortexed and centrifuged 40 creating pellet 60 in a 15 ml tube 50. Preferably, resins, metal hydroxides, and/or nano materials may be added with the PBS/Triton X-100 solution to capture particles such as bacteria, virus, fungi, cancerous cells, prions, toxins and the like to contribute greater density to these particles. The increase in particle density allows lower speeds to run during centrifugation. The supernatant is decanted leaving a fibrin aggregate. A fibrin lysis component 70 is added to tube 50 dissolving the fibrin aggregate and leaving pathogens 65 exposed for analysis. Pathogens 65 are vortexed, centrifuged, and subject to lysis to extract the pathogen DNA. The DNA is then replicated 90 and analyzed 100 for the identity of the suspected pathogen. In an alternative embodiment of the invention, a device would be used to obviate the need for a centrifuge. The device will use flexible electrodes similar to a fish gill to collect particles (such as bacteria, virus, cancerous cells, prions, or toxins). The electrodes will also be used to collect resins and nano materials that have these particles attached to them. The device will resemble a bubble on a surface. An electrical potential will be used to accelerate pathogen capture. The device can be compressed to allow efficient removal of the contents. The device would preferably have the following properties: (1) a rigid base layer and flexible top layer; (2) flexible gills to be mounted on either the top or bottom layer; (3) Strepavidin and hyaluronic acid strands functionalized with bioactive peptides, antibodies, aptomers, molecular imprinted polymers, or metals that attract particles such as bacteria, virus, fungi, toxins, metabolic markers, disease state markers, or chemical agents are to be deposited on the flexible gill electrodes; (4) the flexible layer will have electrodes deposited on it; (5) counter electrodes for the gill electrodes will reside on the opposite side; (6) the average dead volume of the device is 300 micro liters—it is preferred that there is to be no residual material in the device after squeezing out the material from the device; and (7) polyimide will form the flexible portion and the electrodes will be made of Pt, Au, or carbon. The device is preferably used as follows: (1) flow liquid into the device and apply voltage at this time; (2) add chemicals and heat the device; and (3) squeeze out the device to remove all contents. The device is used to prepare a sample for analysis of particles (such as bacteria, virus, cancerous cells, prions, or toxins) using spectrophotometric, mass spectroscopy, antibodies, culture, or nucleic acid-based (e.g. PCR, NASBA, TMA) detection systems. A filtering device may be used to filter out the particles from blood treated with the Triton X-100/PBS/magnesium solutions with enzymes selected from the group of streptokinase, plasminogen, phospholipase A2, DNase, and lipase. A filtering device may also be used to filter out the particles from blood treated with a combination of methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside, Saponin, and PBS/magnesium plus enzymes selected from the group of streptokinase, plasminogen, phospholipase A2, DNase, and lipase. After washing away the enzyme and detergent treatment reagents and any residual broken down blood components, the particle is ready for analysis or further processing. The preparation of the fibrin lysis reagent is shown as Protocol 1 in FIG. 2 wherein NaCl, MnCl, DTT, DNAse, and plasminogen are added to mixing tube 110. Sodium phosphate is then added to mixing tube 110 and the solution is distributed into 1.5 ml reagent tubes 120 placed on ice. The reagent tubes 120 are frozen to −75° C. for approximately 20 minutes. Approximately 2,700 U of streptokinase 130 is added to the wall of reagent tubes 120 just above the frozen plasminogen solution. Tables 1-4 provide PCR results derived from testing blood samples seeded with encapsulated vegetative avirulent Bacillus anthracis were grown according to CDC protocol # CDC.DFA.1.2, stored in 15% glycerol TSB, and frozen at −75° C. Stocks of avirulent Yersinia pestis grown in TSB at 37° C., frozen in 15% glycerol TSB, and frozen at −75° C. Bacterial counts were tested at the time of harvest and retested at the time of sample spike. Figures for average Bacillus anthracis CFU per six ml of human blood are derived from post-freezing testing given the large standard deviation encountered in side-by-side post freezing dilution events. No significant cellular death is recognized or expected. A 30% cellular death rate is the highest that is reasonably expected in the worst circumstances. A conservative approach would be to increase all calculated Bacillus anthracis CFU by 30%. Figures for average Yersinia pestis CFU per six ml of blood are derived from pre-freezing testing. The low standard deviation of pre-freezing count replicates and concordance with post-freezing testing allows use of the pre-freezing bacteria count numbers. This is a conservative approach that can be utilized given the now predictable results that are derived from storing and diluting this organism. The present invention reproducibly generates analyte DNA appropriate for PCR testing of pathogens, such as Bacillus anthracis, using patient blood samples that are up to 3 months old. Sensitivity is 100% at <10 CFU/ml of human blood when using 6 ml of blood collected in a Becton Dickinson Vacutainer (Tables 1 and 2). This protocol also allows detection of Yersinia pestis at 100% sensitivity at <10 CFU/ml for at least one of four oligo sets according to the more limited data gathered for this organism (Table 4). It should be noted that CDC does not consider samples positive for Y. pestis unless two oligo sets produce an acceptable PCR signal. In accordance with Protocol 1, FIG. 3 shows a preferred method of the setup of extraction reagents according to the invention. FIGS. 4-5 show a method of bacterial recovery and fibrin lysis according to the invention. FIGS. 6-9 show a preferred method of bacterial lysis and nucleic acid extraction according to the invention. In an alternative embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 10-12b, the individual enzymes of streptokinase and plasminogen are made into dried powders, mixed, then distributed to disposable tubes. In another embodiment, Phospholipase A2, plasminogen, DNase or Endonuclease, and lipase are suspended and dried in pellets of trehalose buffer. Although Phospholipase A2 is preferred, any enzyme that will destroy nuclear membrane while keeping bacterial cell wall or viral coats intact may also be used. Streptokinase is likewise suspended and dried in pellets of trehalose buffer. At least one pellet of the plasminogen and one pellet of the streptokinase are packaged into tubes as dried reagents. Dried reagents of the invention can be resuspended in a 10 ml buffer solution comprising 10 to −30 mM Potassium Phosphate, 10 to 80 mM Magnesium Chloride, 20 to 150 mM Sodium Chloride, 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic Acid and 1.0 to 1.2% Triton X-100. Aurintricarboxylic Acid is evidenced to provide a level of protection to bacterial nucleic acid without impeding human DNA digestion. The use of Aurintricarboxylic Acid is not described in prior methods of human DNA digestion. Methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside and/or Saponin can be substituted for Triton X-100. In one embodiment, the methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbomoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside is used at 20 to 35 mM and the saponin is used at 0.05 to 0.19 concentration. The methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside is stored with the phospholipase A2, plasminogen, DNase I, and lipase in a Trehalose storage buffer. Substitution of the Triton X-100 with the methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside and/or saponin solution allows for the efficient activity of Phospholipase A2, provides the action of breaking up protein aggregates without denaturation, and is more genial to bacterial walls than Triton X-100. Use of Saponin with methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside in this combination is not described in the prior art. The Trehalose storage buffer can comprise 10 mM Potassium Phosphate pH 7.4, 0.01 to 0.04% Triton X-100, 1 to 5 mM Dithiothreitol, and 0.3 to 0.5 Trehalose. The buffer and enzyme mix are then immediately combined with a 10 ml blood sample, which may be scaled down to 1 ml. The sample is then incubated at room temperature for 5 to 10 minutes. The aforementioned components aide blood element solublization through minimizing certain particulates that would otherwise clog filters, impair biosensors or mass spectrometry devices, and impede nucleic acid extraction. Solublization occurs while human DNA is processed and as viral and/or bacterial DNA remain intact. In accordance with Protocol 2 and 4, a preferred enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent combination is comprised of Streptokinase, Plasminogen, DNase or Endonuclease, Phospholipase A2, and Lipase. Alternatively, an enzyme combination comprising Streptokinase, Plasminogen, DNase or Endonuclease, and Phospholipase A2 may also be used. In another alternative combination, an enzyme combination comprising Streptokinase, Plasminogen, and DNase or Endonuclease may be used. Alternatively, an enzyme combination comprising DNase, and/or Endonuclease, and/or exonuclease, plus Phospholipase A2 may be used. Alternatively, an enzyme combination comprising DNAse, and/or endonuclease, and/or exonuclease, plus Phospholipase A2, plus Lipase may be used. The biochemical impact on blood matrix disassembly resulting from various combinations of Streptokinase, Plasminogen, DNase, and Phospholipase A2 is described in FIG. 14. As shown in FIG. 10 with Protocol 2, the sample is centrifuged for a period of 20 minutes at 5,000 to 5,500×g at a temperature between 10 to 22° C. after incubation. The supernatant is then decanted and the pellet washed three times with a 10 to 20 mM solution of Ecotine/20 mM HEPES pH 7.7 and/or a 20 to 30 mM solution of Sucrose/20 mM HEPES pH 7.7. The pellet is then heated to 90° C., centrifuged X 5 minutes at 13,00 RCF, and the supernatant is used for PCR analysis. Alternatively after incubation, the Protocol 2 sample is centrifuged in similar fashion and the supernatant decanted, followed by sample lysis and DNase or Endonuclease inactivation using 12.5 to 25 mg Proteinase K, 1 to 1.5% Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS), 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic Acid and 10-20 mM Sodium Citrate buffer pH 7.8 to pH 8.4. The sample is allowed to incubate at room temperature for 10 minutes. The digested sample may then be applied to any commercially available nucleic acid extraction method, shown in FIG. 10B. In yet another alternative, referred to as Protocol 3 and depicted in FIG. 11, the sample is filtered with a 0.22 to 0.45 μm filter unit and washed with 10 to 20 ml of 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic Acid, followed by sample lysis and DNase or Endonuclease inactivation. Sample lysis and DNase or Endonuclease inactivation is accomplished by using 12.5 to 25 mg Proteinase K, 1 to 1.5% SDS, 10 to 200 mM Aurintricarboxylic acid, and 10 to 20 mM Sodium Citrate buffer. The sample is then incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes. Addition of 3.5 to 4.2 M Guanidine Isothiocyanate pH 6.4 is necessary to elute the lysate from the filter surface. The nucleic acid extract may then be further purified using a commercially available method. Data derived from this approach is contained in FIG. 13. Another alternative, referred to as Protocol 4 and shown as FIG. 12A, the sample is applied directly to a biosensor device that will capture and detect bacteria, virus, fungi, toxins, prions, chemical agents, metabolic markers or native disease state markers developed by the patient's own body in response to these pathogens and agents present in the blood sample. In yet another Protocol 4 alternative shown in FIG. 12B, the sample is applied directly to a liquid chromatography mass spectrometry device that will detect mass signatures of structural components that comprise bacteria, virus, toxins, prions, and chemical agents present in the blood sample or native disease state markers developed by the patients own body in response to these pathogens and agents present in the blood sample. The subject invention also concerns a method for preventing or decreasing inhibition of a nucleic acid based pathogen detection assay of a sample by host DNA, such as human DNA, despite the presence of host DNA at concentrations in the sample that would normally inhibit the assay, said method comprising contacting said host DNA with a nuclease and a nuclease inhibitor. Examples of such assays are described herein and in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/604,779. In one embodiment, the nuclease is a DNAse, an endonuclease, or an exonuclease. Preferably, the nuclease inhibitor is ATA. Other nuclease inhibitrs that can be used include Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,,-tetraacetic, Netropsin dihydrochloride, 1,10-Phemanthroline monohydrate, formaurin-dicarboxylic acid, GR144053F, Evans Blue, vanadyl ribonucleoside complexes, and Melittin. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods that can be used for the selective removal of ATA from a composition, such as those containing nucleic acid. Typically, ATA is used in procedures for extracting and purifying RNA from cells, viruses, etc., because of its activity as a ribonuclease inhibitor. Using the claimed invention, the potent ribonuclease inhibitor ATA will always be present during the portion of the nucleic acid extraction process where protein hydrolysis is allowed to proceed at optimal conditions (i.e., with ATA and not chaotrophic salts such as guanidine thiocyanate). The composition can be provided in either solution form or dry, solid form. Preferably, the compositions are provided in a dry solid form to which a liquid or fluid is subsequently added. In an exemplified embodiment, a composition of the invention is used in combination with the lysis reagents described herein. In one embodiment, a method of the invention comprises contacting a sample that comprises ATA and, optionally, nucleic acid, with a urea composition optionally comprising DTPA (diethylenetriaminepentaacetate). In one embodiment, the sample can comprise any combination of reagents as described in a Lyses Reagent of the invention. A urea/DTPA composition of the invention can be prepared by combining urea with DTPA and optionally EDTA, sodium citrate, and enough of a base, such as sodium hydroxide to achieve pH 8.0 as defined in Table 5. In one embodiment, the urea/DTPA mixture is heated to about 400 to 600° C. for about 1 to 4 hours, dried, ground to a powder, and optionally combined with proteinase K and methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside prior to addition to the sample in which ATA is to be removed. The urea/DTPA reagent is preferably provided in a dried form so as to minimize the downstream sample volumes and obviate the procedure of having to add proteinase K (PK) in a separate step (since PK is not stable for long periods of time in 6.0 to 7.5 M urea). The ground urea/DTPA reagent is dried under vacuum and added (at 360 mg reagent per ml of blood sample) to blood treated with fibrin lysis reagents described herein. The sample treated with urea/DTPA is incubated 5 to 10 minutes at about 65° C. When samples treated with ATA and a urea/DTPA reagent of the invention are combined with prior art nucleic acid extraction protocols where binding matrices such as silica or other materials that bind nucleic acids in the presence of chaotrophic salts or where precipitation and centrifugation is used, the ATA will not co purify with the nucleic acid extract. In another embodiment, the proteinase K can be inactivated by exposure to temperatures above about 80° C. for 5 to 10 or more minutes, the sample then cooled to below about 40° C., wherein urease is then added to about 1,000 to 100,000 U/ml to break down the urea. The sample can then be applied directly to a nucleic acid array device. Using the subject methods in conjunction with PCR, 10 CFU Bacillus anthracis per 10 ml of blood can be detected. Also, there was no difference in the RT-PCR kinetics derived from PBS samples where 1 ng of MS2 RNA was seeded into nucleic acid extracts made with and without ATA. Also, 1,000 pfu polio sabin III virus/8 ml SPS whole blood was detected by RT-PCR when lysis reagents described herein were combined with the urea/DTPA reagent and protocol described above. By using a urea/DTPA reagent of the invention, ATA that was present prior to the proteinase K digestion step did not have a negative impact on the PCR kinetics using the nucleic acid extracts that were prepared using the subject methods. In another embodiment, if a sample is not processed with Lyses Reagent, such as those described herein, then a buffer comprising only ATA can be added to the cells as a first step and subsequently treated as outlined above. In another embodiment, urea can be added to about 6.0 to 7.5 M to an ATA containing sample, and then combined with prior art chaotrophic salt based binding buffers and silica binding matrices, conduct the protocol according to the literature citation or manufacturer specifications with the exception of heating the chaotrophic salt based binding and wash buffer to about 55 to 65° C. prior to use with the sample. The reaction of urea with the ATA plus the combination of this solution with chaotrophic salt at 55 to 65° C. followed by application to a silica based nucleic acid capture matrix allows the selective binding of nucleic acid to the matrix and exclusion of ATA (which is passed out in the capture matrix flow through). It is the combination of reaction with urea and heat that provides for the exclusion of ATA from the silica capture matrix while nucleic acid binds readily. The above described urea/DTPA reagent produced by heating the urea and DTPA combinatioin to between 400 to 600° C. during production eliminates the need for this chaotrophic salt heat step and allows for more complete removal of the ATA. In another embodiment, blood samples can be treated with ATA containing mixtures described in combination with pathogen capture using bioactive peptides functionalized on hyaluronic acid where the hyaluronic acid in turn acts as a polymeric waveguide. The hyaluronic acid is labeled with biotin via carboxyl groups or amines and the biotin is subsequently removed via dialysis. Strepavidin is cross-linked and the cross-linker is removed via dialysis. The cross-linked strepavidin is added in 100 to 10,000 molar excess to the biotinylated hyaluronic acid and incubated about 4 to 10 hours with or without an applied electrophoretic or dielectrophoretic field. Alternatively, the strepavidin is added in the described ratios, incubated for about 1 to 4 hours with mixing, combined with a photo-activated cross-linking reagent, and cross-linked within as lithography system in order to generate structures positioned within a sample flow path. In this system a calcium release at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species is used to trigger the local conversion of reporter molecule labeled fibrinogen to an insoluble fibrin aggregate at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species upon the matrix of the hyaluronic acid polymeric waveguide. As used herein, bioactive peptides include native and modified non-specific virus binding peptides most optimally, such as lactoferrin or fatty acid modified lactoferrin, and native and modified non-specific bacteria binding peptides, most optimally, such as Cecropin P1, but also including, for example, protamine, Buforin I, Buforin II, Defensin, D-Magainin II, Cecrpin A, Cecropin B, Lectin PA-1, and Tritrpticin. The modified peptides may be altered in terms of amino acid content and include the salts, esters, amides, and acylated forms thereof. In another embodiment, the bioactive peptides functionalized upon the hyaluronic acid (that is cross linked via biotin and strepavidin) act as pathogen capture moieties. Upon pathogen or biomarker capture, the hyaluronic acid is broken down using 1,000 to 1,000,000 units of hyaluronidase/ml of sample within the device. In another embodiment, the ATA, magnesium chloride, and potassium phosphate components described in the lysis buffer of the present invention are combined, brought to about pH 9.2 to pH 10 in batches of 100 ml, and heated to boiling until a dry residue forms. The dry residue is ground up, dried further under vacuum, and added to the other enzyme, detergent, and Trehalose components, such as those described herein. In this way the blood can be added directly to dried pellets of Trehalose stabilized reagent where no other liquid or dry components are added for initial blood pretreatment. The dried urea and proteinase K reagent is then added followed by processing as described herein. When this dried reagent system was independently evaluated by government scientists 10 CFU Yersinia pestis/ml whole blood was detected via PCR. The subject invention also concerns compositions comprising ATA that can be used to isolate nucleic acid from a sample. The composition can be provided in either solution form or dry, solid form. Preferably, the compositions are provided in a dry solid form to which a liquid or fluid is subsequently added. B. anthracis seeded 8 ml blood sample extracts were tested in the “canonical” SNP (canSNP) analysis system. The 250 CFU/8 ml blood sample gave a strong signal and was easily typed by the Keim Genetics Lab personnel (FIG. 16). Antibody capture of Salmonella from whole blood was conducted, followed by PCR and no difference was found compared to capture, wash, and extraction from a PBS/Plasma mixture (Table 7). The CDC RRAT Bioterrorism Lab run by Dr. Rich Meyer has detected 100 CFU Brucella abortis/8 ml whole blood using the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent. USAMRIID Diagnostics Division investigators have detected 10 CFU Yersinia pestis/1 ml whole blood using the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent. The biosensor group at University of Texas at Austin detected 1 ng C-Reactive protein/ml whole blood in a biosensor that would normally never accept a whole blood sample (FIG. 17). The subject invention also pertains to materials and methods for efficiently removing patient or host (e.g., human) DNA that has been processed by DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease while pathogen DNA remains inside intact pathogens. E. coli SSB proteins are known in the art and can be used in the methods of the invention. In one embodiment, the SSB is immobilized on magnetic beads. In an exemplified embodiment, the SSB is biotinylated and the solid matrix has avidin or streptavidin attached to the surface, and the SSB is bound to the matrix via the biotin-avidin binding. The sample is then circulated for several minutes at about 37° C. The sample containing the nucleic acid and SSB-matrix is then washed one or more times with a suitable wash buffer, such as 2 mM Tris (pH 8.0). The sample and SSB-matrix is then heated to 90 to 100° C. for a few minutes, the SSB-matrix is separated from the sample and the sample collected. The sample contains purified nucleic acid and can be stored, purified further, or used in PCR, etc. In one embodiment, a method of the invention comprises contacting a sample that comprises nucleic acid and ATA with a nucleic acid binding matrix. The binding matrix is subsequently contacted with a binding buffer solution comprising a thiocyanate, such as guanidine thiocyanate. After contact with the binding buffer, the binding buffer and sample are removed from contact with the binding matrix, preferably by evacuation of the buffer and sample away from the binding matrix. The binding matrix can optionally be washed one or more times with wash buffer. In one embodiment, blood is collected in a tube containing any commercially available anticoagulant with inversion of the tube 8× immediately post collection. Store the blood at room temperature and process within 14 days post collection. Fresh blood (0-48 hours old) may be best to examine. This is the optimal condition. Refrigerated blood that is 3 months old will also work for instance. Frozen blood may not work if bacteria have lysed via crystallization. Add one volume of whole blood to one tube of Blood Processing Reagent powder (160 mg powder/ml whole blood), vortex on high ×15 seconds, and incubate ×8 min @ room temperature. Dump one tube of Lysis Reagent powder into the blood sample (350 mg powder/ml whole blood), vortex on high for 15 seconds and incubate in a 65° C. water bath×10 min. Add one volume (equal to volume of blood) of 4.1 M Guanidine Thiocyanate, 9.5% Triton X, 200 mM Tris HCL, pH 6.0 and vortex X 5 sec. Contact this mixture with a silica matrix such as a commercially available spin column or magnetic particles coated with silica, or other materials designed to bind nucleic acids in the presence of a chaotrophic salt. Wash the silica matrix with a solution of 4.1 M Guanidine Hydrochloride, 50 mM Tris HCL, pH 6.4. Follow this with a wash using 70% ethanol. Elute the nucleic acid using 2 mM Tris-HCL pH 8.5. The material is now ready for storage or PCR testing. The examples described herein illustrate procedures for practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are by volume unless otherwise noted. TABLE 1 Bacillus anthracis Blood Protocol Data Set pXO2 Genomic Primer/ Primer/ Probes - Probes - Comments on Crossing Crossing Ave. Sample Type Point on Point on Calculated All Samples Sample Light Light CFU/6 ml Tested 2 Days Number Cycler Cycler of blood Post Spiking M3200253BA1 36.75 37.76 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA2 36.59 37.86 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA3 35.97 38.10 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA4 37.26 39.53 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA5 35.36 40.11 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA6 36.35 45.19 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA7 36.62 38.64 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200253BA8 37.04 39.51 13.75 Spiked Positive M320020BA9 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank M/3200226BA1 37.16 39.35 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA2 36.79 40.28 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA3 37.92 39.94 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA4 37.49 40.16 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA5 39.66 40.26 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA6 39.31 41.19 1.38 Spiked Positive M/3200226BA7 38.48 40.73 1.38 Spiked Positive M/320020BA8 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank TABLE 2 Bacillus anthracis Blood Protocol Data Set: Comparison of Blood from Two Different Individuals and Evaluation of Blood Sample Age pXO2 Genomic Primer/ Primer/ Comments on Probes - Probes - Sample Type Crossing Crossing Ave. All Samples Point on Point on Calculated Extracted Sample Light Light CFU/6 ml 84 Days Number Cycler Cycler of blood Post Spiking V210253BA1 37.73 39.81 10.5 Blood Donor #1 V210253BA2 36.74 39.05 10.5 Blood Donor #1 V210253BA3 36.51 37.99 10.5 Blood Donor #1 V210253BA4 38.12 39.79 10.5 Blood Donor #1 V21020BA5 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank M210253BA1 37.86 39.81 2.25 Blood Donor #2 M210253BA2 37.84 39.22 2.25 Blood Donor #2 M210253BA3 37.24 38.52 2.25 Blood Donor #2 M210253BA4 38.68 39.33 2.25 Blood Donor #2 M21020BA5 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank TABLE 3 Bacillus anthracis Blood Protocol Data Set: Evaluation of Blood Protocol by a Department of Health Laboratorian pXO2 Primer/ Genomic Primer/ Ave. Comments on Sample Probes - Crossing Probes - Crossing Calculated Type: All Blood Sample Point on Point on CFU/6 ml Samples Same Batch Number Light Cycler Light Cycler of blood as in Table 1 M3200256BA1L 38.81 39.93 13.75 Spiked Positive M3200256BA2L 36.10 39.26 13.75 Spiked Positive M/3200223BA3L 36.77 38.58 1.38 Spiked Positive M320020BA4L 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank TABLE 4 Yersinia pestis Blood Protocol Data Set YP 2 YP 9 YP 12 YP 16 Primer/ Primer/ Primer/ Primer/ Comments on Probes - Probes - Probes - Probes - Sample Type Crossing Crossing Crossing Crossing Ave. All Samples Point on Point on Point on Point on Calculated Extracted 2 Light Light Light Light CFU/6 ml Days Post Sample Number Cycler Cycler Cycler Cycler of blood Spiking M3180251EYP1 0.00 0.00 0.00 37.97 12.0 Spiked Positive M3180251EYP2 0.00 47.01 0.00 0.00 12.0 Spiked Positive M3180251EYP3 41.56 0.00 0.00 40.29 12.0 Spiked Positive M3180225EYP4 0.00 0.00 0.00 38.98 24.0 Spiked Positive M3180225EYP6 40.20 44.01 39.66 37.60 24.0 Spiked Positive M3180251FYP7 0.00 46.15 0.00 39.79 48.0 Spiked Positive M3180251FYP8 40.48 43.59 41.70 35.47 48.0 Spiked Positive M3180251FYP9 40.20 41.88 38.67 34.23 48.0 Spiked Positive M318020YP10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Blank TABLE 5 Contents of powdered Urea/DTPA reagent (upon addition of 1 ml sample to 360 mg reagent Urea 6.0-7.5 M Methyl 6-O-(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α- 10 to 20 mg/ml D-glucopyranoside Proteinase K 600-1,000 μg/ml EDTA 20-70 mM DTPA 20-0 mM Sodium Citrate 120 mM Sodium Hydroxide add to pH 8.0 TABLE 6 Assay Reagents Provided by the CDC RRAT Bioterrorism Laboratory Sample No HDR With HDR CFU/6 ml Blood Number Treatment Treatment 20 1 0.00 0.00 20 2 0.00 0.00 50 3 42.11 36.68 50 4 0.00 0.00 100 5 40.19 36.88 100 6 0.00 39.24 200 7 44.17 38.58 200 8 0.00 36.91 400 9 40.45 34.48 400 10 43.29 35.67 TABLE 7 Antibody Capture of Salmonella from whole blood treated with Blood Processing Reagent; PCR noise band crossing points. Avg. Noise Band Avg. Noise Band CFU Salmonella/ Crossing Point Crossing Point 8 ml Sample PBS/Plasma Treated Whole Blood 1,000 31.7 31.8 500 32.8 32.5 100 33.5 33.8 All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification. It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The threat of bioterrorism (BT) and biological warfare presents challenges for the clinical setting that are best met with rapid and sensitive technologies to detect BT agents. Peripheral blood samples could contribute to early and specific clinical and epidemiological management of a biological attack if detection could take place when the concentration of the infecting organism is still very low. The worried well and recently infected patients would benefit, both psychologically and physically, from early pharmacological intervention. Infection with Bacillus anthracis or Yersinia pestis often present initially as a nonspecific febrile or flu-like illness. The mediastinitis associated with inhalational anthrax ultimately results in bacilli entering the blood once the efferent lymphatics become laden with organisms. When bacteremia (the presence of bacteria in the blood) and sepsis (the invasion of bodily tissue by pathogenic bacteria) have initiated, the number of bacilli may increase quickly, doubling every 48 minutes, most often resulting in death of the patient. It has been reported that microbiological studies on patient blood samples are useful for diagnosing pneumonic plague. The potential for Yersinia pestis bacilli to be present in peripheral circulating blood suggests that a PCR assay would make a useful diagnostic tool. Testing for pneumonic plague or inhalational anthrax would be effective when healthy patients present with “flu-like” symptoms (malaise, fever, cough, chest pain and shortness of breath) that may accompany other nonspecific symptoms. However, in order to maximize the probability of successful treatment, detection of the infecting organism must take place early in the disease process, when the concentration of circulating bacteria is very low. Extraction of pathogen DNA from whole blood typically requires between 200 μl to 500 μl of whole peripheral blood patient sample for each preparation event. Detection of early bacteremia is improved by using an entire 6 to 10 ml tube of patient blood for a single sample preparation event. Prior art literature describes a single tube blood culture system exploiting the selective lysis of blood elements, followed by centrifugation to pellet bacteria for plating on solid media. The technique has been examined thoroughly in conjunction with microbiological testing. Previous methods basedon lyses of blood cells followed by centrifugation have not proven to be useful for nucleic acid or biosensor based detectio protocols. Accordingly, what is needed in the art is: 1) a method of destroying and making soluble the spectrum of blood element components (erythrocytes, leukocytes, nuclear membranes, fibrin, and host nucleic acid) without damaging analyte particles (bacteria, virus, fungi, toxin, metabolic markers, disease state markers, or chemical agents) in order to expose and rapidly concentrate (via centrifugation, filtration, or capture) the analyte particles from large volumes of blood, 2) processing to minimize inhibition and/or removal of the host DNA and the matrix associated biomass present in the large volume blood sample using a single step enzyme detergent cocktail that is amenable to automation and portable systems, and 3) an analyte particle concentration method that can be coupled to existing manual or automated processes for nucleic acid extraction, biosensor testing, or liquid chromatography separation and mass spectrometry analysis. It is, therefore, to the effective resolution of the aforementioned problems and shortcomings of the prior art that the present invention is directed. Fibrin is an insoluble protein precipitated from blood that forms a network of fibers. In vivo, this process is central to blood clotting. Fibrin is created by the proteolytic cleavage of terminal peptides in fibrinogen. In the laboratory analysis of blood, an aggregate (pellet) of fibrin combined with other blood elements sediments at the bottom of a tube when blood is centrifuged. Within the fibrin aggregate, pathogens are trapped. The analysis of these pathogens is highly desirable. However, like coins embedded in a slab of concrete, the captured pathogens are substantially hidden from analysis, trapped in the fibrin aggregate. For individuals potentially exposed to dangerous pathogens, time is of the essence and rapid identification of the captured pathogens is paramount. Rapid identification of nucleic acid, proteins, or other molecules associated with bacteria, virus, fungi, toxin, metabolic markers, disease state markers, or chemical agents is important for individual clinical management as well as forensic and epidemiological investigation. Plasmin is a substance in blood capable of converting fibrin to fibrinogen monomers. Plasminogen is a precursor of plasmin in the blood. Streptokinase is an enzyme that activates plasminogen to form plasmin. The combination of plasminogen and streptokinase in the presence of the fibrin aggregate containing blood elements and bacteria (formally present in peripheral circulation) allows the conversion of the fibrin aggregate to a liquid state. Plasminogen activators are naturally occurring enzymes found in most all vertebrate species. These enzymes in any combination can also be used to derive beneficial blood matrix disassembly where the downstream application require clots or blood element aggregates to be dissolved in order to facilitate sample flow and analyte interrogation. Aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) is a polymeric anion that has been demonstrated in the literature to be a potent ribonuclease inhibitor. The compound has been described previously as an additive to sample lysis buffers where the objective is to extract RNA species from tissue samples. The nucleic acid extract derived from such procedures has been shown to be suitable for hybridization and gel electrophoresis analysis. However, ATA is a potent inhibitor of reverse transcriptase, which is essential for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detection of RNA species. Published procedures to remove ATA from nucleic acid containing compositions have revolved around chromatographic procedures that eliminate or remove only a portion of the ATA. The use of ATA in a proteinase K lysis buffer is potentially superior to 1) chaothrophic salts (since they tend to reduce the efficiency of proteinase K driven protein hydrolysis as evidenced by PCR results); 2) protein based ribonuclease inhibitors (since these inhibitors would be broken down by proteinase K); and 3) EDTA (which only indirectly inhibits nucleases via chelation of the divalent cations used by those nucleases). In fact, divalent cations must be added to RNA preparations where enzymatic DNA hydrolysis is conducted. What has not been demonstrated in prior art is a method where, once added, the complete downstream removal of ATA from nucleic acid extracts can be achieved to the point that downstream reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) will function. Also not previously described is a way to utilize ATA in a lyses buffer to treat a large volume (1 to 10 ml) of whole blood sample and after several reagents addition steps move directly to RNA array hybridization using the entire blood sample for one analysis event hence bypassing RNA extraction and amplification. Also not previously described is a way to selectively allow non diagnostic RNA species residing outside the nucleus of leukocytes to be degraded by endogenous and or exogenous nucleases while diagnostic RNA which mostly resides inside the nucleus (RNA that for instance indicates up or down regulation of genes) is preserved enough for array or amplification based detection. Typically, chemistries that do not provide abundant intact ribosomal RNA are not further examined because end users skilled in the art use such non diagnostic RNA species to judge overall RNA integrity. Based on biochemical and phenotypical differences between phospholipid membranes found in various blood elements and the combined biochemical activity characteristics of the reagent cocktail, RNA species such as globin and ribosomal RNA are destroyed but the diagnostic mRNA which is used to detect presence or absence of various disease and or pathological processes is preserved enough for identification. Also, by allowing for the bulk of non diagnostic RNA to be destroyed, there is less inhibition of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) contributed by the nucleic acid extract. ATA also serves an important function in the protection of bacterial DNA when that bacteria is present in a blood sample processed with reagents containing high levels (≧100 U/ml) of DNase I as is used in various embodiments contained within U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779. In order to achieve RNA detection capabilities that are superior to what can be achieved with technology descried in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, and to do so without additional steps or requirements, the present invention is utilized in combination with blood sample treatment technology described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779 and prior art nucleic acid extraction methods that utilize chaotrophic salts such as guanidine thiocyanate in the presence of capture matrices such as silica or methods that utilize precipitation methods to concentrate nucleic acids out of crude samples. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention concerns compositions and methods of extracting and detecting infectious pathogens from a volume of blood. In one embodiment, the method includes the steps of creating a fibrin aggregate confining the pathogens; introducing an enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent to expose the pathogens for analysis and to facilitate pathogen DNA extraction. In one embodiment, the enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may be composed of DNAse, plasminogen and streptokinase frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed whereby streptokinase enzymatically reacts with plasminogen to form plasmin upon thawing and introduction into the fibrin aggregate sample. The DNAse enzyme is used to facilitate the chemical and physical disruption of pelleted blood elements that result from the previously described protocol in addition to other benefits described herein. Preferably, the plasminogen is suspended in an aqueous salt solution, including NaCl and Na 3 PO 4 , prior to freezing. The fibrin lysis reagent can also comprise Phospholipase A 2 . Phospholipase A 2 is used to help non-pathogen DNA digestion by destroying phospholipid bilayers and, hence, destruction of the nuclear membrane. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for efficiently removing ATA from a nucleic acid composition. The subject methods provide a nucleic acid composition sufficiently free of ATA such that a RT-PCR reaction and other reactions involving reverse transcriptase can be performed. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for a mixture of ATA, magnesium chloride, potassium phosphate, and sodium chloride that is dried and combined with other dried components such as those described herein. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for heating a solution of urea, DTPA, optionally containing EDTA, sodium citrate, and sodium chloride, to between about 400 to 600° C. for 1 to 4 hours followed by drying and combination with proteinase K and optionally Methyl 6-O—(N-heptylcarbamoyl)-α-D-glucopyranoside and the use of this sample Lyses Reagent to allow ATA removal from nucleic acid extracts made with existing prior art methods based on chaotrophic salts or nucleic acid precipitation followed by centrifugation or methods descried herein to allow downstream hybridization of RNA species directly out of treated whole blood samples. The subject invention also concerns the urea/DTPA sample Lyses Reagent that was heat treated to 400 to 600° C. for 1 to 4 hours during production and used in sample treatment as descried above followed by the combination of urease to break down the urea followed by RNA array analysis. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods for pathogen capture using bioactive peptides functionalized on hyaluronic acid as described herein where the hyaluronic acid in turn acts as a polymeric waveguide. The subject invention also concerns a way to cause a calcium release at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species so as to trigger the conversion of reporter molecule labeled fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin at the site of pathogen capture via bioactive peptide or annealing of RNA species upon the matrix of the hyaluronic acid polymeric waveguide. The subject invention also concerns materials and methods where the hyaluronic acid matrix that is cross linked utilizing biotin and strepavidin and functionalized with bioactive peptides, such as those described herein, can be subsequently broken down with hyaluronidase in order to facilitate pathogen elution. The subject invention is practiced in conjunction with methods and materials for extracting infectious pathogens from a volume of a sample, such as blood, including the steps of creating a fibrin aggregate confining the pathogens and introducing an enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent to expose the pathogens for analysis and DNAse to facilitate DNA extraction specified in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, filed Aug. 15, 2003. The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent may be composed of DNAse, plasminogen and streptokinase frozen in coincident relation until the fibrin lysis reagent is needed whereby streptokinase enzymatically reacts with plasminogen to form plasmin upon thawing and introduction into the fibrin sample. Preferably, the plasminogen is suspended in an aqueous salt solution prior to freezing including NaCl and Na 3 PO 4 . The enzyme based Blood Processing Reagent is preferably composed of DNAse and Phospholipase A 2 . The DNAse enzyme is used to facilitate the chemical and physical disruption of pelleted blood elements that result from the previously described protocol. Phospholipase A 2 is used to help human DNA digestion by destroying phospholipid bilayers and, hence, destruction of the nuclear membrane. The subject invention also pertains to materials and methods for efficiently removing human DNA that has been processed or cleaved by DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease while pathogen DNA remains inside intact pathogens. Single Strand Binding (SSB) proteins are known in the art to enhance PCR kinetics through binding to DNA and can also be used in the methods of the invention. In an exemplified embodiment, the SSB is biotinylated and the solid matrix has avidin or streptavidin attached to the surface, and the SSB is bound to the matrix via the biotin-avidin binding. In one embodiment of the method, a purified nucleic acid extract sample is optionally combined with proline at 2 to 20 mM and or DTT at 2 to 5 mM then circulated for several minutes at about 37° C. with the immobilized SSB. The SSB-matrix and bound human DNA is separated from the sample and the remaining sample collected. The remaining sample contains nucleic acid with a reduced human DNA load and can be used for PCR testing. Since DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease will nick human DNA in the presence of ATA and or other nuclease inhibitors described herein combined with the other biochemical elements described in U.S. application Ser. No. 10/604,779, while pathogen DNA residing inside intact pathogen structures is not nicked, a portion of the inhibitory human DNA can be selectively removed in this way post nucleic acid extraction. The subject invention also pertains to the use of nuclease inhibitors with or without ATA plus high levels of DNAse, endonuclease, or exonuclease (over 200 U/ml). The combination of nuclease inhibitors and nucleases teaches against the art but leads to processing of human DNA so that said DNA presents a small inhibitory contribution to PCR reactions compared to the same amount of human DNA that is not contacted with this reagent mixture. In applications when RNA purification is desired, solutions used in the subject methods should be RNase-free. RNase-free solutions can be prepared using methods known in the art, including treatment with DEPC, typically at about 0.1%. DEPC treated water should be used to wash and rinse any glass or plasticware used in RNA isolation methods that is not RNase-free. Residual DEPC should always be eliminated from solutions or glassware/plasticware by autoclaving or heating to 100° C. for 15 minutes. | 20050114 | 20080826 | 20051215 | 71087.0 | 0 | LILLING, HERBERT J | POST PROTEIN HYDROLYSIS REMOVAL OF A POTENT RIBONUCLEASE INHIBITOR AND THE ENZYMATIC CAPTURE OF DNA | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,685 | ACCEPTED | Method for the removal of monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production | A method for removal of the monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production which includes the step of culturing the yeast. A further step involves mixing 8%-12% (W/W) of yeast based on the weight of oligosaccharides and 0.1%-0.5% (W/W) of carbamide as nitrogen source with raw oligosaccharide syrup, and then adjusting the pH value to 4.5-6.0. A further step involves culturing the above oligosaccharides syrup at 23° C.-26° C. for 20-30 hours with intermittent agitation. | 1. A method for removal of monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production, the method comprising: (1). Activating the yeast with malt extract medium, and then culturing the yeast with glucose growth medium; (2). Mixing 8%-12% of the yeast (W/W) based on the weight of oligosaccarides and 0.1%-0.5% of carbamide as nitrogen source with raw oligosaccharides, and then adjusting the pH to 4.5-6.0; (3). Fermenting the above oligosaccharides mixture for 20-30 hours at temperature of 23° C.-26° C. with intermittent agitation. 2. The method according to claim 1 wherein said yeast is As 2.109 Yeast. 3. The method according to claim 1 and claim 2 wherein the oligosaccharide is the isomaltooligosaccharides with 75% of solid content. 4. The method according to claim 1 and claim 2 wherein the chemical used for pH adjusting is hydrogen chloride. 5. The method according to claim 3 wherein the chemical used for pH adjusting is hydrogen chloride. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method for the removal of monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production. The method is used to remove monosaccharide from oligosaccharides by yeast fermentation reaction. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The oligosaccharides are a new generation of functional food or health food ingredient with special physiological effects which can promote the proliferation of colonic Liacteria of genus Bifidobacterium to balance the microbial ecology of the microflora in gastrointestinal tract of human being, suppress the growth of undesirable bacteria and function as an anti-dental caries. Oligosaccharides are a type of sweetener that is not absorbed or digested in the small intestine of man. Oligosaccharides are low in calories and can be used as conventional diet sweeteners such as those used by middle-age and older people who are on special diets due to diabetes. Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates consisting of 3 to 5 monosaccharides linked together. There are two main methods to produce oligosaccharides. One method involves the application of retrosynthetic reaction of amylase with which the monosaccharides (glucose) are condensed to oligosaccharides. Normally the content of G3 to G5 in the final product is 20%-30% with some other complicated components. G3 and G5 refer to Glucose units. By way of example, G3 refers to a sugar which is comprised of three glucose units linked together as one component. The other way to make oligosaccharides is the enzymatic hydrolysis method in which the starch is hydrolyzed to polysaccharides first by α-amylases, and then the polysaccharides are further hydrolyzed to oligosaccharides by glucosidase or other enzymes with transglucosylation function. Currently, the enzymatic hydrolysis method is the main process. It is based on starch as raw material. The process comprises two steps. The first step is to get the maltose syrup through starch hydrolysis with α-amylases. The second step is to get the target product through transglucosylation with the co-reaction of two or three kinds of enzymes, and then the routine filtration, decolouration, desalting and concentration processes are applied to get the final product. Currently, the normal content of oligosaccharides is about 50%-60%. The other main components are glucose and maltose which make about 50% of the final product. The glucose and maltose can disturb the two main health benefits of oligosaccharides product. One is the proliferation of beneficial microbiota Bifidobacteria species in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and the other is the anti-dental caries benefit. As a result, the health benefits and commercial value of the oligosaccharides product are significantly reduced. Normally, oligosaccharides with high purity can be obtained by a separation process from the raw oligosaccharides product. One of separation methods is the membrane separation process. The membrane separation process removes the monosaccharides and disaccharide from the product and keeps the other sugars components with bigger molecular weights, so that the content of oligosaccharides is increased to about 80%. There are problems with this process including the high cost of expensive equipment, low efficiency and difficulties in commercial production. The other method is the adsorption separation process. The absorption separation process involves removing the monosaccharide and disaccharide by ion exchange columns. The content of oligosaccharides can be increased to 60%-70% by one recycle operation. The disadvantage of this method is that capacity of the columns is low for the single recycle so that multiple recycle adsorption processes are needed to get the high purity oligosaccharides product. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION What is required is a method for the removal of monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production to enhance the health benefits of the resulting product. According to the present invention there is provided a method for removal of the monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production. The method includes the step of culturing the yeast. A further step involves mixing 8%-12% (W/W) of yeast based on the weight of oligosaccharides and 0.1%-0.5% (W/W) of carbamide as nitrogen source with raw oligosaccharide syrup, and then adjusting the pH value to 4.5-6.0. A further step involves culturing the above oligosaccharides syrup at 23° C.-26° C. for 20-30 hours with intermittent agitation. The method removes the monosaccharide and disaccharide from raw oligosaccharides by microbial metabolism technology so that the purity and the content of G3 to G5 in oligosaccharides are significantly increased. Oligosaccharides with high purity are thereby obtained at a low cost in terms of equipment and operation. The method can utilize the raw material economically and simplify the commercial process to produce oligosaccharides with high purity. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The present invention provides a method for removal of the monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production with selectively microbial metabolism by yeast, with which the purity and the content of G3 to G5 in oligosaccharides is significantly increased. The oligosaccharides with high purity can be obtained at a low cost in terms of equipment and operation. The method economically utilizes the raw material and simplifies the industrial process to produce oligosaccharides with high purity. The method for removal of the monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production involves the step of activating the yeast with malt extract medium, and then culturing the yeast with glucose growth medium. A further step involves mixing 8%-12% of the yeast (W/W) based on the weight of oligosaccharides and 0.1%-0.5% of carbamide as nitrogen source with raw oligosaccharides liquid, and then adjusting the pH to 4.5-6.0. Another step involves fermenting the oligosaccharides mixture for 20 to 30 hours at temperature of between 23° C.-26° C. with intermittent agitation. With the method described above, the yeast is As 2.109 Yeast. The oligosaccharide is the isomaltooligosaccharides with 75% of solid content and the chemical used for pH adjustment is hydrogen chloride. The method described above, removes the monosaccharide and disaccharide from raw oligosaccharides by microbial metabolism technology so that the purity and the content of G3 to G5 in oligosaccharides are significantly increased. Oligosaccharides with high purity are obtained with low costs in terms of equipment and operation. The technology economically utilizes the raw material and simplifies the process to commercially produce oligosaccharides with high purity. DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLES Application Example 1 Based on the weight of oligosaccharides with content of 75%, As 2.109 yeast was first activated with malt extract medium, and then the yeast was cultured with glucose growth medium. Then 10% (Vyeast/Noligosaccharides) of the yeast was added to the raw oligosaccharides liquid, followed by 0.2% (Wcarbmide/Woligosaccharides) of carbamide as nitrogen source was mixed with this oligosaccharides liquid. Hydrogen chloride was used to adjust the pH to 5.2. The oligosaccharides mixture was fermented for 22 hours at temperature of 23° C. with intermittent agitation. The samples were analyzed on-line by HPLC to follow the sugar components. The content of glucose GI was 0%, the maltose G2 was 4.2%, and the content of oligosaccharides was 92.56%. Application Example 2 Based on the weight of oligosaccharides with content of 75%, As 2.109 yeast was first activated with malt extract medium, and then the yeast was cultured with glucose growth medium. Then 11% (Vyeast/Noligosaccharides) of the yeast was added to the raw oligosaccharides liquid, and followed 0.3% (Wcarbamide/Woligosaccharides) of carbamide as nitrogen source was mixed with this oligosaccharides liquid. Hydrogen chloride was used to adjust the pH to 4.8. The oligosaccharides mixture was fermented for 25 hours at temperature of 25° C. with intermittent agitation. The samples were analyzed on-line by HPLC to follow the sugar components. The content of glucose GI was 0%, the maltose G2 was 5.3%, and the content of oligosaccharides was 94.5%. Application Example 3 Based on the weight of oligosaccharides with content of 75%, As 2.109 yeast was first activated with malt extract medium, and then the yeast was cultured with glucose growth medium. Then 9.0% (Vyeast/Voligosaccharides) of the yeast was added into the raw oligosaccharides liquid, and followed by 0.5% (Wcarbamide/Woligosaccharides) of carbamide as nitrogen source was mixed with this oligosaccharides liquid. Hydrogen chloride was used to adjust the pH to 5.8. The oligosaccharides mixture was fermented for 30 hours at temperature of 26° C. with intermittent agitation. The samples were analyzed on-line by HPLC to follow the sugar components. The content of glucose GI was 0%, the maltose G2 was 3.10%, and the content of oligosaccharides was 93.35%. In this patent document, the word “comprising” is used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. A reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that modifications may be made to the illustrated embodiment without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as hereinafter defined in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The oligosaccharides are a new generation of functional food or health food ingredient with special physiological effects which can promote the proliferation of colonic Liacteria of genus Bifidobacterium to balance the microbial ecology of the microflora in gastrointestinal tract of human being, suppress the growth of undesirable bacteria and function as an anti-dental caries. Oligosaccharides are a type of sweetener that is not absorbed or digested in the small intestine of man. Oligosaccharides are low in calories and can be used as conventional diet sweeteners such as those used by middle-age and older people who are on special diets due to diabetes. Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates consisting of 3 to 5 monosaccharides linked together. There are two main methods to produce oligosaccharides. One method involves the application of retrosynthetic reaction of amylase with which the monosaccharides (glucose) are condensed to oligosaccharides. Normally the content of G3 to G5 in the final product is 20%-30% with some other complicated components. G3 and G5 refer to Glucose units. By way of example, G3 refers to a sugar which is comprised of three glucose units linked together as one component. The other way to make oligosaccharides is the enzymatic hydrolysis method in which the starch is hydrolyzed to polysaccharides first by α-amylases, and then the polysaccharides are further hydrolyzed to oligosaccharides by glucosidase or other enzymes with transglucosylation function. Currently, the enzymatic hydrolysis method is the main process. It is based on starch as raw material. The process comprises two steps. The first step is to get the maltose syrup through starch hydrolysis with α-amylases. The second step is to get the target product through transglucosylation with the co-reaction of two or three kinds of enzymes, and then the routine filtration, decolouration, desalting and concentration processes are applied to get the final product. Currently, the normal content of oligosaccharides is about 50%-60%. The other main components are glucose and maltose which make about 50% of the final product. The glucose and maltose can disturb the two main health benefits of oligosaccharides product. One is the proliferation of beneficial microbiota Bifidobacteria species in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and the other is the anti-dental caries benefit. As a result, the health benefits and commercial value of the oligosaccharides product are significantly reduced. Normally, oligosaccharides with high purity can be obtained by a separation process from the raw oligosaccharides product. One of separation methods is the membrane separation process. The membrane separation process removes the monosaccharides and disaccharide from the product and keeps the other sugars components with bigger molecular weights, so that the content of oligosaccharides is increased to about 80%. There are problems with this process including the high cost of expensive equipment, low efficiency and difficulties in commercial production. The other method is the adsorption separation process. The absorption separation process involves removing the monosaccharide and disaccharide by ion exchange columns. The content of oligosaccharides can be increased to 60%-70% by one recycle operation. The disadvantage of this method is that capacity of the columns is low for the single recycle so that multiple recycle adsorption processes are needed to get the high purity oligosaccharides product. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>What is required is a method for the removal of monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production to enhance the health benefits of the resulting product. According to the present invention there is provided a method for removal of the monosaccharide in oligosaccharides production. The method includes the step of culturing the yeast. A further step involves mixing 8%-12% (W/W) of yeast based on the weight of oligosaccharides and 0.1%-0.5% (W/W) of carbamide as nitrogen source with raw oligosaccharide syrup, and then adjusting the pH value to 4.5-6.0. A further step involves culturing the above oligosaccharides syrup at 23° C.-26° C. for 20-30 hours with intermittent agitation. The method removes the monosaccharide and disaccharide from raw oligosaccharides by microbial metabolism technology so that the purity and the content of G3 to G5 in oligosaccharides are significantly increased. Oligosaccharides with high purity are thereby obtained at a low cost in terms of equipment and operation. The method can utilize the raw material economically and simplify the commercial process to produce oligosaccharides with high purity. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050114 | 20110315 | 20050818 | 71076.0 | 1 | WARE, DEBORAH K | METHOD FOR THE REMOVAL OF MONOSACCHARIDE IN OLIGOSACCHARIDES PRODUCTION | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,835 | ACCEPTED | Biooxidation capabilities of candida sp | A bioprocess for producing carboxylic acids, alcohols and aldehydes is provided by culturing Candida sp. in a fermentation medium containing various defined substrates. | 1-15. (canceled) 16. A process for producing an alcohol comprising culturing Candida sp. in a fermentation medium containing a substrate of the formula R(CH2)nCH3, wherein n is ≧1 and R is selected from the group consisting of epoxide, alkoxy, ether, saturated primary alcohol, cycloalkyl, aryl, diol and diol ester, whereby at least one terminal methyl group of the substrate is oxidized to an alcohol. 17. The process of claim 16 wherein the substrate is dissolved in a solvent prior to contact with the fermentation medium. 18. The process of claim 17 wherein the solvent is an organic solvent. 19. The process of claim 18 wherein the organic solvent is selected from the group consisting of ethanol and hexane. 20. The process of claim 18 wherein the organic solvent is acetone. 21. The process of claim 16 wherein the Candida sp. is selected from the group consisting of C. albicans, C. cloacae, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lipolytica, C. maltosa, C. parapsilosis, and C. zeylenoides. 22. The process of claim 16 wherein the Candida sp. is C. tropicalis. 23. The process of claim 22 wherein C. tropicalis is substantially β-oxidation pathway blocked. 24. The process of claim 23 wherein C. tropicalis is H5343. 25. The process of claim 23 wherein one or more P450 CYP genes, P450 CPR genes, or a combination thereof is amplified in said C. tropicalis. 26. The process of claim 16 wherein the substrate is a compound selected from the group consisting of dodecylvinyl ether, dihexyl ether, dipentyl ether, 1-dodecanol, 2-hexyldecanol, 2-butyl-1-octanol, 1,2-hexadecanediol, epoxidized soybean oil, 1,2-epoxytetradecane, butylcyclohexane, propylcyclohexane, ethylcyclohexane, polyethylene glycol 200 monolaurate, polyethylene glycol 200 dilaurate. 27. A process for producing an alcohol comprising culturing Candida sp. in a fermentation medium containing a substrate selected from the group consisting of 12-hydroxystearic acid, hexadecyl pelargonate, castor oil, hexadecyl acetate, dodecene, tetradecene, hexadecene, octadecene, trans-2-nonene, 7-trans-tetradecene, 2-heptylundecanoic acid and 2-hexyldecanoic acid, whereby at least one terminal methyl group of the substrate is oxidized to an alcohol. 28. The process of claim 27 wherein the substrate is dissolved in a solvent prior to contact with the fermentation medium. 29. The process of claim 27 wherein the Candida sp. is selected from the group consisting of C. albicans, C. cloacae, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lipolytica, C. maltosa, C. parapsilosis, and C. zeylenoides. 30. The process of claim 27 wherein the Candida sp. is C. tropicalis. | This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of earlier filed and copending U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/190,626, filed Mar. 20, 2000, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to the use of yeast strains to modify substrates via biooxidation. More particularly, the present invention relates to processes for converting certain substrates into alcohols or carboxylic acids utilizing yeast. 2. Background of Related Art Aliphatic dioic acids, alcohols and compounds having combinations of alcohols and acids are versatile chemical intermediates useful as raw materials for the preparation of adhesives, fragrances, polyamides, polyesters, and antimicrobials. While chemical routes for the synthesis of long-chain α,ω-dicarboxylic acids are available, the synthesis is complicated and results in mixtures containing dicarboxylic acids of shorter chain lengths. As a result, extensive purification steps are necessary. While it is known that long-chain dioic acids can also be produced by microbial transformation of alkanes, fatty acids or esters, chemical synthesis has remained the preferred route, presumably due to limitations with the previously available biological approaches. Several strains of yeast are known to excrete α,ω-dicarboxylic acids as a byproduct when cultured on alkanes or fatty acids. In particular, yeast belonging to the genus Candida, such as C. albicans, C. cloacae, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lipolytica, C. maltosa, C. parapsilosis, and C. zeylenoides are known to produce such dicarboxylic acids. (Agr. Biol. Chem. 35, 2033-2042 (1971).) In addition, various strains of the yeast C. tropicalis are known to produce dicarboxylic acids ranging in chain lengths from C11 through C18 as a byproduct when cultured on alkanes or fatty acids as the carbon source (Okino et al., B M Lawrence, B D Mookheijee and B J Willis (eds.), in Flavors and Fragrances: A World Perspective. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of Essential Oils, Flavors and Fragrances, Elsevier Science Publishers BV Amsterdam (1988)), and are the basis of several patents as reviewed by Bühler and Schindler, in Aliphatic Hydrocarbons in Biotechnology, H. J. Rehm and G. Reed (eds), Vol. 169, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim (1984). Studies of the biochemical processes by which yeasts metabolize alkanes and fatty acids have revealed three types of oxidation reactions: α-oxidation of alkanes to alcohols; ω-oxidation of fatty acids to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids; and the degradative β-oxidation of fatty acids to CO2 and water. In C. tropicalis the first step in the ω-oxidation pathway is catalyzed by a membrane-bound enzyme complex (ω-hydroxylase complex) including a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and a NADPH-cytochrome reductase. This hydroxylase complex is responsible for the primary oxidation of the terminal methyl group in alkanes and fatty acids (Gilewicz et al., Can. J. Microbiol. 25:201 (1979)). The genes which encode the cytochrome P450 and NADPH reductase components of the complex have previously been identified as P450ALK and P450RED respectively, and have also been cloned and sequenced (Sanglard et al., Gene 76:121-136 (1989)). P450ALK has also been designated P450ALK1. More recently, ALK genes have been designated by the symbol CYP and RED genes have been designated by the symbol CPR. See, e.g., Nelson, Pharmacogenetics 6(1):1-42 (1996), which is incorporated herein by reference. See also Ohkuma et al., DNA and Cell Biology 14:163-173 (1995), Seghezzi et al., DNA and Cell Biology, 11:767-780 (1992) and Kargel et al., Yeast 12:333-348 (1996), each incorporated herein by reference. For example, P450ALK is also designated CYP52 according to the nomenclature of Nelson, supra. Cytochromes P450 (P450s) are terminal monooxidases of the multicomponent enzyme system described above. They comprise a superfamily of proteins which exist widely in nature having been isolated from a variety of organisms, e.g., various mammals, fish, invertebrates, plants, mollusks, crustaceans, lower eukaryotes and bacteria (Nelson, supra). First discovered in rodent liver microsomes as a carbon-monoxide binding pigment as described, e.g., in Garfinkel, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 77:493-509 (1958), which is incorporated herein by reference, P450s were later named based on their absorption at 450 nm in a reduced-CO coupled difference spectrum as described, e.g., in Omura et al., J. Biol. Chem. 239:2370-2378 (1964), which is incorporated herein by reference. P450s catalyze the metabolism of a variety of endogenous and exogenous compounds (Nelson, supra). Endogenous compounds include steroids, prostanoids, eicosanoids, fat-soluble vitamins, fatty acids, mammalian alkaloids, leukotrines, biogenic amines and phytolexins (Nelson, supra). P450 metabolism involves such reactions as aliphatic hydroxylation, aromatic oxidation, alkene epoxidation, nitrogen dealkylation, oxidative deamination, oxygen dealkylation, nitrogen oxidation, oxidative desulfuration, oxidative dehalogenation, oxidative denitrification, nitro reduction, azo reduction, tertiary amine N-oxide reduction, arene oxide reduction and reductive dehalogenation. (P G Wislocki, G T Miwa and AYH Lu, Reaction Catalyzed by the Cytochrome P-450 System, Enzymatic Basis of Detoxication, Vol. 1, Academic Press (1980).) These reactions generally make the compound more water soluble, which is conducive for excretion, and more electrophilic. (These electrophilic products have detrimental effects if they react with DNA or other cellular constituents.) The electrophilic products can then react through conjugation with low molecular weight hydrophilic substances resulting in glucoronidation, sulfation, acetylation, amino acid conjugation or glutathione conjugation typically leading to inactivation and elimination as described, e.g., in Klaassen et al., Toxicology, 3rd ed, Macmillan, New York, 1986, incorporated herein by reference. Fatty acids are ultimately formed from alkanes after two additional oxidation steps, catalyzed by alcohol oxidase (Kemp et al. Appl. Microbiol. and Biotechnol, 28, 370-374 (1988)) and aldehyde dehydrogenase. The, ω-hydroxylase enzymes of the ω-oxidation pathway are located in the endoplasmic reticulum, while the enzymes catalyzing the last two steps, the fatty alcohol oxidase and the fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, are located in the peroxisomes. The fatty acids can be further oxidized through the same or similar pathway to the corresponding dicarboxylic acid. The ω-oxidation of fatty acids proceeds via the ω-hydroxy fatty acid and its aldehyde derivative, to the corresponding dicarboxylic acid without the requirement for CoA activation. However, both fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids can be degraded, after activation to the corresponding acyl-CoA ester through the β-oxidation pathway in the peroxisomes, leading to chain shortening. In mammalian systems, both fatty acid and dicarboxylic acid products of ω-oxidation are activated to their CoA-esters at equal rates and are substrates for both mitochondrial and peroxisomal β-oxidation (J. Biochem., 102, 225-234 (1987)). In yeast, β-oxidation takes place solely in the peroxisomes (Agr. Biol. Chem., 49, 1821-1828 (1985)). Metabolic pathways can be manipulated in an attempt to increase or decrease the production of various products or by-products. Knowing that fatty acids possessing one or more internal double bonds or secondary alcohol functionality are capable of undergoing ω-oxidation, the ω-oxidation pathway can be manipulated to produce greater amounts of dicarboxylic acids. U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method for producing β,ω-dicarboxylic acids in high yields by culturing C. tropicalis strains having disrupted chromosomal POX4A, POX4B and both POX5 genes. The POX4 and POX5 gene disruptions effectively block the β-oxidation pathway at its first reaction (which is catalyzed by acyl-CoA oxidase) in a C. tropicalis host strain. The POX4 and POX5 genes encode distinct subunits of long chain acyl-CoA oxidase, which are the peroxisomal polypeptides (PXPs) designated PXP-4 and PXP-5, respectively. The disruption of these genes results in a complete block of the β-oxidation pathway thus allowing enhanced yields of dicarboxylic acid by redirecting the substrate toward the ω-oxidation pathway and also preventing reutilization of the dicarboxylic acid products through the β-oxidation pathway. Similarly, C. tropicalis may also have one or more cytochrome P450 genes and/or reductase genes amplified which results in an increase in the amount of rate-limiting ω-hydroxylase through P450 gene amplification and an increase in the rate of substrate flow through the ω-oxidation pathway. C. tropicalis strain AR40 is an amplified H 5343 strain wherein all four POX4 genes and both copies of the chromosomal POX5 genes are disrupted by a URA3 selectable marker and which also contains 3 additional copies of the cytochrome P450 gene and 2 additional copies of the reductase gene, the P450RED gene. Strain AR40 has the ATCC accession number ATCC 20987. C. tropicalis strain R24 is an amplified H 5343 strain in which all four POX4 genes and both copies of the chromosomal POX5 genes are disrupted by a URA3 selectable marker and which also contains multiple copies of the reductase gene. Strains AR40 and R24 are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,620,878 and 5,648,247, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Processes for utilizing modified C. tropicalis to produce carboxylic acids are also known. U.S. Pat. No. 5,962,285, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a process for making carboxylic acids by fermenting a β-oxidation blocked C. tropicalis cell in a culture comprised of a nitrogen source, an organic substrate and a cosubstrate. The substrate is an unsaturated aliphatic compound having at least one internal carbon-carbon double bond and at least one terminal methyl group, a terminal carboxyl group and/or a terminal functional group which is oxidizable to a carboxyl group. The fermentation product is then reacted with an oxidizing agent to produce one or more carboxylic acids. Similar shake flask experiments have been used in the past to test substrates. The terminal methyl group and the terminal double bond of α-alkenes or branched monoacids are oxidized and form alcohol groups or the desired acid groups. The oxidation of the terminal double bond of α-olefins to form a (ω,ω−1) diol is an interesting reaction. The overall oxidation product is thus a (ω,ω−1) hydroxyfatty acid. The biooxidation of α-olefins was first reported by Uemura. (N. Uemura, Industrialization of the Production of Dibasic Acid from n-Paraffins Using Microorganisms, Hakko to Kogyo, 43:436-44 (1985).). While the genetically modified strains of Candida sp. are able to produce large quantities of product necessary to develop a commercially feasible process, it is not known what effect variations of chain length, functional groups, etc. will have on the ability of C. tropicalis to produce alcohols and carboxylic acids through the process of biooxidation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, it has been determined that in order for terminal methyl groups of organic substrates to be oxidized by Candida sp., at least one methylene group must be present between a terminal methyl group and the rest of the molecule. Accordingly, the inventors have developed a process by which substrates of varying functionality, chain lengths and overall structure are oxidized by Candida sp. to alcohols and carboxylic acids. In one embodiment, the substrate is solubilized in an organic solvent and then biooxidized by Candida sp. In a preferred embodiment, the Candida sp. used in the bioconversion process has been modified so that its β-oxidation pathway has been blocked. In another preferred embodiment, the Candida sp. used in the bioconversion process has been modified so that its β-oxidation pathway has been blocked and one or more of its cytochrome P450 genes and/or reductase genes have been amplified. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS For purposes of the present invention, a carboxylic acid includes a polycarboxylic acid. Toxicity is the highest concentration at which a substrate can be added to a culture broth of Candida sp. without causing undue inhibition of growth, unacceptable amounts of cell death or undue interference with the bioconversion process. This invention provides a process for introducing hydroxyl, aldehyde and/or carboxylic acid functionalities into organic substrates by fermentation with by Candida sp. Examples of suitable particular Candida sp. useful herein include C. albicans, C cloacae, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lipolytica, C. maltosa, C. parapsilosis, and C. zeylenoides and C. tropicalis. While it is known that certain alkane and fatty acid substrates with terminal methyl groups can be oxidized to form alcohols or carboxylic acids and that fatty acids possessing one or more internal double bonds or secondary alcohol functionality are capable of undergoing ω-oxidation, the effects of additional functionality, such as double bonds, alcohol groups, etc. were unknown in the biooxidation process. According to the present invention, it has been determined that the overall capability of Candida sp. to perform biochemical oxidations on a variety of chemical substrates is dependent on the presence of at least one methylene group between a terminal methyl group and the rest of a substrate molecule. In the first phase of this testing, substrates were selected because they contained a terminal methyl group. In addition, they possessed additional functionality such as a double bond, alcohol group, etc. Classes of substrates tested included primary and secondary alcohols, α-olefins, ketones, epoxides, alkenes, alkynes, sulfur compounds, branched-chain fatty acids, Guerbet alcohols, fatty acid esters, natural oils, and sterols. A second phase of testing was conducted on additional substrates, including a homologous series of varying aliphatic chain lengths attached to a cyclohexane ring. The second series of tests obtained additional information about the oxidation products using analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in addition to IR and NMR analyses. A preferred species of Candida sp. is C. tropicalis. Although wild-type C. tropicalis may be utilized to convert substrates, according to the present invention strains in which the β-oxidation pathway is partially blocked, are preferred. For example, genetically modified C. tropicalis having chromosomal POX4A, POX4B and POX5 genes disrupted to block β-oxidation pathway may be utilized. Examples of strains of C. tropicalis which are partially β-oxidation blocked include, H41, H41B, H51, H45, H43, H53, H534, H534B and H435 as described in aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466. An example of a completely β-oxidation blocked strain of C. tropicalis wherein all POX4 and POX5 genes are disrupted is H5343 (ATCC 20962) as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466. The sequence in which the four POX genes are disrupted is immaterial. When all of these POX genes are disrupted, they no longer encode the functional acyl-CoA oxidase isozymes necessary for the β-oxidation pathway. Therefore, the substrate flow in this strain is redirected to the ω-oxidation pathway as the result of functional inactivation of the competing β-oxidation pathway by POX gene disruption. In another preferred embodiment, C. tropicalis strains having one or more cytochrome P450 genes and/or reductase genes amplified may be utilized. For example, C. tropicalis strains which have a greater number of CPR genes than the wild type strain have shown increased productivity of carboxylic acids as described, e.g., in aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 5,620,878. Specific examples of CPR genes include the CPRA and CPRB genes of C. tropicalis 20336 as described, e.g., in U.S. application Ser. No. 09/302/620 and International Application No. PCT/US99/2097, each incorporated herein by reference. These strains provide an increase in the amount of rate-limiting ω-hydroxylase and an increase in the rate of substrate flow through the ω-oxidation pathway. Preferred strains of C. tropicalis are H5343 (ATCC Accession No. 20962), AR40 (ATCC No. 20987) and R24. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,620,878 and 5,648,247. The genetically β-oxidation blocked strain of C. tropicalis used in a preferred embodiment has been shown previously to perform a ω-oxidation reaction on the terminal methyl group of long-chain fatty acids and alkanes. While the preferred strain of C. tropicalis is a β-oxidation-blocked strain, any C. tropicalis strain, no matter whether the strain can perform β-oxidation or not, may be used. A complete or partial block in β-oxidation only decreases the probability that the substrates tested or their oxidation products will be degraded, and increases the likelihood of detecting biooxidation products, if formed. With some substrates, there is also the possibility that degradation might occur through pathways other than β-oxidation. Therefore, some observed loss of starting material might be due to degradation rather than volatility, although volatility of substrates is the most likely cause for low recoveries. In one embodiment of the invention, the substrate to be converted is solubilized in a solvent. In a preferred embodiment, the solvent is an organic solvent such as acetone, ethanol, or hexane, with acetone being most preferred. The solvent is utilized in amounts that are not toxic to Candida sp. but still capable of solubilizing the substrate. Substrates themselves should be tested for their toxicity prior to bioconversion. The data obtained from these experiment is useful in three ways: 1) it ensures that Candida sp. remain viable after induction and can adequately perform the biooxidation process; 2) the volatility of test substrates can be assessed; and 3) knowing the toxicity of a test substrate ensures that the maximum amount of sample can be added. The organic substrate is any organic compound having at least one terminal methyl group attached to at least one methylene group. Examples of organic substrates which can be used in the process according to the invention include but are not limited to CH3CH2-ethers, CH3CH2-epoxides, CH3CH2-saturated primary alcohols, CH3CH2-alkoxy, CH3CH2-diols and CH3—CH2 diol esters. In addition to the above, the organic substrate which can be used in the process according to the invention include but are not limited to CH3CH2- cycloalkyl, CH3,CH2-aryl and the like. The fermentation step is preferably carried out in two stages. In the first stage, a culture medium is inoculated with an active culture of Candida sp. such as β-oxidation blocked C. tropicalis strain where a period of rapid exponential growth occurs. In the second stage, which occurs as the cell growth of the first stage enters stationary phase, the substrate is added wherein the biooxidation described herein takes place. Since energy can no longer be produced from the substrate in β-oxidation blocked strains, it is necessary to add a cosubstrate. The cosubstrate is a fermentable carbohydrate such as glucose, fructose, maltose, glycerol and sodium acetate. For larger industrial fermentations, the preferred cosubstrate is glucose, preferably a liquid glucose syrup, for example, 95% dextrose-equivalent syrup, or even lower dextrose-equivalent syrups. For shake flask experiments, the preferred cosubstrate is glycerol. Such materials contain small amounts of disaccharides, trisaccharides, and polysaccharides which can be hydrolyzed during the fermentation by the addition of an amylase enzyme such as α-amylase, glucoamylase and cellulase. Thus glucose can be provided in situ in a reaction simultaneous with the biooxidation. The fermentation conditions and procedures are similar to those disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466. The fermentation step can be modified by utilizing a triglyceride fat or oil as the source of both the organic substrate and cosubstrate. A lipase, formulated with the fermentation broth, hydrolyzes or splits the fat or oil into fatty acids and glycerine. Glycerine consumption by the organism serves to drive the splitting reaction to completion while supplying the energy necessary to convert the free fatty acids to their corresponding alcohols or acids. Lipases that are oleo-specific are particularly preferred. Oleo-specific lipases exhibit a high selectivity for a triglyceride having a high oleic acid content and selectively catalyze the hydrolysis of the oleate ester groups. Examples of such oleo-specific lipases include but are not limited to the lipases produced by Pseudomonas sp, Humicola lanuginosa, Candida rugosa, Geotrichum candidum, and Pseudomonas (Burkholderia). A particularly preferred lipase is UNLipase from Geotrichum candidum ATCC No. 74170 described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,470,741, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. After the substrates were added to Candida sp. and biooxidation occurred, samples were obtained, dried and analyzed. Those skilled in the art are familiar with many techniques for purification and analysis of alcohols, aldehydes and carboxylic acids. In the present case, the dried samples were weighed and dissolved in an NMR appropriate solvent. C13 and H-NMR were performed on an adequate amount of recovered sample using a Varian Unity 400 (Varian, Inc.). However, analysis via NMR-spectroscopy has its limitations. It can only estimate what changes occurred and identify functional groups, but not identify the actual compounds that have been synthesized. In complex mixtures, particularly, NMR may miss a small amount of oxidation product altogether. Additionally the extraction process solubilized a number of cellular components, such as cell membrane lipids and other fatty acids produced from the added carbon source (glycerol). Antifoam was also detected. Therefore, for complex mixtures with only small amounts of product formation, it might be useful to use IR, GC/MS, LC/MS, HPLC/MS or other analytical techniques for a more accurate and precise analysis. IR can be performed using, for example, a Nicolet Magna-IR 560. In a preferred embodiment, GC/MS is also performed. Samples are silylated prior to GC/MS analysis, but acetylation and methylation may also be performed with certain samples, to make derivatives. Derivatives aid in interpretation of the mass spectra by making the compound better suited for structure elucidation, particularly for identification of hydroxy derivatives by silylation. These molecular weight differences assist in assigning structures to components of samples. Samples may be separated using any procedure known to those skilled in the art, such as a J&W DB-5MS (60m×0.25 mm×0.25 um) column (J&W Scientific, Folsom, Calif.). GC/MS can be performed on any suitable apparatus that permits accurate readings following the manufacturer's protocol, such as an AutoSpec X015 VG (Micromass Ltd., Manchester, England) triple sector mass spectrometer (E-B-E configuration). The results indicate that Candida sp. possess significant genetic and biochemical variability, since they have the capability to oxidize methyl groups attached to a variety of R-groups. Tests with a homologous series of aliphatic chains attached to cyclohexane (methylcyclohexane, ethylcyclohexane, propylcyclohexane, and butylcyclohexane) indicate that the methyl group must be part of an aliphatic chain of at least two carbons (ethyl group). To date, no evidence of oxidation of a secondary, tertiary, or aromatic methyl group has been observed. Most substrates tested herein have the general formula: R—(CH2)n—CH3, where R is an epoxide, alkoxy, ether, saturated primary alcohol, cycloalkyl, aryl, diol, or diol ester. Substrates were selected that allowed the determination of the minimum chain length required for oxidation (n in the formula). Other substrates were selected to determine what types of functional groups (R in the formula) are compatible with biooxidation. The results of the experiments clearly indicate that the terminal methyl groups of propyl and butyl chains (or larger) attached to a variety of functional groups can be oxidized by Candida sp. Overall, oxidation was seen where a terminal methyl group was adjacent to a methylene group. Accordingly, depending upon the number of such groups, monoacids, diacids, triacids, etc. could be produced. Likewise, the number of OH groups and CHO groups generated by biooxidation will vary based on the number of suitable terminal methyl groups. Oxidation of substrates having branched structures which provides multiple terminal methyl groups will produce greater numbers of oxidized species. In addition, the results with ethylcyclohexane indicate that the terminal methyl group of the ethyl chain can also be oxidized. The successful oxidation given the bulkiness of the cyclohexyl moiety would indicate that ethyl groups attached to other functionalities are oxidizable at the terminal methyl group as well. The evidence available indicates that n in the previously described formula is 1 or higher. The results indicate that an aliphatic chain can be attached to a variety of functional groups without preventing biooxidation of the terminal methyl group as long as a methylene separates the terminal methyl group from the rest of the molecule. If substrates and/or products contain both an acid and alcohol functionality, esterification between acid and alcohol groups is observed to occur to a certain extent. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, this is likely catalyzed by either internal or external lipases, which are known to catalyze esterification reactions in hydrophobic environments. Epoxy groups are opened to form diols. All epoxy groups of the Soybean oil Plastolein 9232 (epoxy soya) were opened. This observation has now been confirmed by finding that 1,2-epoxytetradecane is oxidized to yield the corresponding (ω,ω−1)-hydroxyfatty acid. Primary aliphatic alcohols are oxidized at the terminal methyl to yield alcohols or diacids. Shorter chain alcohols, such as dodecanol, show an unusually low degree of reaction that may be due to the inhibition of growth due to lauric acid product formation. The series butylcyclohexane, propylcyclohexane, ethylcyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane, was tested to determine the minimal aliphatic chain length needed for oxidation of the terminal methyl group to occur. The results described below indicate that the minimal chain length is two (ethyl group). No oxidation of aliphatic chain lengths shorter than two (methyl group) has been observed. In order to achieve a higher yield of oxidation product or to allow the oxidation to go to completion (—CH3 —→—CH2OH—→—CHO—→—COOH), the process of biooxidation could be prolonged to 72 hours or more. One method for doing this would be to add another batch of carbon source and/or sample after the initial time period. Very volatile samples should be added more often during the biooxidation process as well as samples that can only be added at lower concentrations (to avoid toxicity). The following examples are merely illustrative of certain aspects of the invention and should not be construed as limiting the invention in any manner. EXAMPLE 1 Toxicity Tests of Organic Solvents Since some of the substrates were solid at room temperature or were added at low concentrations, they were first solubilized in an organic solvent, prior to their addition to the yeast culture. Since some solvents exhibit toxicity to Candida sp., one of the first steps was to evaluate the toxicity of four potential organic solvents: acetone, chloroform, ethanol and hexane. These solvents were chosen because of their potential for solubilizing the majority of the test substrates. Acetone in particular was considered to be a good solvent, since it could solubilize most of the organic substrates to be tested, yet was itself soluble in the aqueous culture medium. The concentration at which a test solvent became lethal to Candida sp. was determined by testing its ability to grow in the presence of different solvents at different concentrations. Cell growth in the presence of the different solvents was monitored spectrophotometrically using a Shimadzu UV160A UV-visible recording spectrophotometer. For each solvent tested, YPD was added to five autoclaved glass tubes. 6 ml was transferred to the first and 3 ml to the rest. 4% solvent was added to the first tube. Then the solvents were serially diluted to give concentrations from 4% to 0.25% by pipetting 3 ml from one tube to another. The tubes were mixed well between transfers. To achieve the serial dilution for chloroform and hexane, which are not soluble in aqueous solutions, it was necessary to pipette up and down or vortex until a uniform suspension formed. After completing the dilutions, 10 ml of an overnight grown YPD culture of C. tropicalis was added to each tube and the culture was allowed to grow in the presence of the solvents. As a positive control, one culture was inoculated in YPD alone. After 24 h in a 30° C. shaker at 220 rpm the cultures were sampled. The samples were then diluted in YPD 1:100 and the absorbance (ABS) measured spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of 600 nm as an indicator for growth. Each culture was also examined under the microscope. The results of this test are shown below in Table 1. Three out of four solvents were found to be useful. In addition to being a very good solvent, acetone was found to be nontoxic at concentrations of 4% or lower. Because of this, it was the solvent of choice for the majority of the substrates. Both ethanol, which was found to be nontoxic at 4%, and hexane, which was found to be nontoxic at 2%, were found to be suitable solvents. Chloroform was not an acceptable solvent, since it was found to be lethal at concentrations greater than 1% and it precipitated various components of the broth at these concentrations. Growth of C. tropicalis strain H5343 was measured by absorbance at 600 nm. TABLE 1 Spectrophotometric Data of Toxicity tests of Organic Solvents ABS Lambda = 600.0 nm Dilution in YPD (1:100) Concentration [%] Organic Solvent 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 Acetone 0.087 0.149 0.111 0.183 0.123 Chloroform 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.168 0.156 Ethanol 0.090 0.119 0.137 0.104 0.122 Hexane 0.005 0.126 0.119 0.148 0.119 EXAMPLE 2 Toxicity Tests of Substrates This experiment examined the toxicity of test substrates. The data collected from Example 1 was used to help prepare a stock solution of the test substrate in one of the solvents. Stock solutions of most substrates in concentrations from 100 g/L to 500 g/L were made using acetone as a solvent. Aqueous solutions of polyethylene glycol were prepared. In the few cases that the substrate could not be dissolved in any of the tested solvents, it was added neat. The toxicity test used here was similar to that used for the solvents described in Example 1. The goal was to determine the highest concentration at which a substrate could be added to a culture broth without being toxic, inhibiting growth, or interfering with the bioconversion process. C. tropicalis strain H5343 was grown in the presence of the substrate at different concentrations and growth was monitored spectrophotometrically. In order to determine if the substrate was lethal or was simply inhibiting growth, the cultures were examined under the microscope and streak plates of YPD and LB agar were prepared. Contamination of the culture with an unwanted organism could also be detected using this approach. Table 2 lists the substrates that were tested along with their source. TABLE 2 Substrates Tested Substrate Vendor CAS No. Purity [%] 1-Dodecanol n/a 112-53-8 n/a 2-Ethylhexanoic acid Henkel 149-57-5 n/a 2-Heptylundecanoic Henkel n/a n/a acid 6-Dodecyne Lancaster 6975-99-1 n/a 6-Undecanol Fluka n/a n/a 9-Heptadecanone n/a n/a n/a 12-Hydroxystearic acid Lancaster 106-14-9 96 C12 α-Olefin Shell 112-41-4 n/a C14 α-Olefin Shell 1120-36-1 n/a Castor Oil n/a 8001-79-4 n/a Dodecyclamine Aldrich 124-22-1 98 E 993 Aliphat 34R Henkel n/a n/a Emery 9232, Pastolein Henkel n/a n/a Eutanol G16 Henkel n/a n/a Generol Henkel n/a n/a HD-Ocenol Henkel n/a n/a Hexadecyl acetate Henkel 3551-84-01 n/a Hexadecyl pelargonate Henkel 3551-86 n/a Indu-Extrakt-sclareol Henkel n/a n/a Larol alcohol C12-14A Henkel n/a n/a PEG 200 Lancaster 25322-68-3 n/a PEG 200, Dilaurate Henkel n/a n/a PEG 200, Monolaurate Henkel n/a n/a R(+) limonene Aldrich 5989-27-5 97 S(−) limonene Aldrich 5989-54-8 96 trans-2-nonene Aldrich 6434-78-2 99 trans-2-tetradecene Aldrich 41446-63-3 98 For each substrate tested, YPD was added to five autoclaved glass tubes. 6 ml was transferred to the first tube and 3 ml to the rest. 1% substrate was added to the first tube and then serially diluted to give concentrations from 1% to 0.015%. Since the last tube was initially empty, the concentration in the last two tubes was the same. Except for the last tube, 10 ml of an overnight YPD culture of C. tropicalis was added to each tube, the last tube was a control for contamination. The cultures were then allowed to grow in the presence of the substrates. As a growth-control one culture without substrate was inoculated. After 48 h in a 30° C. shaker at 220 rpm the cultures were sampled. The samples were then diluted in YPD 1:100 and growth was measured spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of 600 nm. To determine if contamination had occurred, each culture was examined under the microscope and streak plates of both YPD and LB were made from the 1% and the inoculated 0.015% tube. Table 3 below shows that most substrates were not toxic at a concentration of 1% or less. Some, however, were found to be highly toxic to C. tropicalis and were not suitable for further testing. TABLE 3 Spectrophotometric Data of Toxicity tests of Substrates ABS 1 = 600.0 nm Dilution in YPD (1:100) Concentration [%] neg. Substrate 1 0.5 0.25 0.13 0.063 0.0313 0.01563 control 1-Dodecanol 0.267** 0.013** 0.032** 0.004 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 2-Ethylhexanoic acid 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.051 0.099 0.000 2-Heptylundecanoic acid 0.268 0.048 — 0.043 0.077 0.077 0.082 0.000 6-Dodecyne 0.066 0.071 0.073 0.071 0.074 0.083 0.125 0.000 6-Undecanol 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000** 0.000 9-Heptadecanone 0.004** 0.073 0.120 0.103 0.064 0.120 0.100 0.000 12-Hydroxystearic acid 0.120 NT NT NT NT NT NT NT C12 a-Olefin 0.082 0.080 0.080 0.082 0.119 0.119 0.077 0.000 C14 a-Olefin 0.087 0.084 0.115 0.097 0.085 0.084 0.061 0.000 Castor Oil 0.078 0.082 0.089 0.086 0.070 0.090 0.077 0.000 Dodecene 0.026 0.032 0.053 0.050 0.079 0.055 0.088 0.000 Dodecyclamine 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 E 993 Aliphat 34R 0.093 0.098 0.091 0.102 0.093 0.081 0.112 0.000 Emery 9232, Pastolein 0.061 NT 0.076 0.107 0.870 0.055 0.059 0.000 Eutanol G16 0.117 0.122 0.145 0.273 0.110 0.145 0.120 0.000 Generol 0.053* 0.044* 0.011* 0.122 0.139 0.145 0.148 0.000 HD-Ocenol 0.087 0.085 0.097 0.115 0.076 0.087 0.093 0.000 Hexadecyl acetate 0.155 0.103 0.110 0.083 0.089 0.104 0.110 0.000 Hexadecyl pelargonate 0.080 0.102 0.103 0.083 0.075 0.095 0.112 0.000 Indu-Extrakt-sclareol 0.083 0.092 0.110 0.106 0.157 0.100 0.083 0.000 Larol alcohol C12-14A NT NT NT NT NT NT NT NT PEG 200 0.089 0.096 0.101 0.096 0.103 0.108 0.101 0.000 PEG 200, Dilaurate 0.051** 0.064 0.088 0.061 0.057 0.080 0.064 0.000 PEG 200, Monolaurate 0.041** 0.052 0.099 0.107 0.090 0.107 0.062 0.000 R(+) limonene 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.007 0.106 0.117 0.123 0.000 S(−) limonene 0.002 0.002 0.000 0.002 0.011 0.094 0.104 0.000 trans-2-nonene 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.066 0.105 0.100 0.112 0.000 trans-7-tetradecene 0.095 0.107 0.103 0.104 0.112 0.106 0.117 0.000 ABS = absorbance of culture broth NT => not tested **growth inhibited, cells still alive as detected on streak plates. Abs result of substrate interference *no growth detected on streak plates, therefore, possible substrate interference EXAMPLE 3 Bioconversion Process (Phase 1) The maximum non-toxic concentration of each substrate, as determined from the toxicity testing in Example 2, was employed for the bioconversion testing in shake flask experiments. Since the majority of substrates tested were not toxic at 1%, the experiments were carried out in a volume of 50 ml in a 500 ml baffled shake flask. The test substrate was added as a stock solution dissolved or diluted in an appropriate solvent (generally acetone). Polyethylene glycol and its derivatives, however, were dissolved either in water or were added neat, depending-on viscosity and solubility. Each experiment was done in duplicate. A control without the organism was run for each substrate to verify that chemical modifications were the result of the bioconversion by Candida. The uninoculated controls were run under the same conditions as the inoculated flasks. The bioconversion tests were undertaken following a shake flask protocol. On the first day, 100 ml of YPD was inoculated with a fresh colony of C. tropicalis H5343 in a 1000 ml baffled shake flask. The YPD contained 3 g/L BACTO® Yeast extract (Difco), 20 g/L BACTO® Peptone (Difco), and 20 g/L BACTO® Dextrose (Difco). One drop of SAG471 (commercially available from Witco) concentrate was added as an antifoaming agent. The culture was then incubated in a 30° C. shaker at 300 rpm for 20 hours. After a growth phase of 20 hours, the 100 ml YPD culture was transferred to 900 ml YM-Broth. The YM-Broth contained 3 g/L BACTO® Yeast Extract, 3 g/L BACTO® Malt Extract, 5 g/L BACTO® Peptone, and 10 g/L BACTO® Dextrose. The 1000 ml was dispensed to five 2000 ml baffled shake flasks in 200 ml aliquots. Again, one drop of SAG471 concentrate was added to each flask. The cultures were then allowed to grow for 30 hours in a 30° C. shaker at 300 rpm. The cells were then centrifuged for 5 min. at 4068 g at room temperature. The supernatant was discarded and the cells were resuspended in 1000 ml DCA3. DCA3 is a 0.3 M potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5, containing 50 g/L glycerol and 6.7 g/L yeast nitrogen base. After resuspension, 50 ml was transferred to 500 ml baffled shake flasks. The substrate was then added at the optimal concentration determined in the toxicity test described above in Example 2. One drop of SAG 471 concentrate was added to each flask prior to incubation for 48 hours in a 30° C. shaker at 300 rpm. After 48 hours, the cultures were transferred to 50 ml Falcon tubes and stored frozen at −20° C. until analyzed. In the standard procedure for extraction, the whole sample was poured into a separation funnel and acidified with 5 ml HCl [12N]. A mix of 30 ml diethyl ether and 20 ml petroleum ether was added and the separation funnel was extracted using standard extraction protocols. The water phase was removed to another separation funnel. Again, a mix of 30 ml diethyl ether and 20 ml petroleum ether was added and the separation funnel shaken in the usual manner. The water phase was then discarded. Water was added to both separation funnels, which were shaken again. The water phase was discarded and both ether phases were combined and filtered into preweighed beakers through sodium sulfate to remove any remaining water. The solvent was then allowed to evaporate in the hood to leave the dried sample behind. Due to its water-solubility, polyethylene glycol and its derivatives. required a different extraction method. 10 ml of sample broth was diluted with 90 ml HPLC-grade acetone and anhydrous magnesium sulfate was added to remove the water. The suspension was stirred for 1-2 min and was subsequently filtered into a preweighed beaker. The filter residue was rinsed with HPLC-grade acetone and the pooled acetone fractions were allowed to evaporate in the hood. The dried sample was weighed and dissolved in an NMR appropriate solvent. C13 and H-NMR were performed with an adequate amount of recovered sample on a Varian Unity 400 (commercially available from Varian, Inc.). EXAMPLE 4 Bioconversion of Dodecene The bioconversion of dodecene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. A low amount of sample was recovered, about 10% of the starting weight, part of which was the SAG 471 antifoam. The recovered material had significantly reduced α-olefin and terminal CH3. The NMR on the sample obtained showed that one major functionality is carboxylic acid. Another is 1,2-diol. It is not certain from the spectra whether there is any C2 di-acid or if the product is predominantly 11,12-dihydroxydodecanoic acid. Interestingly, a little fatty type unsaturation and polyunsaturation was seen. A minor amount of some unknown aromatic was also seen. EXAMPLE 5 Bioconversion of 1-tetradecene The bioconversion of 1-tetradecene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.16 g (32%). The NMR analysis was very similar to Example 4. Again, CH3 and α-olefin were reduced significantly (not necessarily on the same molecules). Again, significant acid was formed, and the 1,2-diol was more distinct, indicating 13,14-dihydroxytetradecanoic acid. Some internal unsaturation was also seen, indicating undesired microbial fatty acid modification. No triglyceride was seen, despite glycerin being utilized as a nutrient. EXAMPLE 6 Bioconversion of 2-heptylundecanoic Acid The bioconversion of 2-heptylundecanoic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.38 g (76%). NMR analysis showed approximately 25% reduction of the chain terminal CH3. A significant part of this reduced CH3 is present as primary hydroxyl and ester of primary hydroxyl. Products formed include hydroxylated 2-heptylundecanoic acid and carboxy-2-heptylundecanoic acid. Interestingly, a small amount of unsaturation, typical of fatty unsaturation, was also seen, plus the CH2 between olefin groups of fatty polyunsaturation, indicating the organism can convert some of this branched acid to oleic and linoleic acids. Samples from the control showed NMR peaks as expected for the title substrate, along with a small amount of ester of the incompletely oxidized residual alcohol. EXAMPLE 7 Bioconversion of 1-dodecanol The bioconversion of 1-dodecanol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.22 g (44%). IR analysis showed acid, ester, and hydroxyl. NMR analysis showed little, if any reduction of the terminal CH3 to dodecanedioic acid. Apparently approximately 25% of the alcohol functionality oxidized to dodecanoic acid, some of which then esterified. Also, some of the alcohol was oxidized to the n-aldehyde. Approximately 0.4% of the product was n-aldehyde, 4.5-5% was dehydrated aldol condensate, and approximately 12% was aldehyde di-alkyl acetal. Products seen include dodecanal, dodecanoic acid, and 1,12-dodecanedioic acid. In the control, only the starting 1-dodecanol was detected. EXAMPLE 8 Bioconversion of 6-undecanol The bioconversion of 6-undecanol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Only 0.14 g, about 28% of the starting weight, was recovered in the extract, indicating that most of the substrate was either totally consumed by the organism, lost to evaporation, or somehow lost in extraction. The extract recovered was nearly identical to the starting material, with the addition of a little SAG 471 antifoam containing polypropylene glycol. EXAMPLE 9 Bioconversion of 1 2-hydroxystearic acid The bioconversion of 1 2-hydroxystearic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. The starting material is about 4% self-esterified, and contains about 4% 12-ketostearic acid. 0.39 g or 78% of sample was recovered. NMR analysis on the control showed no reaction. The finished extract showed a slight decrease of the keto group, a slight decrease in ester, and a slight increase in unsaturation, from about 1% to about 2%. Of most significance, however, is that the presence of terminal CH3 dropped about 25%, apparently by oxidation to the acid, 7-hydroxyoctadecanedioic acid. EXAMPLE 10 Bioconversion of Castor Oil The bioconversion of castor oil was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.20 g (40%). NMR analysis on the products showed that the terminal CH3 was about 25% gone, to 7-hydroxy-9-octadecene- 1,1 8-dioic acid, since no primary alcohol or ester of primary alcohol was seen. However, the triglyceride functionality and the chain secondary hydroxy have undergone an apparent random transesterification, yielding a mix of mono-, di-, and triglycerides, plus an ester of secondary OH and residual free secondary OH. Also seen at a minor level was the ester of 2-enoic acid, possibly formed by oxidation at the secondary hydroxyl. A few other small NMR peaks were unidentified. NMR analysis of the control reaction showed only peaks expected for castor oil, with a little random transesterification (1,2 and 1,3-diglycerides and esterified chain secondary OH), much lower than in the bio-oxidized product. The control sample also showed none of the 2-enoate observed in the bio-oxidized product. EXAMPLE 11 Bioconversion of Plastolein 9232 (Epoxidized Soybean Oil—Epoxy Soya) The bioconversion of Plastolein 9232 (epoxidized soybean oil) was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. 0.17 g of the initial sample (34%) was recovered. NMR analysis showed terminal CH3 was nearly all gone, apparently oxidized to polycarboxy polyhydroxy soybean oil. The epoxy groups were nearly completely opened to diols, some of which were esterified to the newly formed acids, and some possibly transesterified with glyceride. Triglyceride appeared to be only partially intact and may be partially transesterified with the new acids and diols. In contrast, the control reaction showed only the unreacted starting material. EXAMPLE 12 Bioconversion of 2-hexyldecanol (Eutano G-16) The bioconversion of 2-hexyldecanol (Eutanol G-16) was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.34 g or 70%. NMR analysis showed the starting hydroxyl remained unoxidized. The terminal CH3 were depleted approximately 15%, forming primary OH or acid. Products found were carboxy-2-hexyldecanol and hydroxylated 2-hexyldecanol. NMR analysis of the control sample showed only peaks expected for the product, with a few minor components, including a vinylidene olefin and an α-branched aldehyde, both still present in the oxidized product. Analysis ofthe control revealed no oxidation ofthe terminal methyl group. EXAMPLE 13 Bioconversion of Hexadecyl Acetate The bioconversion of hexadecyl acetate was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.24 g or 28%. NMR analysis showed that the acetate was completely gone, either lost in extraction or utilized by the organism as an energy source. The resulting primary OH was 85% gone, and the terminal CH3 was 95% gone, oxidized to 1,16-hexadecanedioic acid. The rate of oxidation appeared higher than for simple alcohols, such as the dodecanol and oleyl alcohol, with hexadecamediac acid as the product. Interestingly, again some unsaturation was present. No triglyceride was seen. EXAMPLE 14 Bioconversion of Hexadecyl Pelargonate The bioconversion of hexadecyl pelargonate was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.24 g (48%). The NMR results showed the terminal CH3 was reduced about 50%, and the expected 1,16-hexadecanedioic acid was formed. Also, some ester of primary OH, about 25% of the starting ester linkages, and some free primary OH were observed. Significant hydrolysis and oxidation had occurred. EXAMPLE 15 Bioconversion of Sclareol The bioconversion of sclareol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was 0.39-g (78%). Proton and C13 APT NMR analysis showed no differences from the starting material. (The sclareol was not pure, showing an unidentified impurity, estimated at about 10%.) EXAMPLE 16 Bioconversion of Polyethylene Glycol The bioconversion of polyethylene glycol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. This sample was water-soluble and thus not ether extractable. Therefore, the total sample was acidified with HCl, diluted 5:1 in acetone, and the precipitated salts filtered out. The liquid was allowed to evaporate in a hood at room temperature. The residue was then rinsed with acetone-d6 for NMR analysis. Surprisingly this showed some oleic acid, some polypropylene glycol from the SAG-471, and polyethylene glycol. There was no evidence of any PEG ester or terminal acid. Thus any PEG oxidized was not recoverable with the acetone. EXAMPLE 17 Bioconversion of Trans-2-nonene The bioconversion of trans-2-nonene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Recovery was very low. NMR analysis showed some evidence of a non-2-enoic acid, possibly non-2-enedioic acid, but also triglyceride, internal chain unsaturation, and some much longer chain length material that might be a simple fatty triglyceride. EXAMPLE 18 Bioconversion of 7-trans-tetradecene The bioconversion of 7-trans-tetradecene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. NMR analysis showed that only 3.5% of the starting terminal CH3 remained. Most was converted to 7-trans-tetradecenedioic acid and 14-hydroxytetradeceneoic acid, with a small amount of free primary hydroxyl and approximately 0.2-0.3% esterified primary hydroxyl. Interestingly, about 20-25% of the sample contained fatty type cis unsaturation. NMR analysis of the starting olefin showed a similar cis/trans isomer mix. EXAMPLE 19 Bioconversion of 2-ethylhexanoic Acid The bioconversion of 2-ethylhexanoic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. A very small sample was recovered The CH3:CH2COOH ratio appeared to be about 1:1. Unsaturation was also present, and the CH2 chain length was closer to oleic acid than to the shorter starting material or to the desired oxidation products. Thus, this material appears to have been nearly totally consumed or lost in extraction. EXAMPLE 20 Bioconversion of 6-dodecyne The bioconversion of 6-dodecyne was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. Another very low recovery sample (possibly because of volatility during reaction). NMR analysis showed some normal fatty olefinic unsaturation. Some triglyceride and terminal CH3 amounts were rather high, indicating the recovered sample was high in normal fat, and very low in reaction product. Some residual alkyne and some ester of primary hydroxyl was present. EXAMPLE 21 Bioconversion of Ocenol Oleyl Alcohol The bioconversion of ocenol oleyl alcohol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. NMR analysis showed that the terminal CH3 was 80% gone, apparently replaced by 1,18-octadecenedioic acid and 18-hydroxyoctadeceneoic acid. In addition, primary OH was significantly reduced, with only 13% remaining as free OH and 4% present as an ester, as well as esters of oleyl alcohol. Thus the sample appears to be high in octadecanedioic acid, but with some 18-hydroxyoleic acid and its esters, as well as esters of oleyl alcohol. This sample was the first to show a little triglyceride (about 1%). EXAMPLE 22 Bioconversion of Generol 122N Sterol Mix. The bioconversion of a Generol 122N sterol mix was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 3. NMR analysis showed only unreacted starting materials. EXAMPLE 23 Toxicity Tests of Additional Substrates Additional substrates were to be tested for bioconversion following a slightly different protocol than the one noted above in Example 3. Those substrates also had to be tested for toxicity similar to the test described in Example 2, to determine the highest concentration at which a substrate could be added to a culture broth without being toxic, inhibiting growth, or interfering with the bioconversion process. C. tropicalis was grown in the presence of the substrate at three different concentrations and growth was monitored spectrophotometrically. In contrast to Example 2, all test substrates were added directly to the culture medium without dissolving in solvent. The tests were completed as follows: On the first day, H5343 was grown in YPD medium (25.0 ml seed culture) overnight on a rotary shaker at 30° C. and 250 rpm. The next day 1.0 ml of the seed culture was used to inoculate a new flask of 50 ml YPD. This culture was grown overnight on a rotary shaker at 30° C. and 250 rpm. 25 ml of the YPD broth was added to each of three 250 ml baffled shake flasks to which either 1%, 0.5% or 0.1% (either w/v or v/v, depending upon the state of the test substrate) of the test substrate had been added. Two control flasks were each inoculated with H5343 in 25 ml YPD. All flasks were incubated on a rotary shaker at 30° C. and 250 rpm. After 24 hours incubation, the absorbance at 600 nm of the test and control flask cultures was determined, using uninoculated YPD broth as blank. Cultures were diluted so that the OD600nm measured between 0.15 and 0.3. Table 4 shows that many of the substrates to be tested were not toxic at a concentration of 1% or less. Other substrates were found to inhibit growth at high concentration, but not at lower concentrations, while some inhibited fairly strongly even at the lowest concentration. For strongly inhibitory substrates, a concentration of 0.1-0.2% was chosen for the bioconversion tests. The concentration used in the bioconversion tests is shown in Table 4. TABLE 4 Spectrophotometric Data of Toxicity Tests of Substrates on C. tropicalis Concentration in Substrate Absorbance at 600 nm Bioconversion Concentration [%] 1.0% 0.5% 0.1% Test Control 34 34 34 Dodecylvinylether 7.33 12.63 20.43 0.5% 1,2-Epoxytetradecane 29.83 10.63 14.83 1.1% 1-Octadecene 34.7 36.33 34.93 1.0% 1-Hexadecene 37.93 35.33 38.99 1.0% 2-Hexydecanoic acid 41.53 35.33 27.73 1.0% Butylsulfone 1.503 2.723 22.033 0.5% 3-Octanone 1.229 0.909 31.33 0.27% Propylcyclohexane 1.201 34.12 44.13 0.5% Hexyl Ether 3.33 13.21 12.85 0.5% Pentyl Ether 1.813 1.863 2.033 0.25% Butylcyclohexane 20.33 21.13 22.03 1.0% 2-Butyl-1-octanol 6.213 8.973 10.53 0.5% Butylsulfone 12.25 14.21 5.61 0.25% Butylmalonic Acid 8.53 27.13 27.43 0.5% 2-Butyloctanoic acid 4.41 4.63 5.87 0.29% Butylsulfoxide 5.81 11.37 15.63 0.5% 3-Hexylthiophene 1.223 1.033 0.933 0.24% 2-Hexyl-1-decanol 11.93 19.73 24.43 0.5% 1,2-Hexadecanediol 2.013 3.033 3.103 0.5% VMLP Naphtha 2.95 3.8 14.4 0.25%, 0.5% Diisobutylene 7.0 5.05 23.0 0.25%, 0.5% 2-Octanol 0.285 0.235 0.250 Not Tested Substrate Concentration [%] 0.6% 0.3% 0.06% 3-Butyl- 1.18 0.245 12.5 0.1% (ethylpentyl)oxazolidine 2-Methyl-3-heptanone 0.125 0.099 19.2 0.1% Ethylcyclohexane 16.5 2.03 9.45 0.2% Methylcyclohexane 0.16 15.6 13.7 0.3% EXAMPLE 24 Bioconversion Testing of Additional Substrates (Phase II) Using the data generated in Example 23, the bioconversion testing was performed using substrate concentrations determined to be neither lethal nor inhibitory in concentrations noted above in Table 4. The test substrate was added directly to a shake flask, either as a solid or as a liquid. A revised shake flask protocol was utilized for the evaluation of yeast strains for diacid production activity. A single isolated colony was inoculated into 50 ml YPD broth in a 500 ml baffled shake flask. The mixture was then incubated 24 hours at 30° C. and 300 rpm on a rotary shaker-incubator. 15 ml of the YPD-grown culture was then transferred into 135 ml DCA2 medium in a 1000 ml baffled shake flask for a total volume of 150 ml. (The DCA2 medium was prepared by combining 3 g BACTO® Peptone, 6 g yeast extract, 3 g sodium acetate, 7.2 g K2HPO4, and 9.3 g KH2PO4 with Milli-Q® Water to produce 1L. Then, 117 ml of the DCA2 mix was added to 15 ml 50% (w/v) glycerol in a 1000 ml baffle flask and autoclaved. The mixture was then allowed to cool and added to 3 ml 50×YNB (334 g/L).) 100 μl of sterile 1:10 SAG 471 antifoam solution was added to each flask. The mixture was then incubated for 24 hours at 30° C. and 300 rpm on a rotary shaker-incubator. Cells from the DCA2-grown culture were then harvested by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 5 minutes. The spent broth was poured off and each cell pellet resuspended in 150 ml DCA3 without glycerol (approximately 1.1 times concentration of DCA2 culture). (The DCA3 was prepared by adding 975 ml 0.3 M KHPO4 buffer, pH 7.5 (0.3 M K2HPO4 solution adjusted to pH 7.5 with 0.3 M KH2PO4 solution), to 25 ml YNB. The mixture was increased to 1 L with Milli-Q® water, mixed, and filter sterilized.) A 50 ml aliquot of this DCA3 suspension was added to a 500 ml baffled shake flask containing appropriate amount of substrate, as determined by toxicity analysis. 100 μl of a 1:10 dilution of SAG 471 antifoam was added to each flask. The flask was then incubated at 30° C. and 300 rpm on a rotary shaker-incubator. One hour after initial induction, 2 ml of a sterile 50% (w/v) glycerol solution was added to each flask. Eight hours after induction, an additional 1 ml of the glycerol solution was added to each flask. The reaction was stopped after 24-30 hours in all flasks by placing the flasks in a −20° C. freezer. For the extraction of the product, the frozen shake flask sample was first thawed in a 37° C. water bath. 5 ml 12N HCl was added to the sample flask and well mixed. The acidified sample was poured into a 250 ml separatory funnel. 60 ml ethyl ether and 40 ml petroleum ether were combined into the empty sample shake flask and swirled well to mix and rinse flask. This was added to the separatory finnel, which was capped and shaken for 1 minute, pausing occasionally to release gas pressure. After standing for 5 minutes, the water layer was removed by decanting into the empty shake flask. The upper solvent layer was decanted into 50 ml centrifuge tubes and centrifuged for 15 minutes in a tabletop centrifuge at 3500 rpm. The ether layer was transferred by pipette to a collection beaker for evaporation. This extraction procedure was repeated on the aqueous layer with the exception that 30 ml ethyl ether and 20 ml petroleum ether were added to the aqueous layer prior to extraction. The two ether extracts were combined in the beaker and the solvents were allowed to dry at ambient temperatures, leaving product behind. The product was redissolved in a small amount of ethyl ether and was transferred to a tared HPLC vial and the solvent was allowed to evaporate. The sample weight was taken by calculating the difference between the weigh of the sample +HPLC vial and the tared weight of the vial itself. The percent recovery was determined by dividing the weight of the recovered sample by the weight of the sample originally added to the flask and multiplying the result by 100. The sample was then submitted first for NMR analysis and, if evidence of oxidation was observed, was later submitted for GC/MS analysis. EXAMPLE 25 Bioconversion of Butylcyclohexane The bioconversion of butylcyclohexane was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was low; 0.05 g was recovered from 0.537 g starting material (9.3% recovery). This low recovery reflects the volatility of the test substrate. The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that of the sample recovered, a small but significant portion was determined to be the polypropylene glycol from the SAG 471 antifoam. It was found to contain considerable carboxylic acid. Some portion of that carboxylic acid was thought to be the anticipated product. The sample was found to contain material that was far more linear than expected, and demonstrated chain unsaturation and polyunsaturation. It also showed a little triglyceride. Finally, the sample demonstrated an oxygen bearing CH, indicating oxidation of the chain off the ring, to cyclohexyl ester or ether. The products noted were 2-butylcyclohexanone, 4-cyclohexylbutanol, 4-(2-hydroxycyclohexyl)butanol, 4-(2-hydroxycyclohexyl)butanoic acid, cyclohexylbutanoic acid, and 4-cyclohexyl-2-hydroxybutanoic acid. The GC/MS results indicated that the expected reaction product, cyclohexylbutyrate, as well as the intermediate alcohol, was formed. Surprisingly, oxidations of the cyclohexane ring were also found. Additionally, some oxidation of the alpha carbon on the butyl group was observed as well. Since recovery was low, the individual reaction products represented only small quantities, but indicated additional oxidation capabilities for this organism besides ω-oxidation. As these results were obtained in shake flask experiments, the product type and quantity might be influenced by a controlled substrate feed in a fermenter vessel. EXAMPLE 26 Bioconversion of Propylcyclohexane The bioconversion of propylcyclohexane was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was only 0.049 g from 0.252 g starting material (19.4% recovery). This low recovery reflects the volatility of the test substrate. The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that of the sample recovered, a small but significant portion was determined to be the polypropylene glycol from the SAG 471 antifoam. The sample, however, was found to contain considerable carboxylic acid, with a portion of that carboxylic acid was thought to be the anticipated product. The sample was found to contain material that was far more linear than expected, and contained chain unsaturation and polyunsaturation. The methyl to acid ratio indicates considerable di-acid in the sample. As with the butylcyclohexane reaction, an oxygen bearing CH, indicating oxidation of the chain off the ring to cyclohexyl ester or ether, was observed. The products found were 3-(2-hydroxycyclohexyl)propanoic acid, cyclohexylpropanoic acid and 3-cyclohexyl-2-hydroxypropanoic acid. The GC/MS results were similar to what was observed with butylcyclohexyane in that the expected product, cyclohexylpropionic acid (the main product), was detected. Oxidation of the cyclohexane ring was also found in small amounts. Additionally, some oxidation of the alpha carbon on the propyl group was observed as well. EXAMPLE 27 Bioconversion of Ethylcyclohexane The bioconversion of ethylcyclohexane was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.052 g from 0.100 g starting material (52% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate the presence of a little BHT and polypropylene glycol, plus the same unknown aromatic. It is a predominantly linear carboxylic acid, higher in di-acid than the methylcyclohexane product. Also present was some triglyceride, a 1,3-diglyceride, and the same sterol as above, though at a lower level. No starting material remained. However, a little cyclohexylacetic acid has also apparently been made, but far less than the fatty derived material. The results of the GC/MS analysis were in agreement with the NMR data in detecting the expected product, cyclohexylacetate, in small amounts. In this case, however, neither oxidations of the cyclohexane ring nor of the alpha carbon of the acetyl group were detected. EXAMPLE 28 Bioconversion of Methylcyclohexane The bioconversion of methylcyclohexane was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.055 g from 0.150 g starting material (36.7% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that the vast majority of the small sample recovered was a fatty triglyceride with some 1,3-diglyceride and some carboxylic acid. Also seen was some highly branched material, possibly some type of sterol like ergosterol (though not with a double bond at position 5). A little polypropylene glycol (antifoam), BHT (from extraction solvent), and some unidentified aromatic were also found. No methylcyclohexane was seen. Any product was minor, if present at all. Because of these results, this sample was not submitted for GC/MS. EXAMPLE 29 Bioconversion of Naringenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavanone) The bioconversion of naringenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavanone) was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Naringenin was selected for testing to determine if C. tropicalis was capable of oxidizing it to the corresponding isoflavone. Recovery was 0.222 g from 0.503 g starting material (44.1% recovery). Because of solubility problems, the NMR for this sample was examined in acetone-d6 instead of CDCl3. The recovered sample was nearly identical to the starting material. The only loss was that of a minor ethyl acetate contaminant in the starting material, probably a crystallization solvent. New peaks were only a minor amount of residual ethyl ether, trace SAG 471 antifoam, and a small amount of unsaturated fatty acid, possibly partly oxidized to. diacid. This is probably a fatty acid made by the organism. No new aromatic components were seen. Low recovery was probably due to poor extraction due to partial solubility in water, though it is possible the material may have been metabolized. The conclusion from this test is that naringenin is not oxidized by C. tropicalis. The GC/MS results confirmed the NMR analysis, indicating nothing but starting material in the extracted sample. EXAMPLE 30 Bioconversion of 2-Hexyl-1-decanol (Guerbet Alcohol) The bioconversion of 2-hexyl-1-decanol (Guerbet alcohol) was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was selected to determine how easily the terminal methyl of the hexyl moiety is oxidized. It is also another example of a Guerbet alcohol and offers another test of the capability of C. tropicalis to oxidize a primary alcohol attached to a one-carbon chain on a branched compound. Recovery was good, 0.244 g from 0.255 g starting material (95.7% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that none of the starting alcohol functionality had oxidized to acid (or ester). However, about 16% of the alcohol had esterified. Significant carboxylic acid functionality was seen. Approximately 9% of original terminal CH3 had oxidized to alcohol, of which 18% was esterified. About 55-60% of terminal CH3 had oxidized to acids, part of which were esterified. Residual CH3 was still significant. Interestingly, there was a little unsaturation. The GC/MS profile demonstrated that both the C-8 and the C-6 side chain methyl groups were oxidized to the alcohol and then the acid, as expected. Products found were 2-(6-hydroxyhexyl)-1-docanol, 2-hexyl-1,10-decanediol, 7-hydroxymethyl-pentadecanoic acid, 10-hydroxy-9-n-hexyl-decanoic acid, 15-hydroxy-7-hydroxymethyl-pentadecanoic acid, 15-hydroxy-9-hydroxymethyl-pentadecanoic acid, and 7-hydroxymethyl-1,15-pentadecanedioic acid. There was no evidence of any oxidation of the initial primary alcohol, however. EXAMPLE 31 Bioconversion of 2-Hexyldecanoic Acid The bioconversion of 2-hexyldecanoic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was chosen to determine if a triacid product could be made from the branched acid starting material. Recovery was 0.469 g from 0.528 g starting material (88.8% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that slightly over half the starting terminal CH3 groups remained, while less than half were oxidized to acid or hydroxyl. Some was esterified to branched acid, and some to linear. It was not certain if there was any tri-acid, or only mono and di-acids. Again, some chain unsaturation was seen. The products found were 2-(6-hydroxyhexyl)-1-decanoic acid, 10-hydroxy-2-(6-hydroxyhexyl)-decanoic acid, 7-carboxy-pentadecanoic acid, 9-carboxy-pentadecanoic acid, 15-hydroxy-7-carboxy-pentadecanoic acid, and 15-hydroxy-9-carboxy-pentadecanoic acid. The GC/MS profile showed that both the C-8 and the C-6 side chain methyl groups were oxidized to the alcohol and at least one side chain was oxidized to acid. Unfortunately there was no evidence of any formation of the triacid. In principle, since the analogous Guerbet alcohol described previously showed oxidation of both terminal methyl groups to the acid, this material should also oxidize both. EXAMPLE 32 Bioconversion of 1-Hexadecene The bioconversion of 1-hexadecene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. A longer-chain α-olefin than was previously tested was chosen to confirm that the (ω,ω−1)-dihydroxy fatty acid could be produced. Recovery was 0.358 g, from 0.502 g starting material (71.3% recovery). The diols made may have been slightly water soluble and partially lost in extraction. The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that about 70% of terminal CH3 was oxidized to 15,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid. About 50% of vinyl unsaturation remained, 50% oxidized to diol. IR indicated the presence of some ester. Again, some chain unsaturation was seen, indicating the organism may be making fatty acids. The GC/MS data confirmed the results of the NMR. The (ω,ω−1)-dihydroxy fatty acid was formed as the major product in the reaction. EXAMPLE 33 Bioconversion of 2-Butyl-1-octanol The bioconversion of 2-butyl-1-octanol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This Guerbet alcohol was selected to determine if the terminal methyl of the butyl group could be oxidized to the acid. Recovery was 0.201 g from 0.254 g starting material (79.1% recovery). IR examination showed some carboxylic acid, and residual OH, plus a little ester. NMR indicated about half the CH3 groups had oxidized, mostly to acid, but a little to terminal OH. The alpha branched OH appears to be un-oxidized, but about 10-15% of these starting OH groups were esterified. Again, a significant amount of unsaturated fatty material was seen. The products found were 2-(6-hydroxybutyl)-1-docanol, 2-propyl-1,8-octanediol, 7-hydroxymethyl-undecanoic acid, 8-hydroxy-7-n-propyl-octanoic acid, 11-hydroxy-5-hydroxymethyl-undecanoic acid, 11-hydroxy-7-hydroxymethyl-undecanoic acid, and 7-hydroxymethyl-1,11-undecanedioic acid. The GC/MS profile showed that both the C-4 and the C-6 side chain methyl groups were oxidized to the alcohol and then the acid, as expected. As with 2-hexyl-1-decanol, there was no evidence of any oxidation of the initial primary alcohol. EXAMPLE 34 Bioconversion of Dihexyl Ether The bioconversion of hexyl ether was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was chosen for testing to determine if the R-group attached to the aliphatic chain could be an ether. Recovery was 1.049 g from 0.261 g starting material (402% recovery). The sample was diluted in acetone-d6 for NMR examination. As with other samples, there was a little unsaturated fatty acid, some polypropylene glycol (SAG 471), and a minor amount of triglyceride. Of primary concern, however, was the ether bond remaining intact, and about 80% of the CH3 oxidizing to carboxylic acid. The GC/MS data confirmed that the expected diacid, 7-oxa-1,13-tridecanedioic acid, was the major product. EXAMPLE 35 Bioconversion of Dodecylvinyl Ether The bioconversion of dodecylvinyl ether was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was selected for testing to determine the fate of the terminal diol attached directly to the ether functionality. It was also of interest to determine if the terminal methyl group could be oxidized. Recovery was 0.233 g from 0.260 g starting material (89.6% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that the vinyl group was missing. Also, about 60% of the terminal CH3 had oxidized to dodecanedioic acid, with a small amount of primary OH. However, the peaks demonstrating carboxylate were stronger than expected, indicating C12 diacid formation. Other major functionalities noted included an alkyl alkoxy glycolate (ether-ester), and surprisingly, an acetaldehyde di-alkyl acetal. The GC/MS profile demonstrated that although there appears to be a tiny amount of the expected (ω,ω−1)-dihydroxy fatty acid the major product was the C12 diacid. It appears that the terminal diol was cleaved and the ether group was oxidized to the acid, with the alcohol intermediate detected as well. EXAMPLE 36 Bioconversion of Dibutyl sulfone The bioconversion of dibutyl sulfone was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.209 g from 0.26 g starting material (80.4% recovery). NMR showed a little SAG 471, a little unsaturated fatty acid, and minor unidentified material, but predominantly unreacted dibutyl sulfone. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 37 Bioconversion of Butylmalonic Acid The bioconversion of butylmalonic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.325 g from 0.253 g starting material (128% recovery). This sample was dissolved in acetone-d6 for NMR analysis, which indicated considerable unreacted starting material remained, with some normal unsaturated fatty acid, a little SAG 471, and little or no desired tri-acid. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 38 Bioconversion of Butyl Sulfoxide The bioconversion of Butyl sulfoxide was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.152 g from 0.259 g starting material (58.7% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that a small amount of unsaturated fatty acid was present, along with some SAG 471. The main components however were approximately 80% dibutylsulfoxide and approximately 20% dibutyl sulfone. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 39 Bioconversion of 2-Butyloctanoic Acid The bioconversion of 2-butyloctanoic acid was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.114 g from 0.144 g starting material (79.2% recovery). NMR showed predominantly unreacted starting material, with a little polypropylene glycol (antifoam), BHT, and minor ether peroxides and other by-products. Based on data from the corresponding Guerbet alcohol, one would have expected this material to be oxidized to some degree. EXAMPLE 40 Bioconversion of 3-hexylthiophene The bioconversion of 3-hexylthiophene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.109 g from 0.122 g starting material (89.3% recovery). NMR indicated the material was mostly unreacted starting material. Several minor peaks were seen, which remain unidentified, but did not indicate the expected oxidation of the terminal CH3 to acid. Instead, it appears some polyhydric material was formed, possibly from the solubilization of a sugar adduct to an organically soluble material. A small amount of polypropylene glycol and minor unsaturatedlfatty acid or ester was also seen. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 41 Bioconversion of 1-Octadecene The bioconversion of 1-octadecene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.287 g from 0.502 g starting material (57.2% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that some fatty acid was present, and some residual α-olefin, but about half the olefin had oxidized to 1,2-diol, and about 80% of the terminal CH3 had oxidized to acid, indicating that the expected (ω,ω−1)-dihydroxy fatty acid, 17,18-dihydroxyoctadecanoic acid was formed. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 42 Bioconversion of Dipentyl Ether The bioconversion of pentyl ether was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Like the hexyl ether, this substrate was tested to determine if the terminal methyl groups of the pentyl chains could be oxidized. Recovery was 0.100 g from 0.123 g starting material (81.3% recovery). NMR results indicate the ether remained intact, and about 50% of the terminal CH3 was oxidized to 6-oxa-1,11-undecanedioic acid. Some intermediate primary OH and an ester of primary OH was also seen. This result confirmed that the terminal methyl on the C5 chain could be oxidized to the acid. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 43 Bioconversion of 3-Octanone The bioconversion of 3-octanone was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was tested to determine if C. tropicalis could oxidize the terminal methyl group (either the C4 or C2) attached to a ketone functionality. Recovery was 0.069 g from 0.135 g starting material (51% recovery). NMR showed some of the product to be fatty acid. Some PPG and some BHT (ether stabilizer) was also seen. Interestingly, the 3-octanone was nearly completely gone, with 3-octanol being seen. Product loss was likely due to volatility during solvent evaporation after extraction. No GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 44 Bioconversion of 1,2-Epoxytetradecane The bioconversion of 1,2-epoxytetradecane was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was selected to confirm the results of the tests on Epoxy Soya, where it was found that the epoxy rings were split to form a diol. Recovery was 0.349 g from 0.534 g starting material (65.4% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that epoxy was completely gone, replaced by diol. Most of the terminal CH3 (about 80%) was oxidized to the acid 13,14-dihydroxytetradecanoic acid. Since the NMR results were fairly convincing, no GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 45 Bioconversion of 1,2-hexadecanediol The bioconversion of 1,2-hexadecanediol was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was tested to demonstrate the ability to form a (ω,ω−1)-dihydroxy fatty acid. Recovery was 0.138 g from 0.253 g starting material (54.5% recovery). NMR shows the 1,2-diol to be unchanged, as expected from olefin studies. But, interestingly, CH3 oxidation to the 15,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid was lower than seen with octadecene, because the starting material was solid. Conversion was only about 30%. Some fatty unsaturation and minor polypropylene glycol were also seen. Since the NMR results were fairly convincing, no GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 46 Bioconversion of Di-isobutylene The bioconversion of di-isobutylene was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This substrate was tested because it is a potential solvent for use in the C18:1 diacid recovery process. It was important to determine the fate of any residual DIB that might be left in recovery side streams that could potentially be recycled back to later fermentations. Recovery was 0.029 g from 0.125 g starting material (23.2% recovery). The NMR results showed long chain linear unsaturated mono and di-acids, about 15% of which were present as triglycerides. Also seen was a little polypropylene glycol (from the SAG 471 antifoam) along with some trace BHT, possibly a stabilizer in the extraction solvent. There was little evidence of any branched materials, indicating the test substrate was either degraded or was lost during testing or extraction. It also indicated that no non-volatile oxidation products were formed in the process. Because of this result, no GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 47 Bioconversion of VMLP Naptha The bioconversion of VMLP naptha was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.024 g from 0.125 g starting material (19.2% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate that little or no VMLP oxidation product appeared to have been formed. The product was predominantly a mix of linear unsaturated mono and di-acids, with a small amount of polypropylene glycol. Interestingly, little or no triglyceride was present. Because of this result, no GC/MS analysis was performed. EXAMPLE 48 Bioconversion of 2-Methyl-3-heptanone The bioconversion of 2-methyl-3-heptanone was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. This was another test for the ability of C. tropicalis to oxidize the terminal methyl group of an aliphatic chain attached to a semi-complex ketone functionality. Recovery was 0.062 g from 0.050 g starting material (124% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate the presence of a blend of triglyceride, 1,3-diglyceride, possible ergosterol, BHT, and polypropylene glycol. Some residual starting material was detected. In such a mix, it is difficult to say if desired product has been formed or not. This was not submitted for GC/MS analysis. EXAMPLE 49 Bioconversion of 3-Butyl-2(1-ethylpentyl)oxazolidine The bioconversion of 3-butyl-2(1-ethylpentyl)oxazolidine was tested following the procedures set forth in Example 24. Recovery was 0.021 g from 0.100 g starting material (21% recovery). The NMR results obtained for this sample indicate the presence of some apparent fatty derived material, though less than the other samples. BHT, other minor aromatics and polypropylene glycol seen in the other samples were again seen. No residual starting material was seen. Also, the branched carbon between the oxygen and nitrogen of the starting material was totally absent. The low level of the oxidation product in this complex mix made identification difficult. But some significant CH3 was seen, indicating something from the starting material, but ring degradation rather than acid formation. It is also possible that some desired product, may have been made, but being amphoteric, was more soluble in water than in extraction solvent. This sample was not submitted for GC/MS analysis. EXAMPLE 50 Bioconversion of The Bio-oxidation of 1,4-diethylbenzene. NMR on the sample obtained showed considerable long chain unsaturated fatty material was formed, which was partially oxidized to di-acid. Considerable sterol was also present, plus polypropylene glycol, and a little BHT. Other major aromatic compounds were present, but the starting 1,4-diethyl benzene appeared to be mostly reacted. The predominant product was 4-ethylphenylacetic acid. There appeared to be little or no 1,4-phenylenediacetic acid, the possible di-oxidized product. A summary of the results of the bioconversion testing described in the above Examples is set forth below in Table 5. TABLE 5 Summary of screening results Chemical Class/R Group Phase Chemical Substrate Reaction or Major Reaction Product Fatty Acids or Fatty I 12-Hydroxystearic acid 7-hydroxyoctadecanedioic acid Acid Esters I Hexadecyl Pelargonate Terminal methyls oxidized to acids Ester linkage hydrolyzed I Castor Oil Terminal methyls oxidized to acids Considerable transesterification I Hexadecyl Acetate Terminal methyls oxidized to acids Ester linkage hydrolyzed Ethers II Dihexyl Ether α,ω-Diacid II Dipentyl Ether Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II Dodecylvinyl Ether Dodecanedioic acid Alpha Olefins I Dodecene (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid I Tetradecene (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid II Hexadecene (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid II Octadecene (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid Alkenes I trans-2-nonene 2-enoic acid (recovery low) I 7-trans-tetradecene 7-trans-tetradecenedioic acid II Diisobutylene No reaction/Volatility Alkynes I 6-Dodecyne No Reaction/Volatility Alcohols I 1-Dodecanol Terminal OH oxidized to acid Some Terminal methyl oxidized I Oleyl Alcohol Octadecenedioic acid I 6-Undecanol No Reaction II 2-Octanol Toxic at 0.1% Branched Alcohols II 2-Hexyldecanol Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II 2-Butyl-1-Octanol Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II 1,2-Hexadecanediol (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid Branched Acids I 2-Ethylhexanoic Acid Too Volatile I 2-Heptylundecanoic Acid Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II 2-Hexyldecanoic Acid Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II 2-Butyloctanoic Acid No reaction II Butylmalonic Acid No reaction Ketones II 3-Methyl-3-heptanone No Reaction II 3-Octanone No Reaction Epoxides I Epoxy Soya Terminal methyls oxidized to acids Epoxy groups open to diols II 1,2-epoxytetradecane (ω,ω-1) Dihydroxy Fatty Acid Sulfur Compounds II Butylsulfone No reaction II Butylsulfoxide No reaction II 3-Hexylthiophene Screening in Process Aliphatic Amines I Dodecylamine Toxic at 0.01% Ring Compounds I Limonene No Reaction/Volatility I Sclareol No Reaction I Generol No Reaction II Butylcyclohexane Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II Propylcyclohexane Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II Ethylcyclohexane Terminal methyl oxidized to acid II Methylcyclohexane No Reaction II 3-Butyl-2-(1-ethylpentyl) No Reaction Oxazolidine Miscellaneous I PEG No Reaction I PEG200 Monolaurate Terminal methyls oxidized to acids I PEG200 Dilaurate Terminal methyls oxidized to acids II VMLP Naphtha No reaction It will be understood that various modifications may be made to the embodiments disclosed herein and that the above description should not be construed as limiting, but merely as exemplifications of preferred embodiments. Those skilled in the art will envision other modifications within the scope and spirit of the claims appended hereto. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>1. Technical Field The present invention relates to the use of yeast strains to modify substrates via biooxidation. More particularly, the present invention relates to processes for converting certain substrates into alcohols or carboxylic acids utilizing yeast. 2. Background of Related Art Aliphatic dioic acids, alcohols and compounds having combinations of alcohols and acids are versatile chemical intermediates useful as raw materials for the preparation of adhesives, fragrances, polyamides, polyesters, and antimicrobials. While chemical routes for the synthesis of long-chain α,ω-dicarboxylic acids are available, the synthesis is complicated and results in mixtures containing dicarboxylic acids of shorter chain lengths. As a result, extensive purification steps are necessary. While it is known that long-chain dioic acids can also be produced by microbial transformation of alkanes, fatty acids or esters, chemical synthesis has remained the preferred route, presumably due to limitations with the previously available biological approaches. Several strains of yeast are known to excrete α,ω-dicarboxylic acids as a byproduct when cultured on alkanes or fatty acids. In particular, yeast belonging to the genus Candida , such as C. albicans, C. cloacae, C. guillermondii, C. intermedia, C. lipolytica, C. maltosa, C. parapsilosis , and C. zeylenoides are known to produce such dicarboxylic acids. (Agr. Biol. Chem . 35, 2033-2042 (1971).) In addition, various strains of the yeast C. tropicalis are known to produce dicarboxylic acids ranging in chain lengths from C 11 through C 18 as a byproduct when cultured on alkanes or fatty acids as the carbon source (Okino et al., B M Lawrence, B D Mookheijee and B J Willis (eds.), in Flavors and Fragrances: A World Perspective . Proceedings of the 10 th International Conference of Essential Oils, Flavors and Fragrances, Elsevier Science Publishers BV Amsterdam (1988)), and are the basis of several patents as reviewed by Bühler and Schindler, in Aliphatic Hydrocarbons in Biotechnology , H. J. Rehm and G. Reed (eds), Vol. 169, Verlag Chemie, Weinheim (1984). Studies of the biochemical processes by which yeasts metabolize alkanes and fatty acids have revealed three types of oxidation reactions: α-oxidation of alkanes to alcohols; ω-oxidation of fatty acids to α,ω-dicarboxylic acids; and the degradative β-oxidation of fatty acids to CO 2 and water. In C. tropicalis the first step in the ω-oxidation pathway is catalyzed by a membrane-bound enzyme complex (ω-hydroxylase complex) including a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase and a NADPH-cytochrome reductase. This hydroxylase complex is responsible for the primary oxidation of the terminal methyl group in alkanes and fatty acids (Gilewicz et al., Can. J. Microbiol . 25:201 (1979)). The genes which encode the cytochrome P450 and NADPH reductase components of the complex have previously been identified as P450ALK and P450RED respectively, and have also been cloned and sequenced (Sanglard et al., Gene 76:121-136 (1989)). P450ALK has also been designated P450ALK1. More recently, ALK genes have been designated by the symbol CYP and RED genes have been designated by the symbol CPR. See, e.g., Nelson, Pharmacogenetics 6(1):1-42 (1996), which is incorporated herein by reference. See also Ohkuma et al., DNA and Cell Biology 14:163-173 (1995), Seghezzi et al., DNA and Cell Biology , 11:767-780 (1992) and Kargel et al., Yeast 12:333-348 (1996), each incorporated herein by reference. For example, P450ALK is also designated CYP52 according to the nomenclature of Nelson, supra. Cytochromes P450 (P450s) are terminal monooxidases of the multicomponent enzyme system described above. They comprise a superfamily of proteins which exist widely in nature having been isolated from a variety of organisms, e.g., various mammals, fish, invertebrates, plants, mollusks, crustaceans, lower eukaryotes and bacteria (Nelson, supra). First discovered in rodent liver microsomes as a carbon-monoxide binding pigment as described, e.g., in Garfinkel, Arch. Biochem. Biophys . 77:493-509 (1958), which is incorporated herein by reference, P450s were later named based on their absorption at 450 nm in a reduced-CO coupled difference spectrum as described, e.g., in Omura et al., J. Biol. Chem . 239:2370-2378 (1964), which is incorporated herein by reference. P450s catalyze the metabolism of a variety of endogenous and exogenous compounds (Nelson, supra). Endogenous compounds include steroids, prostanoids, eicosanoids, fat-soluble vitamins, fatty acids, mammalian alkaloids, leukotrines, biogenic amines and phytolexins (Nelson, supra). P450 metabolism involves such reactions as aliphatic hydroxylation, aromatic oxidation, alkene epoxidation, nitrogen dealkylation, oxidative deamination, oxygen dealkylation, nitrogen oxidation, oxidative desulfuration, oxidative dehalogenation, oxidative denitrification, nitro reduction, azo reduction, tertiary amine N-oxide reduction, arene oxide reduction and reductive dehalogenation. (P G Wislocki, G T Miwa and AYH Lu, Reaction Catalyzed by the Cytochrome P-450 System, Enzymatic Basis of Detoxication , Vol. 1, Academic Press (1980).) These reactions generally make the compound more water soluble, which is conducive for excretion, and more electrophilic. (These electrophilic products have detrimental effects if they react with DNA or other cellular constituents.) The electrophilic products can then react through conjugation with low molecular weight hydrophilic substances resulting in glucoronidation, sulfation, acetylation, amino acid conjugation or glutathione conjugation typically leading to inactivation and elimination as described, e.g., in Klaassen et al., Toxicology , 3 rd ed, Macmillan, New York, 1986, incorporated herein by reference. Fatty acids are ultimately formed from alkanes after two additional oxidation steps, catalyzed by alcohol oxidase (Kemp et al. Appl. Microbiol . and Biotechnol , 28, 370-374 (1988)) and aldehyde dehydrogenase. The, ω-hydroxylase enzymes of the ω-oxidation pathway are located in the endoplasmic reticulum, while the enzymes catalyzing the last two steps, the fatty alcohol oxidase and the fatty aldehyde dehydrogenase, are located in the peroxisomes. The fatty acids can be further oxidized through the same or similar pathway to the corresponding dicarboxylic acid. The ω-oxidation of fatty acids proceeds via the ω-hydroxy fatty acid and its aldehyde derivative, to the corresponding dicarboxylic acid without the requirement for CoA activation. However, both fatty acids and dicarboxylic acids can be degraded, after activation to the corresponding acyl-CoA ester through the β-oxidation pathway in the peroxisomes, leading to chain shortening. In mammalian systems, both fatty acid and dicarboxylic acid products of ω-oxidation are activated to their CoA-esters at equal rates and are substrates for both mitochondrial and peroxisomal β-oxidation ( J. Biochem ., 102, 225-234 (1987)). In yeast , β-oxidation takes place solely in the peroxisomes ( Agr. Biol. Chem ., 49, 1821-1828 (1985)). Metabolic pathways can be manipulated in an attempt to increase or decrease the production of various products or by-products. Knowing that fatty acids possessing one or more internal double bonds or secondary alcohol functionality are capable of undergoing ω-oxidation, the ω-oxidation pathway can be manipulated to produce greater amounts of dicarboxylic acids. U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,466, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method for producing β,ω-dicarboxylic acids in high yields by culturing C. tropicalis strains having disrupted chromosomal POX4A, POX4B and both POX5 genes. The POX4 and POX5 gene disruptions effectively block the β-oxidation pathway at its first reaction (which is catalyzed by acyl-CoA oxidase) in a C. tropicalis host strain. The POX4 and POX5 genes encode distinct subunits of long chain acyl-CoA oxidase, which are the peroxisomal polypeptides (PXPs) designated PXP-4 and PXP-5, respectively. The disruption of these genes results in a complete block of the β-oxidation pathway thus allowing enhanced yields of dicarboxylic acid by redirecting the substrate toward the ω-oxidation pathway and also preventing reutilization of the dicarboxylic acid products through the β-oxidation pathway. Similarly, C. tropicalis may also have one or more cytochrome P450 genes and/or reductase genes amplified which results in an increase in the amount of rate-limiting ω-hydroxylase through P450 gene amplification and an increase in the rate of substrate flow through the ω-oxidation pathway. C. tropicalis strain AR40 is an amplified H 5343 strain wherein all four POX4 genes and both copies of the chromosomal POX5 genes are disrupted by a URA3 selectable marker and which also contains 3 additional copies of the cytochrome P450 gene and 2 additional copies of the reductase gene, the P450RED gene. Strain AR40 has the ATCC accession number ATCC 20987 . C. tropicalis strain R24 is an amplified H 5343 strain in which all four POX4 genes and both copies of the chromosomal POX5 genes are disrupted by a URA3 selectable marker and which also contains multiple copies of the reductase gene. Strains AR40 and R24 are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,620,878 and 5,648,247, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Processes for utilizing modified C. tropicalis to produce carboxylic acids are also known. U.S. Pat. No. 5,962,285, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a process for making carboxylic acids by fermenting a β-oxidation blocked C. tropicalis cell in a culture comprised of a nitrogen source, an organic substrate and a cosubstrate. The substrate is an unsaturated aliphatic compound having at least one internal carbon-carbon double bond and at least one terminal methyl group, a terminal carboxyl group and/or a terminal functional group which is oxidizable to a carboxyl group. The fermentation product is then reacted with an oxidizing agent to produce one or more carboxylic acids. Similar shake flask experiments have been used in the past to test substrates. The terminal methyl group and the terminal double bond of α-alkenes or branched monoacids are oxidized and form alcohol groups or the desired acid groups. The oxidation of the terminal double bond of α-olefins to form a (ω,ω−1) diol is an interesting reaction. The overall oxidation product is thus a (ω,ω−1) hydroxyfatty acid. The biooxidation of α-olefins was first reported by Uemura. (N. Uemura, Industrialization of the Production of Dibasic Acid from n-Paraffins Using Microorganisms, Hakko to Kogyo, 43:436-44 (1985).). While the genetically modified strains of Candida sp. are able to produce large quantities of product necessary to develop a commercially feasible process, it is not known what effect variations of chain length, functional groups, etc. will have on the ability of C. tropicalis to produce alcohols and carboxylic acids through the process of biooxidation. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the present invention, it has been determined that in order for terminal methyl groups of organic substrates to be oxidized by Candida sp., at least one methylene group must be present between a terminal methyl group and the rest of the molecule. Accordingly, the inventors have developed a process by which substrates of varying functionality, chain lengths and overall structure are oxidized by Candida sp. to alcohols and carboxylic acids. In one embodiment, the substrate is solubilized in an organic solvent and then biooxidized by Candida sp. In a preferred embodiment, the Candida sp. used in the bioconversion process has been modified so that its β-oxidation pathway has been blocked. In another preferred embodiment, the Candida sp. used in the bioconversion process has been modified so that its β-oxidation pathway has been blocked and one or more of its cytochrome P450 genes and/or reductase genes have been amplified. | 20050114 | 20080729 | 20050818 | 71087.0 | 0 | LILLING, HERBERT J | BIOOXIDATION CAPABILITIES OF CANDIDA SP | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,906 | ACCEPTED | Motor with encapsulated stator and method of making same | A motor comprises a baseplate, a shaft supported by said baseplate, a stator assembly having windings, the stator being rigidly attached to said baseplate, and injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating said windings. In one embodiment, the stator is coreless. In other embodiments, the stator has a core and the core is substantially encapsulated by the thermoplastic material. In preferred embodiments, the thermoplastic material secures the stator to the baseplate or forms the baseplate. | 1-24. (canceled) 25. A motor comprising: a) a baseplate; b) a stator assembly comprising i) a core having poles, and ii) windings around said poles; and c) an injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating the windings and also locking the stator assembly to the baseplate, the baseplate and stator assembly not being in direct contact with one another but rather having a space between them filled in by the thermoplastic material. 26. The motor of claim 25 wherein the baseplate is made of a thermoplastic material having a modulas of elasticity of at least 1,000,000 psi and a metal plate, the metal plate being substantially encapsulated in the thermoplastic material. 27. The motor of claim 26 wherein the thermoplastic material of which the baseplate is made is the same material that encapsulates the windings, and the baseplate and winding encapsulation are formed as one monolithic body. 28-37. (canceled) 38. A method of manufacturing a motor comprising the steps of: a) providing a baseplate, a shaft having at least one bearing connected thereto and a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; b) rigidly attaching the stator core to the baseplate; c) injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings after the core is attached to the baseplate; and d) mounting the shaft so that either the shaft or at least one bearing is supported on the baseplate so that the bearing can rotate with respect to the stator. 39. The method of claim 38 wherein the injection molding operation injects thermoplastic material to fill in a space between the windings and the baseplate so that the thermoplastic material is in intimate contact with the baseplate and is thereby secured thereto. 40. The method of claim 38 wherein the stator assembly is rigidly attached to the baseplate by being rigidly attached to a support member secured to the baseplate. 41. The method of claim 40 wherein the thermoplastic material encapsulating the windings is injected so as to contact the baseplate and support member. 42. The method of claim 38 wherein the thermoplastic material also encapsulates the stator core except where it is rigidly attached to the baseplate. 43. The method of claim 38 wherein a hub is rotatably supported on the shaft by ball bearings interposed between the hub and the shaft. 44. A method of manufacturing a motor comprising the steps of: a) providing a baseplate, a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, and a shaft having a bearing connected thereto; b) injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings and space in between the baseplate and stator assembly so as to secure the stator assembly to the baseplate sufficiently to allow the rigidity of the core to help stiffen the baseplate, and c) rotatably mounting the bearing on the shaft rigidly supported on the baseplate. 45. The method of claim 44 wherein the baseplate has a plurality of holes in it and the thermoplastic material is injected so as to fill in said holes. 46. The method of claim 45 wherein the holes are enlarged on the side of the baseplate opposite to the stator assembly and the thermoplastic is thus locked to the baseplate by solidifying in the enlarged hole areas. 47. A method of manufacturing a motor comprising the steps of: a) providing metal laminations and winding the laminations with wire to from poles; b) providing a shaft; and c) holding the wound metal laminations and shaft in an injection mold and injection molding a thermoplastic material so as to substantially encapsulate the windings, laminations and portion of the shaft. 48-57. (canceled) 58. The method of claim 47 wherein the shaft is seperated from the laminations in the injection mold and the thermoplastic material contacts the shaft so as to secure the shaft in rigid support with the combined windings and laminations. 59. A motor comprising: a) a core having poles and windings around said poles forming a pole assembly; b) a shaft, the shaft and pole assembly not being in direct contact with one another, but rather the shaft being spaced from the pole assembly; and c) a thermoplastic material secured to the shaft and substantially encapsulating the pole assembly, the thermoplastic material joining the pole assembly to the shaft in the space between the pole assembly and the shaft, filling in the space between them such that the windings, core and shaft are rigidly fixed together. 60. The motor of claim 25 wherein the thermoplastic used in the encapsulation has a vibratory dampening ratio of at least 0.05 in the range of 0-500 Hz. 61. The motor of claim 25 wherein the thermoplastic used in the encapsulation has a vibratory dampening ratio of at least 0.1 in the range of 0-500 Hz. 62. The motor of claim 25 wherein the thermoplastic used in the encapsulation has a vibratory dampening ratio of at least 0.5 in the range of 0-500 Hz. 63. The method of claim 38 wherein the thermoplastic material has a modulas of elasticity of at least 2,000,000 psi at 25° C. 64. The method of claim 38 wherein the thermoplastic material has a modulas of elasticity of at least 3,000,000 psi at 25° C. 65. The method of claim 44 wherein the thermoplastic material has a modulas of elasticity of at least 4,000,000 psi at 25° C. | REFERENCE TO EARLIER FILED APPLICATION The present application claims the benefit of the filing date under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of provisional U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 60/172,287, filed Dec. 17, 1999, and of provisional U.S. Patent Application Ser. No. 60/171,817, filed Dec. 21, 1999, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to spindle motors. More particularly the invention relates to spindle motors with an encapsulated stator and methods of making the same, and hard drives utilizing the same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Computers commonly use disc drives for memory storage purposes. Disc drives include a stack of one or more magnetic discs that rotate and are accessed using a head or read-write transducer. Typically, a high-speed motor such as a spindle motor is used to rotate the discs. An example of a conventional spindle motor 1 is shown in FIG. 1. The motor 1 includes a baseplate 2 which is usually made from machined aluminum, a stator core 4, a shaft 6, bearings 7 and a disc support member 8, also referred to as a hub. A magnet 3 is attached to the disc support member or hub 8. The hub 8 may be made of steel so that it acts as a flux return ring. The stator core 4 is secured to the baseplate 2 using a support member 5. One end of the shaft 6 is inserted into the baseplate 2 and the other end of the shaft 6 supports bearings 7, which are also attached to the hub 8. A flexible electrical cable 9 may be supported on the baseplate 2. Wires 12 from the cable exit through holes 15 in the baseplate. The flexible cable 9 is also used to seal the baseplate so that particulate material is not expelled from the motor 1. The wires 12 carry electric current to the wire windings 11 wrapped around poles formed on the core 4. Mounting holes 14 on the baseplate are used to secure the motor to the baseplate of a housing for a hard disk drive or other electrical device. The hub 8 includes holes 13 that are used to attach the media discs (not shown) to the hub 8. Each of these parts must be fixed at predefined tolerances with respect to one another. Accuracy in these tolerances can significantly enhance motor performance. In operation, the disc stack is placed upon the hub. The stator windings 11 are selectively energized and interact with the permanent magnet 3 to cause a defined rotation of the hub. As hub 8 rotates, the head engages in reading or writing activities baseplated upon instructions from the CPU in the computer. Manufacturers of disc drives are constantly seeking to improve the speed with which data can be accessed. To an extent, this speed depends upon the speed of the spindle motor, as existing magneto-resistive head technology is capable of accessing data at a rate greater than the speed offered by the highest speed spindle motor currently in production. The speed of the spindle motor is dependent upon the dimensional consistency or tolerances between the various components of the motor and the rigidity of the parts. Greater dimensional consistency between components and rigidity of the components leads to a smaller gap between the stator 4 and the magnet 3, producing more force, which provides more torque and enables faster acceleration and higher rotational speeds. In the design shown, the gap between the stator 4 and magnet 3 is located near the outside diameter of the hub 8. Thus the magnet 3 is attached to the most flexible part of the hub, making the spindle vulnerable to vibration caused by misalignment of the motor. One drawback of conventional spindle motors is that a number of separate parts are required to fix motor components to one another. This can lead to stack up tolerances which reduce the overall dimensional consistency between the components. Stack up tolerances refers to the sum of the variation of all the tolerances of all the parts, as well as the overall tolerance that relates to the alignment of the parts relative to one another. Another drawback to the conventional design is the cost of the machined baseplate 2. Unfortunately, die-casting or forging does not produce baseplates with sufficient precision. Therefore quality baseplates are made by machining the necessary surfaces and tolerances. The flexible cable 9 also adds to the cost. Steel hubs 8 are expensive and difficult to machine. Aluminum hubs 8 are less expensive, but still must be extensively machined in the bearing area. The stator 4 is a major source of acoustic noise. Also, the stator assembly is difficult to clean, so that particulates are not emitted from the motor. In an effort to enable increased motor speed, some hard disc manufacturers have turned to the use of hydrodynamic bearings. These hydrodynamic bearings, however, have different aspect ratios from conventional bearings. An example of a different aspect ratio may be found in a cylindrical hydrodynamic bearing in which the length of the bearing is greater than it's diameter. This results in more susceptibility to problems induced by differing coefficients of thermal expansion than other metals used in existing spindle motors, making it difficult to maintain dimensional consistency over the operating temperature that the drive sees between the hydrodynamic bearings and other metal parts of the motor Hydrodynamic bearings have less stiffness than conventional ball bearings so they are more susceptible to imprecise rotation when exposed to vibrations or shock. An important characteristic of a hard drive is the amount of information that can be stored on a disc. One method to store more information on a disc is to place data tracks more closely together. Presently this spacing between portions of information is limited due to vibrations occurring during the operation of the motor. These vibrations can be caused when the stator windings are energized, which results in vibrations of a particular frequency. These vibrations also occur from harmonic oscillations in the hub and discs during rotation, caused primarily by non-uniform size media discs. An important factor in motor design is the lowering of the operating temperature of the motor. Increased motor temperature affects the electrical efficiency of the motor and bearing life. As temperature increases, resistive loses in wire increase, thereby reducing total motor power. Furthermore, the Arhennius equation predicts that the failure rate of an electrical device is exponentially related to its operating temperature. The frictional heat generated by bearings increases with speed. Also, as bearings get hot they expand, and the bearing cages get stressed and may deflect, causing non-uniform rotation and the resultant further heat increase, non-uniform rotation requiring greater spacing in data tracks, and reduced bearing life. One drawback with existing motor designs is their limited effective dissipation of the heat, and difficulty in incorporating heat sinks to aid in heat dissipation. In the design of the motor 1 there is a small direct path between the stator and the core, which makes it difficult to cool the stator, which reduces motor efficiency the above reasons. Also 5×11 mm bearings commonly used are not sufficiently stable nor have a life required for desired high-speed operation (10,000 rpm and above). In addition, in current motors the operating temperatures generally increase as the size of the motor is decreased. Manufacturers have established strict requirements on the outgassing of materials that are used inside a hard disc drive. These requirements are intended to reduce the emission of materials onto the magnetic media or heads during the operation of the drive. Of primary concern are glues used to attach components together, varnish used to insulate wire, and epoxy used to protect steel laminations from oxidation. In addition to such outgassed materials, airborne particulate in a drive may lead to head damage. Also, airborne particulates in the disc drive could interfere with signal transfer between the read/write head and the media. To reduce the effects of potential airborne particulate, hard drives are manufactured to exacting clean room standards and air filters are installed inside of the drive to reduce the contamination levels during operation. Heads used in disc drives are susceptible to damage from electrical shorts passing through a small air gap between the media and the head surface. In order to prevent such shorts, some hard drives use a plastic or rubber ring to electrically isolate the spindle motor from the hard drive case. This rubber ring may also mechanically isolate the spindle motor from the hard drive case so that vibrations generated by the motor are not transmitted to other components in the hard drive. A drawback to this design is the requirement of an extra component. Another example of a spindle motor is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,694,268 (Dunfield et al.) (incorporated herein by reference). Referring to FIGS. 7 and 8 of this patent, a stator 200 of the spindle motor is encapsulated with an overmold 209. The overmolded stator contains openings through which mounting pins 242 may be inserted for attaching the stator 200 to a baseplate. One drawback to this design is that baseplate does not receive any increased rigidity through this type of connection. U.S. Pat. No. 5,672,972 (Viskochil) (incorporated herein by reference) also discloses a spindle motor having an overmolded stator. One drawback with the overmold used in these patents is that it has a different coefficient of linear thermal expansion (“CLTE”) than the corresponding metal parts to which it is attached. Another drawback with the overmold is that it is not very effective at dissipating heat. Further, the overmolds shown in these patents are not effective in dampening some vibrations generated by energizing the stator windings. U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,169 (Trago) (incorporated herein by reference) discloses a method of fabricating an injection molded motor assembly. However, the motor disclosed in Trago is a step motor, not a high-speed spindle motor, and would not be used in applications such as hard disc drives. Thus, a need exists for an improved spindle motor, having properties that will be especially useful in a hard disc drive, overcoming the aforementioned problems. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A spindle motor has been invented which overcomes many of the foregoing problems. In addition, unique stator and baseplate assemblies and other components of a high-speed motor have been invented, as well as methods of manufacturing such motors. In one aspect, the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, the stator core being rigidly attached to said baseplate; injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating said windings, and a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In a second aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, the stator assembly being spaced from the baseplate; a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly; and a thermoplastic material secured to the baseplate and encapsulating the stator windings, the thermoplastic material joining the stator assembly to the baseplate in the space between the stator assembly and the baseplate. In another aspect the invention is a baseplate and stator combination comprising: a baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles, and windings around said poles; and an injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating the windings and also locking the stator assembly to the baseplate, the baseplate and stator assembly not being in direct contact with one another but rather having a space between them filled in by the thermoplastic material. In yet another aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: baseplate made of stiff thermoplastic material, having a modulus of elasticity of at least 1,000,000 psi, and a metal plate substantially encapsulated by the stiff thermoplastic material; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly; and a vibration dampening thermoplastic material encapsulating the stator windings, the vibration dampening thermoplastic material having a vibration dampening ratio of at least 0.05 in the range of 0-500 Hz and joining the stator assembly to the baseplate. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a baseplate, a hub having a magnet connected thereto and a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; rigidly attaching the stator core to the baseplate; injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings after the core is attached to the baseplate, and mounting the hub on a shaft supported on the baseplate so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly and so that the hub can rotate with respect to the stator. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a baseplate, a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, and a hub having a magnet connected thereto; injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings and in between the baseplate and stator assembly so as to secure the stator assembly to the baseplate sufficiently to allow the rigidity of the core to help stiffen the baseplate, and rotatably mounting the hub on a shaft rigidly supported on the baseplate so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a metal baseplate insert, a hub having a magnet connected thereto and a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; holding the baseplate insert and stator assembly in an injection mold and injection molding a thermoplastic material so as to substantially encapsulate the baseplate insert and the windings and secure the stator assembly and baseplate insert together; and rotatably mounting the hub on a shaft rigidly supported on the combined encapsulated baseplate insert and stator assembly so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In another aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a coreless stator assembly comprising windings encapsulated in a thermoplastic material; and a hub rotatably supported on said shaft, said shaft having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly, the hub also including a flux return ring supported opposite the magnet so that the stator assembly is located between the flux return ring and the magnet. The invention provides the foregoing and other features, and the advantages of the invention will become further apparent from the following detailed description of the presently preferred embodiments, read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. The detailed description and drawings are merely illustrative of the invention and do not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the appended claims and equivalents thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of a prior art high-speed motor. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a high-speed motor in accordance with the first embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the encapsulated stator used in the motor of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view of a high-speed motor in accordance with a second embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a plan view of a lamination used in the core of the stator of the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a plan view of the stator of the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view of the stator shown in FIG. 6 taken along line 7-7. FIG. 8 is an elevational view of the ferrule used in the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 9 is an elevational and partial cross-sectional view of the shaft used in the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 10 is a top plan view of the baseplate used in the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view taken along line 11-11 of FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of the hub used in the high-speed motor of FIG. 4. FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of a high-speed motor in accordance with a third embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of a high-speed motor in accordance with the fourth embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 15 is an exploded view of a hard disc drive of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS AND PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION First Embodiment A first embodiment of a high-speed motor of the present invention is shown in FIGS. 2-3. By “high-speed” it is meant that the motor can operate at over 5,000 rpm. The spindle motor 20 is designed for rotating a disc or stack of discs in a computer hard disc drive. Motor 20 is formed using an encapsulation method to encapsulate the stator windings. Referring to FIGS. 2-3, a stator assembly 21 is first constructed, using conventional steel laminations 24a, 24b, etc forming a magnetically inducible core 24 having a plurality of poles thereon, and wire windings 31 which serve as conductors. The conductors induce or otherwise create a plurality of magnetic fields in the core when electrical current is conducted through the conductors. In this embodiment, a magnetic field is induced in each of the poles. Once the windings are in place, the wire 31 is encapsulated with a thermoplastic material 36, described in more detail hereafter, and the core 24 is substantially encapsulated by the material 36 (FIG. 3). Substantial encapsulation means that the material 36 either entirely surrounds the core 24 or surrounds almost all of it except for minor areas of the core 24 that may be exposed, such as the face of the poles. However, substantial encapsulation means that the material 36, wire 31 and core 24 are rigidly fixed together, and behave as a single component with respect to harmonic oscillation vibration. As shown in FIG. 2, a shaft 26 is connected to the baseplate 22 and is surrounded by bearings 27. A rotor or magnet 23 is fixed to the inside of the hub 28 so as to be in operable proximity to the stator 21. The magnet 23 is preferably a permanent magnet, as described below. The baseplate 22 includes a flex cable 29 as in the motor of FIG. 1. Wires 32 may be coupled to a control circuit board (not shown) for the motor 20. Alternatively the connector may be a flexible circuit with copper pads allowing spring contact interconnection. The baseplate 22 is generally connected to the hard drive case (not shown). Connecting members (not shown), such as screws, may be used to fix the baseplate 22 to the hard drive case, using holes 34. Alternatively, other types of mounting features such as connecting pins or legs may be formed as part of the baseplate 22. Alternatively, the baseplate of the motor may constitute the baseplate section of the hard drive housing. The thermoplastic material 36 is preferably a thermally conductive but non-electrically conductive plastic. In addition, the plastic preferably includes ceramic filler particles that enhance the thermal conductivity of the plastic. A preferred form of plastic is polyphenyl sulfide (PPS) sold under the tradename “Konduit” by LNP. Grade OTF-212 PPS is particularly preferred. Another preferred thermoplastic material is a liquid crystal polymer sold by LNP. Examples of other suitable thermoplastic resins include, but are not limited to, thermoplastic resins such as 6,6-polyamide, 6-polyamide, 4,6-polyamide, 12,12-polyamide, 6,12-polyamide, and polyamides containing aromatic monomers, polybutylene terephthalate, polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylene napththalate, polybutylene napththalate, aromatic polyesters, liquid crystal polymers, polycyclohexane dimethylol terephthalate, copolyetheresters, polyphenylene sulfide, polyacylics, polypropylene, polyethylene, polyacetals, polymethylpentene, polyetherimides, polycarbonate, polysulfone, polyethersulfone, polyphenylene oxide, polystyrene, styrene copolymer, mixtures and graft copolymers of styrene and rubber, and glass reinforced or impact modified versions of such resins. Blends of these resins such as polyphenylene oxide and polyamide blends, and polycarbonate and polybutylene terephthalate, may also be used in this invention. Referring to FIG. 2, the bearings 27 include an upper bearing and a lower bearing. Also, each bearing 27 has an outer surface and an inner surface. The outer surface of the bearings contacts the hub 28. The inner surfaces of the bearings 27 contact the shaft 26. The bearings are preferably annular shaped. The inner surfaces of the bearings 27 may be press fit onto the shaft 26. A glue may also be used. The outer surface of the bearings 27 may be press fit into the interior portion of the hub 28. A glue may also be used. The bearings in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2 are ball bearings. Alternatively other types of bearings, such as hydrodynamic or combinations of hydrodynamic and magnetic bearings, may be used. The bearings are typically made of stainless steel. The shaft 26 is concentrically supported by the baseplate 22. The shaft 26 includes a top portion and a bottom portion. The top portion of the shaft 26 supports the hub 28. The bottom portion of the shaft 26 is rigidly fixed to the baseplate 22. Thus, in this embodiment, the hub 28 is freely rotatable relative to the shaft 26 and baseplate 22. The shaft 26 is preferably cylindrical shaped and may be made of stainless steel. The hub 28 is concentrically disposed around the shaft 26. The hub 28 is spaced apart from the stator 21. The hub 28 is preferably made of steel so that the portion of the hub 28 adjacent the magnet 23 provides a flux return ring. The magnet 23 is glued to the hub 28. As shown in FIG. 2, the magnet 23 concentrically surrounds the stator 21. The magnet 23 is preferably a sintered part and is one solid piece. The magnet 23 is placed in a magnetizer which puts a plurality of discrete North and South poles onto the magnet 23, dependant on the number of poles on the stator 21. Holes 33 in the top of the hub 28 are used to attach the magnetic media used in hard drive, just as with motor 10. Operation of the First Embodiment In operation, the spindle motor shown in FIGS. 2-3 is driven by supplying electrical pulses to the wires 32. These pulses are used to selectively energize the windings 31 around the stator poles. This results in a moving magnetic field. This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field generated by the magnet 23 in a manner that causes the magnet 23 to rotate about the stator 21. As a result, the hub 28 begins to rotate about the shaft 26. The bearings 27 facilitate the rotation of the hub 28. Discs or a disc stack (not shown) that are placed upon the hub are caused to rotate as the hub 28 rotates. A head (not shown) then reads and writes data to and from the discs. Method of Making the First Embodiment The encapsulated stator shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 is made in part using an encapsulation technique. This encapsulation technique involves the following steps. First, a mold is constructed to produce a part with desired geometry. The mold has two halves. The stator core with windings 31 thereon is placed within the mold and the two halves are closed. Core pins hold the stator core 24 in its correct position. Second, using solid-state process controlled injection molding, plastic is injected through one or more gates around the stator, so as to encapsulate the stator. As plastic flows in, core pins are withdrawn so that the plastic completely surrounds the windings 31 and most if not all of the core 24, thus forming the stator assembly 21 (FIG. 3). A core support 25 is used to support the core 24 and transfer the rigidity of the encapsulated stator 21 to the baseplate 22. In other embodiments, the support 25 may simply be formed as part of the baseplate 22. The encapsulated stator 21 is press fit into the support 25. The shaft 26 is press fit and possibly glued into the baseplate 22. Next, glue is placed on the inner and outer bearing surfaces and the bearings are press fit onto the shaft and into the interior portion of the hub 28. After the spindle motor is assembled, it can be used to construct a hard disc drive by using the holes 34 to mount the motor to the baseplate of the hard disc drive. Thereafter, construction of the hard disc drive can follow conventional methods. Advantages of the First Embodiment An advantageous feature of the first embodiment is provided by the fact that the thermoplastic material 36 is preferably a monolithic body or monolithically formed using an encapsulation technique. This monolithic body provides a single structure that holds the core laminations 24a, 24b etc. and wire 31 together. The preferred thermoplastic material 36 is a type of thermoplastic with a CLTE similar to that of the steel hub 28. This in turn facilitates optimal fits between the stator and the hub 28. Through the use of the present embodiment, a particular plastic may be chosen for the material 36 that has properties of vibration dampening ratio and modulus of elasticity, as well as rockwell hardness, flex modulus, and elongation, that are specifically designed to counteract the vibratory frequencies generated by the motor. Thus, the disclosed spindle motor substantially reduces motor vibration. This reduced vibration allows information on a disc to be stored closer together, thereby enabling higher data density. The encapsulation also reduces acoustic emissions from the motor, making it quieter. As discussed above, controlling heat dissipation in conventional spindle motors is difficult to achieve. A particular plastic may be chosen for encapsulating the stator 21 is designed to facilitate heat dissipation. By putting this material in intimate contact with the motor windings and then creating a solid thermal conductive pathway to the housing of the drive, overall motor temperature may be reduced. The disclosed spindle motor also reduces the emission of materials from the motor components onto the magnetic media or heads of the disc drive. This is achieved because components such as the stator, which potentially emit such materials, are substantially encapsulated in plastic. In addition, the disclosed spindle motor obviates the necessity of a separate plastic or rubber ring sometimes used to isolate the spindle motor from the hard drive in order to prevent shorts from being transferred to the magnetic media and ultimately the read-write heads. Because the stator 21 is preferably encapsulated in a non-electrically conductive (having a dielectric strength of at least 250 volts/mil) and injectable thermoplastic material, such a separate rubber isolating ring is unnecessary. This reduces manufacturing costs the encapsulation of the stator eliminates the need to paint the stator, which is usually done to prevent corrosion of the steel laminations Second Embodiment Referring to FIGS. 4-12, a second embodiment of the spindle motor 40 is shown. This embodiment is similar to the embodiment shown in FIGS. 2-3 and like components are labeled with similar reference numerals with an addend of 20. The primary difference between the first embodiment and the second embodiment is that in the second embodiment, the stator assembly 41 is mounted to the baseplate 42 in a different manner. Instead of the core 44 being held by a support plate, the stator 41 is secured to the baseplate by having the thermoplastic material 56 that encapsulates the windings 51 also join the stator assembly 41 to the baseplate 42. There is a space between the stator assembly 41 and the baseplate 42, and this space is filled in by the thermoplastic material 56. In this embodiment the baseplate 42 has a plurality of holes 55 through it, and the thermoplastic material 56 is secured to the baseplate 42 by filling in the holes 55. As shown in FIG. 4, the holes are enlarged on the side of the baseplate opposite to the stator assembly 41, and the thermoplastic material is thus locked to the baseplate 42 as it solidifies during the molding process. Another significant improvement with the motor 40 is the use of a ferrule 49 to construct the hub. In this embodiment, an aluminum outer hub member 48 is attached to a steel ferrule 49. Bearings 47 are interposed between the ferrule 49 and the shaft 46. The magnet 43 is attached to the ferrule 49. A spacer 59 is attached to the inside of the ferrule 49 between the bearings 47. A seal ring or gap seal 58 is attached to the inside top portion of the ferrule 49, but not to the shaft 46. This seal ring helps to prevent any particulate generated within the motor from escaping into the hard drive. As best seen in FIG. 8, the ferrule 49 preferably has two grooves 60 and 61 but more grooves could be used. These grooves collect and retain any excess glue when the ferrule 49 is connected to the magnet 43 and outer hub member 48. The shaft 46 has similar grooves 62 and 63 (FIG. 9), so that any excess glue present when the bearings 47 are attached will have a place to collect. Preferably an anaerobic glue is used, which cures rapidly when it is in a thin film and not exposed to oxygen. A hole 64 is preferably formed in the top of the shaft 46. The hole 64 is used to secure the top housing of the hard drive to the motor. The baseplate 42 (FIGS. 10 and 11) has three apertures 66 formed in recessed areas 65 that are used to secure the motor 40 to a hard drive housing. Four holes 69 are formed in a recessed area 68 of the baseplate 42. These holes are for connector pins (not shown). In one preferred method of construction, leads from the windings 51 are cold welded to connector pins. The pins are smaller than the holes 69. The baseplate 42 and stator assembly are placed in an injection molding machine and held in their desired relationship, with the connector pins passing through the holes 69. Thermoplastic material 56 is injected to encapsulate the stator 41. The thermoplastic fills holes 55 as previously described. It also fills gaps between holes 69 and the connector pins. All of the holes in the baseplate are thus sealed with the thermoplastic material. The wires are encapsulated in the thermoplastic material 56, and the expense of the flex cable is thus avoided, and the process seals the baseplate at the same time the stator core and windings are encapsulated. Of course the wires may be fed through one of the holes 55 and left as pig tails for later electrical connection. In that embodiment the recessed area 68 and holes 69 would be eliminated and additional holes 55 would be used instead. The thermoplastic material 56 would then seal the hole 55 through which the wires passed. The outer hub 48 (FIG. 12) is a fairly simple piece and can be easily machined. The use of a steel ferrule allows the hub to be fairly stiff, yet the weight is kept low because most of the hub is still aluminum. Also, in this embodiment, the magnet is located adjacent the inside diameter of the stator assembly 41. In that regard, the poles 45 are formed on the inside diameter of the stator laminations 44a, 44b, etc (FIGS. 5-6). One of the advantages of the design of the motor of FIG. 4 is that a complex shaped hub, which is expensive and difficult to machine, is replaced by two simple and inexpensive parts, an outer hub member with a relatively simple geometry (FIG. 12), and a simple annular steel tube formed into ferrule 49. The motor 40 has a compact design, and is optimized with a built-in flux return. Third Embodiment FIG. 13 shows a third embodiment of the invention, using a “coreless” stator 71. In this embodiment, there are no steel laminations or core. Instead, the windings 81 are formed in a basket weave in a cylindrical shape. The wire forms poles in the cylinder by the way that wire from different windings are spaced around the cylinder. Coreless motors are known, but are difficult to manufacture because once the wire is woven and removed from a mandrel on which it is made, there is nothing to keep the cylindrical shape except the stiffness of the wire, which is usually insufficient. Even though there are no steel laminations with poles to concentrate the magnetic flux, a coreless motor design has the benefit that there is no cogging torque as the motor spins, and also there are no core losses from eddy currents in the stator core and hysteresis losses that normally occur when a magnet passes an iron object, such as would happen if the poles in magnet 73 passed steel lamination as the hub 78 rotates. In the motor 70, the coreless stator can be used because the wires making up the winding are encapsulated with thermoplastic material 86: Preferably holes 85 are formed in the baseplate 72, and the windings 81 and baseplate 72 are placed in an injection mold. Thermoplastic material 86 fills all the interstices of the windings 81 and the holes 85 in the baseplate. The result is an encapsulated stator that is fixed to the baseplate 72. Another advantage of the preferred design of motor 70 is that a flux return ring 75 can be mounted on the hub 78 outside of the core and the ferrule 79 also acts as a flux return ring. Importantly, both of these rotate with the magnet 73 that is also attached to the hub 78. Thus in this design there are two flux return rings, one in front of the magnet and one behind it, but both steel rings are rotating with the magnet. As a result, there are no hysteresis losses as the iron atoms in the steel maintain their same orientation with respect to the magnet 73 at all times. The spacer 89, seal ring 88, bearings 77 and shaft 76 serve the same function as the same parts described for motor 40. Fourth Embodiment FIG. 14 shows a fourth embodiment, motor 100. Motor 100 is very similar to motor 40 of FIG. 4, and thus like components are numbered similarly but differ by an addend of 60. Thus the bearings 107, shaft 106, spacer 119, seal ring 118, core 104, windings 111, ferrule 109, magnet 103 and outer hub member 108 are just the same as their counterparts in motor 40. The main difference is that in motor 100, the baseplate 102 is made of thermoplastic material and includes a stiffening plate 105. The plate is preferably metal, and can be a simple stamped piece of steel. Preferably plate 105 has holes 115 through it. The thermoplastic material 116 not only substantially encapsulates the winding 111 and core 104, but is formed as one monolithic piece, encapsulating the plate 105 and forming the baseplate 102. While it is difficult to die cast or forge aluminum with the tolerances necessary to form baseplates 22, 42 and 72, thermoplastic materials can be injection molded to tighter tolerances. Hence, the baseplate 102 can be inexpensively formed at the same time the stator core and winding are encapsulated. The holes 115 through the plate 105 help promote a secure connection between the baseplate 102 and the stator portion. Especially in this embodiment, but preferably in each of the motor designs, the thermoplastic that is used will be one with a high modulas of elasticity, making it stiff. Preferably the modulas of elasticity will be at least 1,000,000 psi at 25° C., more preferably at least 3,000,000 psi at 25° C., and most preferably at least 5,000,000 psi at 25° C. A preferred thermoplastic material in this regard is “Konduit” or ceramic filled liquid crystal polymer, different versions of which have been measured to have a modulas of elasticity in the range 3,000,000 psi to about 5,000,000 to 25° C. The stiffness needed for the baseplate 102 is important, though not as critical, for the thermoplastic that surrounds the windings 111. For that material, its vibration dampening ratio is more important. It is preferred that the thermoplastic encapsulating the stator have a vibration dampening ratio of at least 0.05 in the range of 0-500 Hz, and more preferably at least 0.1. Many plastics have this type of vibration dampening ratio, but do not have the stiffness that is preferred. More preferably, the thermoplastic material will have a vibration damping ratio of at least 0.3 in the range of 0-500 Hz, and most preferably a vibration dampening ratio of at least 0.5 in the range of 0-500 Hz. Some of the advantages of the motors 40, 70 and 100 are that the ferrule can be a precision steel tube, eliminating the complex machining of a hub. The stator is fixed to the baseplate by the thermoplastic material. This allows stiffness from the core in motors 40 and 100 to help stiffen the baseplate, and thus more rigidly support the shaft, but the vibrations from the stator are dampened from transferring to the baseplate and thus to the shaft. By fixing the stator to the baseplate using the thermoplastic material, complex machining of the baseplate can be avoided. The magnetics of the motor are optimized, reducing the volume (size) of the motor, and also reducing the vibration. If the thermoplastic material has a high thermal conductivity, there is an improved heat path to the baseplate, and thus better cooling and resulting improved motor efficiency. With the magnet on the inside of the stator, there is better stability and balance. Larger bearings (5×13 mm) can be used, also increasing stability, and allowing for high-speed operation and longer lifetimes. The bearings are preferably preloaded when the motors are constructed, as is common practice. The core lamination (where used) are preferably made from M-15 silicon iron steel, insulated on each side, and annealed after stamping, which is also common practice. The stack of laminations is preferably epoxy coating prior to winding. The ferrule, spacer, seal ring and shaft are each preferably made from 430 stainless steel and passivated. Besides holes 55 and 85 in the baseplate, the thermoplastic material could be caused to adhere to the baseplate in some other fashion. For example, a channel could be formed in the baseplate, or a projection on the baseplate could jut out. Also, it may be possible that a simple adhesion to a textured but otherwise flat surface would be possible. The ferrule may be press fit in the aluminum hub to take out small imperfections in the roundness of the hub. The magnet, spacer, and bearings are then glued in place. The windings in motors 20, 40 and 100 are preferably standard wye windings. The increased stiffness from unitizing the stator and the baseplate increases the resonance point of the motors. The designs as shown use fixed shafts. However, the designs could be modified so that the bearings are fixed to the baseplate and the shafts are rigidly attached to the hub and spin with the hub. While ball bearings have been used in each of the embodiments, hydrodynamic bearings and magnetic bearings could be used. FIG. 15 shows a hard disc drive 152 that incorporates one of the motors 20, 40, 70 or 100. The baseplate of the motor is attached to the baseplate 154 of the hard disc drive 152. A shaft 156 supported by the baseplate 154 is used to support the read/write head 164 in operable proximity to one or more discs 168 supported on a hub of the motor. The hard disc drive 152 preferably includes other components, such as a circuit board 170, wiring, etc. that is commonly used in hard disc drives and therefore not further described. Of course, a cover 172 is preferably included and attached to the baseplate assembly by conventional methods. The cover and baseplate assembly cooperate to form a housing for the hard disc drive 154. Preferably the thermoplastic material has a coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) such that the material contracts and expands at approximately the same rate as the solid parts to which it is attached. For example, the preferred thermoplastic material should have a CLTE between 70% and 130% of the CLTE of the core of the stator. When it contacts more than one solid part, the thermoplastic material should have a CLTE that is intermediate the maximum and minimum CLTE of the solid parts it is in contact with. Also, the CLTE's of the material and solid part(s) should match throughout the temperature range of the motor during its operation. An advantage of this method is that a more accurate tolerance may be achieved between the thermoplastic material and the solid parts because the CLTE of the thermoplastic material matches the CLTE of the solid parts more closely. Most often the solid parts will be metal, and most frequently steel, copper and aluminum. The solid parts could also include ceramics. In almost all motors there will be metal bearings. It is preferred that the thermoplastic material has a CLTE approximately the same as that of the metal used to make the bearing. Most thermoplastic materials have a relatively high CLTE. Some thermoplastic materials may have a CLTE at low temperatures that is similar to the CLTE of metal. However, at higher temperatures the CLTE does not match that of the metal. A preferred thermoplastic material will have a CLTE of less than 2×10−5 in/in/° F., more preferably less than 1.5×10−5 in/in/° F., throughout the expected operating temperature of the motor, and preferably throughout the range of 0-250° F. Most preferably, the CLTE will be between about 0.8×10−5 in/in/° F. and about 1.2×10−5 in/in/° F. throughout the range of 0-250° F. (When the measured CLTE of a material depends on the direction of measurement, the relevant CLTE for purposes of defining the present invention is the CLTE in the direction in which the CLTE is lowest.). The CLTE of common solid parts used in a motor are as follows: 23° C. 250° F. Steel 0.5 0.8 (×10−5 in/in/° F.) Aluminum 0.8 1.4 Ceramic 0.3 0.4 Of course, if the motor is designed with two or more different solids, such as steel and aluminum components, the CLTE of the thermoplastic material would preferably be one that was intermediate, the maximum CLTE and the minimum CLTE of the different solids, such as 0.65 in/in/° F. at room temperature and 1.1×10−5 in/in/° F. at 250° F. One preferred thermoplastic material, Konduit OFT-22-11, was made into a thermoplastic body and tested for its coefficient of linear thermal expansion by a standard ASTM test method. It was found to have a CLTE at 23° C. of 1.09×10−5 in/in/° F. in the X direction and 1.26×10−5 in/in/° F. in both the Y and Z directions. (Hence, the relevant CLTE for purposes of defining the invention is 1.09×10−5 in/in/° F.) In addition to having a desirable CLTE, the preferred thermoplastic material will also have a high thermal conductivity. A preferred thermoplastic material will have a thermal conductivity of at least 0.7 watts/meter° K using ASTM test procedure 0149 and tested at room temperature (23° C.). Once encapsulated, the stator assembly will preferably be able to meet disc drive manufacturers' industry standards for particulate emission, requiring that when tested the parts will produce 10 or fewer particles of 0.3 micron and larger per cubic foot of air. This is primarily because machined mounting plates are eliminated and other sources of particulates (steel laminations, wound wire and wire/terminal connections) are sealed in the encapsulation. Also, the encapsulation reduces outgassing because varnish used to insulate wire in the windings and epoxy used to prevent steel laminations from oxidizing are hermetically sealed inside the stator assembly. Also, with fewer parts there is less glue needed to hold parts together. This reduced outgassing reduces the amount of material that could affect the magnetic media or heads used in the disc drive. Another benefit of the preferred embodiment of the invention described above is that the motor has dampened vibrations which makes it particularly well suited to make a hard disc drive. The dampened vibrations can be either in the audible frequency range, thus resulting in a disc drive with less audible noise, or in other frequencies. As mentioned earlier, the degree to which data can be packed onto a hard drive is dependent on how close the data tracks are spaced. Due to reduced vibrations resulting from aspects of the present invention, the data tracks can be more closely spaced and the hard drive still operated. The vibrations of concern are generally produced by harmonic oscillations. The thermoplastic material can be selected so as to dampen oscillations at the harmonic frequency generated by operation of the motor, many of which are dependent on the configuration of the windings or other conductors. There are a number of properties of the thermoplastic material that can be varied in a way that will allow the material to dampen different harmonic frequencies. This includes adding or varying the amount of glass, Kevlar, carbon or other fibers in the material; adding or varying the amount of ceramic filler in the material; changing the type of material, such as from polyphenyl sulfide to nylon or other liquid crystal polymers or aromatic polyesters, adding or grafting elastomers into a polymer used as the phase change material; and using a different molecular weight when the phase change material is a polymer. Any change that affects the flex modulus, elongation or surface hardness properties of the phase change material will also affect its vibration dampening characteristics. In addition to the above-discussed embodiments, a similar structure and method of manufacture can be employed in spindle motors used in other types of applications. For example, these high-speed motors could be used in CD, DVD players, videocassette systems, digital cameras and in robotic servomotors. While the embodiments of the invention disclosed herein are presently considered to be preferred, various changes and modifications can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The scope of the invention is indicated in the appended claims, and all changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalents are intended to be embraced therein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Computers commonly use disc drives for memory storage purposes. Disc drives include a stack of one or more magnetic discs that rotate and are accessed using a head or read-write transducer. Typically, a high-speed motor such as a spindle motor is used to rotate the discs. An example of a conventional spindle motor 1 is shown in FIG. 1 . The motor 1 includes a baseplate 2 which is usually made from machined aluminum, a stator core 4 , a shaft 6 , bearings 7 and a disc support member 8 , also referred to as a hub. A magnet 3 is attached to the disc support member or hub 8 . The hub 8 may be made of steel so that it acts as a flux return ring. The stator core 4 is secured to the baseplate 2 using a support member 5 . One end of the shaft 6 is inserted into the baseplate 2 and the other end of the shaft 6 supports bearings 7 , which are also attached to the hub 8 . A flexible electrical cable 9 may be supported on the baseplate 2 . Wires 12 from the cable exit through holes 15 in the baseplate. The flexible cable 9 is also used to seal the baseplate so that particulate material is not expelled from the motor 1 . The wires 12 carry electric current to the wire windings 11 wrapped around poles formed on the core 4 . Mounting holes 14 on the baseplate are used to secure the motor to the baseplate of a housing for a hard disk drive or other electrical device. The hub 8 includes holes 13 that are used to attach the media discs (not shown) to the hub 8 . Each of these parts must be fixed at predefined tolerances with respect to one another. Accuracy in these tolerances can significantly enhance motor performance. In operation, the disc stack is placed upon the hub. The stator windings 11 are selectively energized and interact with the permanent magnet 3 to cause a defined rotation of the hub. As hub 8 rotates, the head engages in reading or writing activities baseplated upon instructions from the CPU in the computer. Manufacturers of disc drives are constantly seeking to improve the speed with which data can be accessed. To an extent, this speed depends upon the speed of the spindle motor, as existing magneto-resistive head technology is capable of accessing data at a rate greater than the speed offered by the highest speed spindle motor currently in production. The speed of the spindle motor is dependent upon the dimensional consistency or tolerances between the various components of the motor and the rigidity of the parts. Greater dimensional consistency between components and rigidity of the components leads to a smaller gap between the stator 4 and the magnet 3 , producing more force, which provides more torque and enables faster acceleration and higher rotational speeds. In the design shown, the gap between the stator 4 and magnet 3 is located near the outside diameter of the hub 8 . Thus the magnet 3 is attached to the most flexible part of the hub, making the spindle vulnerable to vibration caused by misalignment of the motor. One drawback of conventional spindle motors is that a number of separate parts are required to fix motor components to one another. This can lead to stack up tolerances which reduce the overall dimensional consistency between the components. Stack up tolerances refers to the sum of the variation of all the tolerances of all the parts, as well as the overall tolerance that relates to the alignment of the parts relative to one another. Another drawback to the conventional design is the cost of the machined baseplate 2 . Unfortunately, die-casting or forging does not produce baseplates with sufficient precision. Therefore quality baseplates are made by machining the necessary surfaces and tolerances. The flexible cable 9 also adds to the cost. Steel hubs 8 are expensive and difficult to machine. Aluminum hubs 8 are less expensive, but still must be extensively machined in the bearing area. The stator 4 is a major source of acoustic noise. Also, the stator assembly is difficult to clean, so that particulates are not emitted from the motor. In an effort to enable increased motor speed, some hard disc manufacturers have turned to the use of hydrodynamic bearings. These hydrodynamic bearings, however, have different aspect ratios from conventional bearings. An example of a different aspect ratio may be found in a cylindrical hydrodynamic bearing in which the length of the bearing is greater than it's diameter. This results in more susceptibility to problems induced by differing coefficients of thermal expansion than other metals used in existing spindle motors, making it difficult to maintain dimensional consistency over the operating temperature that the drive sees between the hydrodynamic bearings and other metal parts of the motor Hydrodynamic bearings have less stiffness than conventional ball bearings so they are more susceptible to imprecise rotation when exposed to vibrations or shock. An important characteristic of a hard drive is the amount of information that can be stored on a disc. One method to store more information on a disc is to place data tracks more closely together. Presently this spacing between portions of information is limited due to vibrations occurring during the operation of the motor. These vibrations can be caused when the stator windings are energized, which results in vibrations of a particular frequency. These vibrations also occur from harmonic oscillations in the hub and discs during rotation, caused primarily by non-uniform size media discs. An important factor in motor design is the lowering of the operating temperature of the motor. Increased motor temperature affects the electrical efficiency of the motor and bearing life. As temperature increases, resistive loses in wire increase, thereby reducing total motor power. Furthermore, the Arhennius equation predicts that the failure rate of an electrical device is exponentially related to its operating temperature. The frictional heat generated by bearings increases with speed. Also, as bearings get hot they expand, and the bearing cages get stressed and may deflect, causing non-uniform rotation and the resultant further heat increase, non-uniform rotation requiring greater spacing in data tracks, and reduced bearing life. One drawback with existing motor designs is their limited effective dissipation of the heat, and difficulty in incorporating heat sinks to aid in heat dissipation. In the design of the motor 1 there is a small direct path between the stator and the core, which makes it difficult to cool the stator, which reduces motor efficiency the above reasons. Also 5×11 mm bearings commonly used are not sufficiently stable nor have a life required for desired high-speed operation (10,000 rpm and above). In addition, in current motors the operating temperatures generally increase as the size of the motor is decreased. Manufacturers have established strict requirements on the outgassing of materials that are used inside a hard disc drive. These requirements are intended to reduce the emission of materials onto the magnetic media or heads during the operation of the drive. Of primary concern are glues used to attach components together, varnish used to insulate wire, and epoxy used to protect steel laminations from oxidation. In addition to such outgassed materials, airborne particulate in a drive may lead to head damage. Also, airborne particulates in the disc drive could interfere with signal transfer between the read/write head and the media. To reduce the effects of potential airborne particulate, hard drives are manufactured to exacting clean room standards and air filters are installed inside of the drive to reduce the contamination levels during operation. Heads used in disc drives are susceptible to damage from electrical shorts passing through a small air gap between the media and the head surface. In order to prevent such shorts, some hard drives use a plastic or rubber ring to electrically isolate the spindle motor from the hard drive case. This rubber ring may also mechanically isolate the spindle motor from the hard drive case so that vibrations generated by the motor are not transmitted to other components in the hard drive. A drawback to this design is the requirement of an extra component. Another example of a spindle motor is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,694,268 (Dunfield et al.) (incorporated herein by reference). Referring to FIGS. 7 and 8 of this patent, a stator 200 of the spindle motor is encapsulated with an overmold 209 . The overmolded stator contains openings through which mounting pins 242 may be inserted for attaching the stator 200 to a baseplate. One drawback to this design is that baseplate does not receive any increased rigidity through this type of connection. U.S. Pat. No. 5,672,972 (Viskochil) (incorporated herein by reference) also discloses a spindle motor having an overmolded stator. One drawback with the overmold used in these patents is that it has a different coefficient of linear thermal expansion (“CLTE”) than the corresponding metal parts to which it is attached. Another drawback with the overmold is that it is not very effective at dissipating heat. Further, the overmolds shown in these patents are not effective in dampening some vibrations generated by energizing the stator windings. U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,169 (Trago) (incorporated herein by reference) discloses a method of fabricating an injection molded motor assembly. However, the motor disclosed in Trago is a step motor, not a high-speed spindle motor, and would not be used in applications such as hard disc drives. Thus, a need exists for an improved spindle motor, having properties that will be especially useful in a hard disc drive, overcoming the aforementioned problems. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A spindle motor has been invented which overcomes many of the foregoing problems. In addition, unique stator and baseplate assemblies and other components of a high-speed motor have been invented, as well as methods of manufacturing such motors. In one aspect, the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, the stator core being rigidly attached to said baseplate; injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating said windings, and a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In a second aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, the stator assembly being spaced from the baseplate; a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly; and a thermoplastic material secured to the baseplate and encapsulating the stator windings, the thermoplastic material joining the stator assembly to the baseplate in the space between the stator assembly and the baseplate. In another aspect the invention is a baseplate and stator combination comprising: a baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles, and windings around said poles; and an injection molded thermoplastic material encapsulating the windings and also locking the stator assembly to the baseplate, the baseplate and stator assembly not being in direct contact with one another but rather having a space between them filled in by the thermoplastic material. In yet another aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: baseplate made of stiff thermoplastic material, having a modulus of elasticity of at least 1,000,000 psi, and a metal plate substantially encapsulated by the stiff thermoplastic material; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; a hub supported on said shaft, said hub having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly; and a vibration dampening thermoplastic material encapsulating the stator windings, the vibration dampening thermoplastic material having a vibration dampening ratio of at least 0.05 in the range of 0-500 Hz and joining the stator assembly to the baseplate. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a baseplate, a hub having a magnet connected thereto and a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; rigidly attaching the stator core to the baseplate; injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings after the core is attached to the baseplate, and mounting the hub on a shaft supported on the baseplate so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly and so that the hub can rotate with respect to the stator. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a baseplate, a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles, and a hub having a magnet connected thereto; injection molding a thermoplastic material to encapsulate the windings and in between the baseplate and stator assembly so as to secure the stator assembly to the baseplate sufficiently to allow the rigidity of the core to help stiffen the baseplate, and rotatably mounting the hub on a shaft rigidly supported on the baseplate so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In another aspect the invention is a method of manufacturing a spindle motor comprising the steps of: providing a metal baseplate insert, a hub having a magnet connected thereto and a stator assembly comprising a core having poles and windings around said poles; holding the baseplate insert and stator assembly in an injection mold and injection molding a thermoplastic material so as to substantially encapsulate the baseplate insert and the windings and secure the stator assembly and baseplate insert together; and rotatably mounting the hub on a shaft rigidly supported on the combined encapsulated baseplate insert and stator assembly so that the magnet on the hub is in operable proximity to the stator assembly. In another aspect the invention is a spindle motor comprising: a baseplate; a shaft supported by said baseplate; a coreless stator assembly comprising windings encapsulated in a thermoplastic material; and a hub rotatably supported on said shaft, said shaft having a magnet connected thereto in operable proximity to the stator assembly, the hub also including a flux return ring supported opposite the magnet so that the stator assembly is located between the flux return ring and the magnet. The invention provides the foregoing and other features, and the advantages of the invention will become further apparent from the following detailed description of the presently preferred embodiments, read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. The detailed description and drawings are merely illustrative of the invention and do not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the appended claims and equivalents thereof. | 20050114 | 20060627 | 20050623 | 99656.0 | 8 | WAKS, JOSEPH | MOTOR WITH ENCAPSULATED STATOR AND METHOD OF MAKING SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,913 | ACCEPTED | Method of forming an integrated circuit having nanocluster devices and non-nanocluster devices | An integrated circuit is formed by identifying multiple regions, each having transistors that have a gate oxide thickness that differs between the multiple regions. One of the regions includes transistors having a nanocluster layer and another of the regions includes transistors with a thin gate oxide used for logic functions. Formation of the gate oxides of the transistors is sequenced based upon the gate oxide thickness and function of the transistors. Thin gate oxides for at least one region of transistors are formed after the formation of gate oxides for the region including the transistors having the nanocluster layer. | 1. A method of forming an integrated circuit, comprising: identifying a first region of the integrated circuit for locating a first transistor; identifying a second region of the integrated circuit for locating nanoclusters; identifying a third region of the integrated circuit for locating a second transistor; forming a gate insulator of the first transistor in the first region of the integrated circuit; subsequent to forming the gate insulator of the first transistor, forming nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit; subsequent to forming the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit, forming a gate insulator of the second transistor in the third region of the integrated circuit, wherein the gate insulator of the second transistor is substantially thinner than the gate insulator of the first transistor; and completing formation of the first transistor and the second transistor. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the gate insulator of the first transistor comprises a first oxide layer and wherein the gate insulator of the second transistor comprises a second oxide layer formed separately from the first oxide layer. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the first oxide layer and the second oxide layer comprise a same oxide material. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein a thickness of the gate insulator of the second transistor is less than or equal to three nanometers. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein a thickness of the gate insulator of the first transistor is at least five nanometers. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the first transistor comprises a high voltage transistor that uses an operational voltage of six volts or greater. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the first transistor comprises an input/output transistor for interfacing electrical functions performed in the integrated circuit with circuitry external to the integrated circuit. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the second transistor comprises a logic transistor for functioning to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: using the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit to form a plurality of non-volatile memory cells. 10. A method of forming an integrated circuit, comprising: providing a substrate; identifying a first region overlying the substrate for locating a first plurality of transistors; identifying a second region overlying the substrate for locating a second plurality of transistors; identifying a third region overlying the substrate for locating a third plurality of transistors; forming a plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors in the first region of the integrated circuit, the plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors having a first average gate insulator thickness; subsequent to forming the plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors, forming a plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors and forming a layer of nanoclusters overlying the plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors, the plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors having a second average gate insulator thickness; subsequent to forming the layer of nanoclusters, forming in the third region of the integrated circuit a plurality of gate insulators of the third plurality of transistors having a third average gate insulator thickness, wherein the third average gate insulator thickness is substantially less than the first average gate insulator thickness; and completing formation of the first plurality of transistors, the second plurality of transistors and the third plurality of transistors. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors comprises oxide and is formed from a first insulating layer and wherein the plurality of gate insulators of the third plurality of transistors comprises oxide and is formed from a second insulating layer formed after the first insulating layer. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the oxide comprises silicon dioxide. 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the third average gate insulator thickness is less than or equal to three nanometers. 14. The method of claim 10, wherein the first average gate insulator thickness is at least five nanometers. 15. The method of claim 10, wherein the first plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of high voltage transistors that use an operational voltage of six volts or greater. 16. The method of claim 10, wherein the first plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of input/output transistors for interfacing electrical functions performed in the integrated circuit with circuitry external to the integrated circuit. 17. The method of claim 10, wherein the third plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of logic transistors for functioning to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. 18. The method of claim 10, further comprising: using the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit to form a plurality of non-volatile memory cells. 19. A method of forming an integrated circuit, comprising: identifying a first region of the integrated circuit for locating a first transistor; identifying a second region of the integrated circuit for locating a second transistor; identifying a third region of the integrated circuit for locating nanoclusters; identifying a fourth region of the integrated circuit for locating a third transistor; forming a gate dielectric of the first transistor in the first region of the integrated circuit and forming a gate dielectric of the second transistor in the second region of the integrated circuit; subsequent to forming the gate dielectric of the first transistor and forming the gate dielectric of the second transistor, forming nanoclusters in the third region of the integrated circuit; subsequent to forming nanoclusters in the third region of the integrated circuit, forming a gate dielectric of the third transistor in the fourth region of the integrated circuit, wherein the gate dielectric of the third transistor is substantially thinner than each of the gate dielectric of the first transistor and the gate dielectric of the second transistor; and completing formation of the first transistor, the second transistor the third transistor and a device comprising nanoclusters. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the first transistor comprises a high voltage transistor and the gate dielectric of the first transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially five to twenty nanometers, wherein the second transistor comprises an input/output transistor and the gate dielectric of the second transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially 2.6 to nine nanometers, and wherein the third transistor comprises a logic transistor and the gate dielectric of the third transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially 0.8 to three nanometers. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to the following pending applications: (1) U.S. Ser. No. 10/876,805 (Robert F. Steimle) entitled “Method of Forming a Nanocluster Charge Storage Device”, filed Jun. 24, 2004 and assigned to the assignee hereof; and (2) U.S. Ser. No. 10/663,621 (Robert F. Steimle et al.) entitled “Semiconductor Device With Nanoclusters”, filed Sep. 16, 2003 and assigned to the assignee hereof. FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to semiconductor devices, and more specifically, to making semiconductor devices having nanoclusters. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Some devices such as memories (e.g. non volatile memories) utilize discrete charge storage elements called nanoclusters (e.g. of silicon, aluminum, gold, or germanium) for storing charge in a charge storage location of a transistor. In some examples, the nanoclusters are located between two dielectric layers, a bottom dielectric and a control dielectric. Examples of such transistors include thin film storage transistors. A memory typically includes an array of such transistors. Examples of nanocluster types include doped and undoped semiconductor nanoclusters such as silicon nanoclusters, germanium nanoclusters and their alloys. Other examples of nanocluster types include various conductive structures such as metal nanoclusters (e.g., gold nanoclusters and aluminum nanoclusters), and metal alloy nanoclusters. In some examples, nanoclusters are from 10-100 Angstroms in size. Some memories that have charge storage transistors with nanoclusters are implemented on integrated circuits that also include high voltage transistors in the circuitry used for charging and discharging the charge storage locations of the charge storage transistors. Charging or discharging the charge storage locations is used to store one or more bits of information, and may be referred to as programming or erasing. These high voltage transistors typically include a relatively thick gate oxide. When nanocluster-based memories are integrated with transistors having thick gate oxide layers for handling relatively higher voltages and with transistors having thinner gate oxide layers, the severe oxidizing ambient used to make such transistors causes an undesirable increase in the nanocluster-based memory bottom dielectric thickness and also causes nanocluster oxidation. Any protection layer that is used to protect nanocluster-based memories may result in damage to the memories when the protection layer is removed. Accordingly, an improved method for making a device with nanoclusters is desirable. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not limited to the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements. FIGS. 1-10 illustrate in cross-sectional form a method for forming a semiconductor having a nanocluster device and a non-nanocluster device in accordance with one form of the present invention; and FIGS. 11-20 illustrate in cross-sectional form a method for forming a semiconductor having a nanocluster device and a non-nanocluster device in accordance with another form of the present invention. Skilled artisans appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Illustrated in FIG. 1 is an integrated circuit 10 having a substrate 12 that contains various regions with differing types of semiconductor devices. For example, within substrate 12 is a high voltage transistor region 14, a nanocluster device region 16 and an input/output (I/O) transistor region 18. A high voltage transistor, as used herein, is a transistor that is used to program and erase nanocluster charge storage devices or is a device that requires a high voltage (i.e. greater than six volts) operation. An I/O transistor, as used herein, is a transistor that is used to interface the electrical functions performed in the integrated circuit 10 with other components or circuitry (not shown) external to integrated circuit 10. Within each of high voltage transistor region 14, nanocluster device region 16 and the I/O transistor region 18 will be formed a plurality of semiconductor structures to be described below. For drawing simplicity, a single device is illustrated in each of the regions, but it should be well understood that multiple adjacent structures are implemented in each of the regions. Overlying the substrate 12 and each of the high voltage transistor region 14, nanocluster device region 16 and the I/O transistor region 18 is a first insulating layer 20. The first insulating layer 20 is etched by a mask (not shown) to form an opening over the I/O transistor region 18. In a subsequent step a second insulating layer 22 is grown overlying the I/O transistor region 18. In one form, each of the first insulating layer 20 and the second insulating layer 22 is an oxide such as silicon dioxide. Other types of insulating materials may however be used. Illustrated in FIG. 2 is further processing of integrated circuit 10. In FIG. 2 a conformal sacrificial layer 24 is formed overlying first insulating layer 20 and second insulating layer 22. In one form the conformal sacrificial layer 24 is formed of either polysilicon or silicon nitride, SiN, and functions as an oxidation barrier. A notable feature of the material selected for the conformal sacrificial layer 24 is that conformal sacrificial layer 24 may be removed selective to the second insulating layer 22. Therefore, the conformal sacrificial layer 24 may be either a semiconductor or an insulator. Illustrated in FIG. 3 is further processing of integrated circuit 10. In FIG. 3 a masking layer 26 is formed over integrated circuit 10. The conformal sacrificial layer 24 and first insulating layer 20 are removed from nanocluster device region 16. Conformal sacrificial layer 24 and first insulating layer 20 may be removed by a combination of conventional dry and wet etching. Illustrated in FIG. 4 is further processing of integrated circuit 10. In FIG. 4 a masking layer 26 is removed by either ashing or a photoresist strip using a conventional removal process. Subsequently, an insulating layer 28 is grown or deposited over nanocluster device region 116. Concomitantly, the insulating layer 28 is also formed over the sacrificial layer 24. Insulating layer 24 may be formed of silicon dioxide or any other suitable insulator. Nanoclusters are then formed over the entirety of the integrated circuit 10 to form a nanocluster layer 30. The nanoclusters may be formed by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods, aerosol application, or spin-on techniques, for example. The nanoclusters may be formed of silicon, germanium, silicon-germanium alloys or other suitable materials. A conformal insulating layer 32 is formed over the nanocluster layer 30 and insulating layer 28. The insulating layer 32 may be silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or other suitable insulating material. In one form the conformal insulating layer 32 is deposited by CVD. The conformal insulating layer 32 may also be a laminated material composed of two or more individual layers. It should be noted that formation of nanoclusters storage devices after the formation of the insulating layers for transistors in the high voltage transistor region 14 and the I/O transistor region 18 is advantageous. The reason is insulating layer 32 is permeable to oxidation, and particularly the steam oxidation frequently used to grow the first insulating layer 20. As such, nanoclusters 30 may be oxidized if nanocluster devices are formed prior to the formation of the first insulating layer 20 for the high voltage transistor region 14. Likewise the process used to form insulating layer 22 for the I/O transistor region 18 may also degrade the nanocluster properties in a similar manner. Illustrated in FIG. 5 is further processing of integrated circuit 10. In FIG. 5 a mask 34 is formed overlying the nanocluster device region 16. In one form, photoresist may be used as the material for mask 34. With the mask 34 in place, exposed portions of the conformal insulating layer 32, the nanocluster layer 30, the insulating layer 28 and the conformal sacrificial layer 24 are removed. Removal of the exposed portions of these layers is performed, in one form, by different wet etches or a combination of a wet etch and a dry etch. Substantially all of the first insulating layer 20 and the second insulating layer 22 remain intact. However, in some forms, a portion of the first insulating layer 20 and the second insulating layer 22 may be removed in the exposed regions of FIG. 5. Illustrated in FIG. 6 is further processing of integrated circuit 10. In FIG. 6 the mask 34 is removed by either ashing or a photoresist strip using a conventional removal process. Mask 36 is formed overlying all portions of the integrated circuit 10 except overlying a defined area designated in FIG. 6 as a logic transistor region 38. As used herein, a logic transistor is a transistor that functions to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. Such transistors may implement Boolean logic functions as well as amplification of circuit signals. Numerous other functions, such as a form of memory storage, may be implemented. In one form mask 36 is photoresist. Prior to the formation of mask 36 a conventional deposition of N conductivity and P conductivity diffusions (not shown) is made within the logic transistor region 38 using conventional masking steps (not shown). Illustrated in FIG. 7 is further processing of integrated circuit 10 wherein with mask 36 in place, a wet etch is used to remove the first insulating layer 20 from above the logic transistor region 38. Mask 36 is then removed using conventional removal techniques. Illustrated in FIG. 8 is further processing of integrated circuit 10 wherein an insulating layer 40 is grown overlying the logic transistor region 38. Insulating layer 40 will function as a gate insulating layer for transistors and other devices to be formed in the logic transistor region 38. In one form, the insulating layer 40 is an oxide such as silicon dioxide. Illustrated in FIG. 9 is further processing of integrated circuit 10 wherein a conductive layer 42 is formed overlying the integrated circuit 10. This conductive layer 42 may be polysilicon or other suitable conductors such as tungsten silicide, tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, etc. The conductive layer 42 is deposited to a predetermined desired conformal depth. Illustrated in FIG. 10 is further processing of integrated circuit 10 wherein the conductive layer 42 is selectively etched to form a plurality of gates such as gate 44, gate 46, gate 48 and gate 50. Within each of high voltage transistor region 14, nanocluster device region 16, input/output transistor region 18 and logic transistor region 38 are formed a plurality of gates. For convenience of illustration, only one gate is illustrated in each of the high voltage transistor region 14, nanocluster device region 16, input/output transistor region 18 and logic transistor 38. Gate 44 has an associated sidewall spacer 52 formed by conventional methods with a source 54 and a drain 56 to form a functional transistor. Similarly, gate 46 has an associated sidewall spacer 58 with a source 60 and a drain 62. Gate 48 has an associated sidewall spacer 64 with a source 66 and a drain 68. Gate 50 has an associated sidewall spacer 70 with a source 72 and a drain 74. Therefore, there has been formed a plurality of transistors in each of a plurality of regions, wherein each region has a gate oxide of differing thickness. In one form, the high voltage transistor region 14 has transistors with relatively large gate oxide thicknesses. By way of example only, the gate oxide formed from first insulating layer 20 may have a thickness in the range of five to twenty nanometers and preferably in the range of eight to sixteen nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the high voltage transistor region 14 is substantially in the range of five to twenty nanometers. The I/O transistor region 18 has transistors having gate oxides that vary substantially within a range of about 2.6 to nine nanometers and preferably in the range of five to seven nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the I/O transistor region 18 is substantially in the range of five to seven nanometers. The nanocluster device region 16 has storage cells each having a transistor gate oxide thickness substantially in the range of 1.8 to ten nanometers and preferably in the range of four to seven nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the nanocluster device region 16 is substantially in the range of 1.8 to ten nanometers. In contrast, the logic transistor region 38 has transistor having much thinner gate oxide thicknesses. For example, the transistors within logic transistor region 38 have a thickness substantially in a range of about 0.8 to three nanometers and preferably in the range of about 1.2 to 2.6 nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the logic transistor region 38 is substantially in the range of about 1.2 to 2.6 nanometers. It should be noted that the formation of the transistors of the logic transistor region 38 occurs after the formation of the transistors of the nanocluster device region 16. In order to form nanocluster device region 16 processing temperatures that are relatively high are required and these temperatures would significantly alter the diffusion characteristics of the transistors within the logic transistor region 38 if those transistors were first formed. By deferring the formation of the logic transistors within logic transistor region 38 until after formation of the high voltage transistors and the nanocluster transistors, modification of the electrical parameters and characteristics of the logic transistors is minimized. It should be noted that the formation of the transistors within the nanocluster device region 16 does not significantly alter the electrical characteristics of the transistors in the high voltage transistor region 14 because the gate oxide thickness of the transistors in that region is great enough that the subsequent high processing temperatures do not alter the parameters as much as transistors having thinner gate oxides. While the oxide thickness ranges provided for the I/O transistor region 18 and the logic transistor region 38 may theoretically permit the gate oxide within the logic transistor region 38 to be larger than the gate oxide in the I/O transistor region 18, the gate oxide thickness within logic transistor region 38 is not greater than the gate oxide thickness within I/O transistor region 18. For example, if the gate oxide thickness within I/O transistor region 18 is in the lowest portion of the illustrated range, the gate oxide thickness within logic transistor region 38 will also be in the lowest portion of the illustrated range. It should be well understood that the formation of certain transistor features in each of the regions may be implemented concurrently. For example, the sidewall spacers, sources and drains for all of the devices illustrated in FIG. 10 may be implemented concurrently. Illustrated in FIG. 11 is another form of a method for making an integrated circuit having nanocluster charge storage devices and non-nanocluster devices. An integrated circuit 100 has a substrate 112 that contains various regions with differing types of semiconductor devices. For example, within substrate 112 is a high voltage transistor region 114, a nanocluster device region 116 and an input/output (I/O) transistor region 118. Within each of high voltage transistor region 114, nanocluster device region 116 and the I/O transistor region 118 will be formed a plurality of semiconductor structures to be described below. Overlying the substrate 112 and each of the high voltage transistor region 114, nanocluster device region 116 and the I/O transistor region 118 is a first insulating layer 120. The first insulating layer 120 is etched by a mask (not shown) to form an opening over the I/O transistor region 118. In a subsequent step a second insulating layer 122 is grown overlying the I/O transistor region 118. In one form, each of the first insulating layer 120 and the second insulating layer 122 is an oxide such as silicon dioxide. Other types of insulating materials may however be used. The terms high voltage transistor and I/O transistor are used consistent with the explanations provided previously. Illustrated in FIG. 12 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein a conductive layer 124 is deposited overlying the first insulating layer 120 and the second insulating layer 122. In one form the conductive layer 124 is implemented with polysilicon. Other electrically conductive materials may be used. Overlying conductive layer 124 is a conformal sacrificial layer 126 that is deposited. In one form, the sacrificial layer 126 is a nitride. The sacrificial layer 126 functions as an oxidation barrier material. In one form the overlying conductive layer 124 has a thickness generally in a range from approximately twenty to forty nanometers. The sacrificial layer 126 in one form has a thickness generally in a range from approximately ten to twenty nanometers. Other thickness ranges may however be implemented. Illustrated in FIG. 13 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein a mask 128 is formed with an opening over the nanocluster device region 116. With the opening in mask 128, the sacrificial layer 126, conductive layer 124 and first insulating layer 120 are etched and substantially removed from above the nanocluster device region 116. The etching involved in this portion of the method is conventional. Illustrated in FIG. 14 is further processing of integrated circuit 100. In FIG. 14 the masking layer 128 is removed either by ashing or by a photoresist strip using a conventional removal process. Subsequently, an insulating layer 130 is grown or deposited over nanocluster device region 116. Concomitantly the insulating layer 130 is also formed over sacrificial layer 126. Insulating layer 130 may be formed of silicon dioxide or any other suitable insulator. Nanoclusters are then formed over the entirety of the integrated circuit 100 to form a nanocluster layer 132. The nanoclusters may be formed by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods, aerosol application, or spin-on techniques, for example. The nanoclusters may be formed of silicon, germanium, silicon-germanium alloys or other suitable materials. A conformal insulating layer 134 is formed over the nanocluster layer 132 and insulating layer 126. The insulating layer 134 may be silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or other suitable insulating material. In one form the conformal insulating layer 134 is deposited by CVD. The conformal insulating layer 134 may also be a laminated material composed of two or more individual layers. It should be noted that formation of nanoclusters storage devices after the formation of the insulating layers for transistors in the high voltage transistor region 114 and the I/O transistor region 118 is advantageous. The reason is insulating layer 134 is permeable to oxidation particularly the steam oxidation frequently used to grow high voltage insulating layer 120. As such, nanoclusters 132 may be oxidized if nanocluster devices are formed prior to the formation of the second insulating layer 120 for the high voltage transistor region 114. Likewise the process used to form insulating layer 122 for the I/O transistor region 118 may also degrade the nanocluster properties in a similar manner. Illustrated in FIG. 15 is further processing of integrated circuit 100. In FIG. 5 a mask 136 is formed overlying the nanocluster device region 116. In one form, photoresist may be used as the material for mask 136. With the mask 136 in place, exposed portions of the conformal insulating layer 134, the nanocluster layer 132 and the insulating 126 are removed. Removal of the exposed portions of these layers is performed, in one form, by a wet etch or a combination of a wet etch and a dry etch. Substantially all of the conducting layer 124 remains intact. Illustrated in FIG. 16 is further processing of integrated circuit 100. In FIG. 16 the mask 136 is removed by either ashing or a photoresist strip using a conventional removal process. Mask 138 is formed overlying all portions of the integrated circuit 100 except overlying a defined area designated in FIG. 6 as a logic transistor region 140. As used herein, a logic transistor is a transistor that functions to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. Such transistors may implement Boolean logic functions as well as amplification of circuit signals. Numerous other functions, such as a form of memory storage, may be implemented. In one form mask 138 is photoresist. Prior to the formation of mask 138 a conventional deposition of N conductivity and P conductivity diffusions (not shown) is made within the logic transistor region 140 using conventional masking steps (not shown). Illustrated in FIG. 17 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein with mask 138 in place, a combination of dry and wet etch is used to remove the conducting layer 124 and insulating layer 120 from above the logic transistor region 140. Mask 138 is then removed using conventional removal techniques. Illustrated in FIG. 18 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein an insulating layer 142 is grown overlying the logic transistor region 140. Additionally, the insulating layer 142 is likely to grow over conducting layer 124 depending upon the material composition of conducting layer 124. Insulating layer 142 will function as a gate insulating layer for transistors and other devices to be formed in the logic transistor region 140. In one form, the insulating layer 142 is an oxide such as silicon dioxide. Other materials may be used for insulating layer 142 such as high k dielectrics which include hafnium oxide, zirconium oxide, etc. Depending upon the material composition for insulating layer 142, the insulating layer 142 may be deposited. Illustrated in FIG. 19 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein a conductive layer 144 is formed overlying the integrated circuit 100. This conductive layer 144 may be polysilicon or other suitable conductors such as tungsten silicide, tantalum nitride, titanium nitride, etc. The conductive layer 144 is deposited to a predetermined desired conformal depth. Illustrated in FIG. 20 is further processing of integrated circuit 100 wherein the conductive layer 144 is selectively etched to form a plurality of gates such as gate 144, gate 146, gate 148 and gate 150. Note that since transistors in the high voltage transistor region 114 and transistors in the I/O transistor region 118 have a different total gate conductor thickness than transistors in regions 116 and 140, the gates in regions 114 and 118 may need to be etched separately from the gates in regions 116 and 140. If conductive layer 124 in the gates of region 118 is thin, then the gate etch may be accomplished with one masking step. Also, it should be noted that for transistors in each of regions 114 and 118, the insulating layer 142 is relatively thin. Therefore, the two separated conductive gate areas do not need to be electrically connected together to function as a single gate electrode. Within each of the regions 114, 116, 118 and 140 are formed a plurality of gates. For convenience of illustration, only one gate is illustrated in each of the regions 114, 116, 118 and 140. Gate 144 has an associated sidewall spacer 152 formed by conventional methods with a source 154 and a drain 156 to form a functional transistor. Similarly, gate 146 has an associated sidewall spacer 158 with a source 160 and a drain 162. Gate 148 has an associated sidewall spacer 164 with a source 166 and a drain 168. Gate 150 has an associated sidewall spacer 170 with a source 172 and a drain 174. Therefore, there has been formed a plurality of transistors in each of a plurality of regions, wherein each region has a gate oxide of differing thickness. In one form, the high voltage transistor region 114 has transistors with relatively large gate oxide thicknesses. By way of example only, gate oxide 120 may have a thickness in the range of five to twenty nanometers and preferably in the range of eight to sixteen nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the high voltage transistor region 114 is substantially in the range of five to twenty nanometers. The I/O transistor region 118 has transistors having gate oxides that vary substantially within a range of about 2.6 to nine nanometers and preferably in the range of five to seven nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the I/O transistor region 118 is substantially in the range of five to seven nanometers. The nanocluster device region 116 has storage cells each having a transistor gate oxide thickness substantially in the range of 1.8 to ten nanometers and preferably in the range of four to seven nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the nanocluster device region 116 is substantially in the range of 1.8 to ten nanometers. In contrast, the logic transistor region 140 has transistor having much thinner gate oxide thicknesses. For example, the transistors within logic transistor region 140 have a thickness substantially in a range of about 0.8 to three nanometers and preferably in the range of about 1.2 to 2.6 nanometers. Alternatively, an average of the gate oxide thicknesses within the logic transistor region 140 is substantially in the range of about 1.2 to 2.6 nanometers. It should be noted that the formation of the transistors of the logic transistor region 140 occurs after the formation of the transistors of the nanocluster device region 116. In order to form nanocluster device region 116 processing temperatures that are relatively high are required and these temperatures would significantly alter the diffusion characteristics of the transistors within the logic transistor region 140 if those transistors were first formed. By deferring the formation of the logic transistors within logic transistor region 140 until after formation of the high voltage transistors and the nanocluster transistors, modification of the electrical parameters and characteristics of the logic transistors is minimized. It should be noted that the formation of the transistors within the nanocluster device region 116 does not significantly alter the electrical characteristics of the transistors in the high voltage transistor region 114 because the gate oxide thickness of the transistors in that region is great enough that the subsequent high processing temperatures do not alter the parameters as much as transistors having thinner gate oxides. While the oxide thickness ranges provided for the I/O transistor region 118 and the logic transistor region 140 may theoretically permit the gate oxide within the logic transistor region 140 to be larger than the gate oxide in the I/O transistor region 118, the gate oxide thickness within logic transistor region 140 is not greater than the gate oxide thickness within I/O transistor region 118. For example, if the gate oxide thickness within I/O transistor region 118 is in the lowest portion of the illustrated range, the gate oxide thickness within logic transistor region 140 will also be in the lowest portion of the illustrated range. By now it should be appreciated that there has been provided methods for integrating nanocluster storage devices with transistors having thicker and thinner gate oxides. This integration prevents oxidation of nanoclusters and nonvolatile memory tunnel oxide thickness increase during gate oxide formation of transistors in a high voltage transistor region. The method described herein also ensures that transistor gate oxides of logic transistors, which are typically thinner than transistor gate oxides of other functional types of transistors, are not exposed to additional heat. The methods described herein do not require a separate dedicated sacrificial layer for the removal of nanoclusters. In the foregoing specification, the invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments. However, one of ordinary skill in the art appreciates that various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope of the present invention as set forth in the claims below. For example, the devices that may be formed in the nanocluster device region 116 may be memory storage devices such as a nonvolatile memory, one time programmable (OTP) memories, dynamic random access memories or may be optical emitting devices. Various metals may be used to implement conductive layers. Various metal oxide materials may be used as insulating materials that function as gate dielectrics. The methods described herein may be applied in the formation of a FINFET transistor including FINFETs that function as a memory storage device. Various types and sizes of nanoclusters may be used and various techniques may be used to deposit the nanoclusters. For example, in one form, the nanoclusters are silicon and have a diameter substantially in a range of one to ten nanometers. Accordingly, the specification and figures are to be regarded in an illustrative rather than a restrictive sense, and all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the present invention. In one form there is provided a method of forming an integrated circuit. A first region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating a first transistor. A second region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating nanoclusters. A third region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating a second transistor. A gate insulator of the first transistor is formed in the first region of the integrated circuit. Subsequent to forming the gate insulator of the first transistor, nanoclusters are formed in the second region of the integrated circuit. Subsequent to forming the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit, a gate insulator of the second transistor is formed in the third region of the integrated circuit. The gate insulator of the second transistor is substantially thinner than the gate insulator of the first transistor. Formation of the first transistor and the second transistor is then completed. In one form the gate insulator of the first transistor comprises a first oxide layer and the gate insulator of the second transistor comprises a second oxide layer formed separately from the first oxide layer. In another form the first oxide and the second oxide comprise a same oxide material. In one form a thickness of the gate insulator of the second transistor is less than or equal to three nanometers. In another form a thickness of the gate insulator of the first transistor is at least five nanometers. In another form the first transistor comprises a high voltage transistor that uses an operational voltage of six volts or greater. In another form the first transistor comprises an input/output transistor for interfacing electrical functions performed in the integrated circuit with circuitry external to the integrated circuit. In yet another form the second transistor comprises a logic transistor for functioning to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. In another form the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit are used to form a plurality of non-volatile memory cells. There is also provided a method of forming an integrated circuit by providing a substrate and identifying a first region overlying the substrate for locating a first plurality of transistors. A second region overlying the substrate is identified for locating a second plurality of transistors. A third region overlying the substrate is identified for locating a third plurality of transistors. A plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors is formed in the first region of the integrated circuit, the first plurality of gate insulators having a first average gate insulator thickness. Subsequent to forming the plurality of gate insulators of the first plurality of transistors, a plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors is formed and a layer of nanoclusters overlying the plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors is formed. The plurality of gate insulators of the second plurality of transistors have a second average gate insulator thickness. Subsequent to forming the layer of nanoclusters, a plurality of gate insulators of the third plurality of transistors is formed in the third region of the integrated circuit. This plurality of gate insulators has a third average gate insulator thickness. The third average gate insulator thickness is substantially less than the first average gate insulator thickness. Formation of the first plurality of transistors, second plurality of transistors and third plurality of transistors is completed. In one form the first plurality of gate insulators comprises oxide and is formed from a first insulating layer. The third plurality of gate insulators comprises oxide and is formed from a second insulating layer formed after the first insulating layer. In one form the oxide is silicon dioxide. In another form the third average gate insulator thickness is less than or equal to three nanometers. In yet another form the first average gate insulator thickness is at least five nanometers. In another form the first plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of high voltage transistors that use an operational voltage of six volts or greater. In yet another form the first plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of input/output transistors for interfacing electrical functions performed in the integrated circuit with circuitry external to the integrated circuit. In yet another form the third plurality of transistors comprises a plurality of logic transistors for functioning to perform fast electrical computation and switching functions. In yet another form the nanoclusters in the second region of the integrated circuit are used to form a plurality of non-volatile memory cells. There is also provided a method of forming an integrated circuit by identifying a first region of the integrated circuit for locating a first transistor. A second region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating a second transistor. A third region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating nanoclusters. A fourth region of the integrated circuit is identified for locating a third transistor. A gate dielectric of the first transistor is formed in the first region of the integrated circuit and a gate dielectric of the second transistor is formed in the second region of the integrated circuit. Subsequent to forming the gate dielectric of the first transistor and forming the gate dielectric of the second transistor, nanoclusters are formed in the third region of the integrated circuit. Subsequent to forming nanoclusters in the third region of the integrated circuit, a gate dielectric of the third transistor is formed in the fourth region of the integrated circuit. The gate dielectric of the third transistor is substantially thinner than each of the gate dielectric of the first transistor and the gate dielectric of the second transistor. In one form the first transistor comprises a high voltage transistor and the gate dielectric of the first transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially five to twenty nanometers. In another form the second transistor comprises an input/output transistor and the gate dielectric of the second transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially 2.6 to nine nanometers. In yet another form the fourth transistor comprises a logic transistor and the gate dielectric of the third transistor has a thickness within a range of substantially 0.8 to three nanometers. Benefits, other advantages, and solutions to problems have been described above with regard to specific embodiments. However, the benefits, advantages, solutions to problems, and any element(s) that may cause any benefit, advantage, or solution to occur or become more pronounced are not to be construed as a critical, required, or essential feature or element of any or all the claims. As used herein, the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion, such that a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. The terms a or an, as used herein, are defined as one or more than one. The term plurality, as used herein, is defined as two or more than two. The term another, as used herein, is defined as at least a second or more. The terms including and/or having, as used herein, are defined as comprising (i.e., open language). The term coupled, as used herein, is defined as connected, although not necessarily directly, and not necessarily mechanically. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Some devices such as memories (e.g. non volatile memories) utilize discrete charge storage elements called nanoclusters (e.g. of silicon, aluminum, gold, or germanium) for storing charge in a charge storage location of a transistor. In some examples, the nanoclusters are located between two dielectric layers, a bottom dielectric and a control dielectric. Examples of such transistors include thin film storage transistors. A memory typically includes an array of such transistors. Examples of nanocluster types include doped and undoped semiconductor nanoclusters such as silicon nanoclusters, germanium nanoclusters and their alloys. Other examples of nanocluster types include various conductive structures such as metal nanoclusters (e.g., gold nanoclusters and aluminum nanoclusters), and metal alloy nanoclusters. In some examples, nanoclusters are from 10-100 Angstroms in size. Some memories that have charge storage transistors with nanoclusters are implemented on integrated circuits that also include high voltage transistors in the circuitry used for charging and discharging the charge storage locations of the charge storage transistors. Charging or discharging the charge storage locations is used to store one or more bits of information, and may be referred to as programming or erasing. These high voltage transistors typically include a relatively thick gate oxide. When nanocluster-based memories are integrated with transistors having thick gate oxide layers for handling relatively higher voltages and with transistors having thinner gate oxide layers, the severe oxidizing ambient used to make such transistors causes an undesirable increase in the nanocluster-based memory bottom dielectric thickness and also causes nanocluster oxidation. Any protection layer that is used to protect nanocluster-based memories may result in damage to the memories when the protection layer is removed. Accordingly, an improved method for making a device with nanoclusters is desirable. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention is illustrated by way of example and not limited to the accompanying figures, in which like references indicate similar elements. FIGS. 1-10 illustrate in cross-sectional form a method for forming a semiconductor having a nanocluster device and a non-nanocluster device in accordance with one form of the present invention; and FIGS. 11-20 illustrate in cross-sectional form a method for forming a semiconductor having a nanocluster device and a non-nanocluster device in accordance with another form of the present invention. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? Skilled artisans appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the embodiments of the present invention. | 20050114 | 20070227 | 20060720 | 63639.0 | H01L218234 | 0 | SUCH, MATTHEW W | METHOD OF FORMING AN INTEGRATED CIRCUIT HAVING NANOCLUSTER DEVICES AND NON-NANOCLUSTER DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H01L | 2,005 |
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11,035,968 | ACCEPTED | Printing plate material and its developing process | Disclosed is a manufacturing process of a printing plate material comprising a boehmite treated aluminum support, and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing water soluble resins or water dispersible resins, the process comprising the steps of surface roughening an aluminum plate, anodizing the surface roughened aluminum plate, boehmite treating the anodized aluminum plate to produce the boehmite treated aluminum support having boehmite protrusions with an average height of from 30 to 200 nm and an average base size of from 10 to 100 nm, coating a coating solution for the image formation layer on the resulting aluminum support to form a coated layer, and drying the coated layer to form the image formation layer on the aluminum support. | 1. A manufacturing process of a printing plate material comprising a boehmite treated aluminum support, and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing water soluble resins or water dispersible resins, the process comprising the steps of: surface roughening an aluminum plate; anodizing the surface roughened aluminum plate; boehmite treating the anodized aluminum plate to produce the boehmite treated aluminum support having boehmite protrusions with an average height of from 30 to 200 nm and an average base size of from 10 to 100 nm; coating a coating solution for the image formation layer on the resulting aluminum support to form a coated layer; and drying the coated layer to form the image formation layer on the aluminum support. 2. The manufacturing process of claim 1, wherein a density of the boehmite protrusions is from 50 to 300 per 1 μm square (1 μm×1 μm). 3. The manufacturing process of claim 1, wherein the boehmite treating is carried out by immersing the anodized aluminum plate in an aqueous solution with a pH of from 7 to 11 of ammonium acetate, sodium silicate, sodium nitrite, or dichromate. 4. The manufacturing process of claim 3, wherein the anodized aluminum plate is immersed in the aqueous solution at 70 to 100° C. for 5 to 120 seconds. 5. The manufacturing process of claim 1, further comprising the step of treating the boehmite treated aluminum plate with a hydrophilic compound. 6. The manufacturing process of claim 1, wherein the image formation layer contains a light-to-heat conversion material. 7. The manufacturing process of claim 1, wherein the water soluble reins or water dispersible resins are in the form of particles. 8. A process of developing the printing plate material of claim 1, the process comprising the steps of; mounting the printing plate material on a plate cylinder of the printing press; and carrying out on-press development by supplying a dampining solution and/or printing ink to the printing plate material. 9. A printing plate material manufactured according to the process of claim 1. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a printing plate material and its developing process, and particularly to a printing plate material capable of forming an image by a computer to plate (CTP) system and its developing process. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Recently, accompanied with digitization of printing data, a printing plate material for CTP, which is inexpensive, can be easily handled and has a printing ability comparable with that of a PS plate, is required. Particularly, a versatile thermal processless printing plate material, which can be applied to a printing press employing a direct imaging (DI) process without development by a special developing agent and which can be treated in the same manner as in PS plates, has been required. In a thermal processless printing plate material, an image is formed according to a recording method employing an infrared laser emitting light with infrared to near infrared wavelengths. The thermal processless printing plate material employing this recording method is divided into ablation type, heat fusible type, phase change type, and polymerization/cross-linking type. Many ablation type printing plate materials have been disclosed (see, for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 8-507727, 6-186750, 6-199064, 7-314934, 10-58636 and 10-244773). These references disclose a printing plate material comprising a substrate and a hydrophilic layer or a lipophilic layer, either of which is an outermost layer. In the printing plate material having a hydrophilic layer as an outermost layer, the hydrophilic layer is imagewise exposed to imagewise ablate the hydrophilic layer, whereby the lipophilic layer is exposed to form image portions. As the heat fusible type printing plate material, there is one comprising a hydrophilic layer or a grained aluminum plate and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing thermoplastic particles, and a water soluble binder (see, for example, Japanese Patent Publication No. 2938397.). A planographic printing plate material “Thermo Lite” produced by Agfa Co., Ltd. is of this type. Since this type of printing plate material can form an image only by energy necessary to heat fuse, energy for image formation can be reduced and an image can be formed with high speed employing a high power laser. As the phase change type thermal processless printing plate material, there is a printing plate material comprising a hydrophilic layer containing hydrophobic precursor particles which changes to be hydrophobic at exposed portions, the hydrophilic layer being not removed during printing (see, for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication No. 11-240270). As the polymerization/cross-linking type thermal processless printing plate material, there are known printing plate materials (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,548,222). This type printing plate material employing a roughened surface of an aluminum support increases strength of the image formation layer due to formation of a three dimensional network structure, and exhibits high adhesion of the image formation layer to the support due to anchor effect of the layer with the increased strength, providing greatly improved printing durability. These printing plate materials for CTP are ones providing a printing plate without development employing a specific processing agent. The influence of the surface configuration of the support on development, printing durability, and stain occurrence is far greater in these printing plate materials requiring no development than in a conventional PS plate, a thermal type CTP or a photopolymer type CTP each requiring development. When the surface of a conventional support is applied to a printing plate material for CTP, strength of an image formation layer and on-press developability are not balanced, providing a printing plate material which is incapable of being subjected to on-press development, or providing a printing plate which is likely to produce stain and is poor in printing durability. Another prior art of the printing plate material is disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 2000-255177 and No. 2001-71654. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the invention is to provide a printing plate material providing prints with a sharp image, good on-press developability, high printing durability, print image with no stain at non-image portions, and excellent printability. Another object of the invention is to provide a developing process of the printing plate material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an electron micrograph of boehmite protrusions, which are forming on the aluminum plate surface. FIG. 2 is an electron micrograph of boehmite protrusions formed on the aluminum plate surface. FIG. 3 is a sectional view of the boehmite treated aluminum support of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The above object can be attained by the following constitution. 1. A manufacturing process of a printing plate material comprising a boehmite treated aluminum support, and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing water soluble resins or water dispersible resins, the process comprising the steps of surface roughening an aluminum plate, anodizing the surface roughened aluminum plate; boehmite treating the anodized aluminum plate to produce the boehmite treated aluminum support having boehmite protrusions with an average height of from 30 to 200 nm and an average base size of from 10 to 100 nm, coating a coating solution for the image formation layer on the resulting aluminum support to form a coated layer, and drying the coated layer to form the image formation layer on the aluminum support. 2. The manufacturing process of item 1 above, wherein a density of the boehmite protrusions is from 50 to 300 per 1 μm square (1 μm×1 μm). 3. The manufacturing process of item 1 above, wherein the boehmite treating is carried out by immersing the anodized aluminum plate in an aqueous solution with a pH of from 7 to 11 of ammonium acetate, sodium silicate, sodium nitrite, or dichromate. 4. The manufacturing process of item 3 above, wherein the anodized aluminum plate is immersed in the aqueous solution at 70 to 100° C. for 5 to 120 seconds. 5. The manufacturing process of item 1 above, further comprising the step of treating the boehmite treated aluminum plate with a hydrophilic compound. 6. The manufacturing process of item 1 above, wherein the image formation layer contains a light-to-heat conversion material. 7. The manufacturing process of item 1 above, wherein the water soluble reins or water dispersible resins are in the form of particles. 8. A process of developing the printing plate material of item 1 above, the process comprising the steps of mounting the printing plate material on a plate cylinder of the printing press, and carrying out on-press development by supplying a dampening solution and/or printing ink to the printing plate material. 9. A printing plate material manufactured according to the process of item 1 above. 1-1 A printing plate material comprising a surface roughened aluminum support having boehmite protrusions with a height of from 30 to 200 nm, and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing a thermally polymerizable compound or a thermally cross-linkable compound, wherein the support is obtained by a process comprising the steps of surface roughening an aluminum plate and then boehmite treating the surface roughened aluminum plate to produce the boehmite protrusions on the surface of the aluminum plate. 1-2 The printing plate material of item 1-1 above, wherein the process further comprises the step of treating the boehmite treated aluminum plate with a hydrophilic compound. 1-3 The printing plate material of item 1 or 2 above, wherein the process further comprises the step of providing a coating solution for the image formation layer, coating the coating solution on the aluminum support, and drying to form the image formation layer, in which the thermally polymerizable compound or the thermally cross-linkable compound of the formed image formation layer does not form a film. 1-4 A process of developing the printing plate material of items 1 through 3 above, the process comprising the steps of mounting the printing plate material on a printing press, and on-press developing the mounted printing plate material on the press. Next, the present invention will be explained in detail. The printing plate material of the invention comprises a surface roughened aluminum plate and provided thereon, an image formation layer, wherein the printing plate material is capable of being subjected to on-press development. In the invention, “on-press development” means that when an exposed printing plate material being mounted on a plate cylinder of a printing press (for example, a conventional off-set printing press), printing is carried out, the image formation layer at unexposed portions is removed in an initial printing stage by printing ink and/or a dampening solution supplied to the printing plate material surface. (Aluminum Support) As material for the aluminum support in the invention, any known aluminum plates used as a support for a planographic printing plate material can be used. The thickness of the aluminum plate is not specifically limited as long as it is such a thickness that can be mounted on a plate cylinder of a printing press, but is preferably from 50 to 500 μm. The aluminum plate is used after the surface of the aluminum plate is degreased by bases, acids or solvents to remove oil remaining on the plate surface which has been used during rolling or winding up. Degreasing is preferably carried out in an aqueous alkali solution. A surface roughened aluminum plate is used. There are various surface roughening methods of the aluminum plate such as a mechanically surface roughening method, an electrochemically etching method, and a chemically etching method. Examples of the mechanically surface roughening method include a ball graining method, a brush graining method, a blast graining method, and a buffing graining method. The electrochemically etching method is ordinarily carried out in a hydrochloric acid or nitric acid solution, employing an alternating current or a direct current. There are methods disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication No. 54-63902, in which the both methods are combined. It is preferred that the thus surface roughened aluminum plate is optionally subjected to alkali etching treatment and neutralization treatment, and then to anodization treatment in order to enhance water retention and abrasion resistance of the plate surface. As an electrolyte used in the anodization treatment, there are various ones forming a porous film. Examples thereof include sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, oxalic acid, chromic acid and their mixture. The concentration of the electrolyte in the electrolytic solution is suitably determined according to kinds of electrolytes used. The anodization conditions cannot be limited since they vary according to kinds of an electrolytic solution used. However, it is preferred that anodization is carried out in an electrolytic solution containing an electrolyte in an amount of 1 to 80% ny weight at 5 to 70° C. for from 10 seconds to 5 minutes at a current density of from 5 to 60 A/dm2 and at a voltage of from 1 to 100V. The amount of the formed anodization film is preferably from 1 to 10 g/m2. This amount range of the anodization film is preferred in view of high printing durability or resistance to stain. In the invention, the anodized aluminum plate is boehmite treated to produce the boehmite treated aluminum support having boehmite protrusions with an average height of from 30 to 200 nm and an average base size of from 10 to 100 nm. Thus, the aluminum support in the invention is obtained. As to the boehmite treatment after anodization, there is a method in which an anodized aluminum plate is treated with hot water or steam, and preferably a method in which the anodized aluminum plate is immersed in an aqueous solution of ammonium acetate, sodium silicate, sodium nitrite, or dichromate. The temperature during boehmite treatment is preferably from 70 to 100° C., and more preferably from 75 to 90° C., and time required for the treatment is preferably from 5 to 120 seconds, and more preferably from 10 to 90 seconds. The pH of the aqueous solution is preferably from 7 to 11, and more preferably from 7.5 to 10.5. These boehmite treatment conditions initiate formation of boehmite protrusions as shown in FIG. 1 on the surface of an aluminum plate, and provide the boehmite protrusions in the invention as shown in FIG. 2. These boehmite treatment conditions also provide a boehmite structure [Al2O3(H2O)] on the surface of the aluminum plate. The average height of the boehmite protrusions is from 30 to 200 nm, and preferably from 50 to 150 nm, and the average base size of the boehmite protrusions is from 10 to 100 nm, and preferably from 20 to 90 nm. The density of the boehmite protrusions is preferably from 50 to 300 per 1 μm square (1 μm×1 μm), and more preferably from 100 to 250 per 1 mm square (1 μm×1 μm). In the invention, the height and base size of boehmite protrusions of the boehmite treated aluminum support will be explained employing FIG. 3. In the sectional view of the boehmite treated aluminum support S of FIG. 3, L represents the base size of the boehmite protrusions P, and H represents the height of the boehmite protrusions P. In the invention, the height and base size of the boehmite protrusions are measured using an SEM photograph of a cross section of the boehmite treated aluminum support. In the invention, the average height of the boehmite protrusions refrs to the average of the heights of arbitrarily selected 50 protrusions in the SEM photograph of the cross section, and the average base size of the boehmite protrusions refers to the average of the base sizes of arbitrarily selected 50 protrusions in an SEM photograph of the cross section of the boehmite treated aluminum support. Herein, the SEM photograph was taken by means of a scanning electron microscope S-800 (produced by Hitachi Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) at a magnification of 50,000. After the boehmite treatment, the aluminum plate may be immersed in a hydrophilic compound-containing solution. Examples of the hydrophilic compound include citric acid, carboxymethylcellulose, chitosan, pullulan, alginic acid, oxalic acid, phthalic acid, formic acid, phytic acid, ammonium hexafluorophosphate, glycine, polyvinyl phosphonic acid, saccharides, or their sodium salts. The pH of this solution is preferably from 7 to 11. The aluminum plate is immersed in this solution at preferably from 60 to 100° C. for preferably from 5 to 120 seconds. A backcoat layer is preferably provided on the rear surface of the aluminum plate opposite the boehmite treated surface in order to control (for example, to reduce its friction of a plate cylinder surface) slippage of the rear surface. (Light-to-heat Conversion Material) The image formation layer of the printing plate material of the invention contains a light-to-heat conversion material. As preferred examples of the light-to-heat conversion material, there are the following compounds. As general infrared absorbing dyes, there are a cyanine dye, a chloconium dye, a polymethine dye, an azulenium dye, a squalenium dye, a thiopyrylium dye, a naphthoquinone dye or an anthraquinone dye, and an organometallic complex such as a phthalocyanine compound, a naphthalocyanine compound, an azo compound, a thioamide compound, a dithiol compound and an indoaniline compound. Exemplarily, there are those compounds disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 63-139191, 64-33547, 1-160683, 1-280750, 1-293342, 2-2074, 3-26593, 3-30991, 3-34891, 3-36093, 3-36094, 3-36095, 3-42281, 3-97589 and 3-103476. These compounds may be used singly or in combination. Compounds described in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 11-240270, 11-265062, 2000-309174, 2002-49147, 2001-162965, 2002-144750, and 2001-219667 can be preferably used. Examples of pigment include carbon, graphite, a metal and a metal oxide. Furnace black and acetylene black is preferably used as the carbon. The graininess (d50) thereof is preferably not more than 100 nm, and more preferably not more than 50 nm. The graphite is one having a particle size of preferably not more than 0.5 μm, more preferably not more than 100 nm, and most preferably not more than 50 nm. As the metal, any metal can be used as long as the metal is in a form of fine particles having preferably a particle size of not more than 0.5 μm, more preferably not more than 100 nm, and most preferably not more than 50 nm. The metal may have any shape such as spherical, flaky and needle-like. Colloidal metal particles such as those of silver or gold are particularly preferred. As the metal oxide, materials having black color in the visible regions or materials, which are electro-conductive or semiconductive, can be used. Examples of the former include black iron oxide and black complex metal oxides containing at least two metals. Examples of the latter include Sb-doped SnO2 (ATO), Sn-added In2O3 (ITO), TiO2, TiO prepared by reducing TiO2 (titanium oxide nitride, generally titanium black). Particles prepared by covering a core material such as BaSO4, TiO2, 9Al2O3·2B2O and K2O·nTiO2 with these metal oxides is usable. These oxides are particles having a particle size of not more than 0.5 μm, preferably not more than 100 nm, and more preferably not more than 50 nm. As these light-to-heat conversion materials, black iron oxide or black complex metal oxides containing at least two metals are more preferred. The black iron oxide (Fe3O4) particles have an average particle size of from 0.01 to 1 μm, and an acicular ratio (major axis length/minor axis length) of preferably from 1 to 1.5. It is preferred that the black iron oxide particles are substantially spherical ones (having an acicular ratio of 1) or octahedral ones (having an acicular ratio of 1.4). Examples of the black iron oxide particles include for example, TAROX series produced by Titan Kogyo K.K. Examples of the spherical particles include BL-100 (having a particle size of from 0.2 to 0.6 μm, and BL-500 (having a particle size of from 0.3 to 1.0 μm. Examples of the octahedral particles include ABL-203 (having a particle size of from 0.4 to 0.5 μm, ABL-204 (having a particle size of from 0.3 to 0.4 μm, ABL-205 (having a particle size of from 0.2 to 0.3 μm, and ABL-207 (having a particle size of 0.2 μm. The black iron oxide particles may be surface-coated with inorganic compounds such as SiO2. Examples of such black iron oxide particles include spherical particles BL-200 (having a particle size of from 0.2 to 0.3 μm) and octahedral particles ABL-207A (having a particle size of 0.2 μm), each having been surface-coated with SiO2. Examples of the black complex metal oxides include complex metal oxides comprising at least two selected from Al, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sb, and Ba. These can be prepared according to the methods disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 9-27393, 9-25126, 9-237570, 9-241529 and 10-231441. The complex metal oxide used in the invention is preferably a complex Cu—Cr—Mn type metal oxide or a Cu—Fe—Mn type metal oxide. The Cu—Cr—Mn type metal oxides are preferably subjected to the treatment disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 8-27393 in order to reduce isolation of a 6-valent chromium ion. These complex metal oxides have a high color density and a high light-to-heat conversion efficiency as compared with another metal oxide. The primary average particle size of these complex metal oxides is preferably not more than 1.0 μm, and more preferably from 0.01 to 0.5 μm. The primary average particle size of not more than 1.0 μm improves light-to-heat conversion efficiency relative to the addition amount of the particles, and the primary average particle size of from 0.01 to 0.5 μm further improves light-to-heat conversion efficiency relative to the addition amount of the particles. The light-to-heat conversion efficiency relative to the addition amount of the particles depends on a dispersity of the particles, and the well-dispersed particles have a high light-to-heat conversion efficiency. Accordingly, these complex metal oxide particles are preferably dispersed according to a known dispersing method, separately, to obtain a dispersion liquid (paste), before being added to a coating liquid for the particle containing layer. A dispersant is optionally used as a dispersion auxiliary. The addition amount of the dispersant is preferably from 0.01 to 5% by weight, and more preferably from 0.1 to 2% by weight, based on the weight of the complex metal oxide particles. In the invention, of these, a dye is preferably used, and a dye having less color is more preferably used. (Image Formation Layer) The image formation layer in the invention is preferably one, which forms an image by heat generated due to infrared laser light exposure. The image formation layer preferably contains water soluble or water dispersible resins. It is preferred that the image formation layer contains water soluble reins or water dispersible resins in the form of particles. Examples of the water soluble or water dispersible resins include oil-modified alkyd resins, vinyl-modified alkyd resins, epoxy-modified alkyd resins, melamine resin, silicon-acryl resin, epoxyacryl resin, acryl resin, phenol resin, epoxy resin, urethane resin, isocyanates, carbodiimides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide, polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyvinyl ether, PVA-acryl resin, acrylate copolymer, styrene-acrylate copolymer, styrene-butadiene copolymer, conjugation diene polymer latex of methyl methacrylate-butadiene copolymer, acryl polymer latex, vinyl polymer latex, polyacrylic acid salts, polyacrylamide, and polyvinyl pyrrolidone, styrene-acrylate copolymers, acrylate copolymers, and PVA/acrylic resin. The image formation layer can also contain monomers or oligomers. Examples of the monomers include monomethacrylate, monoacrylate, dimethacrylate, diacrylate, triacrylate, triester, tetracrylate, hexacrylate, urethane(meth)acrylate, and epoxy acrylate. Examples of the oligomers include oligomers of the monomers described above. Among these, water-soluble ones are preferred. The content of the water soluble or water dispersible resins image formation layer is preferably from 1 to 90% by weight, and more preferably from 5-80% by weight. The image formation layer of the printing plate material can comprise heat melting particles or heat fusible particles. These are particles formed from materials generally classified into wax. The materials preferably have a softening point of from 40° C. to 120° C. and a melting point of from 60° C. to 150° C., and more preferably a softening point of from 40° C. to 100° C. and a melting point of from 60° C. to 120° C. The melting point less than 60° C. has a problem in storage stability and the melting point exceeding 300° C. lowers ink receptive sensitivity. Materials usable include waxes such as paraffin wax, polyolefin wax, polyethylene wax, microcrystalline wax, fatty acid ester wax and fatty acid wax. The molecular weight thereof is approximately from 800 to 10,000. A polar group such as a hydroxyl group, an ester group, a carboxyl group, an aldehyde group and a peroxide group may be introduced into the wax by oxidation to increase the emulsification ability. Moreover, stearoamide, linolenamide, laurylamide, myristylamide, hardened cattle fatty acid amide, parmitylamide, oleylamide, rice bran oil fatty acid amide, palm oil fatty acid amide, a methylol compound of the above-mentioned amide compounds, methylenebissteastearoamide and ethylenebissteastearoamide may be added to the wax to lower the softening point or to raise the working efficiency. A cumarone-indene resin, a rosin-modified phenol resin, a terpene-modified phenol resin, a xylene resin, a ketone resin, an acryl resin, an ionomer and a copolymer of these resins may also be usable. Among them, polyethylene wax, microcrystalline wax, fatty acid ester wax and fatty acid wax are preferably contained. High sensitive image formation can be performed since these materials each have a relative low melting point and a low melt viscosity. These materials each have a lubricating ability. Accordingly, even when a shearing force is applied to the surface layer of the printing plate precursor, the layer damage is minimized, and resistance to stain, which may be caused by scratch, is further enhanced. The heat melting particles are preferably dispersible in water. The average particle size thereof is preferably from 0.01 to 10 μm, and more preferably from 0.1 to 3 μm. The above average particle size range of the heat melting particles is preferred in view of on-press developability, resistance to stains, or resolution. The composition of the heat melting particles may be continuously varied from the interior to the surface of the particles. The particles may be covered with a different material. Known microcapsule production method or sol-gel method can be applied for covering the particles. The heat melting particle content of the layer is preferably 1 to 90% by weight, and more preferably 5 to 80% by weight based on the total layer weight. The heat fusible particles include thermoplastic hydrophobic polymer particles. Although there is no specific limitation to the upper limit of the softening point of the thermoplastic hydrophobic polymer, the softening point is preferably lower than the decomposition temperature of the polymer. The weight average molecular weight (Mw) of the thermoplastic hydrophobic polymer is preferably within the range of from 10,000 to 1,000,000. Examples of the polymer consisting the polymer particles include a diene (co)polymer such as polypropylene, polybutadiene, polyisoprene or an ethylene-butadiene copolymer; a synthetic rubber such as a styrene-butadiene copolymer, a methyl methacrylate-butadiene copolymer or an acrylonitrile-butadiene copolymer; a (meth)acrylate (co)polymer or a (meth)acrylic acid (co)polymer such as polymethyl methacrylate, a methyl methacrylate-(2-ethylhexyl)acrylate copolymer, a methyl methacrylate-methacrylic acid copolymer, or a methyl acrylate-(N-methylolacrylamide); polyacrylonitrile; a vinyl ester (co)polymer such as a polyvinyl acetate, a vinyl acetate-vinyl propionate copolymer and a vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer, or a vinyl acetate-2-hexylethyl acrylate copolymer; and polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polystyrene and a copolymer thereof. Among them, the (meth)acrylate polymer, the (meth)acrylic acid (co)polymer, the vinyl ester (co)polymer, the polystyrene and the synthetic rubbers are preferably used. The polymer particles may be prepared from a polymer synthesized by any known method such as an emulsion polymerization method, a suspension polymerization method, a solution polymerization method and a gas phase polymerization method. The particles of the polymer synthesized by the solution polymerization method or the gas phase polymerization method can be produced by a method in which an organic solution of the polymer is sprayed into an inactive gas and dried, and a method in which the polymer is dissolved in a water-immiscible solvent, then the resulting solution is dispersed in water or an aqueous medium and the solvent is removed by distillation. In both of the methods, a surfactant such as sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium dodecylbenzenesulfate or polyethylene glycol, or a water-soluble resin such as poly(vinyl alcohol) may be optionally used as a dispersing agent or stabilizing agent. The heat fusible particles are preferably dispersible in water. The average particle size of the heat fusible particles is preferably from 0.01 to 10 μm, and more preferably from 0.1 to 3 μm. The above average particle size range of the heat melting particles is preferred in view of on-press developability, resistance to stains, or resolution. Further, the composition of the heat fusible particles may be continuously varied from the interior to the surface of the particles. The particles may be covered with a different material. As a covering method, known methods such as a microcapsule method and a sol-gel method are usable. The heat fusible particle content of the layer is preferably from 1 to 90% by weight, and more preferably from 5 to 80% by weight based on the total weight of the layer. The image formation layer can further contain the light-to-heat conversion material described above. The image formation layer can further contain a water-soluble surfactant. A silicon atom-containing surfactant and a fluorine atom-containing surfactant can be used. The silicon atom-containing surfactant is especially preferred in that it minimizes printing contamination. The content of the surfactant is preferably from 0.01 to 3.0% by weight, and more preferably from 0.03 to 1.0% by weight based on the total weight of the image formation layer (or the solid content of the coating liquid). The image formation layer can contain an acid (phosphoric acid or acetic acid) or an alkali (sodium hydroxide, silicate, or phosphate) to adjust pH. The coating amount of the image formation layer is from 0.01 to 10 g/m2, preferably from 0.1 to 3 g/m2, and more preferably from 0.2 to 2 g/m2. In the invention, the image formation layer is firmly adhered to the boehmite surface of the aluminum support on exposure by a laser with an emission wavelength of from 700 to 1100 nm. (Protective Layer) A protective layer can be provided as an upper layer for example, on the image formation layer. As materials in the protective layer, the water soluble resin or the water dispersible resin described above can be preferably used. The protective layer in the invention may be a hydrophilic overcoat layer disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 2002-19318 and 2002-86948. The coating amount of the protective layer is from 0.01 to 10 g/m2, preferably from 0.1 to 3 g/m2, and more preferably from 0.2 to 2 g/m2. (On-Press Development) In the invention, the image formation layer, where polymerization or cross-linking occurs on exposure by for example, infrared laser, form oleophilic image portions at laser exposed portions where polymerization or cross-linking occurs, and the image formation layer at unexposed portions are removed to form non-image portions. Removal of the image formation layer can be carried out by washing with water, and can be also carried out by supplying a dampening solution and/or printing ink to the image formation layer on a press (so-called on-press development). Removal on a press of the image formation layer at unexposed portions of a printing plate material, which is mounted on the plate cylinder, can be carried out by bringing a dampening roller and an inking roller into contact with the image formation layer while rotating the plate cylinder, and can be also carried out according to various sequences such as those described below or another appropriate sequence. The supplied amount of dampening solution may be adjusted to be greater or smaller than the amount ordinarily supplied in printing, and the adjustment may be carried out stepwise or continuously. (1) A dampening roller is brought into contact with the image formation layer of a printing plate material on the plate cylinder during one to several tens of rotations of the plate cylinder, and then an inking roller brought into contact with the image formation layer during the next one to tens of rotations of the plate cylinder. Thereafter, printing is carried out. (2) An inking roller is brought into contact with the image formation layer of a printing plate material on the plate cylinder during one to several tens of rotations of the plate cylinder, and then a dampening roller brought into contact with the image formation layer during the next one to tens of rotations of the plate cylinder. Thereafter, printing is carried out. (3) An inking roller and a dampening roller are brought into contact with the image formation layer of a printing plate material on the plate cylinder during one to several tens of rotations of the plate cylinder. Thereafter, printing is carried out. EXAMPLES The present invention will be explained below employing examples, but is not limited thereto. Example 1 (Preparation of Support A-1) A 0.24 mm thick aluminum plate (material 1050, refining H16) was immersed in an aqueous 1% by weight sodium hydroxide solution at 50° C. to give an aluminum dissolution amount of 2 g/m2, washed with water, immersed in an aqueous 0.1% by weight hydrochloric acid solution at 25° C. for 30 seconds to neutralize, and then washed with water. Subsequently, the aluminum plate was subjected to an electrolytic surface-roughening treatment in an electrolytic solution containing 10 g/liter of hydrochloric acid and 0.5 g/liter of aluminum at a peak current density of 50 A/dm2 employing an alternating current with a sine waveform, in which the distance between the plate surface and the electrode was 10 mm. The electrolytic surface-roughening treatment was divided into 12 treatments, in which the quantity of electricity used in one treatment (at a positive polarity) was 40 C/dM2, and the total quantity of electricity used (at a positive polarity) was 480 C/dm2. Standby time of 5 seconds, during which no surface-roughening treatment was carried out, was provided after each of the separate electrolytic surface-roughening treatments. Subsequently, the resulting aluminum plate was immersed in an aqueous 1% by weight sodium hydroxide solution at 50° C. and etched to give an aluminum etching amount (including smut produced on the surface) of 1.2 g/m2, washed with water, neutralized in an aqueous 10% by weight sulfuric acid solution at 25° C. for 10 seconds, and washed with water. Subsequently, the aluminum plate was subjected to anodizing treatment in an aqueous 20% by weight sulfuric acid solution at a constant voltage of 20 V, in which a quantity of electricity of 150 C/dm2 was supplied, and washed with water. Thus, Support A-1 was prepared. (Support A-2) Support A-1 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% ammonium acetate solution at 85° C. for 5 seconds. Thus, Support A-2 was prepared. The average height and average base size of the boehmite protrusions were measured using an SEM photograph of the cross section of the resulting support, which was taken by a scanning electron microscope S-800 (produced by Hitachi Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) at a magnification of 50,000, and as a result, the average height of the protrusions was 20 nm, and the average base size of the protrusions was 5 nm. (Support A-3) Support A-1 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% ammonium acetate solution at 85° C. for 15 seconds. Thus, Support A-3 was prepared. The average height and average base size of the boehmite protrusions were measured using an SEM photograph of the cross section of the resulting support, which was taken by a scanning electron microscope S-800 (produced by Hitachi Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) at a magnification of 50,000, and as a result, the average height of the protrusions was 120 nm, and the average base size of the protrusions was 60 nm. (Support A-4) Support A-1 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% ammonium acetate solution at 95° C. for 60 seconds. Thus, Support A-4 was prepared. The average height and average base size of the boehmite protrusions were measured using an SEM photograph of the cross section of the resulting support, which was taken by a scanning electron microscope S-800. (produced by Hitachi Seisakusho Co., Ltd.) at a magnification of 50,000, and as a result, the average height of the protrusions was 250 nm, and the average base size of the protrusions was 110 nm. (Support A-5) Support A-1 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt solution at 90° C. for 30 seconds. Thus, Support A-5 was prepared. (Support A-6) Support A-2 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt solution at 90° C. for 30 seconds. Thus, Support A-6 was prepared. (Support A-7) Support A-3 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt solution at 90° C. for 30 seconds. Thus, Support A-7 was prepared. (Support A-8) Support A-4 was further immersed in an aqueous 0.1% carboxymethylcellulose sodium salt solution at 90° C. for 30 seconds. Thus, Support A-8 was prepared. (Preparation of Image Formation Layer) (Image formation layer coating solution P-1) Aqueous polymer dispersion, 26.3 weight parts NK polymer RP-116E (produced by Sinnakamura Kagaku Co., Ltd., solid content: 35% by weight) Aqueous solution of sodium acrylate, 10.0 weight parts AQUALIC DL522 (produced by Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd., solid content: 10% by weight) 1% by weight ethanol solution 30.0 weight parts of light-to-heat conversion dye, ADS 830AT (produced by American Dye Source Co., Ltd.) Pure water 33.7 weight parts (Image formation layer coating solution P-2) Aqueous polyurethane dispersion, 17.1 weight parts Takelac W-615 (produced by Mitsui Takeda Chemical Co., Ltd., average particle size: 80 nm, solid content: 35% by weight) Aqueous block isocyanate, Takenate 7.1 weight parts XWB-72-N67 (produced by Mitsui Takeda Chemical Co., Ltd., solid content: 45% by weight) Aqueous solution of sodium acrylate, 5.0 weight parts AQUALIC DL522 (produced by Nippon Shokubai Co., Ltd., solid content: 10% by weight) 1% by weight ethanol solution 30.0 weight parts of light-to-heat conversion dye, ADS 830AT (produced by American Dye Source Co., Ltd.) Pure water 40.8 weight parts Preparation of Printing Plate Material Samples 1 Through 9 The resulting image formation layer coating solution was coated on the support obtained above, employing a wire bar, dried at 55° C. for 3 minutes to give an image formation layer with a dry thickness of 1.50 g/m2, and further subjected to aging at 40° C. for 24 hours. Thus, printing plate material samples 1 through 9 having a structure as shown in Table 1 were prepared. After coated and dried, the image formation layer coating solution P-1 formed an image formation layer as a continuous phase. While after coated and dried, the image formation layer coating solution P-2 did not form a continuous phase image formation layer, but formed a discontinuous phase image formation layer in which the polyurethane existed in the form of particles. (Image Formation Employing Infrared Laser) Each of the resulting printing plate samples was wound around an exposure drum and imagewise exposed. Exposure was carried out employing an infrared laser (having a wavelength of 830 nm and a beam spot diameter of 18 μm) at a resolution of 2400 dpi and at a screen line number of 175 to form a solid image, a dot image with a dot area of 1 to 99%, and a line and space image of 2400 dpi. In the exposure, the exposure energy was 250 mJ/cm2. The term, “dpi” shows the number of dots per 2.54 cm. (Printing Method) The exposed printing plate material was mounted on a plate cylinder of a printing press and then printing was carried out in the same printing sequence as a conventional PS plate. Printing was carried out employing a printing press, DAIYA 1F-1 produced by Mitsubishi Jukogyo Co., Ltd., and employing a coated paper, a dampening solution, a 2% by weight solution of Astromark 3 (produced by Nikken Kagaku Kenkyusyo Co., Ltd.), and printing ink (TK Hyunity Magenta, produced by Toyo Ink Manufacturing Co.). (Evaluation) Initial Printability The smallest number of paper sheets printed from when printing started till when good image (with an ink density of 1.6 at image portions and an optical density of 0.08 at non-image portions) was obtained was counted and evaluated as a measure of initial printability. A sample providing the smallest number of not more than 20 was evaluated as acceptable. Herein, the optical density was measured through a densitometer, Macbeth RD918 (produced by Macbeth Co., Ltd.) at a mode of M. Printing Durability The exposed printing plate material was mounted on a The number of paper sheets, printed from when printing started till when dots of the image with a dot area of 3% began lacking, was counted, and evaluated as a measure of printing durability. A sample providing the number of not less than 100,000 was evaluated as acceptable. Stain at Non-Image Portions An optical density at non-image portions (corresponding to unexposed portions) of prints was measured through Macbeth RD918 at a mode of M. A sample providing an optical density of less than 0.10 was evaluated as acceptable. The results are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Image Formation Layer Initial Stain at Coating Print- Printing Non- Sample Support Solution ability Dura- Image Re- No. Used Used (Number) bility Portions marks 1 A-1 P-1 16 30,000 0.07 Comp. 2 A-2 P-1 17 45,000 0.08 Comp. 3 A-3 P-1 18 Not less 0.09 Inv. than 100,000 4 A-4 P-1 42 Not less 1.15 Comp. than 100,000 5 A-5 P-1 15 31,000 0.07 Comp. 6 A-6 P-1 16 45,000 0.07 Comp. 7 A-7 P-1 16 Not less 0.08 Inv. than 100,000 8 A-8 P-1 39 Not less 1.12 Comp. than 100,000 9 A-7 P-2 9 Not less 0.08 Inv. than 100,000 Inv.: Inventive, Comp.: Comparative As is apparent from Table 1 above, inventive samples provide prints with a sharp image, good on-press developability, high printing durability, print image with no stain at non-image portions, and excellent printability. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Recently, accompanied with digitization of printing data, a printing plate material for CTP, which is inexpensive, can be easily handled and has a printing ability comparable with that of a PS plate, is required. Particularly, a versatile thermal processless printing plate material, which can be applied to a printing press employing a direct imaging (DI) process without development by a special developing agent and which can be treated in the same manner as in PS plates, has been required. In a thermal processless printing plate material, an image is formed according to a recording method employing an infrared laser emitting light with infrared to near infrared wavelengths. The thermal processless printing plate material employing this recording method is divided into ablation type, heat fusible type, phase change type, and polymerization/cross-linking type. Many ablation type printing plate materials have been disclosed (see, for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 8-507727, 6-186750, 6-199064, 7-314934, 10-58636 and 10-244773). These references disclose a printing plate material comprising a substrate and a hydrophilic layer or a lipophilic layer, either of which is an outermost layer. In the printing plate material having a hydrophilic layer as an outermost layer, the hydrophilic layer is imagewise exposed to imagewise ablate the hydrophilic layer, whereby the lipophilic layer is exposed to form image portions. As the heat fusible type printing plate material, there is one comprising a hydrophilic layer or a grained aluminum plate and provided thereon, an image formation layer containing thermoplastic particles, and a water soluble binder (see, for example, Japanese Patent Publication No. 2938397.). A planographic printing plate material “Thermo Lite” produced by Agfa Co., Ltd. is of this type. Since this type of printing plate material can form an image only by energy necessary to heat fuse, energy for image formation can be reduced and an image can be formed with high speed employing a high power laser. As the phase change type thermal processless printing plate material, there is a printing plate material comprising a hydrophilic layer containing hydrophobic precursor particles which changes to be hydrophobic at exposed portions, the hydrophilic layer being not removed during printing (see, for example, Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication No. 11-240270). As the polymerization/cross-linking type thermal processless printing plate material, there are known printing plate materials (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,548,222). This type printing plate material employing a roughened surface of an aluminum support increases strength of the image formation layer due to formation of a three dimensional network structure, and exhibits high adhesion of the image formation layer to the support due to anchor effect of the layer with the increased strength, providing greatly improved printing durability. These printing plate materials for CTP are ones providing a printing plate without development employing a specific processing agent. The influence of the surface configuration of the support on development, printing durability, and stain occurrence is far greater in these printing plate materials requiring no development than in a conventional PS plate, a thermal type CTP or a photopolymer type CTP each requiring development. When the surface of a conventional support is applied to a printing plate material for CTP, strength of an image formation layer and on-press developability are not balanced, providing a printing plate material which is incapable of being subjected to on-press development, or providing a printing plate which is likely to produce stain and is poor in printing durability. Another prior art of the printing plate material is disclosed in Japanese Patent O.P.I. Publication Nos. 2000-255177 and No. 2001-71654. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the invention is to provide a printing plate material providing prints with a sharp image, good on-press developability, high printing durability, print image with no stain at non-image portions, and excellent printability. Another object of the invention is to provide a developing process of the printing plate material. | 20050118 | 20070213 | 20050929 | 64374.0 | 0 | GILLIAM, BARBARA LEE | PRINTING PLATE MATERIAL AND ITS DEVELOPING PROCESS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,035,977 | ACCEPTED | Illumination optical system, illumination device and image-taking apparatus | An illumination optical system is disclosed, which leads a luminous flux forward effectively, which emitted backward from a light source. The illumination optical system comprises a light source, and a first optical member arranged on an opposite side of a light irradiation side with respect to the light source. The first optical member includes a refractive surface through which light from the light source is transmitted and a reflective surface which reflects the light from the refractive surface toward the light irradiation side. | 1. An illumination optical system comprising: a light source; and a first optical member arranged on an opposite side of a light irradiation side with respect to the light source, wherein the first optical member includes a refractive surface through which light from the light source is transmitted and a reflective surface which reflects the light from the refractive surface toward the light irradiation side. 2. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the reflective surface has a total reflection action for the light from the light source. 3. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the first optical member includes a first reflective surface which reflects the light from the refractive surface, and a second reflective surface which reflects the light from the first reflective surface to the light irradiation side. 4. The illumination optical system according to claim 3, wherein the first optical member includes a plurality of reflective portions, each reflective portion being constituted by the first and second reflective surfaces. 5. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the reflective surface reflects the light incident thereon so as to return it to the light source. 6. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the reflective surface reflects the light incident thereon toward the light irradiation side without returning it to the light source. 7. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, further comprising: a second optical member arranged on the light irradiation side with respect to the light source. 8. The illumination optical system according to claim 7, wherein the first and second optical members are formed integrally. 9. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the first optical member is formed of a particle-containing material containing particles whose particle size is smaller than 1 μm in a resin base material. 10. The illumination optical system according to claim 9, wherein the particle size is smaller than a wavelength of light in visible region. 11. The illumination optical system according to claim 9, wherein the particle size is smaller than 100 nm. 12. The illumination optical system according to claim 1, wherein the light source is a cylindrical discharge tube, and the refractive surface has a semi-cylindrical shape substantially concentric with the discharge tube. 13. An image-taking apparatus comprising: the illumination optical system according to claim 1; and an image-taking system which takes an image of an object illuminated by the light from the illumination optical system. 14. An illumination device comprising: the illumination optical system according to claim 1. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an illumination optical system used in illumination devices for image-taking apparatuses. The conventional optical system for illumination devices uses a reflector, which converges a luminous flux that emitted backward from a light source. Moreover, there is an optical system that the improvement of efficiency and the miniaturization thereof are attempted by arranging an optical member, which formed by a transparent body, in front of the light source, and by using a total reflection action in the optical member, as shown in Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. H10-115852 and Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. 2000-250102. Thus, in the conventional optical system for lighting devices, a predetermined light distribution characteristic is obtained by irradiating an irradiation plane with the emerged light from the light source via optical members such as a prism, Fresnel lens or reflector, and by optimizing the shape of the optical members. In recent years, the miniaturization of digital cameras and portable devices equipped with this kind of illumination device is rapidly advanced; thereby it becomes necessary to miniaturize the optical system for the illumination devices. On the other hand, it is important that the optical characteristics of the illumination device are improved in a given small space, and a lot of proposals have been made for this requirement. As mentioned above, small and efficient optical systems are proposed, in which a prism is arranged on the illumination plane side with respect to the light source; the total reflection in the prism is used. However, the reflector is still necessary for covering the rear side of the light source, and it is difficult to evade a decrease of efficiency that is caused by using the reflector. Generally, the reflectance of high reflective materials used for a reflector is only about 80%, and moreover, there is a problem that wrinkles or abrasions are formed on a surface of the reflector when manufacturing it in accordance with the miniaturization of the reflector. Therefore, only a lower reflectance than the original reflectance of the materials can be obtained in a state in which the reflector is installed in an actual product, and this is a big problem for making the illumination optical system. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An object of the present invention is to provide an illumination optical system that can efficiently lead a luminous flux forward, which has emitted backward from the light source, and to provide an illumination device and an image-taking apparatus with the same. An illumination optical system as one aspect of the present invention to achieve the above-mentioned object comprises a light source; and a first optical member arranged on an opposite side (backside) of a light irradiation side with respect to the light source. The first optical member includes a refractive surface through which light from the light source is transmitted and a reflective surface, which reflects the light from the refractive surface toward the light irradiation side. Other objects and further features of the present invention will become readily apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments with reference to accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a longitudinal sectional view showing an illumination optical system in Embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 1B is a longitudinal sectional view showing a conventional illumination optical system. FIG. 2 is a pattern diagram showing an action of a prism portion in an optical member that constitutes the illumination optical system in Embodiment 1. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional side view of the illumination optical system in Embodiment 1. FIG. 4 is an exploded perspective view of the illumination optical system in Embodiment 1. FIG. 5 is an oblique perspective view showing a camera equipped with the illumination optical system in Embodiment 1. FIG. 6 is a figure for explaining influences of the refractive index of the optical member in Embodiment 1. FIG. 7 is an explanation chart in a case where the optical member consists of a low refractive index material in Embodiment 1. FIG. 8 is an explanation chart in a case where the optical member consists of a high refractive index material in Embodiment 1. FIG. 9 is a figure for explaining an ideal shape of the optical member in Embodiment 1. FIG. 10 is a figure for explaining an ideal shape of the optical member in Embodiment 1. FIG. 11 is a longitudinal sectional view showing an illumination optical system in Embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a longitudinal sectional view showing a conventional illumination optical system. FIG. 13 is a longitudinal sectional view showing an illumination optical system in Embodiment 3 of the present invention. FIG. 14 is a longitudinal sectional view showing an illumination optical system in Embodiment 4 of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A description will now be given of the preferred embodiments of the present invention by referring to the accompanying drawings. Embodiment 1 FIGS. 1A to 10 show an illumination optical system in Embodiment 1 of the present invention, especially an illumination optical system that constitutes an illumination device built into a camera (image-taking apparatus). FIGS. 1A, 1B, 3, 4 and 5 show the structure of a flash optical system (illumination optical system) built into the camera. FIGS. 1A(a) to 1A(c) show the cross-section (longitudinal section) in a direction orthogonal to an optical axis of the illumination optical system. FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) show the horizontal cross-section of the illumination optical system. FIGS. 1A(a) to 1A(c) and FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) show a ray tracing chart of the representative ray emitted from the center of a light source. FIG. 4 shows an exploded perspective view of the illumination optical system. Moreover, FIG. 5 shows a camera equipped with the illumination optical system. First, a so-called compact camera, in which the illumination optical system of this embodiment is built, will be explained by using FIG. 5. In this figure, the reference numeral 11 denotes a camera main body, and the reference numeral 12 denotes an image-taking lens barrel provided at approximately center of a front surface of the camera main body 1. Moreover, the reference numeral 1 denotes an illumination unit (illumination device) arranged at the right upper part when the camera main body 11 is viewed from its front. The reference numeral 13 denotes a release button provided on the camera main body 11 for performing a photoelectric conversion image-taking of an object by an image pickup element 19 such as a CCD sensor or a CMOS sensor (or an image-taking by a film). The reference numeral 14 denotes a zoom switch for performing a zoom operation of the image-taking lens barrel 12. It is possible to zoom in a telephoto direction when pushing it forward, and to zoom in a wide-angle direction when pushing it backward. The reference numeral 15 denotes an operating button for switching various modes of the camera, and the reference numeral 16 denotes a liquid crystal display panel for informing operations of the camera to a user. Moreover, the reference numeral 17 denotes a photometry window of a photometry unit that measures a luminance of the object, and the reference numeral 18 denotes a finder window. The illumination optical system of the present invention is also available for image-taking apparatuses such as single-lens reflex cameras or video cameras and external-type illumination devices other than the compact camera shown in FIG. 5. Next, the description of structural elements to determine the optical characteristics of the illumination optical system in this embodiment will be given by using FIGS. 1A, 2 and 4. In these figures, the reference numeral 2 denotes a light emitting discharge tube (xenon tube) as a gas discharge tube having a cylindrical straight tube shape. The reference numeral 3 denotes a first optical member (rear total reflection member), which reflects light components that have progressed toward an opposite side of a light irradiation side (backward in a direction of an irradiation optical axis L) and a vertical direction among a luminous flux from the light emitting discharge tube 2 forward (to a light irradiation side). An internal surface (discharge tube side surface) of the first optical member 3 is a refractive surface (incident and emergent surface) 3a having a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the discharge tube 2, and an external surface is a reflective surface in which a plurality of minute prism portions (reflective portions) are formed on a reference surface having a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the refractive surface 3a. The first optical member 3 is integrally formed of a transparent material (resin material with translucency) having a high refractive index, for instance, a nanocomposite material. The reference numeral 4 denotes a second optical member (front optical member), which is arranged in front of the discharge tube 2 and formed integrally of the transparent material. A cylindrical lens surface 4a with a positive refractive power in a direction substantially orthogonal to the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube 2 is formed in the vicinity of the irradiation optical axis L an incident surface of the second optical member 4, and a pair of prism portions having refractive surfaces (incident surfaces) 4b and 4b′ and reflective surfaces 4c and 4c′ is formed at the upper and lower peripheral portions in the incident surface. Organic polymer materials for optics with high transmittances such as polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) have been used as materials of an optical member so far. This is because PMMA is a material that is lower-cost, more lightweight and easier to mold as compared with glasses and ceramics. However, in this embodiment, to attempt more miniaturization and improvement of the optical characteristics, a nanocomposite material in which inorganic ultra-fine particles of nano-order disperse in an organic polymer material, or a hybrid resin material in which molecules of the organic polymer material as a base material binds covalently to molecules of the inorganic ultrafine particles of nano-order. Since, in such an organic and inorganic composite material, the inorganic particles (inorganic nano particles) having the size of 30 nm or less (one nanometer is 10 to the minus-9th power, that is, 1/1,000,000,000) disperse uniformly in the base material, the loss of optical transparency by Rayleigh scattering or the like is suppressed, and thereby high transparency can be maintained. Moreover, since the selection width of polymeric materials used for the base material and inorganic nano particles is wide, the organic and inorganic composite material can respond to various refractive indexes and can respond to various forming processability. Furthermore, the organic and inorganic composite material has superior characteristics in which the refractive index can be changed freely by changing an additional concentration of the inorganic nano particles even if the same materials are combined, and the entire refractive index can be controlled by attaching and applying it to various materials whose refractive indexes differ. Niobium oxide (Nb2O5) and titanium oxide (TiO) are materials for typical inorganic nano particles. Since the refractive index of a simple nano particle is high with 2.3, if the refractive index of an organic material used as the base material is low with about 1.5, a great increase of the refractive index can be expected. As the above-mentioned explanation, the a nanocomposite material and the hybrid material of inorganic nano particles and an optical resin have superior characteristics (transparency, thermal resistance, mechanical strength, surface hardness, moldability, etc.), which do not exist in the conventional arts. In this embodiment, the significant miniaturization and the improvement in performance of the illumination optical system are realized using these characteristics. In addition, although the content of the inorganic nano particles to the base material can be chosen accordingly, the above-mentioned effects appear notably at 20-30% by weight or more, and the above-mentioned effects can be also acquired at 50% by weight or more while maintaining the required transparency. Especially, it is easy to increase the content of the ultrafine particles in the present invention while maintaining the required transparency because the particle size (average particle size) is extremely small; the particle size is equal to or less than 1 μm. In other words, it is easy to increase the refractive index. Moreover, the possibility that an optical material having both high transparency and high refractive index can be achieved is high because the progress of the illuminating light is not obstructed (diffusion is hardly caused) in a case where the particle size is equal to or less than the wavelength of the visible light (400 to 700 nm), especially, the particle size is equal to or less than 100 nm, which is enough smaller than the wavelength of the visible light. The advantages when this material is used for the optical system in this embodiment are enumerated as follows. 1. The shape of the optical member can be simplified because the refractive index the material can be increased more than conventional resin materials. In other wards, it is possible to miniaturize the entire shape of the optical member since the thickness of the optical member for forming an equivalent converging optical system can be thinned, and it is possible to obtain a configuration that can be fabricated easily. Moreover, when the same effect of refraction is given, the curvature of lens surfaces can be set gently and the loss of light amount at the time of the incidence on and emergent from the optical member by surface reflections can be suppressed to the minimum. 2. The optical member can be arranged at a position close to the light source because a heatproof temperature thereof is higher than the simple base material. As a result, the entire shape of the optical member can be further miniaturized. 3. The liquidity of the material is higher than the simple base material, and the material can respond to minute shapes of the optical member. Moreover, the degree of freedom in design increases. 4. Coloring is easy and the optical loss is little. The loss of light amount can be suppressed by the color correction of the pigment system. As the above-mentioned explanation, in this embodiment, using the above-mentioned material can draw out a lot of convenient characteristics in optics. In above-mentioned camera, in a case where the camera operation mode is set to, for instance, “flash auto mode”, a central processing unit, not shown in the figure, judges whether the illumination unit is made to emit the illuminating light or not based on the luminance of the object measured by the photometry unit, not shown in the figure, and the sensitivity of the image pickup element 19 such as a CCD sensor or a CMOS sensor (or a film) in accordance with the push of the release button 13 by the user. When the central processing unit judges “The illumination unit is made to emit the illuminating light” under an image-taking situation, the central processing unit outputs a light emitting signal, and makes the discharge tube 2 emit the illuminating light via a light emitting control circuit and a trigger lead line, not shown in figure. In a conventional structure that uses a reflector, the discharge tube has been made to emit light via the trigger lead line installed on the reflector. However, since no reflector is provided in this embodiment, the trigger lead line is installed directly (or without the reflector) on the discharge tube 2. The luminous flux emitted backward in the direction of the irradiation optical axis L and vertical direction among the emitted luminous flux from the discharge tube 2 enters the first optical member 3 from its refractive surface 3a, and is again transmitted through the refractive surface 3a via two total reflections at two reflective surfaces (prism surfaces) that constitutes the prism portion 3b to return to the discharge tube 2. In more details, as shown in FIG. 2, a ray 5 emitted from the center O of the discharge tube 2 is transmitted through the refractive surface 3a of the first optical member 3, is totally reflected at a first prism surface 3b1 which constitutes the prism portion 3b, progresses to a second prism surface 3b2, is then totally reflected at the second prism surface 3b2, and returns to the approximate center O of the discharge tube 2 through the refractive surface 3a. Moreover, the luminous flux emitted forward in the direction of the irradiation optical axis L enters directly the second optical member 4 to be converted into a luminous flux having a predetermined light distribution characteristic, and is then irradiated to an object side (irradiation plane side). Next, the optimal setting method of the illumination optical system in this embodiment, which is smaller than the conventional one, and can irradiate the illuminating light uniformly and efficiently within the required irradiation range will be explained by using FIGS. 1A to 3. FIGS. 1A(a) to 1A(c) show the longitudinal section of the illumination optical system in a direction of the discharge tube's diameter in the present embodiment, and show a basic idea for optimizing the light distribution characteristic in the vertical direction. FIG. 1B is a figure for the comparison, and shows the longitudinal section of the illumination optical system with a reflector that consists of a metallic reflector, instead of the first optical member 3 formed of a resin material. In addition, FIGS. 1A(a) to 1A(c) and FIGS. 1B(a) to 1B(c) show the shape in the same section, and (b) and (c) of each figure are figures added ray trace charts on (a). The ray trace charts show a luminous flux that progresses to the second optical member directly, and a luminous flux that progresses to the second optical member after the total reflection at the first optical member. In these figures, the internal and external diameters of the glass tubes of the discharge tubes 2 and 102 are shown. As an actual light-emitting phenomenon of the discharge tube in this kind of illumination optical system, it is usual to make the discharge tube emit light from the whole area of the internal diameter thereof for improving its efficiency. Therefore, it can be thought that light is emitted substantially uniformly from light-emitting points that exist in the whole area of the internal diameter of the discharge tube. However, to facilitate the explanation, a luminous flux emitted from the discharge tube, that is, the center of the light source is defined as a representative luminous flux, and only the representative luminous flux is shown in the figures. The actual light distribution characteristic changes so as to widen slightly as a whole by a luminous flux emitted from the peripheral portion of the discharge tube in addition to the representative luminous flux emitted from the center of the light source shown in the figure. However, since the tendencies of the light distribution characteristic are almost matched, the explanation will be given by using this representative luminous flux as follows. At first, as shown in FIGS. 1A(a) to 1A(c), the inside surface of the first optical member 3 is constituted by the refractive surface (incident surface) 3a having a semi-cylindrical shape substantially concentric with the discharge tube 2 and the prism portion (reflective portions) 3b formed on a surface (reflective surface) opposed to the refractive surface 3a at the external side. This is the shape effective for the total reflection of the rays from the center of the light source at the constituent surfaces of the prism portion 3b to return the rays to the vicinity of the center of the light source again. Furthermore, the shape is effective for reducing the influence by refraction of the glass portion of the discharge tube 2. Moreover, the light totally reflected by the first optical member 3 can be treated as light that is almost equivalent to the directly emitted light from the light source, and it becomes possible to miniaturize the whole optical system that continues after the first optical member 3. The reason why the shape of the first optical member 3 is just a semi-cylindrical shape is as follows. If the shape is smaller than it, the second optical member 4 grows in size for converging the luminous flux directing vertically, and, on the contrary, if the shape is larger than it, the luminous flux that stays in the first optical member 3 increases, and the efficiency decreases. Next, the shape of the second optical member 4 that has the most influence to the light distribution characteristic of the illumination optical system will be explained. To obtain a uniform light distribution in the required irradiation range by a small illumination optical system, the following structure is adopted in the present embodiment. At First, a portion in the vicinity of the irradiation optical axis L on the incidence surface side of the second optical member 4 is formed as a cylindrical lens surface 4a, as shown in FIG. 1A(a), which has a positive refractive power in the plane orthogonal to the irradiation optical axis L. Therefore, a luminous flux progressing in the vicinity of the irradiation optical axis L among the luminous flux emitted from the discharge tube 2 is converted into a luminous flux with a uniform light distribution for the predetermined irradiation angle range, and then emerges from an emergent surface 4d of the second optical member 4. Here, to give a uniform light distribution characteristic, the shape of the cylindrical lens surface 4a of the second optical member 4 is set to a continuous aspheric surface shape so that a proportional relation may be formed between an emitting angle from the center of the discharge tube 2 and an emergent angle after transmitting through the second optical member 4, and may converge the light at a constant rate. This state can be understood from the appearance in the vicinity of the irradiation optical axis L in the ray trace chart shown in FIG. 1A(c). Next, upper and lower luminous flux components whose emitting angles with respect to the irradiation optical axis L are large, which are incident directly on refractive surfaces (incident surfaces) 4b and 4b′ in upper and lower peripheral portions of the second optical member 4, among the luminous flux emitted from the center of the discharge tube 2 will be explained. The luminous flux components directing to the upper and lower peripheral portions enter the second optical member 4 from the refractive surfaces (incident surfaces) 4b and 4b′, and then are reflected at the reflective surfaces 4c and 4c′. The shapes of the reflective surfaces 4c and 4c′ are set so that a uniform light distribution that has an almost similar irradiation angle range to the above-mentioned incident luminous flux on the cylindrical lens surface 4a may be obtained by the upper and lower luminous flux components that were reflected thereon and overlapped. This state is as shown in the ray trace chart of FIGS. 1A(b) and 1A(c). Thus, the uniform light distribution can be obtained as shown in FIG. 1A(b) as a whole for the required irradiation range. Moreover, the refractive surfaces 4b and 4b′ and the cylindrical lens surface 4a form completely separated optical paths, and thereby they can perform light converging (irradiating) control independently. Although the explanation about the luminous flux which enters the second optical member 4 directly among the luminous flux emitted from the discharge tube 2 as the light source was given, the luminous flux emitted backward from the discharge tube 2 also returns to the discharge tube 2 via the first optical member 3, traces an almost similar optical path as shown in FIG. 1A(c), and is emerged toward the irradiation plane side. In other words, the luminous flux emitted from the center of the discharge tube 2 returns to the center of the discharge tube 2 after the total reflection at the prism portion 3b of the first optical member 3 again because the shape of the first optical member 3 is concentric with the center of the light source. After that, the luminous flux is converted into a luminous flux having the required irradiation angle by the action of the second optical member 4, and irradiated to the irradiation plane, as well as the above-mentioned explanation. This state is shown in FIG. 1A(c). Next, the effects obtained by using the nanocomposite material will be explained in the present embodiment by the comparison with FIGS. 1B(a) to 1B(c). The optical member 104, which is used for a conventional optical system including a reflector 103 shown in FIGS. 1B(a) to 1B(c), has an optimal shape in a case where polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA: the refractive index is 1.492) is used, which is frequently used for normal flash optical systems. The converging effect of the entire optical system is almost similar to the optical system in this embodiment. As understood by the comparison of both figures, it is possible to miniaturize the second optical member 4 by using the nanocomposite as an optical material. To compare the sizes of the optical systems, the positional relations between the discharge tubes 2 and 102 as the light sources and the incident surfaces of the second optical members 4 and 104 are assumed to be the same conditions. The largest difference point between the optical system in the present embodiment (FIG. 1A) and the conventional optical system (FIG. 1B) is a point that a reflection member arranged behind the discharge tube is an optical member (the first optical member 3) having translucency and a total reflection action in this embodiment, and is a metallic reflector of high reflectance such as a brilliance aluminum or the like in the conventional optical system. As understood from the ray trace charts shown in FIG. 1A(c) of the present embodiment and FIG. 1B(c) of the conventional embodiment, the luminous flux emitted from the center of the light source progresses to the irradiation plane with almost similar behaviors in both embodiment. The luminous flux emitted in a direction opposite to the original direction of irradiation among the luminous flux emitted from the center of the light source is reflected at each back surface, then returns to the center of the light source again by returning on the optical path that have passed first, and is irradiated as an illuminating luminous flux with a uniform light distribution characteristic through the similar optical path to the optical path shown in FIGS. 1A(b) and 1B(b) (the optical path of the luminous flux emitted from the center of the light source to the irradiation direction originally). Thus, the optical system in the present embodiment and the optical system in the conventional embodiment can be made as optical systems with similar optical actions for the luminous flux from the vicinity of the center of the light source. Especially, for the light source whose outer part is constituted by a transparent member as a light-emitting discharge tube, the above-mentioned optical path can be used enough for increasing intensity of light because the light source is basically transparent itself. Moreover, since the above-mentioned optical path is not received adverse influences of refraction of the glass portion, and further the minimum illumination optical system that can be thought can be composed, the above-mentioned optical path can be called the optimal optical path as an optical path for using the luminous flux toward behind the light source again. However, in a case where the luminous flux returns to the center of the light source in a discharge tube like a fluorescent tube, the illumination optical system doesn't become a preferable illumination optical system since the efficiency deteriorates extremely. Thus, in the present embodiment, in the direction substantially orthogonal to the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube 2, all the luminous fluxes emitted from the center of the discharge tube 2 are converted into luminous fluxes with a uniform light distribution, respectively, by the optical action of the cylindrical lens surface 4a and the prism portion constituted by the refraction surfaces 4b and 4b′ and the reflective surfaces 4c and 4c′, shown in FIG. 1A. And, a uniform light distribution characteristic as a whole can be obtained efficiently by making the light distributions overlap. Moreover, the further miniaturization of the whole shape of the optical system can be achieved than ever. Furthermore, since the curved surface of each optical member can be formed gently, it is possible to not only improve the formability but also to suppress a decrease of light amount to the minimum when the light is transmitted through the resin material. In addition, it contributes to lightening an image-taking apparatus and other optical apparatuses equipped with this illumination optical system. Although it was described that the effect equivalent to the conventional reflector can be given to the first optical member 3 in the above-mentioned explanation, an optimal illumination optical system cannot be necessarily obtained even if the optical resin material that has been used conventionally as an optical material is used in the present invention. In other words, although the equivalent optical system can be formed if the light source can be treated as a point light source or an effective light-emitting portion of the light source is very thin as compared with the optical system, since the size of the light source is considerably large with respect to the entire optical system in an actual illumination optical system, an optimal illumination optical system cannot be necessarily obtained without ingenuities of the shape or material of the first optical member 3. The most optimal conditions of the light source and the optimal shape of the first optical member 3 for the present optical system will be explained as follows by using FIGS. 6 to 10. FIGS. 6 to 8 are charts for explaining the change of the ray trace chart when the size of the light source is considerably large with respect to the entire optical system, and the effects when the refractive index of the optical material is changed. In FIG. 6, the reference numeral 22 denotes a light-emitting discharge tube having a cylindrical shape. The reference numeral 22a denotes an internal surface of a glass tube of the discharge tube 22, and the reference numeral 22b denotes an external surface of the glass tube. The reference numeral 23 denotes a first optical member. A refractive surface (internal surface) 23a of the first optical member 23, which is a discharge tube side surface, is formed so as to have a semi-cylindrical shape substantially concentric with the center of the cylindrical shape of the discharge tube 22, and the external surface 23b of the first optical member 23 is a reflective surface in which a plurality of prism portions 23b are formed on a reference surface having a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the refractive surface 23a. The prism portions 23b have a role to return a luminous flux that emitted from the discharge tube 22 and was transmitted through the refractive surface 23a, to the vicinity of the center of the discharge tube 22. It is possible to decrease an incident angle of the incident light to the refractive surface 23a of the first optical member 23 by giving a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the discharge tube 22 to the refractive surface 23a, which is the incident surface, and by arranging the refractive surface 23a close to the discharge tube 22. Therefore, the optical system in which the loss of light amount by surface reflections is small and the efficiency is good can be achieved. Moreover, the vertex angle of each prism portion 23b is set to almost 90 degrees. Since it becomes possible to return the luminous flux that emitted from the center of the light source to the center of the light source more accurately with narrowing the pitch interval of the prism portions 23b when the vertex angle of each prism portion 23b is set to 90 degrees. This is preferable. However, when the pitch interval is narrowed too much, the shape accuracy of each prism portion 23b deteriorates to round the prism portion 23b, depending on molding conditions of the resin material. Thereby, an accurate control of the luminous flux cannot be performed, and it becomes extremely expensive to form the first optical member 23 with accurate shapes. This is inconvenient. In the first optical member 23 shown in FIG. 6, this pitch interval is set to 5 degrees. Moreover, it is preferable that the thickness of the first optical member 23 is thin as much as possible for miniaturizing the whole shape, and also from a viewpoint of returning the luminous flux to the center of the light source. There is a possibility that a phenomenon, which affects the optical characteristics negatively, such as melting the optical material by an influence of heat, will occur when the optical member is too thin because of a lot of heat generated at the time of emitting light. Moreover, the thickness more than a certain level is necessary to maintain the shape of the first optical member 23. In addition, it is necessary to secure a certain degree of thickness to form the minute reflective surfaces that constitute the prism portion 23b. From these reasons, the relation between the air distance from the external surface of the discharge tube 22 to the refractive surface 23a of the first optical member 23 and the thickness of the first optical member 23 is necessary to meet a certain condition. At first, it is preferable that the air distance from the external surface of the discharge tube 22 to the refractive surface 23a of the first optical member 23 is set to 0.2 mm or more as the minimum air distance that the optical resin material is not influenced by heat. Moreover, it is preferable that the thickness of the first optical member 23 is set to 0.3 mm or more for maintaining the optical shape, improving the formability of the prism portions 23b and decreasing the influence of the heat from the light source. Furthermore, in FIG. 6, the reference numeral 24 denotes a second optical member. The function of the second optical member 24 is similar to the above-mentioned second optical member 4. It is preferable to form the second optical member 24 of an optical material with a high refractive index. FIGS. 7(a) to 7(c) and FIGS. 8(a) to 8(c) show what optical paths the luminous fluxes emitted from representative points A, B and C are traced on. The point A is the center point of the light-emitting discharge tube 22, which is constituted as above, in the optical system shown in FIG. 6, and the point C is the nearest point to the glass tube in the internal diameter range. Furthermore, the point B is an approximately middle point between the points A and C. Only the refractive index of the first optical member 23 is different between the optical system shown in FIG. 7 and the optical system shown in FIG. 8, and other conditions are exactly the same. Moreover, FIG. 7 shows the ray trace chart when the refractive index of the first optical member 23 is set to 1.5, and FIG. 8 shows the ray trace chart when the refractive index of the first optical member 23 is set to 2.0. In addition, each figure's (a) shows rays emitted from the point A of the discharge tube 22, and each figure's (c) shows rays emitted from the point C. Furthermore, each figure's (b) shows rays emitted from the point B. As understood from these figures, both the luminous fluxes emitted from the point A have the similar light distribution and light intensity, and are converted into the luminous fluxes that trace an optical path approximately similar to an optical path in the case where the conventional reflector is used. Advantages of the optical system in the present embodiment in comparison with the case using the reflector, includes an improvement of the reflectance of the first optical member 23 by using the total reflection action thereof. Thus, in a case where the illumination optical system is applied to a light source that a luminous flux emitted from the center of the light source is comparatively large, for instance, a light source with a thin internal diameter, an extremely efficient illumination optical system can be achieved. On the other hand, an influence of the refractive index of the first optical member 23 is large for the luminous flux emitted from a position away from the center of the light source. As compared with each figure's (b) concerning the luminous flux from the point B away from the center of the light source in some degree, about a half of the luminous flux from the point B emerges (exit) backward from the first optical member 23 whose refractive index is low, as shown in FIG. 7(b). On the contrary, in the optical system including the first optical member 23 whose refractive index is high, the luminous flux emerging backward from the first optical member 23 is not seen, as shown in FIG. 8(b), and a ray trace chart that is almost equivalent to that of the conventional reflector can be drawn. Next, as compared with each figure's (c) concerning the luminous fluxes emitted from the point C most away from the center of the light source, most of all the luminous flux emerge backward from the first optical member 23 when using an optical material with a low refractive index (FIG. 7(c)), and the loss of light amount is very large. On the other hand, the luminous flux emerging backward from the first optical member 23 is extremely little when using an optical material with a high refractive index (FIG. 8(c)), and it is possible to form an illumination optical system that is almost equivalent to an optical system with a reflector. Thus, the internal diameter of the discharge tube 22 and the refractive index of the first optical member 23 are weighty elements for deciding the optical characteristics in the present embodiment. And, it is important to thin the internal diameter of the discharge tube 22 as much as possible, and to raise the refractive index of the first optical member 23 as much as possible. Next, the optimal shape of the prism portion of the first optical member will be explained by using FIGS. 9 and 10. In the previous explanation, it was preferable to set the vertex angle of the prism portion in the first optical member to almost 90 degrees. However, it is not necessarily preferable to form potions other than the vertex of the prism portion so as to have the angle of 90 degrees. The explanation of an ideal shape of the prism portion will be given by using FIGS. 9 and 10 as follows. This shape is effective to give optimal optical effects while especially decreasing the number of prism portions. The ideal shape of the prism surfaces, which are two reflective surfaces constituting each prism portion of the first optical member is a shape that can return all the luminous flux that emitted from the center of the light source to the center of the light source accurately. FIG. 9 shows the ideal shape from the viewpoint. In these figures, the reference numeral 32 denotes a light-emitting discharge tube, the reference numeral 32a denotes the internal diameter of a glass tube in the discharge tube 32, and the reference numeral 32b denotes the external diameter of the glass tube. The reference numeral 33 denotes a first optical member, which comprises a refractive surface 33a having a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the center of the light source, and a prism portion 33b constituted by two prism surfaces. In the illumination optical system with this structure, the shape of the prism surface for performing a total reflection and returning the luminous flux that emitted from the center O of the light source to the center O accurately is a paraboloidal surface shape whose focal point is set to the center O of the light source, and the ideal shape of the prism portion can be obtained by combining the two paraboloidal surfaces so that the vertex angle becomes 90 degrees. When the prism portions are formed with a fine pitch, the two prism surfaces can return the luminous flux to the vicinity of the center of the light source in some degree by combining them at the vertex angle of 90 degree, as shown in FIGS. 1A to 8. However, it is preferable that each prism portion having a shape similar to the ideal shape is formed when the number of the prism portions is decreased as shown in FIG. 9. FIGS. 10(a) and 10(b) show a first optical member 43 in which the number of the prism portions having the above-mentioned ideal shape is decreased as much as possible. The reference numeral 42 denotes a light-emitting discharge tube, the reference numeral 42a denotes the internal diameter of a glass tube in the discharge tube 42a, and the reference numeral 42b denotes the external diameter of the glass tube. Moreover, the first optical member 43 comprises a refractive surface 43a having a semi-cylindrical shape and prism portions 43b. Six prism portions 43b are formed with a pitch of 30 degrees in the first optical member 43. By structuring the first optical member as above, the luminous flux can be accurately returned to the center of the light source even if the number of prism portions is decreased as shown in FIG. 10(b), and an illumination optical system that the unevenness of light distribution is little and the efficiency is extremely good can be achieved. Next, a converging action of the illumination optical system in the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube in the present embodiment will be explained by using FIG. 3. FIG. 3(a) shows a section when the optical system is cut by a plane including the center axis of the discharge tube 2, and also shows a ray trace chart of rays progressing toward the emergent surface directly from the center in the longitudinal direction and the center of a diameter direction of the discharge tube 2. Moreover, FIG. 3(b) shows a ray trace chart of the luminous flux that enters the first optical member 3 in the same section as FIG. 3(a). The luminous fluxes in both figures are influenced by an almost similar converging action, and irradiated uniformly to a required irradiation range. However, the case to use an optical material with a high refractive index is assumed in the present embodiment, though there are a lot of advantages by using the optical material with such a high refractive index besides the above-mentioned advantages, there is a uncontrollable thing, too. The uncontrollable thing is that it is difficult for the luminous flux to emerge from a surface assumed as an emergent surface of the optical member because using an optical material with a high refractive index facilitates total reflections of the luminous flux in the optical member. Therefore, it is preferable to form a Fresnel lens with a weak optical power on the emergent surface as shown in FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) because it is difficult to form the emergent surface as a curved surface with a large curvature. In the present embodiment, the Fresnel lens 4e with a weak optical power is formed on the emergent surface of the second optical member 4 with the point in mind. In addition, a noteworthy point is that the angle of each lens surface of the Fresnel lens 4e is set to the approximately same angle. By structuring the optical member as above, adverse influences by total reflections on the emergent surface when a material with a high refractive index is used can be suppressed to the minimum, and an efficient converging action can be obtained. In the present embodiment, the shape of the cylindrical surface 4a in the second optical member 4 is set to a continuous aspheric shape so that a proportional relationship is formed between an emitting angle of rays from the center of the discharge tube 2 and an emergent angle from the second optical member 4. Thereby, the rays are converged at a predetermined rate. However, the shape of the cylindrical surface 4a is not limited to an aspheric shape. A cylindrical surface with a constant curvature, which is approximated to an aspheric shape, may be used, and a toric surface with a curvature in the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube may be used. Moreover, the explanation in Embodiment 1 is about the case where the configuration of each surface on the incident surface side and emergent surface side of the optical member is symmetric with respect to the irradiation optical axis L. However, the configuration of the optical member is not necessarily limited to such a symmetric configuration. For example, the prism portions 4b, 4c, 4b′ and 4c′ on the incident surface side of the second optical member 4 have symmetric shapes with respect to the irradiation optical axis L. However, they do not necessarily need to be formed like this, and an aspheric shape is acceptable. This can be said not only for the prism portion, but also for the cylindrical lens surface 4a in the center portion in the second optical member 4 and the prism portion 3b in the first optical member 3. In addition, as for the Fresnel lens portion 4e formed at the center of the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube on the emergent surface side, the angle of each Fresnel lens surface does not need to be constant, and may be gradually changed in the longitudinal direction of the discharge tube. Moreover, a Fresnel lens with different right and left angle settings may be used. Furthermore, the explanation in Embodiment 1 is about the case where the nanocomposite material is used as an optical material with a high refractive index. However, the optical material is not limited to the optical resin material in which such ultrafine particles are mixed, and the optical member may be formed by glass molding that uses a glass material with a high refractive index. Moreover, the first and second optical members are separated in Embodiment 1. However, they may be formed integrally of a material with a high refractive index, and thereby the simplification of assembly of the illumination unit, the facilitation of light distribution control and the reduction in costs can be attempted. Embodiment 2 FIG. 11 shows an illumination optical system in Embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 12 shows a conventional optical system that is equivalent to the optical system in Embodiment 2. Hereinafter, the shape of the optical system in Embodiment 2 will be explained while comparing it with the shape of the optical system in FIG. 12. (a) of each figure shows a section of a light-emitting discharge tube in a diameter direction of the discharge tube, and (b) of each figure shows a ray trace chart of this section. In FIGS. 11(a) and (b), the reference numeral 52 denotes a light-emitting discharge tube as a light source, and the reference numeral 53 denotes an optical member having an converging action by total reflections. From the viewpoint of miniaturization of the illumination optical system, Returning a luminous flux that emitted backward from the center of the light source (discharge tube 52) to the center thereof, and handling it just like a luminous flux that emitted forward directly from the light source as shown in FIG. 12(b) can reduce the size of the optical system to the minimum, and it is effective to the optical apparatus such as a camera that values the portability. However, as for the illumination optical system, such a miniaturization alone is not prioritized, it is also important that the illumination optical system can illuminate efficiently for a given energy. This embodiment is an illumination optical system that prioritizes the efficiency. It is possible to irradiate the luminous flux most efficiently toward an object for a given energy by using total reflections in the optical member to lead the luminous flux. The present embodiment shows an illumination optical system characterized in that it maximizes the use of total reflections, and especially, it leads the luminous flux that emitted backward from the light source forward by using another optical path including total reflections. In other words, the illumination optical system reflects the luminous flux that emitted backward from the light source to the light irradiation side directly without returning it to the light source. Therefore, although the area of the emergent surface increases, it is possible to achieve an efficient illumination optical system in which the loss of light amount by surface reflections caused when the luminous flux that reflected on the reflector 113 passes the light source again is small and the luminous flux is not affected adversely by the refraction by the glass tube. As shown in FIG. 11(b), in the optical member 53 of the present embodiment, the luminous flux that emitted forward directly traces an optical path that is similar to that of the luminous flux shown in FIG. 12(b), and emerges from an emergent surface 53b. The shape of each portion in the optical path and the behavior of the rays at each portion are similar to these in Embodiment 1. On the other hand, the luminous flux that emitted backward from the light source receives refraction actions from incident surfaces 53b and 53b′ or incident surfaces 53e and 53e′, and then is totally reflected by first prism surfaces (reflective surfaces) 53f and 53f′ that constitute each of pairs of prism portions. Thereby, the luminous flux is arranged in a direction forming an angle of 90 degrees to the irradiation optical axis once, and then is totally reflected by second prism surfaces (reflective surfaces) 53g and 53g′ again. As a result, the luminous flux progresses in a direction parallel to the irradiation optical axis, and then emerges from an emergent surface 53h. In the embodiment, as a method for leading a luminous flux that emitted toward an opposite direction of the irradiation direction efficiently by the total reflection actions of the optical member 53, the structure is adopted, in which the luminous flux traces an optical path different from an optical path passing the center of the light source, and then emerges from a range in the emergent surface different from a range from which a luminous flux that emitted toward the irradiation direction directly emerges, as Embodiment 1. In the embodiment, it is possible to form the optical member having excellent optical characteristics though the shape thereof becomes large. And, the embodiment can be applied to an illumination optical system in which efficiency is the top priority. In addition, it is possible to form the optical member integrally though the shape is complex, and the optical member will have stable optical characteristics. Embodiment 3 FIG. 13 shows an illumination optical system in Embodiment 3 of the present invention. In the embodiment, an optical member (hereinafter, it is referred to as a light-emitting discharge member) is formed integrally with a light-emitting discharge tube. In other words, Xenon (Xe) gas is encapsulated in a cylinder portion formed at the center of the optical member, and a converging action is given by optimizing the shape of a glass portion that covers the outside of the cylinder portion. FIG. 13(a) is a cross section of a diameter direction of the light-emitting discharge member, and FIG. 13(b) shows a ray trace chart in this cross section. The reference numeral 63 denotes the light-emitting discharge member, it being constituted by the following portions. At First, a cylindrical lens portion 63a having a strong refractive power is formed at the center of an emergent surface side, and strongly converges a luminous flux component with a small inclination to the irradiation optical axis by the lens power. Moreover, a luminous flux component with a somewhat large inclination to the irradiation optical axis is totally reflected by reflective surfaces 63b and 63b′ having a substantially paraboloidal surface shape, is converted into a component parallel to the irradiation optical axis, and emerges from emergent surfaces 63d and 63d′ that are different from the lens portion 63a. On the other hand, the luminous flux that emitted backward from the light source, which is on the opposite side to the irradiation direction, is totally reflected twice at a plurality of prism portions 63c arranged behind the light source, and then passes through the vicinity of the center of the light source to emerge forward. It is preferable that the pitch interval of the prism portions 63c is 15 degrees, and the shape of two prism surfaces constituting each prism portion 63c is a paraboloidal shape as explained in Embodiment 1. For effective functions of the above-mentioned optical system as an illumination optical system, it is preferable that the refractive index of the optical member 63 is high to minimize a luminous flux component that emitted backward and emerges out of the optical member 63. Thus, extremely miniaturizing the illumination optical system becomes possible by integrating the light-emitting discharge tube and the optical member. Moreover, because the distance from the center of the light source to prism portions arranged behind the light source can be reduced, unnecessary refractions and the surface reflections at the time of incidence or emergence can be minimized. As a structure for obtaining equivalent effects, a cylindrical surface may be arranged behind the light source and deposit a metallic reflective surface with a high reflectivity to the cylindrical surface. However, it is not practical because a thermal energy by emissions is so larger than expected that the deposited material whose thermal capacity is small might be removed by several emissions, and optical characteristics might be remarkably deteriorated. In the present embodiment, since the reflective surface is not formed by an added film such as a deposited metallic film, the characteristics of the illumination optical system is not deteriorated even if emissions are repeated, and an optical system with excellent durability can be achieved. Furthermore, since the light source and optical acting portions are formed integrally, it is possible to obtain excellent optical characteristics semipermanently, which cannot be obtained by combining two or more members, by optimizing molding conditions once and maintaining it stably. Embodiment 4 FIG. 14 shows an illumination optical system in Embodiment 4 of the present invention, and a ray trace chart thereof. This embodiment corresponds to an illumination optical system that a zoom function is added to the illumination optical system of Embodiment 1. FIG. 14(a) shows a telephoto irradiation state in which the distance from the light-emitting discharge tube 2 and first optical member 3 to the second optical member 4 is large, an irradiation range of a luminous flux being narrow. FIG. 14(b) shows a wide-angle irradiation state in which the distance from the light-emitting discharge tube 2 and first optical member 3 to the second optical member 4 is small, the irradiation range of the luminous flux being wide. In this embodiment, irradiation ranges (angles) corresponding to angles of field of the image-taking lens are automatically obtained by driving the second optical member 4 in the direction of the irradiation optical axis by interlocking with zoom operations of the image-taking lens barrel 12 via a synchronization mechanism, not shown in the figure, in the camera shown in FIG. 5. Thus, even when the first optical member 3 is arranged behind the light source, the irradiation range can be changed as well as a conventional illumination optical system with a reflector. The effects of the above-mentioned embodiments are described as follows. 1. It becomes possible to lead the luminous flux that emitted backward from the light source forward by total reflections, and thereby it becomes possible to attempt a great efficiency improvement as compared with the case with a reflector. In other words, an illumination optical system with high use efficiency of light can be achieved as compared with the case with the reflector. Moreover, it is possible to use the light that emitted backward from the light source to illuminate the irradiation plane while avoiding enlarging the illumination optical system by forming a first reflective surface that reflects light from the refractive surface and a second reflective surface that reflects the light reflected at the first reflective surface to the irradiation side in the optical member, and by forming a plurality of reflective portions each constituted by a first and second reflective surfaces in the optical member. 2. Since converging light is performed by optical members constituted of a transparent material, and these members can be integrated, the simplification of assembly, the facilitation of light distribution control and the reduction in costs can be attempted. 3. Since all the reflective portions can be total reflection surfaces, expands the possibility of designs greatly, and thereby a delicate light distribution control can be performed. 4. Although the conventional reflector made of a metallic material has adverse affects on the optical system such as deformations of members caused by external forces, the optical members in the above-mentioned embodiments can obtain steady shapes with little variations if the molding conditions are fixed. In a case where the light source is a cylindrical discharge tube, since the influence of refraction at the discharge tube can be reduced by the above-mentioned refractive surface having a semi-cylindrical shape concentric with the discharge tube, the design of the reflective surface and the control of light can be facilitated. 5. The compatibility with resin materials having high refractive indexes, such as a nanocomposite material that the practical use thereof is expected in the future, is good, and an improvement of optical characteristics can be easily attempted. Here, the optical member can have a higher refractive index, as compared with an optical member formed only of a base resin material, by forming the optical member of a particle-containing material containing particles whose size are smaller than 1 μm (or the wavelength of the visible light, or 100 nm) in the base resin material. Since the light from the light source is not diffused by the particles, and the transmittance of the optical member is not reduced by the particles. Therefore, It is possible to miniaturize the illumination optical system without deteriorating optical characteristics (while securing a necessary irradiation characteristics). In addition, in a case where a reflective surface having a total reflection action is formed in the optical member, since total reflections becomes easy to occur when the refractive index is higher (the critical angle becomes small), the loss of light amount by transmitting through the reflective surface is reduced, and thereby an optical system with higher efficiency can be achieved. A bright illuminating can be performed while corresponding to the demand of the miniaturization of an image-taking apparatus and illumination device by the above-mentioned effects of 1 to 5. In addition, there are the following effects, too. 6. Since using a reflector is not needed, the possibility of electric leakages from a trigger to surrounding metallic materials decreases, and thereby an electrically steady structure can be adopted. 7. Since a metallic reflector is not used, conductive regions to which a high voltage is applied decrease. Therefore, processes for preventing electric shocks become unnecessary; the reduction in costs can be attempted. Moreover, waterproof measures become easy, and the possibility of designs expands greatly. This application claims priority from Japanese Patent Application No. 2004-016374 filed on Jan. 23, 2004, which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to an illumination optical system used in illumination devices for image-taking apparatuses. The conventional optical system for illumination devices uses a reflector, which converges a luminous flux that emitted backward from a light source. Moreover, there is an optical system that the improvement of efficiency and the miniaturization thereof are attempted by arranging an optical member, which formed by a transparent body, in front of the light source, and by using a total reflection action in the optical member, as shown in Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. H10-115852 and Japanese Patent Laid-open Application No. 2000-250102. Thus, in the conventional optical system for lighting devices, a predetermined light distribution characteristic is obtained by irradiating an irradiation plane with the emerged light from the light source via optical members such as a prism, Fresnel lens or reflector, and by optimizing the shape of the optical members. In recent years, the miniaturization of digital cameras and portable devices equipped with this kind of illumination device is rapidly advanced; thereby it becomes necessary to miniaturize the optical system for the illumination devices. On the other hand, it is important that the optical characteristics of the illumination device are improved in a given small space, and a lot of proposals have been made for this requirement. As mentioned above, small and efficient optical systems are proposed, in which a prism is arranged on the illumination plane side with respect to the light source; the total reflection in the prism is used. However, the reflector is still necessary for covering the rear side of the light source, and it is difficult to evade a decrease of efficiency that is caused by using the reflector. Generally, the reflectance of high reflective materials used for a reflector is only about 80%, and moreover, there is a problem that wrinkles or abrasions are formed on a surface of the reflector when manufacturing it in accordance with the miniaturization of the reflector. Therefore, only a lower reflectance than the original reflectance of the materials can be obtained in a state in which the reflector is installed in an actual product, and this is a big problem for making the illumination optical system. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An object of the present invention is to provide an illumination optical system that can efficiently lead a luminous flux forward, which has emitted backward from the light source, and to provide an illumination device and an image-taking apparatus with the same. An illumination optical system as one aspect of the present invention to achieve the above-mentioned object comprises a light source; and a first optical member arranged on an opposite side (backside) of a light irradiation side with respect to the light source. The first optical member includes a refractive surface through which light from the light source is transmitted and a reflective surface, which reflects the light from the refractive surface toward the light irradiation side. Other objects and further features of the present invention will become readily apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments with reference to accompanying drawings. | 20050118 | 20070807 | 20050728 | 68358.0 | 0 | SUTHAR, RISHI S | ILLUMINATION OPTICAL SYSTEM, ILLUMINATION DEVICE AND IMAGE-TAKING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,070 | ACCEPTED | Media cassette for printing apparatus | A portable media cassette is attached to a printing apparatus. The media cassette includes a loading case for receiving media having an outlet. A pickup device of the printing apparatus can access the media through the outlet. A shutter is installed on the loading case and is movable between a first position for covering the outlet and a second position for opening the outlet. | 1. A portable media cassette that is attachable to a printing apparatus, the media cassette comprising: a loading case for receiving media, the loading case having an outlet, through which a pickup device disposed in the printing apparatus can access the media; and a shutter installed on the loading case, the shutter being movable between a first position for covering the outlet and a second position for opening the outlet. 2. The media cassette of claim 1, wherein the shutter is adapted to slide by contacting the printing apparatus. 3. The media cassette of claim 2, further comprising: an elastic member for biasing the shutter in the direction of the second position. 4. The media cassette of claim 1, further comprising: a tray for loading the media discharged from the printing apparatus, the tray being installed on the shutter. 5. The media cassette of claim 4, wherein the tray is rotated to a third position wherein the tray is folded on the loading case, and a fourth position wherein the tray is inclined with respect to the loading case for loading the media in accordance with moving the shutter between the first and second positions. 6. The media cassette of claim 5, further comprising a second locking unit for locking the tray in the third position. 7. The media cassette of claim 1, wherein the loading case includes: a frame for receiving the media having an opened first surface; and an upper cover for covering the first surface of the frame, except the outlet is coupled to the frame, wherein the shutter is installed for slidable movement on the upper cover. 8. The media cassette of claim 7, further comprising: a slot extending in the sliding direction of the shutter and disposed on one of the shutter and the upper cover, and a protrusion adapted for insertion into the slot is disposed on the other one of the shutter and the upper cover. 9. The media cassette of claim 8, wherein an end portion of the slot is slanted, and the shutter being located at the same height as the upper cover at the first position, and slidable over the upper cover for being moved to the second position. 10. The media cassette of claim 8, wherein the shutter is located at higher position than the upper cover, and the slot is formed substantially parallel to the sliding direction of the shutter. 11. The media cassette of claim 7, further comprising: a first locking unit for locking the shutter in the first and second positions. 12. The media cassette of claim 7, wherein the upper cover is rotatably coupled to the frame for opening the first surface of the frame and loading the media in the frame. 13. The media cassette of claim 7, further comprising a tray on which the media discharged from the printing apparatus is loaded and installed on the shutter. 14. The media cassette of claim 13, wherein the tray is rotated to a third position wherein the tray is folded on the loading case and a fourth position wherein the tray is inclined with respect to the loading case for loading the media in accordance with moving the shutter between the first and second positions. 15. The media cassette of claim 14, further comprising a second locking unit that locks the tray in the third position. 16. A portable media cassette that is attachable to a printing apparatus, the media cassette comprising: a frame for receiving media and having an opened first surface; and an upper cover coupled to the frame for slidable movement between a first position wherein the first surface is covered and a second position wherein an outlet is formed by opening a part of the first surface, so that a pickup device disposed on the printing apparatus can access the media, wherein when the upper cover is located at the second position, the upper cover is upwardly slanted from the front portion of the frame to a rear portion of the frame for loading the media discharged from the printing apparatus on the upper cover, and a stopper protrudes from the upper edge portion of the upper cover for arranging the discharged media. 17. The media cassette of claim 16, wherein the upper cover interferes with the printing apparatus and moves to the second position when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus. 18. The media cassette of claim 16, wherein the upper cover is rotated for opening substantially the entire first surface of the frame when the upper cover is located at the second position. 19. The media cassette of claim 18, wherein first and second slots are upwardly slanted and are disposed on front and rear edges of the frame and the upper cover, and first and second protrusions are inserted into the first and second slots, respectively, and an end portion of the first slot is open for rotation about the second protrusion when the upper cover is located at the second position. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) of Korean Patent Application No. 2004-4430, filed on Jan. 20, 2004, Korean Patent Application No. 2004-24025, filed on Apr. 8, 2004, and Korean Patent Application No. 2004-64262, filed on Aug. 16, 2004, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a media cassette for a printing apparatus. More particularly, the present invention relates to a portable media cassette that is attached to a printing apparatus, on which media discharged from the printing apparatus can be loaded without damaging the media cassette and interrupting the conveying of the media. 2. Description of the Related Art A portable printing apparatus such as a small size photo-printer has a portable cassette. The portable cassette, on which printable media is placed, is typically detachable from the printing apparatus. The media cassette is manufactured so that the printing media will not escape from the cassette when the cassette is separated from the printing apparatus. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of a conventional media cassette. As shown in FIG. 1, media M is placed in a loading case 1, and a cover 4 is coupled to an upper portion of the loading case 1. The cover 4 is divided into a first cover 2 and a second cover 3. The first cover 2 is rotatably coupled to the second cover 3. When the media cassette 10 is separated from the printing apparatus, the second cover 2 is closed so that the media M will not escape from the media cassette 10. As shown in FIG. 2, when the media cassette 10 is mounted on the printing apparatus 20, the second cover 2 rotates to open a front edge portion of the loading case 1. Thus, a pickup roller 5 can access and pick up the media M. However, since the second cover 2 is open when mounted on the printing apparatus 20, the media cassette 10 can be damaged. Additionally, when the conventional media cassette 10 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20, a back surface of the second cover 2 is exposed outwardly as shown in FIG. 2. A printed medium is then discharged from the media cassette 10. However, the second cover 2 is generally manufactured by a plastic injection molding method. Therefore, the rear surface thereof includes a structure such as a strengthening rib for reinforcement or an ejection pin mark of the mold, thereby degrading the appearance of the media cassette 10. Also, since the printing apparatus 20 has a media conveying path in a ‘U’ shape, the strengthening rib or the ejection pin mark may interrupt the smooth discharging operation of the printed media. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved media cassette manufactured so that it will not be damaged when installed into the printing apparatus, is improved aesthetically, and does not interrupt conveying of the media. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An aspect of the present invention is to provide a portable media cassette on which media discharged from a printing apparatus can be loaded. Another object of the present invention is to provide a portable media cassette for a printing apparatus, an outlet of which can be opened during a mounting operation of the media cassette without damage. In accordance with another object of the present invention, a media cassette is provided for a printing apparatus, the media cassette has an improved aesthetic appearance and media conveyance. The foregoing and other objects and advantages are substantially realized by providing a portable media cassette that is attached to a printing apparatus. The media cassette includes a loading case for receiving media and has an outlet through which a pickup device disposed in the printing apparatus can access the media. A shutter is installed on the loading case and moves between a first position for covering the outlet and a second position for opening the outlet. The shutter is adapted to slide when contacted with the printing apparatus when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus, and moved to the second position. The media cassette may further include an elastic member for biasing the shutter in the direction of the first position. The loading case may include a frame for receiving the media and has an opened first surface. An upper cover opens substantially the entire first surface of the frame, except for the outlet by being coupled to the frame. In addition, the shutter may be installed on the upper cover for slidable movement. The media cassette may further include a first locking unit for locking the shutter in the first and second positions. The upper cover may be rotatably coupled to the frame, and the upper cover may be rotated to open the first surface of the frame and load the media in the frame. The media cassette may further include a tray for loading the media discharged from the printing apparatus, the tray is installed on the shutter. The tray may be rotated to a third position wherein the tray is folded on the loading case and a fourth position wherein the tray is inclined with respect to the loading case for loading the media according to the movement of the shutter between the first and second positions. In addition, the media cassette may further include a second locking unit that locks the tray in the third position. The foregoing and other objects and advantages are also substantially realized by providing a portable media cassette that can be attached to a printing apparatus. The media cassette includes a frame for receiving media and having an opened first surface. An upper cover is slidably coupled to the frame and movable between a first position where the first surface is covered and to a second position where an outlet is formed by opening a part of the first surface so that a pickup device disposed on the printing apparatus can access the media. When the upper cover is located at the second position, the upper cover is upwardly slanted from the front portion of the frame to a rear portion of the frame to load the media discharged from the printing apparatus on the upper cover. A stopper protrudes from the upper edge portion of the upper cover for arranging the discharged media. The upper cover is preferably adapted to interfere with the printing apparatus and moved to the second position when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus. The upper cover is rotatable for opening substantially the entire first surface of the frame when the upper cover is located in the second position. Other objects, advantages, and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses the preferred embodiments of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing a conventional media cassette; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view showing a state where a second cover is opened in the conventional media cassette shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view showing a media cassette according to a first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a side view showing the media cassette of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a side view illustrating operations of the media cassette of FIG. 3; FIG. 6 is a side view showing a media cassette according to a second embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view showing a media cassette according to a third embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 is a perspective view showing a state where an upper cover of the media cassette is rotated; FIG. 9 is a perspective view showing a state where the media cassette according to the third embodiment of the present invention of FIG. 7 is mounted in a printing apparatus; FIGS. 10 is a perspective view showing a media cassette according to a fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 is a perspective view showing part C of FIG. 10 in detail; FIG. 12 is a perspective view showing the media cassette according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing a state where the media cassette shown in FIGS. 10 through 12 according to the fourth embodiment of the present invention is mounted in a printing apparatus; FIG. 14 is a perspective view showing a media cassette according to a fifth embodiment of the present invention mounted in a printing apparatus; FIG. 15 is a perspective view showing the media cassette according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention separated from the printing apparatus; FIGS. 16 and 17 are cross-sectional views showing operations of the media cassette according to the fifth embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 is an exploded perspective view showing a modified example of a second locking unit; and FIGS. 19 and 20 are perspective views showing a media cassette according to a sixth embodiment of the present invention. Throughout the drawings, the same drawing reference numerals will be understood to refer to the same elements, features, and structures. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS The matters defined in the description such as a detailed construction and elements are provided to assist in a comprehensive understanding of the embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications to the embodiments described herein can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. Also descriptions of well-known functions or constructions are omitted for conciseness. FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view showing a media cassette according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a side view showing the media cassette of FIG. 3. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, the media cassette 400 includes a loading case 100 that can receive media. A portion of an upper front edge portion of the loading case 100 is opened for forming an outlet 101 through which a pickup device (reference numeral 5 in FIG. 5) disposed in a printing apparatus (reference numeral 20 in FIG. 5) can access the media. Reference numeral 200 denotes a shutter. The shutter 200 is installed on the loading case 100 for sliding thereon. Therefore, a pair of protrusions 102 disposed on a side portion of the loading case 100, and a pair of slots 201, into which the protrusions 102 can be inserted, are disposed on a side portion of the shutter 200. An end portion 202 of each slot 201 can be slanted. As shown in FIG. 4, when the media cassette 400 is separated from the printing apparatus 20 for carrying, the shutter 200 is located at a first position where the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101 so that the media received in the loading case 100 does not escape through the outlet 101. In the position where the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101, the shutter 200 is located at the same height as that of the upper surface of the loading case 100. FIG. 5 shows a state where the media cassette 400 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20. A user moves the shutter 200 toward a second position where the shutter 200 opens the outlet 101 by pushing the shutter 200 in the direction of, as shown in FIG. 5. After that, the media cassette 400 can be mounted in the printing apparatus 20. As shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the media cassette may further include an elastic member 300 that biases the shutter 200 to the closing direction of the outlet 101, that is, to the second position. The elastic member 300 is a tension coil spring, both end portions of which are connected to the shutter 200 and the loading case 100. As shown FIG. 5, the media cassette 400 is biased towards a position for mounting in the printing apparatus 20. Then, the shutter 200 is pushed by a side portion 21 of the printing apparatus 20, and slid to the B direction. Here, since the end 202 of the slot 201 is slanted, the shutter 200 moves slightly upward and then continues to slide in the B direction again. In a manner that the outlet 101 is opened, the shutter 200 is located on upper portion of the loading case 100. When the media cassette 400 is separated from the printing apparatus 20 by moving the media cassette 400 to B direction, the shutter 200 is moved in the A direction, by the elastic force of the elastic member 300 and covers the outlet 101. Due to the above structure, the shutter 200 is opened when the media cassette 400 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20. Therefore, damage of the media cassette 400 or the printing apparatus 20 caused when mounting the media cassette 400 into the printing apparatus 20 without opening the second cover as in the conventional media cassette can be prevented. The media cassette 400 is removed from the printing apparatus 20 by being moved in arrow B direction. Here, if the media cassette 400 does not include the elastic member 300, the user pushes the shutter 200 in the direction of arrow A to cover the outlet 101. If the elastic member 300 is included in the media cassette 400, when the media cassette 400 is removed from the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 moves in the direction of arrow A due to the elastic force of the elastic member 300 and covers the outlet 101. Therefore, the user does not need to close the shutter 200. Also, since the shutter 200 moves while sliding toward the upper portion of the loading case 100, a rear surface of the shutter 200 is not exposed during opening the outlet 101. Thus, an aesthetic appearance of the media cassette 400 can be maintained even when the outlet 101 is opened. In addition, there is no obstacle that interrupts the conveying operation of the medium that is discharged from the printing apparatus 20 on the upper portion of the loading case 100 when the outlet 101 is opened, and thus the discharged medium can be stacked on an upper portion of the media cassette 400. Hereinafter, the media cassette according to other exemplary embodiments of the present invention will be described as follows. Elements having the same functions as above are denoted by the same reference numerals and detailed descriptions of them will omitted. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view showing a media cassette according to another aspect of the present invention. The media cassette shown in FIG. 6 is modified from that of FIG. 3. As denoted by a dot line in FIG. 6, the shutter 200 is located higher than the upper surface of the loading case 100 in a state where the outlet 101 is closed. The slots 201 extend parallel to the sliding direction of the shutter 200. Therefore, the shutter 200 is slid only between the A and B directions and moves to the first and second positions. FIG. 7 is an exploded perspective view showing a media cassette according to another aspect of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 7, the loading case 100 includes a frame 110 having an open upper portion, and an upper cover 120 that covers the upper portion of the frame 110. When the upper cover 120 is coupled to the frame 110, the outlet 101, through which the pickup device 5 of the printing apparatus 20 can access the media, is formed due to a difference between lengths of the frame 110 and the upper cover 120. A coupling protrusion 113 is formed on a side portion of the frame 110, and a coupling hole 121 coupled to the protrusion 113 is disposed on the upper cover 120. Otherwise, the protrusion 113 may be formed on the upper cover 120, and the coupling hole 121 may be formed on the frame 110. In the media cassette having the above structure, the upper cover 120 is rotated to load the media and open the upper portion of the frame 110 as shown in FIG. 8. Here, it is desirable that the coupling hole 121 is elongated as shown in FIG. 7, in order to avoid the interruption with the frame 110 when the upper cover 120 is rotated. As shown in FIG. 8, in order to completely open the upper portion of the frame 110 when the upper cover 120 is rotated, preferably the shutter 200 is coupled to the upper cover 120 for rotation with the upper cover 120. The shutter 200 includes a pair of slots 201 that extend in the sliding direction of the shutter 200 and have slanted end portions 202. A pair of protrusions 102 are inserted into the slots 201 and are disposed on the upper cover 120. In the media cassette having the above structure, the upper cover 120 rotates to open the upper portion of the frame 110 and allow the media to be placed in the loading case 100. The user can mount the media cassette 400 in the printing apparatus 20 after pushing the shutter 200 toward the B portion of FIG. 9 to open the outlet 101. In addition, as shown in FIG. 9, when the media cassette 400 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 can be opened during the mounting operation. If the elastic member 300 that elastically biases the shutter 200 toward the closing direction of the outlet 101, that is, toward a direction of moving to the first position, is further included in the media cassette 400, when the media cassette 400 is separated from the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101 by the elastic force of the elastic member 300. FIGS. 10 and 12 show a media cassette according to still another embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 11 is a perspective view illustrating part C of FIG. 10 in detail. FIG. 13 is a perspective view showing a status where the media cassette according to the present embodiment is mounted in the printing apparatus. Referring to FIGS. 10-13, the upper cover 120 is coupled to the frame 110 and has an opened upper surface (first surface ) 109 for forming the loading case 100. The outlet 101, through which the pickup device 5 of the printing apparatus 20 can access the media, is formed by the difference between lengths of the frame 110 and the upper cover 120. The coupling protrusion 113 is formed on an inner side portion of the upper cover 120, and the coupling hole 121 is disposed on the frame 110. Preferably, the coupling hole 121 is elongated. The shutter 200 is coupled to the upper cover 120, and rotated with the upper cover 120. The shutter 200 of the present embodiment is located at upper portion of the upper cover 120 when the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101. A pair of slots 201 extend towards the sliding direction of the shutter 200 and are disposed on the side portion of the shutter 200. A pair of protrusions 102, which are inserted into the slots 201, are disposed on the upper cover 120. The media cassette 400 may further include the elastic member 300 that biases the shutter 200 toward the closing direction of the outlet 101. The elastic member 300 of the present embodiment is preferably a compression coil spring. The media cassette 400 further includes a first locking unit 205 that locks the shutter 200 when the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101 or opens the outlet 101. Referring to FIG. 11, an example of the first locking unit 205 is disclosed. Projections 203 are disposed on both ends 206, 207 of the slot 201, and the projection 203 is formed on an arm 204 that is elastically deformable. The user pushes the shutter 200 toward the B direction for opening the outlet 101, and then can mount the media cassette 400 in the printing apparatus 20. Here, the shutter 200 is locked by the first locking unit 205 when the outlet 101 is opened. Also, after removing the media cassette from the printing apparatus 20, the user pushes the shutter 200 in a direction of the A arrow A to close the outlet 101. Here, the shutter 200 is locked by the first locking unit 205 in the state that the shutter 200 covers the outlet 101. When the media cassette 400 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 may be opened by the mounting operation of the media cassette 400. When the media cassette 400 is pushed in a direction of arrow A in order to be mounted in the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 is pushed by a front portion 22 of the printing apparatus 20 and opens the outlet 101. When the mounting operation of the media cassette 400 is completed, the protrusion 102 pushes the projection 203, and the arm 204 is elastically retrieved. Consequently, the protrusion 102 reaches the end 206 of the slot 201. The projection 203 then blocks the protrusion 102 while the arm 204 returns to the original position. The shutter 200 is locked in the state of opening the outlet 101. When the media cassette 400 is separated from the printing apparatus 20, the shutter 200 moves in a direction of the B arrow B by the elastic force of the elastic member 300, and slides to the other end 207 of the slot 201. When the protrusion 102 reaches the other end 207 of the slot 201, the shutter 200 is locked by the first locking unit 205. FIGS. 14 and 15 are perspective views showing a media cassette according to another aspect of the present invention. Referring to FIG. 14, a media cassette 400b of the present embodiment further includes a tray 250 for loading the media M discharged from the printing apparatus 20. Preferably, tray 250 is upwardly inclined in a discharging direction of the media M so that the media M is not deviated from the media cassette 400b. When the media cassette 400b is separated from the printing apparatus 20 for portability, the tray 250 is located at a third position, that is, folded on the upper cover 120 as shown in FIG. 15. In addition, when the media cassette 400b is mounted in the printing apparatus 20, it preferable that the tray 250 is located at a fourth position, that is, upwardly inclined in the discharge direction of the media M. Thus, the tray 250 of the present embodiment is rotatably installed on the shutter 200, and rotates toward the third and fourth positions when the shutter 200 moves between the first and second positions. According to the above structure, portability of the media cassette 400b can be improved, and it is convenient to use the media cassette 400b since there is no need to move the tray 250 toward the fourth position by the user. Referring to FIG. 16, a slot 251 is formed on the tray 250 in a longitudinal direction of the tray 250. A slant rib 122 is upwardly inclined in a direction of conveying media M and is disposed on the upper cover 120. When the shutter 200 is located at the first position, the slant rib 121 is inserted into the slot 251, thus the tray 250 is located at the third position by being folded on the upper cover 120. A second locking unit 260 locks the tray 250 in the third position. The second locking unit 260 includes a concave portion 123 disposed on one end of the slant rib 122 and a protruded portion 253 disposed on the slot 251. As shown in FIG. 16, when the tray 250 is located at the third position, the protruded portion 253 is inserted in the concave portion 123, thus the tray 250 is not rotated. As shown in FIG. 17, when the shutter 200 is moved to a direction denoted by arrow A, in order to open the outlet 101, the protruded portion 253 gets out of the concave portion 123 to release the locking of the tray 250. When an end portion 252 of the slot 251 contacts the slant rib 122, the tray 250 is rotated, and the shutter 200 is located at the second position, the tray 250 is located at the fourth position, that is, upwardly inclined in the direction of conveying the media M. If the shutter 200 is moved along the arrow B in FIG. 17, in order to close the outlet 101, the tray 250 is reversely rotated toward the third position. In addition, when the shutter 200 returns to the first position, the protruded portion 253 is inserted into the concave portion 123, and the tray 250 is locked at the third position. As shown in FIG. 18, an elastic slice 254 is disposed on slot 251, and a coupling recess 124, to which the elastic slice 254 is coupled, can be disposed on the slant rib 122, as a modified example of the second locking unit 260. In the above structure, when the tray 250 is located at the third position, the elastic slice 254 is coupled to the coupling recess 124 to lock the tray 250. When the shutter 200 is moved to the second position, the elastic slice 254 falls out of the coupling recess 124, and the tray 250 is rotated toward the fourth position. The tray 250 and the second locking unit 260 can be applied to the media cassettes shown in FIGS. 3 through 6. In this case, the slant rib 122 can be disposed on the upper surface of the loading case 100. FIGS. 19 and 20 are perspective views showing a media cassette according to another embodiment of the present invention. Referring to FIGS. 19 and 20, a frame 110a having an opened upper portion (first surface) 109 and an upper cover 120a covering the upper portion 109 of the frame 110a are disclosed. The upper cover 120a can be coupled to the frame 110a and slide thereon, and move between the first position where the upper portion 109 of the frame 110a is covered and the second position where the outlet 101 is formed by opening a part of the upper portion 109 of the frame 110a so that the pickup device (reference numeral 5 in FIG. 5) is disposed on the printing apparatus (20 in FIG. 5). A first slot 201a and a second slot 201b are disposed on a front edge and a rear end of the upper cover 120a, respectively. The first and second slots 201a, 201b are formed to be upwardly slanted from the front portion 208 to the rear portion 209. A first protrusion 102a and a second protrusion 102b are respectively inserted into the first and second slots 201a, 201b, and are disposed on the side portion of the frame 110. According to the above structure, the user can mount the media cassette 400a in the printing apparatus (not shown) after opening the upper end portion of the frame 110a by pushing the upper covers 200a in the direction of arrow B. Also, when the media cassette 400a is pushed in the direction of arrow A to be mounted in the printing apparatus (not shown), the upper cover 120a may slide toward the B direction by the interference with the printing apparatus. Here, the upper cover 120a is slid while inclined, as shown in FIG. 20. When the media cassette 400a is completely mounted in the printing apparatus, the outlet 101, through which the pickup device (5 in FIG. 5) of the printing apparatus (20 in FIG. 5) can access the media, is formed. A stopper 130 is disposed on a front portion of the upper cover 120a. The printing apparatus can discharge the printed medium onto the media cassette 400a. Here, the discharged medium is stacked on the upper cover 120a. The stopper 130 protrudes from the upper cover 120a. The discharged medium slides toward the printing apparatus along the slanted upper cover 120a, and is stopped and arranged by the stopper 130. Thus, the discharged medium does not enter the printing apparatus again. The front edge portion 208 of the first slot 201a is open. When the upper cover 120a is pushed toward the B portion, the first and second protrusions 102a, 102b are located at the front edge portions 208 of the first and second slots 201a and 201b, respectively. In that status, a rear end portion of the upper cover 120a is pushed in the direction of arrow D of FIG. 20, then the first protrusion 102a escapes from the first slot 201a through the front portion 208 of the open first slot 201a, and the upper cover 120a is rotated as shown by the dot line of FIG. 20 while centering around the second protrusion 102b. According to the above operation, the upper cover 120a is rotated to open the upper portion of the frame 110a and allow the media to be placed. According to the media cassette for the printing apparatus of exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the outlet is opened by the mounting operation of the media cassette when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus, thus the user can use the media cassette more conveniently. Since the elastic member is further included in the media cassette, the outlet can be closed automatically by the elastic force when the media cassette is removed from the printing apparatus. In addition, the rear surface of the shutter is not exposed during opening/closing the outlet, an aesthetic appearance of the media cassette can be maintained. Also, the printed media can be stacked on the media cassette. The tray that is moved to the position for being portable and the position for loading the media with the moving operation of the shutter is further included, therefore the convenience of the user can be improved. While the present invention has been particularly shown and described with reference to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(a) of Korean Patent Application No. 2004-4430, filed on Jan. 20, 2004, Korean Patent Application No. 2004-24025, filed on Apr. 8, 2004, and Korean Patent Application No. 2004-64262, filed on Aug. 16, 2004, in the Korean Intellectual Property Office, the entire disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference. 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a media cassette for a printing apparatus. More particularly, the present invention relates to a portable media cassette that is attached to a printing apparatus, on which media discharged from the printing apparatus can be loaded without damaging the media cassette and interrupting the conveying of the media. 2. Description of the Related Art A portable printing apparatus such as a small size photo-printer has a portable cassette. The portable cassette, on which printable media is placed, is typically detachable from the printing apparatus. The media cassette is manufactured so that the printing media will not escape from the cassette when the cassette is separated from the printing apparatus. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of a conventional media cassette. As shown in FIG. 1 , media M is placed in a loading case 1 , and a cover 4 is coupled to an upper portion of the loading case 1 . The cover 4 is divided into a first cover 2 and a second cover 3 . The first cover 2 is rotatably coupled to the second cover 3 . When the media cassette 10 is separated from the printing apparatus, the second cover 2 is closed so that the media M will not escape from the media cassette 10 . As shown in FIG. 2 , when the media cassette 10 is mounted on the printing apparatus 20 , the second cover 2 rotates to open a front edge portion of the loading case 1 . Thus, a pickup roller 5 can access and pick up the media M. However, since the second cover 2 is open when mounted on the printing apparatus 20 , the media cassette 10 can be damaged. Additionally, when the conventional media cassette 10 is mounted in the printing apparatus 20 , a back surface of the second cover 2 is exposed outwardly as shown in FIG. 2 . A printed medium is then discharged from the media cassette 10 . However, the second cover 2 is generally manufactured by a plastic injection molding method. Therefore, the rear surface thereof includes a structure such as a strengthening rib for reinforcement or an ejection pin mark of the mold, thereby degrading the appearance of the media cassette 10 . Also, since the printing apparatus 20 has a media conveying path in a ‘U’ shape, the strengthening rib or the ejection pin mark may interrupt the smooth discharging operation of the printed media. Accordingly, there is a need for an improved media cassette manufactured so that it will not be damaged when installed into the printing apparatus, is improved aesthetically, and does not interrupt conveying of the media. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An aspect of the present invention is to provide a portable media cassette on which media discharged from a printing apparatus can be loaded. Another object of the present invention is to provide a portable media cassette for a printing apparatus, an outlet of which can be opened during a mounting operation of the media cassette without damage. In accordance with another object of the present invention, a media cassette is provided for a printing apparatus, the media cassette has an improved aesthetic appearance and media conveyance. The foregoing and other objects and advantages are substantially realized by providing a portable media cassette that is attached to a printing apparatus. The media cassette includes a loading case for receiving media and has an outlet through which a pickup device disposed in the printing apparatus can access the media. A shutter is installed on the loading case and moves between a first position for covering the outlet and a second position for opening the outlet. The shutter is adapted to slide when contacted with the printing apparatus when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus, and moved to the second position. The media cassette may further include an elastic member for biasing the shutter in the direction of the first position. The loading case may include a frame for receiving the media and has an opened first surface. An upper cover opens substantially the entire first surface of the frame, except for the outlet by being coupled to the frame. In addition, the shutter may be installed on the upper cover for slidable movement. The media cassette may further include a first locking unit for locking the shutter in the first and second positions. The upper cover may be rotatably coupled to the frame, and the upper cover may be rotated to open the first surface of the frame and load the media in the frame. The media cassette may further include a tray for loading the media discharged from the printing apparatus, the tray is installed on the shutter. The tray may be rotated to a third position wherein the tray is folded on the loading case and a fourth position wherein the tray is inclined with respect to the loading case for loading the media according to the movement of the shutter between the first and second positions. In addition, the media cassette may further include a second locking unit that locks the tray in the third position. The foregoing and other objects and advantages are also substantially realized by providing a portable media cassette that can be attached to a printing apparatus. The media cassette includes a frame for receiving media and having an opened first surface. An upper cover is slidably coupled to the frame and movable between a first position where the first surface is covered and to a second position where an outlet is formed by opening a part of the first surface so that a pickup device disposed on the printing apparatus can access the media. When the upper cover is located at the second position, the upper cover is upwardly slanted from the front portion of the frame to a rear portion of the frame to load the media discharged from the printing apparatus on the upper cover. A stopper protrudes from the upper edge portion of the upper cover for arranging the discharged media. The upper cover is preferably adapted to interfere with the printing apparatus and moved to the second position when the media cassette is mounted in the printing apparatus. The upper cover is rotatable for opening substantially the entire first surface of the frame when the upper cover is located in the second position. Other objects, advantages, and salient features of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which, taken in conjunction with the annexed drawings, discloses the preferred embodiments of the invention. | 20050118 | 20080129 | 20050721 | 95239.0 | 0 | CULLER, JILL E | MEDIA CASSETTE FOR PRINTING APPARATUS | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,083 | ACCEPTED | Protective glove having leather face, leather back, and heat-resistant cover covering leather back, for firefighter, emergency rescue worker, or other worker in high-heat area | In a protective glove for a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area, a leather face has a peripheral edge, a leather back has a peripheral edge, a leather forchette has a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, and a heat-resistant cover made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric has a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back. The heat-resistant cover covers the leather back so as to protect the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the leather back if the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. | 1. For a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area, a protective glove having an outer shell, which comprises a leather face, a leather back having a peripheral edge and being attached to the leather face, and a heat-resistant, flexible, fabric cover covering at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. 2. The protective glove of claim 1, wherein the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. 3. The protective glove of claim 1, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. 4. The protective glove of claim 2, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. 5. For a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area, a protective glove having an outer shell, which comprises a leather face, a leather back having a peripheral edge and being attached to the leather face, and a heat-resistant cover having a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, the heat-resistant, flexible, fabric cover covering at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. 6. The protective glove of claim 5, wherein the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. 7. The protective glove of claim 5, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. 8. The protective glove of claim 6, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. 9. For a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area, a protective glove having an outer shell, which comprises a leather face having a peripheral edge, a leather back having a peripheral edge, a leather forchette having two peripheral edges, one said edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and the other edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, and a heat-resistant, flexible, fabric cover having a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, the heat-resistant cover covering at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. 10. The protective glove of claim 9, wherein the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. 11. The protective glove of claim 9, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. 12. The protective glove of claim 11, wherein the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. | TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION This invention pertains to a protective glove for a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area, wherein the protective glove has a leather face, a leather back, and, possibly, a leather forchette. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Conventionally, a protective glove for a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area has an outer shell, which is made from a suitable leather, such as cowhide or elkhide, and which comprises a leather face having a peripheral edge, a leather back having a peripheral edge, and a leather forchette. When the protective glove is worn, the leather face is worn over the palm of the wearer's hand, the leather back is worn over the back of the wearer's hand, and the leather forchette separates the leather face and the leather back. The leather forchette has a peripheral edge, which is sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back. In a protective glove of a simpler construction, the leather forchette is omitted and the peripheral edge of the leather back is sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face. Conventionally, whether or not the leather forchette is utilized, the protective glove has an intermediate liner providing a moisture barrier, or a moisture and chemical barrier, and an inner liner providing thermal insulation. When the protective glove is worn, air within the protective glove also provides thermal insulation. Although an outer shell made from a suitable leather, such as cowhide or elkhide, provides multiple advantages including puncture resistance, abrasion resistance, and flexibility, an outer shell made from such a leather has an undesirable tendency to shrink around the wearer's hand, whereby to drive insulative air from the protective glove, when the outer shell is exposed to high heat, particularly at the leather back. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION This invention provides, for a firefighter or for an emergency rescue worker, a protective glove having an outer shell, which comprises a leather face, which further comprises a leather back having a peripheral edge and being attached to the leather face, and which further comprises a heat-resistant cover covering at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, a peripheral edge of the heat-resistant cover is sewn to a peripheral edge of the leather back. Preferably, the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. In a preferred embodiment of this invention, the protective glove has an outer shell, which comprises a leather face having a peripheral edge, which further comprises a leather back having a peripheral edge, which further comprises a leather forchette having two peripheral edges, one said edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and the other edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, and which further comprises a heat-resistant cover, as described in the preceding paragraph. Here, again, the heat-resistant cover covers at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, again, the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, again, a peripheral edge of the heat-resistant cover is sewn to a peripheral edge of the leather back. Preferably, again, the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING The sole FIGURE is a back elevation of a protective glove constituting a preferred embodiment of this invention. The index finger of the protective glove is curled, as indicated by a curved arrow, so as to reveal a leather face of the protective glove. At the thumb of the protective glove, a portion of a heat-resistant cover is peeled back, so as to reveal a leather back of the protective glove. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENT As illustrated, a protective glove 10 for a firefighter or for an emergency rescue worker has an outer shell, which is made from a suitable leather, such as cowhide or elkhide, and which comprises a leather face 20 having a peripheral edge 22, a leather back 30 having a peripheral edge 32, and a leather forchette 40 having a front peripheral edge 42 and having a back peripheral edge 44. When the protective glove 10 is worn, the leather face 20 is worn over the palm of the wearer's hand, the leather back 30 is worn over the back of the wearer's hand and the leather forchette 40 separates the leather face and the leather back. The front peripheral edge 42 of the leather forchette 40 is sewn to the peripheral edge 22 of the leather face 20. The back peripheral edge 44 of the leather forchette 40 is sewn to the peripheral edge 32 of the leather back 30. In a simplified embodiment, which is not illustrated, the leather forchette 40 is omitted and the peripheral edge 32 of the leather back 30 is sewn to the peripheral edge 22 of the leather face 20. Additionally, whether or not the leather forchette 40 is utilized, the protective glove 10 may have an intermediate liner (not illustrated) providing a moisture barrier, or a moisture and chemical barrier, and an inner liner (not illustrated) providing thermal insulation. When the protective glove 10 is worn, air within the protective glove 10 also provides thermal insulation. As provided by this invention, whether or not the leather forchette 40 is utilized, a heat-resistant cover 50 having a peripheral edge 52 sewn to the peripheral edge 32 of the leather back 30. If the leather forchette 40 is utilized, the peripheral edge 52 of the heat-resistant cover 50 is sewn also to the back peripheral edge 44 of the leather forchette 40. Preferably, the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid fabric, such as a Nomex™ or Kevlar™ fabric, or from a polybenzamidazole fabric, which may be otherwise called a PBI fabric. Conventionally, such fabrics are used to make outer shells of protective garments, such as coats and trousers, for firefighters. In the embodiment illustrated in the drawing and described hereinabove, the heat-resistant cover 50 covers the leather back 30 in its entirety. Thus, the heat-resistant cover protects the leather back 30 in its entirety against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the leather back 30 in its entirety if the leather back 30 in its entirety were not protected by the heat-resistant cover 50. In alternative embodiments, the heat-resistant cover 50 does not cover the leather back 30 in its entirety but covers a portion or portions of the leather back 30, such as the broad portion illustrated below the thumb and fingers in the drawing or the portions covering the thumb and fingers. Thus, the heat-resistant cover protects the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back 30 against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back 30 if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back 30 were not protected by the heat-resistant cover 50. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Conventionally, a protective glove for a firefighter, an emergency rescue worker, or another worker in a high-heat area has an outer shell, which is made from a suitable leather, such as cowhide or elkhide, and which comprises a leather face having a peripheral edge, a leather back having a peripheral edge, and a leather forchette. When the protective glove is worn, the leather face is worn over the palm of the wearer's hand, the leather back is worn over the back of the wearer's hand, and the leather forchette separates the leather face and the leather back. The leather forchette has a peripheral edge, which is sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and a peripheral edge sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back. In a protective glove of a simpler construction, the leather forchette is omitted and the peripheral edge of the leather back is sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face. Conventionally, whether or not the leather forchette is utilized, the protective glove has an intermediate liner providing a moisture barrier, or a moisture and chemical barrier, and an inner liner providing thermal insulation. When the protective glove is worn, air within the protective glove also provides thermal insulation. Although an outer shell made from a suitable leather, such as cowhide or elkhide, provides multiple advantages including puncture resistance, abrasion resistance, and flexibility, an outer shell made from such a leather has an undesirable tendency to shrink around the wearer's hand, whereby to drive insulative air from the protective glove, when the outer shell is exposed to high heat, particularly at the leather back. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>This invention provides, for a firefighter or for an emergency rescue worker, a protective glove having an outer shell, which comprises a leather face, which further comprises a leather back having a peripheral edge and being attached to the leather face, and which further comprises a heat-resistant cover covering at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, a peripheral edge of the heat-resistant cover is sewn to a peripheral edge of the leather back. Preferably, the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. In a preferred embodiment of this invention, the protective glove has an outer shell, which comprises a leather face having a peripheral edge, which further comprises a leather back having a peripheral edge, which further comprises a leather forchette having two peripheral edges, one said edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather face and the other edge of the leather forchette being sewn to the peripheral edge of the leather back, and which further comprises a heat-resistant cover, as described in the preceding paragraph. Here, again, the heat-resistant cover covers at least a portion or at least portions of the leather back so as to protect the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back against direct exposure to high heat that would tend to shrink the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back if the covered portion or covered portions of the leather back were not protected by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, again, the leather back in its entirety is covered by the heat-resistant cover. Preferably, again, a peripheral edge of the heat-resistant cover is sewn to a peripheral edge of the leather back. Preferably, again, the heat-resistant cover is made from an aramid or polybenzamidazole fabric. | 20050114 | 20070605 | 20060720 | 58036.0 | A41D1900 | 0 | MORAN, KATHERINE M | PROTECTIVE GLOVE HAVING LEATHER FACE, LEATHER BACK, AND HEAT-RESISTANT COVER COVERING LEATHER BACK, FOR FIREFIGHTER, EMERGENCY RESCUE WORKER, OR OTHER WORKER IN HIGH-HEAT AREA | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | A41D | 2,005 |
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11,036,181 | ACCEPTED | Method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production | A method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight by controlling of Ultra-low DE value during the reaction was invented. The method comprising blending starch with water to get starch slurry, and then mixing it with the 0.01%-0.03% of CaCl2 based on dried starch. The next step involves adjusting the pH of the starch slurry. A further step involves adding 0.03%-0.08% of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch to the starch slurry described above. A further step involves controlling the production under optimal reaction conditions. | 1. A method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production, the method comprising: (a) Based on weight percentage, blending 1 part starch with 2 to 4 parts water to get a starch slurry, and then mixing with the 0.01%-0.03% of CaCl2 based on dried starch, and stirring to become a homogeneous mixture; (b) Adjusting the pH of the starch slurry to 5-7; (c) Based on weight percentage, adding 0.03%-0.08% of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch to above starch slurry, and stirring the slurry to become a homogeneous mixture; (d) Liquefying above starch slurry through a jet liquefier at a temperature of between 100° C. and 130° C., controlling the DE value at 8-12; holding the liquefied starchy liquid in Laminar-flow tank for 20 to 60 minutes; and completing the liquefaction process and terminating the activity of enzyme once the on-line analysis of iodine-colour reaction reaches a required value. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the chemical used to adjust the pH is Na2CO3 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the required value refers to a colour of reaction of resultant in enzymatic hydrolysis of starch with iodine chemical. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production. The distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight is controlled by Ultra-low DE value during the enzymatic reaction. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5 are widely applied in pharmaceutical, healthcare and food industry areas. G3 and G5 refer to the glucose units. By way of example, G3 refers to sugar that is composed of three Glucose units linked together as one component. Chinese Patent 96196047.7 introduced a method to depress the bacteria in the starch sugar compound. Starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5 can be obtained by organic chemistry synthesis from monosaccharide and disaccharide, or by degradation of natural starch, glycolipide and glycopeptide. Other processes are also known. By way of example, Chinese patent 99117102.0 provides an enzymatic degradation process to make oligosaccharide. The oligosaccharide was obtained from the degradation of polysaccharide in plants. Chinese Patent 01109692.6 introduced a method to make oligosaccharide with Bifido Factor from root nodule. Currently, the enzymatic hydrolysis method is the main process. It is based on starch as raw material for the industrial production of starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5. The process is comprised of two steps. The first step is to get the maltose syrup through starch hydrolysis with α-amylases. The second step is to get the target product through transglucosylation with the co-reaction of α-amylases and α-glucosidase, and then the routine filtration, decolouration, desalting and concentration process procedures are applied to get the final product. The processing procedure is as follows: The content of G3 to G5 in the final product from the process described above is about 50% to 60%. The other main compounds are glucose and maltose which make up about 50% of the final product. The health benefits in the product are contributed by G3 to G5. A lot of glucose and maltose exist in the final product which can disturb the main two health benefits of the product. One of the main health benefits is the proliferation of beneficial microbiota bifidobacteria species in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and the other main health benefit is the anti-dental caries function. As a result, the health benefits and commercial value of the product are significantly reduced. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION What is required is a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production to enhance the health benefits of the resulting product. According to the present invention there is provided a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight by controlling of Ultra-low DE value during the reaction. The method comprises blending starch with water to get starch slurry, and then mixing with the 0.01%-0.03% of CaCl2 based on dried starch. The next step involves adjusting the pH of the starch slurry. A further step involves adding 0.03%-0.08% of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch to the starch slurry described above. A further step involves controlling the production under optimal reaction conditions. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The present invention consists of a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production. The method involves blending 1 part starch with 2-4 parts water to get starch slurry, and then mixing the starch slurry with 0.01%-0.03% of CaCl2 based on dried starch, and stirring to become a homogeneous mixture. A further step involves adjusting the pH of the starch slurry to 5-7. Another step involves adding 0.03%-0.08% of high temperature α-amylases based on dried starch to the starch slurry, and stirring the starch slurry to become a homogeneous mixture. Another step involves liquefying the starch slurry through a jet liquefier under the temperature of 100° C.-130° C., and controlling the DE value at 8-12. Another step involves holding the liquefied starchy liquid in a Laminar-flow tank for 20 to 60 minutes. A further step involves completing the liquefaction process and terminating the activity of enzyme once the on-line analysis of iodine-colour reaction reaches the required value. The required value can be determined by the colour of reaction of resultant in enzymatic hydrolysis of starch with iodine chemical. If the colour is blue, that means there is starch present and one must continue the enzymatic hydrolysis process. Once the colour in the on-line analysis reaches the point from blue to brown, then the activity of the enzyme must be terminated. With the method described above, the chemical used for adjusting the pH is Na2CO3. In the present invention, an improved and controlled Ultra-low DE technology during the jet liquefaction process is used, which combines the normal two-steps starch-liquefaction process into a one step starch-liquefaction process by suitably adjusting the amount of α-amylases. The holding time in the Laminar-flow tank is controlled within 20 to 60 minutes. Compared with the existing processes, the present invention provides the following benefits; the content of glucose in product is reduced to about 10% which is 50%-65% less than with the existing processes, and the content of G3 to G5 before purification and other further treatment is increased to 70% which is 15% higher than the with the existing processes. The invented unique Ultra-low DE control technology can control the hydrolysis degree of starch so that the monosaccharide content from the enzymolysis of the starch can be controlled to minimal degree. The starch chain is properly hydrolyzed to polysaccharides with suitable molecular weights by controlling the amount of α-amylases during the jet liquefaction process, and then the polysaccharides are further hydrolyzed to oligosaccharides with suitable molecular weights by controlling the holding time of the enzymolysis in Laminar-flow tank. This liquefaction process can precisely control the DE value and the point to terminate the enzyme activity during the starch hydrolysis and amount of glucose from starch hydrolysis can be controlled to minimal degree. This method is an improved innovation for the manufacturing process of G3, G4 and G5 oligosaccharides. This unique innovative technology can be made commercially available for industrial production of oligosaccharides with minimal addition of equipment to the original process procedure. Throughout this specification, unless the context requires otherwise, the word “comprise”, or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps. In order that the present invention may be more clearly understood three preferred application examples are described with reference to the accompanying process. DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLES Application Example 1 Based on weight percentage (W/W), 1 part dried starch was blended with 3 parts water to get starch slurry, and then the slurry was mixed with 0.012% of CaCl2 based on dried starch. The pH of the slurry was adjusted to 5.5 by Na2CO3. The 0.04 (W/W) of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch was added to above starch slurry, and mixture was agitated into a homogeneous slurry. The liquefaction process was carried out through jet liquefactier under the temperature of 100° C. at DE value 9. The liquefied starch liquid was held in Laminar-flow tank for 30 minutes. The enzyme activity was terminated when the iodine-colour reaction reached the required value. The downstream process was undertaken by following the general processes of saccharification, decolouration, filtration, desalting, concentration resulting in the final product. The components in the product were as follows: Glucose 11.9%, G3 to G5 70.1%, maltose 18.0%, isomaltose 20.5%, maltotriose 4.0%, panose 25.2%, isomaltose G3 9.2%, isomaltose G4 and over G4 11.2%. Application Example 2 Based on weight percentage (W/W), 1 part dried starch was blended with 2 parts water to get starch slurry, and then the slurry was mixed with 0.02% of CaCl2 based on dried starch. The pH of the slurry was adjusted to 6 by Na2CO3. Then 0.05 (W/W) of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch was added to above starch slurry, and mixture was agitated into a homogeneous slurry. The liquefaction process was carried out through jet liquefactier under the temperature of 130° C. at DE value 10. The liquefied starch liquid was held in Laminar-flow tank for 40 minutes. The enzyme activity was terminated when the iodine-colour reaction reached the required value. The downstream process was undertaken following the general processes of saccharification, decolouration, filtration, desalting, concentration resulting in the final product. The components in product were as follows: Glucose 12.2%, G3 to G5 70.9%, maltose 16.9%, isomaltose 20.8%, maltotriose 3.8%, panose 24.8%, isomaltose G3 9.6%, isomaltose G4 and over G4 11.9%. Application Example 3 Based on weight percentage (W/W), 1 part dried starch was blended with 3 parts water to get starch slurry, and then the slurry was mixed with 0.015% of CaCl2 based on dried starch. The pH of the slurry was adjusted to 6.5 by Na2CO3. Then 0.07 (W/W) of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch was added to the starch slurry, and the mixture was agitated into a homogeneous slurry. The liquefaction process was carried out through jet liquefactier under the temperature of 130° C. at DE value 12. The liquefied starch liquid was held in Laminar-flow tank for 60 minutes. The enzyme activity was terminated when the iodine-colour reaction reached the required value. The downstream process followed the general processes of saccharification, decolouration, filtration, desalting, concentration resulting in the final product. The components in product were as follows: Glucose 11.4%, G3 to G5 69.4%, maltose 19.2%, isomaltose 19.7%, maltotriose 3.8%, panose 24.8%, isomaltose G3 9.6%, isomaltose G4 and over G4 11.5%. In this patent document, the word “comprising” is used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. A reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that modifications may be made to the illustrated embodiment without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as hereinafter defined in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5 are widely applied in pharmaceutical, healthcare and food industry areas. G3 and G5 refer to the glucose units. By way of example, G3 refers to sugar that is composed of three Glucose units linked together as one component. Chinese Patent 96196047.7 introduced a method to depress the bacteria in the starch sugar compound. Starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5 can be obtained by organic chemistry synthesis from monosaccharide and disaccharide, or by degradation of natural starch, glycolipide and glycopeptide. Other processes are also known. By way of example, Chinese patent 99117102.0 provides an enzymatic degradation process to make oligosaccharide. The oligosaccharide was obtained from the degradation of polysaccharide in plants. Chinese Patent 01109692.6 introduced a method to make oligosaccharide with Bifido Factor from root nodule. Currently, the enzymatic hydrolysis method is the main process. It is based on starch as raw material for the industrial production of starch sugars mainly containing G3 to G5. The process is comprised of two steps. The first step is to get the maltose syrup through starch hydrolysis with α-amylases. The second step is to get the target product through transglucosylation with the co-reaction of α-amylases and α-glucosidase, and then the routine filtration, decolouration, desalting and concentration process procedures are applied to get the final product. The processing procedure is as follows: The content of G3 to G5 in the final product from the process described above is about 50% to 60%. The other main compounds are glucose and maltose which make up about 50% of the final product. The health benefits in the product are contributed by G3 to G5. A lot of glucose and maltose exist in the final product which can disturb the main two health benefits of the product. One of the main health benefits is the proliferation of beneficial microbiota bifidobacteria species in the gastrointestinal tract of humans, and the other main health benefit is the anti-dental caries function. As a result, the health benefits and commercial value of the product are significantly reduced. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>What is required is a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight in oligosaccharides production to enhance the health benefits of the resulting product. According to the present invention there is provided a method to control the distribution of the starch sugar's molecular weight by controlling of Ultra-low DE value during the reaction. The method comprises blending starch with water to get starch slurry, and then mixing with the 0.01%-0.03% of CaCl 2 based on dried starch. The next step involves adjusting the pH of the starch slurry. A further step involves adding 0.03%-0.08% of heat-resisting α-amylases based on dried starch to the starch slurry described above. A further step involves controlling the production under optimal reaction conditions. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050114 | 20090901 | 20050818 | 71330.0 | 1 | HANLEY, SUSAN MARIE | METHOD TO CONTROL THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE STARCH SUGAR'S MOLECULAR WEIGHT IN OLIGOSACCHARIDES PRODUCTION | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,223 | ACCEPTED | Print defect detection | Systems, methods, and software to automatically detect print defects in printed matter. Some embodiments include receiving a reference image and a scanned image, wherein the reference image and the scanned image are of the same subject matter and generating a plurality of detail maps of the reference image and the scanned image at each one or more resolutions to derive one or more detail maps of each image at each resolution. The detail maps, in some embodiments, are generated by identifying differences between pixels in each of one or more directions. The embodiments further include dividing the detail maps of each image into blocks of equal image proportion and calculate an activity measure of each block in each of the detail maps. These embodiments further calculate similarity measures between the blocks of reference image detail maps and the respective blocks of the scanned image detail maps. | 1. A method of print defect detection comprising: generating a plurality of detail maps of each of a reference image and a scanned image at each of a plurality of resolutions to derive the plurality of detail maps of each image; breaking each detail map of each image into blocks of equal image proportion; calculating an activity measure of each block in each of the detail maps; and calculating similarity measure between the blocks of reference image detail maps and the respective blocks of the scanned image detail maps. 2. The method of claim 1 further comprising: generating a defect map from the similarity measure maps, wherein scanned image defects are more probable within blocks having higher similarity measures. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the generated detail maps are sparse representation of the reference image and the scanned image. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the generating the three detail maps includes generating a detail map representative of differences between pixels in each of a horizontal direction, a vertical direction, and a diagonal direction. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the generating the three detail maps includes generating a detail map of wavelet transform coefficients representative of image derivatives in each of a horizontal direction, a vertical direction, and a diagonal direction. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein calculating an activity measure comprises: determining a threshold of an individual block of the detail map; and summing all values in the block of the detail map, exceeding the threshold, and dividing that sum by a sum of all values in the block. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein determining a threshold of an individual block of the detail map includes: finding a median value of all values in the block of the detail map; and dividing the median value by a Gaussian distribution compensation constant of 0.6745. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein breaking the detail maps of each image into blocks of equal image proportion includes breaking the detail maps into two or more separate groups of block sizes, wherein each block size group includes blocks of equal image proportion. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein calculating an activity measure of an individual block comprises: calculating an average activity measure of an individual block b of an M×N size by averaging the block b's activity measure with an activity measure of three other blocks overlapping block b, wherein the other three blocks are defined by the coordinates (Xb+M/2, Yb), (Xb, Yb+N/2), and (Xb+M/2, Yb+N/2); 10. The method of claim 9, wherein calculating an activity measure of each block to use in calculating the average activity measure of block b includes: determining a threshold of the block, wherein determining the threshold includes: identifying a statistically significant value of all values in the block, and dividing the statistically significant value by a distribution compensation constant; and dividing a sum of all pixel values in the block greater than the threshold by a sum of all pixel values in the block. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the distribution is a Gaussian distribution and the compensation constant is 0.6745. 12. The method of claim 9, wherein the M dimension of the block size is equal to the N dimension of the block size. 13. The method of claim 9, wherein the statistically significant value is a median value. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein calculating an activity measure includes applying a two-dimensional wavelet transform to the reference image and the scanned image. 15. The method of claim 14, wherein the two-dimensional wavelet transform is a two-dimensional Discrete Wavelet Transform. 16. The method of claim 14, wherein the two-dimensional wavelet transform is a two-dimensional Shift-invariant Wavelet Transform. 17. A device readable medium, with instructions thereon, to cause an informnation-processing device to: generate a plurality of detail maps of a reference image at each of a plurality of resolutions, wherein the reference image detail maps represent changes between adjacent pixels; generate a plurality of detail maps of a scanned image at each of the plurality resolutions, wherein the scanned image is generated by scanning a print of the reference image, further wherein the scanned image detail maps represent changes between adjacent pixels; break each detail map into blocks of equal proportion; calculate an activity measure of each block in each detail map; measure similarities between respective detail map blocks to derive similarity maps; and combine the similarity maps into a single map of similarity measures, wherein a higher similarity measure indicates a higher probability of a print defect. 18. The device readable medium of claim 17, wherein the instructions to generate the plurality of detail maps includes instructions to generate a detail map representative of differences between pixels in each of a plurality of directions. 19. The device readable medium of claim 17, wherein the instructions to generate the plurality of detail maps of the reference image and the scanned image further include instructions to equally downsample both of the reference image and the scanned image one or more times. 20. The device readable medium of claim 19, wherein instructions to downsample the reference image and the scanned image further cause the device to: average values of a number of adjacent pixels; and replace the number of adjacent pixels with a single pixel, the single pixel having a value equal to the average value of the number of adjacent pixels. 21. The device readable medium of claim 17, wherein the instruction to combine the similarity maps into a single map further include instruction to average similarity measures of the respective blocks between all of the similarity maps. 22. The device readable medium of claim 17, wherein the instructions to calculate an activity measure of each block further include instructions to cause the information-processing device to: determine a threshold of an individual block; and sum all values in the block over the threshold and dividing that sum by a sum of all values in the block. 23. The device readable medium of claim 22, wherein the instructions to determine a threshold of an individual block further include instructions to cause the information-processing device to: identify a median value of all values in the block; and divide the median value by a distribution compensation constant. 24. The device readable medium of claim 20, wherein the distribution is a Gaussian distribution and the compensation constant is 0.6745. 25. The device readable medium of claim 17, wherein the instructions to calculate an activity measure of each block further includes instructions to cause the information-processing device to: calculate an average activity measure of a block b having M×N dimensions by averaging the block b's activity measure with activity measures of three other blocks overlapping block b, wherein the other three block are defined by the coordinates (xb+M/2, Yb), (Xb, Yb+N/2), and (xb+M/2, Yb+N/2); wherein calculating an activity measure of each block to use in averaging includes: determining a threshold of the block, wherein determining the threshold includes: identifying a statistically significant value of all values in the block, and dividing the statistically significant value by a distribution compensation constant; and dividing a sum of all pixel values in the block greater than the threshold by a sum of all pixel values in the block. 26. The device readable medium of claim 25, wherein the distribution is a Gaussian distribution and the compensation constant is 0.6745. 27. The device readable medium of claim 25, wherein the statistically significant value is a median value. 28. A system comprising: at least one processor to perform print image defect detection, wherein detecting a print image defect includes comparing block activity measures of a reference image to block activity measures of a scanned print image, wherein higher differences between the block activity measures indicate a higher probability of a print defect. 29. The system of claim 28, wherein the activity measures are block adaptive to variances of the respective blocks in the reference image and in the scanned print image. 30. The system of claim 28, wherein the processor further performs image downsampling and comparing block activity measures of a downsampled reference image to block activity measures of a downsampled scanned print image. 31. A system comprising: a processor; instructions, operable on the processor, to cause the system to: receive a reference image and a scanned image, wherein the reference image and the scanned image are of the same subject matter; generate a plurality of detail maps of each of the reference image and a scanned image at each one or more resolutions to derive one or more detail maps of each image at each resolution, wherein the detail maps are generated by identifying differences between pixels in each of one or more directions; divide the detail maps of each image into blocks of equal image proportion; calculate an activity measure of each block in each of the detail maps; and calculate similarity measures between the blocks of reference image detail maps and the respective blocks of the scanned image detail maps. 32. The system of claim 31, wherein higher similarity measures indicate a higher probability of an image defect. 33. The system of claim 31, wherein the scanned image is a scanned image of a printing of the reference image. | BACKGROUND Detecting defects within printed material has generally been a manual process. In such a case, a person manually views a printed item to see if any defects are apparent. This can be a time consuming and expensive process. Some methods exist for using scanning technology to detect print defects. However, these methods use precise spatial and intensity alignments and are sensitive to even small noise perturbations. This results in a high rate of false defect detections and detection of acceptable defects that would not be considered defects. Further, some such detected defects may not even be perceivable by a person. Other methods exist to detect texture defects in prints or on surfaces. However, these methods do not work well with printed items containing various types of content, including pure line art works, natural images, text, and combined documents. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system according to an example embodiment. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a system according to an example embodiment. FIG. 3 is a block flow diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4A is a block diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4B is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4C is a diagram of a pixel block according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4D is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4E is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4F is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a pixel grid and a downsampled pixel grid, respectively, according to an example embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration specific embodiments in which the inventive subject matter can be practiced. These embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice them, and it is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and that structural, logical, and electrical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the inventive subject matter. Such embodiments of the inventive subject matter may be referred to, individually and/or collectively, herein by the term “invention” merely for convenience and without intending to voluntarily limit the scope of this application to any single invention or inventive concept if more than one is in fact disclosed. The following description is, therefore, not to be taken in a limited sense, and the scope of the inventive subject matter is defined by the appended claims. The functions or algorithms described herein are implemented in hardware, software or a combination of software and hardware in one embodiment. The software comprises computer executable instructions stored on computer readable media such as memory or other type of storage devices. The term “computer readable media” is also used to represent carrier waves on which the software is transmitted. Further, such functions correspond to modules, which are software, hardware, firmware, or any combination thereof. Multiple functions are performed in one or more modules as desired, and the embodiments described are merely examples. The software is executed on a digital signal processor, ASIC, microprocessor, or other type of processor that can be either a part of the press or printer, or operating on an external system, such as a personal computer, server, a router, or other device capable of processing data including network interconnection devices. Some embodiments implement the functions in two or more specific interconnected hardware modules or devices with related control and data signals communicated between and through the modules, or as portions of an application-specific integrated circuit. Thus, the exemplary process flow is applicable to software, firmware, and hardware implementations. Some embodiments herein present schemes for automatic detection of print defects. Some printers and presses, such as Hewlett-Packard's Indigo's presses, the defect detection task currently requires a skilled operator to manually inspect prints. To remove this operator inspection, various embodiments place hardware and/or software on the press or printer, or on other systems operatively coupled to the press or printer, to automatically detect print defects and alert the operator. Throughout the following description, the terms “press” and “printer” are used interchangeably. Any reference to either “press,” “printer,” or similar terms is not intended to limit the scope of this description and the other terms can be substituted therefore without departing from the breadth of this disclosure. According to one system embodiment, the system compares a digital image of a print job to a scanned digital image of printer output. Appropriate image acquisition equipment, either built-in to the printer or external to it, scans the prints as they depart the printing portion of the printer. Scanned images, in some embodiments, are preprocessed, to align and filter the images. Such preprocessing is sometimes referred to as registering the images. This optional preprocessing such that the scanned and reference images can be compared with greater accuracy. Defect detection algorithms are then applied, creating error maps that are then supplied to a decision function to provide fast and simple defect detection. In some embodiments, this defect detection finds major print defects with a very low false alarm rate utilizing sparse image representations, e.g. wavelets. In some embodiments, sparsity, sometimes referred to as activity, measures are used as a similarity measure of the two images. In another embodiment within a press, a print is compared to the digital input it is intended to reproduce. The scanned prints from the press can contain various types of content, including pure line art works, natural images, and combined documents. Typical defects that cause an operator manually inspecting prints to stop the press include scratches, spots, missing dot clusters, ink smears, etc. The defect detection algorithm can detect these defects without assuming any specific size, shape, or type of defect. However, some other embodiments focus on detection of medium to high contrast defects of various sizes, e.g., scratches, large blotches of redundant ink, bright spots caused by missing ink, etc. Some such embodiments are not sensitive to minor defects such as small dots and very dim fine scratches. One advantage of this embodiment is the fact that the detection algorithm does not find minute defects or dust shades captured during scan that do not actually appear within an actual print. Each scanned image may be viewed as an output of a hypothetical “optical transformation” applied to a perfect digital input image. This “optical transformation” is the result of the printing and scanning of the print output. This optical transformation can introduce at least two types of“misalignments.” These misalignments are in the spatial domain, causes by paper rotation, sheer, and stretch, and in the intensity domain, caused by varying conditions of print and scan, e.g., slight color printing inconsistencies, inconsistent illumination, and scanning blur. While a good registration can compensate for most of the spatial misalignments, the intensity domain differences make the two images inherently different. Thus, in various embodiments, the print defect detection method is invariant to optical transformation from scanning and is able to distinguish between transformation-based changes and print defects. In addition, since registration is not perfect, various embodiments also cope with spatial misalignments. Further, because defects are commonly localized and relatively small, such defects minimally affect any global similarity measure. Therefore, the approach in various embodiments is based on dividing both the reference and scanned images into respective local regions, such as blocks, and comparing features of corresponding blocks. In some such embodiments, to extract features within blocks, a wavelet transform (WT) is applied to both images to generate the so-called detail maps. The wavelet transform can include one or more wavelet transforms such as the Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), the Stationary Wavelet Transform (SWT), or Shift-invariant Wavelet Transform. Coefficients at various resolution levels, or scales, represent image features such as edges, texture, etc. Next, the detail maps of WT coefficients are divided into blocks, and an activity related measure, namely sparsity, is computed for every block. This activity measure represents the proportion of high magnitude features in the selected block. Evidence for the presence of defects is given by a relatively large difference of the activity values of respective local blocks in the two images. Because the measures in some of the above embodiments are cumulative (i.e., computed from overall block statistics), they are not sensitive to spatial misalignments inside a block. Thus, to avoid false alarms caused by spatial misalignments around the block boundaries, some embodiments include computing the local measure based on blocks of various size and shift covering a given region. Robustness against the “optical transformation” in these embodiments is achieved by defining the activity measure based on local contrast and local noise level. In particular, the threshold separating high magnitude features from the low ones is computed based on a local noise variance estimate. In order to detect defects of various sizes, some embodiments include computing local activity measures for various scales of WT coefficients. Local activity difference maps corresponding to various scales are combined into a single map by applying various arithmetic operations, such as averaging the values of the regions from the various scales. The resulting map marks blocks containing defects from which an operator can optionally be notified of actual or possible defects. FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system 100 according to an example embodiment. The system 100 includes a digital reference image that is sent to a printer 104 and to a print defect detector 108. The printer 104, upon receipt of the image 102, prints the image 102 and forwards the print onto a scanner 106. The scanner 106 scans the print and forwards a scanned image onto the print defect detector 108. The print defect detector 108 then performs an analysis on the image 102 and the scanned image received by from the scanner 106. Upon completion of the analysis, the print defect detector 108 outputs a signal 110 indicating whether there are defects in the scanned image from the scanner 106. The image 102, in various embodiments, is any image capable of printing. The image can be encoded as a bit map, a TIFF image, a JPEG image, a GIF image, or any other image capable of being printed. Further, the image 102 can be encoded in any of the various print control languages that instruct printers in the production of documents. The printer 104, in various embodiments, is a laser printer, an ink jet printer, a digital printing press, an offset printing press, or virtually any other print or press machine capable of printing digital images. The scanner 106 scans printed documents and generates digital images of the scanned documents. The scanner 106, in various embodiments, is a sheet-feed scanner, a flatbed scanner, a line scanner, or virtually any other scanning device. The print defect detector 108 includes hardware and/or software to compare the image 102 with a scanned image received from the scanner 106. In some embodiments, the printer 104, the scanner 106, and the print defect detector 108 are encapsulated within a single printing device, such as a printer or a printing press. In other embodiments, the printer 104, the scanner 106, and the print defect detector 108 are encapsulated within two or more interconnected devices. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a system 200 according to an example embodiment. The system 200 includes a workstation 202 and a print device 204. The system 200 is operable to print digital images, ensure quality of printed digital images, and output the digital images on paper 210, or other substrates. The print device 204 includes a printing module 206 and a scanning module 208. In operation, the printing module 206 receives a print job from the workstation 202 and prints the print job on paper, or other substrate. Prints output by the printing module 206 are then forwarded to the scanning module 208. The scanning module 208 scans the print job, generates a scanned image in a digital format of each page of the print job, and outputs the paper, or other substrate on which the printing module 206 printed the print job. The scanning module 208 further forwards the scanned image to the workstation 202. The workstation 202, in some embodiments, is a personal computer operatively coupled to the print device 204. In other embodiments, the workstation 202 is a print device 204 operator front-end to use in controlling the print device 204. The workstation 202 includes at least one processor to perform print defect detection according to an instruction set stored on and operable from a memory within the workstation 202. In some embodiments, the workstation 202 further includes a display on which the software optionally displays detected print defects to a system 200 operator. In operation, the workstation 202 generates a print job and communicates the print job to the printing module 206 of the print device 204. The workstation 202 generates the print job from electronic documents or digital images. When print jobs are generated from electronic documents, the workstation 202 further generates a digital image of each page to be printed. The digital images are then held in a memory of the workstation to use in print defect detection. The workstation 202 performs print defect detection on scanned images received from the scanning module 208 according to the instructions stored in the memory of the workstation 202. In some embodiments, the print defect detection is performed according to a multi-resolution, block-by-block, block features adaptive algorithm using the digital image of a print job as a reference image to compare against a scanned image received from the scanning module 208 of the print device 204. The algorithm includes detecting a print image defect by comparing block activity measures of the reference image to block activity measures of a scanned print image. Higher differences between the block activity measures indicate a higher probability of a print defect. The block activity measures, in some embodiments are calculated at multiple resolutions. In some cases, the instructions can cause the reference image and the scanned image to be downsampled prior to subsequent block activity measure calculation. Further details of the print defect detection algorithms are described below. FIG. 3 is a block flow diagram of a method 300 according to an example embodiment. The method 300, in some embodiments, is encoded as instructions on a device readable medium to cause an information-processing device, such as workstation 202 of FIG. 2, to detect print defects. The method 300 includes receiving a reference image 302 and a scanned image 304. The scanned image 304 is scanned from a document intended to represent the same content as the reference image. The method 300 applies sparse image transformation to both of the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304, yielding three maps at each of three different resolutions to generate detail maps 306 and 308. In the case of a simple sparse image transformation, the detail maps are generated by identifying differences between adjacent pixels in each of one or more directions, such as a horizontal direction, a vertical direction, and a diagonal direction. When differences are identified in each of a horizontal, a vertical, and a diagonal direction, three maps are generated of both the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304. The reference image 302 and the scanned image 304 are then downsampled and differences between adjacent pixels are again identified to generate three more maps. In some embodiments, the downsampling of the images and differences between adjacent pixels is performed once more. In the present embodiment, this results in nine detail maps 306 of the reference image and nine detail maps 308 of the scanned image. In the case of a more sophisticated, wavelet transform based, sparse image transformation, similar nine maps are obtained. Further details and embodiments of the downsampling of the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304 are described below with reference to FIG. 5. Other embodiments include breaking both of the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304 into one or more maps at each of one or more resolutions to generate one or more detail maps 306 and 308 for each of the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304. Next, activities 310 are performed on the detail maps 306 and 308 of each image 302 and 304 in the present embodiment. These activities 310 includes breaking each of the nine reference image detail maps 306 and the nine scanned image detail maps 308 into blocks of equal image proportion. The equal proportion of the blocks compensates for possible variation of image 306 and 308 resolutions. The activities 310 performed on the detail maps 306 and 308 further include processing 314 each block. This processing 314 includes determining a block threshold 316 for each individual block within each of the detail maps 306 and 308 and measuring block activity 318. A block activity measure is a coefficient that represents the proportion of high magnitude features in the selected block. The block activity measures are then placed in activity maps 320 and 322. The activity maps 320 and 322 include a block activity measure for each block of each of the detail maps 306 and 308. For example, there are activity maps for both the reference image 302 and the scanned image 306 at each resolution for horizontal, vertical, and diagonal pixel differences. This results in horizontal, vertical, and diagonal activity maps at each of the three resolutions for each of the reference image 302 and the scanned image 304. However, the difference between the detail maps 306 and 308 and the activity maps 320 and 322 is that the activity maps 320 and 322 have the pixels grouped in blocks and the values of the differences between adjacent pixels are replaced by a single value for each block representative of an activity measure for the block. Further details and embodiments of the processing 314 of each block are described below with reference to FIG. 4A. The method 300 further includes comparing 324 respective activity measures from the blocks of respective activity maps 320 and 322 to generate similarity measure map set 326. This comparing 324 includes a block-by-block comparison of blocks from respective maps. For example, the map of horizontal activity of the reference image 302 at the highest resolution is compared against the map of horizontal activity of the scanned image 304 at the highest resolution. The comparing includes subtracting the block activity values of one set of activity maps from the block activity values of the other set of activity maps. This provides a map of similarities between the activity maps 320 and 324. For example, the block activity values of the scanned image 304 activity maps 320 can be subtracted from the block activity values of the reference image 302 activity maps 322. The resulting values from this subtraction are placed in the similarity measure map set 326 which include horizontal, vertical, and diagonal similarity measure maps for each of the three resolutions. The similarity measure map set 326 is then combined 328 into a single defect map 340. The respective blocks within the similarity measure map set 326 are combined into a single block within the defect map 340. The values of respective blocks from each of the nine maps within the similarity measure map set 326 are averaged in some embodiments to provide a block value for the defect map 340. In other embodiments, the maximum value of a respective block in the block value for the defect map 340 is calculated. Other embodiments include block values for the defect map 340 derived from various other mathematical formulas and statistical methods based upon the block values within the similarity measure map set 326. The defect map 340 can then be used to trigger alarms within a printing system to notify a printing system operator of print defects. Other embodiments include automatically excepting a printed document with a detected defect and reprinting the document. Some further embodiments include breaking each detail map into blocks 312 of two or more sizes and processing 314 the blocks of the different sizes independent of the other blocks. Such embodiments include generating a number of sets of activity maps 320 and 322 equal to the number of block sizes. The block activity measures of the activity maps of each block size are compared 324 against the blocks of their respective block size activity maps and combined into a similarity measure map set 326. This results in a number of similarity measure map sets 326 equal to the number of block sizes utilized in the particular embodiment. All of the similarity measure map sets 326 are then combined 328 into a single defect map. FIG. 4A is a block diagram of a method 400 according to an example embodiment. The method 400 is used to derive an activity measure of a block of adjacent pixel value differences. The adjacent pixel value differences are obtained, as in the method 300 of FIG. 3, by subtracting the value, or values in the case of red, green, blue (RGB) channels, of one pixel from the value of an adjacent pixel in either a horizontal, vertical, or diagonal direction. The result of the subtracting is then substituted for the pixel value, or values. The blocks are obtained in a similar manner as described above with reference to method 300 of FIG. 3. Returning to FIG. 4A, the method 400 includes determining a threshold of an individual block b by identifying a median value of all values in block b and dividing the median value by a distribution compensation constant 402 and summing all values in the block b 404. Although, the median value is used in this embodiment, other embodiments utilize other statistically significant values. One such value is a mean value of all values in block b. The method 400 further includes summing all values in the block b over the threshold 406 and dividing that sum by a sum of all values in the block b 408. This method provides a block activity measure which is a coefficient that represents the proportion of high magnitude features in the selected block. Embodiments utilizing this block activity measure method are robust against “optical transformation”, because the method defines the activity measure based on block specific contrast and noise levels. In some embodiments, the distribution is assumed a Gaussian distribution and the compensation constant is 0.6745. In other embodiments, other distributions and respective distribution compensation constants can be assumed and utilized. Further, multidimensional distributions can be utilized in embodiments requiring more than two dimensions. Some embodiments of the method 400 further include an optional element. This optional element includes averaging block b's activity measure with activity measures of three other blocks overlapping block b 410. In such embodiments, each of block b and the overlapping blocks have the same dimensions represented by M×N. The coordinates of block b are (Xb, Yb). The coordinates of the other three blocks are (Xb+M/2, Yb), (Xb, Yb+N/2), and (Xb+M/2, yb+N/2). Activity measures for block b and the other three blocks are determined according to the method 400 and summed. The sum of the blocks is then divided by four to derive the average activity measure. This activity measure is then used as the activity measure for block b. The use of this average activity measure adds robustness to embodiments utilizing the method 400 when a reference image and a scanned image are not perfectly aligned in the spatial domain and image feature occur at the edges of blocks. An example illustration of the four averaged block is provided in FIG. 4B-FIG. 4F. FIG. 4B-FIG. 4F are diagrams of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4B includes a set of blocks 422 each having M×N dimensions. The set of blocks 422 includes four blocks b1, b2, b3, and b4. Block b1 is the block for which an average activity measure will be calculated. The shaded areas of FIG. 4C-FIG. 4F illustrate the blocks that will be averaged to derive the activity measure for block b1. First, FIG. 4C illustrates that the activity measure of block b1 424 will included in the average. FIG. 4D illustrates that shifting M/2 on the X-axis provides the shaded block 426 to include in the average. FIG. 4E illustrates that shifting N/2 on the Y-axis provides the shaded block 428 to include in the average. Finally, FIG. 4F illustrates that shifting M/2 on the X-axis and N/2 on the Y-axis provides block 430 to include in the average. Thus, the sum of blocks 424, 426, 428, and 430 divided by four provides the average activity measure for block b1 according to element 410 of the method 400 of FIG. 4A. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a method 520 according to an example embodiment. The method 520 is a method of dyadic downsampling of a group of pixel values to a single pixel value, thus reducing the resolution of an image. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a pixel grid 500 and a downsampled pixel grid 510, respectively, according to an example embodiment. The method 520 includes averaging values of a number of adjacent pixels at block 522 and replacing the number of adjacent pixels with a single pixel at block 524, the pixel having a value equal to the average value of the number of adjacent pixels. Averaging the values of a number of adjacent pixels A, B, C, and D of the pixel grid 500 includes summing the values and dividing by 4, and is represented by the formula: Θ=(A+B+C+D)/4. The resulting average value Θ replaces the values of pixels A, B, C, and D in a downsampled pixel grid 510 illustrated in FIG. 5B. It is emphasized that the Abstract is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. § 1.72(b) to allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature and gist of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In the foregoing Detailed Description, various features are grouped together in a single embodiment to streamline the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments of the invention require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment. It will be readily understood to those skilled in the art that various other changes in the details, material, and arrangements of the parts and method stages which have been described and illustrated in order to explain the nature of this inventive subject matter may be made without departing from the principles and scope of the inventive subject matter as expressed in the subjoined claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Detecting defects within printed material has generally been a manual process. In such a case, a person manually views a printed item to see if any defects are apparent. This can be a time consuming and expensive process. Some methods exist for using scanning technology to detect print defects. However, these methods use precise spatial and intensity alignments and are sensitive to even small noise perturbations. This results in a high rate of false defect detections and detection of acceptable defects that would not be considered defects. Further, some such detected defects may not even be perceivable by a person. Other methods exist to detect texture defects in prints or on surfaces. However, these methods do not work well with printed items containing various types of content, including pure line art works, natural images, text, and combined documents. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system according to an example embodiment. FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a system according to an example embodiment. FIG. 3 is a block flow diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4A is a block diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4B is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4C is a diagram of a pixel block according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4D is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4E is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 4F is a diagram of pixel blocks according to an example embodiment. FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a method according to an example embodiment. FIGS. 5A and 5B illustrate a pixel grid and a downsampled pixel grid, respectively, according to an example embodiment. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050114 | 20090414 | 20060720 | 67133.0 | H04N146 | 0 | RAHMJOO, MANUCHEHR | PRINT DEFECT DETECTION | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04N | 2,005 |
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11,036,232 | ACCEPTED | Holder with V-knife blade for bi-directional rupture disc assembly | This invention relates to a cylindrical holder member for a bi-directional bulged rupture disc. The support body of the holder has a rim that supports the rupture disc with the concave surface of the disc facing the holder. The support body is provided with a unitary one-piece, centrally creased cutting element that is of generally V-shaped configuration in plan view. The cutting element has a pair of elongated converging leg components with each leg component being connected to and supported by the interior wall surface of the holder body, with each leg component having an arcuate cutting edge. The cutting edges of the leg components merge at the crease in the cutting element to define a central cutting edge peak section. The cutting element is positioned in the holder with the cutting edge peak section extending beyond the rim of the support body into the concave area of the disc. The V-shaped cutting element functions to provide for a fuller and more rapid opening of the disc upon reversal and engagement with the cutting element as compared with prior reverse buckling disc three-knife blade cutter units. The invention has especial utility in food, beverage, and pharmaceutical applications requiring sanitary pressure relief rupture disc structure. | 1. A holder member for a bi-directional rupture disc and comprising: a support body for the rupture disc, said support body having an internal wall surface; and a cutting element for the disc having a pair of elongated leg components, said cutting element being substantially V-shaped in plan view, each of said leg components being connected to and supported by the wall surface, said leg components extending inwardly from the wall surface, converging toward one another, and joined at their innermost extremities, the innermost extremities of the leg components defining a cutting edge located in disposition to engage and sever the disc when the disc is deflected toward the cutting element. 2. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein the leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of less than 180°. 3. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein the leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of approximately 120°. 4. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element is located in disposition to first engage the disc upon deflection of the disc toward the cutting element. 5. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element is substantially V-shaped. 6. A holder member as set forth in claim 5, wherein said cutting element is of one-piece unitary construction and provided with a transverse crease defining the apex of the V-shaped cutting element. 7. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element extends substantially the full length of each of the leg components. 8. A holder member as set forth in claim 4, wherein adjacent cutting edge portions of the leg components cooperate to present a central peak section at the innermost extremities of the leg components. 9. A holder member as set forth in claim 8, wherein the cutting edge of the central peak section has converging generally arcuate edge segments. 10. A holder member as set forth in claim 7, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element is longitudinally arcuate throughout the length of respective leg components. 11. A holder member as set forth in claim 8, wherein said support body has a circumscribing rim for receiving a flange portion of the disc, and the central peak section of the cutting edge extends outside of the wall surface of the support body beyond the rim of the support body. 12. A holder member as set forth in claim 11, wherein said support body is of generally cylindrical configuration. 13. A holder member as set forth in claim 12, wherein the support body has an internal wall surface defining a central area and the peak section of the cutting element has an apex portion located substantially at the center of the central area of the wall surface. 14. A holder member as set forth in claim 1, wherein said support body has a circumscribing rim for receiving a flange portion of the disc, and disc-engaging alignment structure being provided on the rim requiring the disc to be positioned on the holder member in a predetermined position with respect to the cutting element. 15. A holder member as set forth in claim 14, wherein said alignment structure includes a plurality of projections upstanding from the rim for receipt in apertures therefor in the disc. 16. A holder member as set forth in claim 15, wherein projections are provided on the rim of the holder member in general alignment with the areas of joinder of the leg components to the wall surface of the holder member. 17. A holder member as set forth in claim 16, wherein is provided at least one other projection on the rim of the holder member other than the projections aligned with the leg components. 18. A holder member as set forth in claim 15, wherein said projections are pins extending upwardly from the rim of the holder member. 19. A pressure relief assembly comprising: a concavo-convex bi-directional rupture disc; a support body having an internal wall surface and a rim portion in circumscribing relationship to the wall surface, said rupture disc being mounted on the rim portion of the support body with the concave face thereof facing the internal wall surface of the support body; and a cutting element for the disc having a pair of elongated leg components, said cutting element being substantially V-shaped in plan view, each of said leg components being connected to and supported by the wall surface, said leg components extending inwardly from the wall surface, converging toward one another, and joined at their innermost extremities, the innermost extremities of the leg components defining a cutting edge located in disposition to first engage the concave face of the rupture disc and to sever the disc when the disc is deflected toward the cutting edge of the cutting element. 20. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 19, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element extends above the rim of the support body into the concave portion of the disc. 21. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 20, wherein the cutting edge of the cutting element is of a generally V-shaped configuration. 22. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 21, wherein said cutting element is of one-piece unitary construction and provided with a transverse crease defining the apex of the V-shaped cutting element. 23. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 19, wherein the leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of less than 180°. 24. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 19, wherein the leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of approximately 120°. 25. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 19, wherein is provided a dome-shaped vacuum support between the disc and the cutting element, said vacuum support having unitary bar portions aligned with corresponding leg components of the cutting element. 26. A pressure relief assembly as set forth in claim 20, wherein the cutting edge of the leg portions of the cutting element define a peak section that extends into the area of the disc defined by the concave face thereof. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a rupture disc assembly having a bi-directional, concavo-convex rupture disc and a support body for the rupture disc that is provided with a generally V-shaped cutting element in plan view and disposed to engage and sever the disc when the disc is deflected toward the cutting element. The cutting element has a pair of leg components that are connected to the interior wall surface of the support body and that converge and join at their innermost extremities. In particular, the V-shaped cutting element is of one-piece construction with the central V-shaped cutting edge section of the cutting element defined by a unitary crease in the cutting element being positioned to extend into the concave portion of the rupture disc. The cutting edge of the cutting element includes cutting edge segments that extend along the full length of each of the leg components of the cutting element, and that are arcuate along the longitudinal length of each leg component. The holder member for the bi-directional rupture disc having a unitary, one-piece V-shaped cutting element, which is particularly useful for sanitary processes and equipment in food, beverage, and pharmaceutical applications, meets current third-party industry approved 3A sanitary standard 60-00. The V-shaped cutting element opens a significantly greater initial area than obtained with three-blade knife structure. 2. Description of the Prior Art There has long been a need for reliable reverse buckling rupture disc assemblies that open at predictable positive and negative pressures. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical industry where the valuable content of a process vessel must be protected from cyclic vacuum conditions that could cause contamination of the contents of the vessel, or result in an expensive shutdown of the vessel and interfere with the overall manufacturing process. Specifications for protection of processes often require that a safety device such as a rupture disc be capable of rupturing to release pressure in a vessel when the positive pressure in the vessel exceeds a predetermined protective value. That same disc, however, must also protect against relatively small negative pressure conditions imposed on the process contents and thereby the protective rupture disc. The single disc must control against dangerous overpressures, and at the same time reverse and open under minimal vacuum conditions in order to protect the process vessel and its contents. For example, in certain applications, the process specifications require that a protective disc reverse and open fully under a vacuum condition as little as one inch of water imposed on the convex face of the disc. At the same time that disc must be capable of resisting rupture at a relatively high positive pressure on the concave face of the disc. In order to assure full opening of a disc under a specified vacuum, it has been the practice to provide a holder for the disc which includes a knife blade located on the concave side of the disc so that upon reversal of the disc in response to a vacuum condition, the disc is severed by the knife and desirably opens fully. A number of different knife blade configurations for assuring opening of a concavo-convex disc have been proposed, with some achieving substantial commercial acceptance. One such knife blade design is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,119,236 of Oct. 10, 1978. In the '236 patent, the cutting member is in the form of a triangular knife having radially extending knife blade sections that terminate in a central knife blade edge. The angle between adjacent knife blade sections is the same, i.e., 60°. Because the knife of the '236 patent is made up of three separate angularly disposed knives, the knives must be welded at their zones of joinder. This means that there is a residual weld fillet along the width of each of the adjacent knife blades. These weld fillets are believed to be in part responsible for what is deemed to be the unacceptable failure rates of discs to open upon reversal and engagement with the tri-knife cutting member. Rupture discs used with tri-knife blades of the '236 patent type that are designed for use in sanitary food and pharmaceutical production facilities generally employ a relatively thin, flexible rupture disc of Teflon® or the like as a barrier disc. Teflon is a tough synthetic resin material that can resist timely and required extent of severing if a significant area of the disc is not immediately cut accompanied by a rapid rate of propagation of the sever lines. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a rupture disc holder member especially useful for sanitary applications and that provides for more reliable and consistent severing and fuller opening of a bi-directional rupture disc and especially at lower pressures when the disc reverses under a vacuum condition and is deflected against a disc cutting element mounted in the holder, than prior holders employing a welded three-blade configuration. A generally V-shaped cutting element for the disc is mounted in the disc holder and has a pair of elongated leg components connected to and supported by the interior wall surface of the holder. The leg components extend inwardly from the holder member wall surface, converge toward one another, and join at their innermost extremities. The V-shaped cutting element is of one-piece construction, thereby eliminating the problems associated with required welding of adjacent tri-knife blades. The innermost extremities of the leg components define a cutting edge located to engage and sever the disc when the disc is deflected and reverses, even under a relatively low-level vacuum condition. The leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of approximately 120°. This widely spread leg arrangement of the leg components of the cutting element assures that the separate segments of the Teflon bi-directional rupture disc, upon severing, pass cleanly through the two areas on opposite sides of the cutting element without a tendency to hang up on the cutting element, especially at the joinder area of the converging leg segments of the cutting element. Comparative tests have demonstrated that the V-shaped, one-piece cutting element of the present invention provides an initial moon-shaped opening area in a Teflon disc that is more than 500% greater than the initial triangular opening area in a Teflon disc using a conventional three-blade knife. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES A preferred embodiment of the present invention is described in detail below with reference to the attached drawing figures, wherein: FIG. 1 is a plan view of the holder member for a bi-directional rupture disc embodying the preferred concepts of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view taken substantially on the line 2-2 of FIG. 1 and looking in the direction of the arrows; FIG. 3 is an exploded, three-dimensional depiction of a pressure relief assembly, which includes a bi-directional rupture disc and that incorporates the holder member shown in FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is an enlarged vertical cross-sectional view of the assembled components shown in the exploded view of FIG. 3; FIG. 5 is a schematic representation of the bi-directional rupture disc and illustrating the area of the disc initially opened by the V-shaped blade structure of the holder member; and FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of a bi-directional rupture disc and showing the area of the disc initially opened by conventional three blade knife structure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A pressure relief assembly 10 as shown in FIG. 4 is made up of the components more specifically illustrated in exploded view FIG. 3. Assembly 10 includes a holder member 12 that, for example, may comprise a holder support body 14 having a pair of spaced circular flange segments 14a and 14b separated by a unitary, generally cylindrical central hub section 14c. It can be seen from FIGS. 2 and 4 that the flange segments 14a and 14b are of greater diameter than the hub section 14c. A V-shaped cutting element 16 is provided within the cylindrical interior of holder support body 14. The terminology V-shaped cutting element 16 as used herein means that the cutting element is of V-shaped configuration in plan view. The V-shaped cutting element 16 has a pair of elongated leg components 18 and 20 with the outermost margins 18′ and 20′ of components 18 and 20 being rigidly affixed to the inner cylindrical wall surface 22 of holder member 12 below the annular margin 14a′ of flange segment 14a. As shown in FIGS. 2 and 4, the cutting element 16 is located in somewhat closer spaced relationship to margin 14a′ of flange segment 14a of holder member 12 than to the circular margin 14b′ of flange segment 14b of holder member 12. The cutting element 16 is of one piece unitary construction and has a unitary crease 24 midway between the outermost margins 18′ and 20′ of leg components 18 and 20 that defines the apex peak 26 of the cutting element 16. The leg components 18 and 20 of cutting element 16 extend radially from the cylindrical wall surface 22 and are at an angle relative to one another that defines an interior angle greater than 180°. Preferably, the interior angle between leg components 18 and 20 is about 120° as depicted in FIG. 1. The cutting element 16 has a relatively sharp cutting edge 28 that extends the full length of the leg components 18 and 20. The cutting edge 28 may be defined by either an edge that is V-shaped in cross section, or a transversely inclined single plane edge surface. It can be seen from FIGS. 2-4 that the cutting edge 28 is made up of respective arcuate edge segments 18a and 20a that extend the full length of corresponding leg components 18 and 20 and that merge at the apex peak 26 of the cutting edge 28. The apex peak 26 of the cutting edge 28 defined by the merger of unitary leg components 18 and 20 is preferably located near or at the center point of the cylindrical wall surface 22 of holder member 12. The cutting element 16 and holder member 12 are preferably both constructed corrosion-resistant material such as stainless steel in order for the pressure relief assembly 10 to comply with 3A sanitary use specifications. The pressure relief assembly 10 includes an upper rupture disc clamping member 30 that has circular flange segments 30a and 30b respectively joined by a central cylindrical hub section 30c. The cylindrical interior wall surface 32 of hub section 30c is preferably of the same diameter as wall surface 22 of holder member 12. A reverse buckling control spider disc 32 is adapted to be mounted on the flange margin 14a′ of holder member 12 in partial closing relationship to the interior opening defined by the flange segment 14a of holder member 12. The control spider disc 32 has a circumscribing flange portion 34 that is unitary with the domed central spider section 36. The curved leg segments 38 of domed central spider section 36 define a Y-shaped opening 40 therebetween configured and arranged such that the cutting edge 28 of cutting element 16 is aligned with the Y-shaped opening 40. The flange 34 of spider disc 32 is provided with a series of circumferentially spaced apertures 42 strategically located in this position to removably receive respective alignment posts 44 extending upwardly from the flange margin 14a′ of holder member 12. The control spider disc 32 may be fabricated of Teflon having a thickness of from about 0.030 to about 0.090 in., or fabricated of stainless steel sheet material having a thickness of from about 0.004 to about 0.016 in. The curved leg segments 38 of domed central spider section 36 engage and support a relatively thin flexible rupture disc 46 that overlies holder member 12. Disc 46 is preferably fabricated of a flexible synthetic resin material such as Teflon of a nominal thickness of about 0.002 to about 0.010 in. The central section 48 of disc 46 is of concavo-convex configuration presenting a central dome that complementally engages the adjacent curved surfaces of central spider section 36 of control spider disc 32. The annular flange portion 50 of disc 46 has slots 52 located to be aligned with the post 44 of holder member 12. A second Teflon disc 54 having a flange 56 and a central domed section 58 overlies disc 46 in complemental relationship thereto. The domed section 58 of disc 54 has irregularly shaped slits 60 configured to directly overlie the Y-shaped opening 40 defined by curved leg segments 38 of control spider disc 32. The flange 56 of disc 54 has slits 62 that align with slits 52 in disc 46 and openings 42 in spider support disc 32 for reception of the alignment posts 44. The disc 54 preferably is of material having a thickness of about 0.002 to about 0.010 in. An apertured forward-acting rupture disc 64 rests against convex face of disc 54. Disc 64 has peripheral flange 66 joined to a central bulge section 68 provided with a number of equal diameter openings 70 therein. A series of radially disposed slits 72 in the bulge section 68 terminate at respective posed end openings 74. It can be seen from FIG. 3, for example, that the innermost end openings 74 of slits 72 are located in spaced relationship from one another at the uppermost portion of the dome. Flange 66 of disc 64 has slits 76 that also align with slits 62, slits 52, and openings 42 to maintain the disc 64 aligned with the remainder of the assembled discs. The upper member 30 rests against disc 64 with flange 30a engaging flange 66 of disc 64. It can be seen from FIG. 4, that the cutting element 16 of holder member 12 extends into the cavity defined by the assembled components comprising spider disc 32, rupture disc 46, Teflon disc 54 and forward-acting rupture disc 64. However, the apex peak 26 of cutting element 16 is spaced from the adjacent let segments 38 of control spider disc 32. In addition, the apex peak 26 is located substantially at the center of the domed sections of the assembled discs 32, 46, 54, and 64. As is best seen in FIGS. 1 and 3, two posts 44a and 44b are provided in general alignment with leg components 18 and 20 of cutting element 16, while a third post 44c is provided offset from one of the posts 44a and 44b. The provision of three posts 44a, 44b, and 44c, strategically positioned as illustrated, assures that the spider buckle disc is maintained in proper alignment with the cutting element 16, and at the same time maintaining the other disc elements of the assembly in proper alignment. A conventional, two-section toggle clamp 78 is preferably used to join holder members 12 and 30 and clamp discs 32, 46, 54, and 64 therebetween. The clamp 78 has opposed U-shaped segments 80 and 82 that overlie the flange 30a of holder member 30 and flange 14a of holder member 12. In operation, when the pressure relief assembly 10 is positioned in a line leading from a pressure vessel, or in a process line under pressure, the forward-acting disc 64 in association with the imperforate rupture disc 46 prevents flow of fluid in a direction toward disc 64. However, if the fluid pressure against the concave face of rupture disc 46 as constrained by forward-acting disc 64 exceeds the combined resistance to rupture of the two discs, the domed section 68 of forward-acting disc 64 gives way along slits 72 allowing the domed portion 48 of rupture disc 46 to rupture thereby relieving the pressure. Forward-acting rupture disc 64 is nonfragmenting because the petal portions of dome 68 between adjacent slits 72 open but do not separate from the disc adjacent the flange 66. When the pressure relief assembly 10 experiences a negative pressure resulting from a vacuum condition in the protected vessel or line that causes the domed section 48 of rupture disc 46 to reverse against the resistance of support let segments 38 of control spider disc 32, the leg segments reflect toward holder member 12 allowing the deflected section 48 of disc 46 to first engage the apex peak 26 of cutting element 46. As the central section 48 of rupture 46 continues deflection under the negative pressure, the cutting edge 16 of holder member 12 severs the section 48 along a V-shaped line defined by the leg components 18 and 20 of cutting element 16 thus resulting in full opening of the rupture disc 46. As shown in FIG. 5, upon contact of the central section 48 of disc 46 undergoing reverse buckling with the apex peak 26 of cutting element 16, a half-moon shaped opening 84 is formed in section 48 of the rupture disc 46. The opening 84 continues to enlarge as the arcuate cutting edge segments of cutting element 16 engage and sever the Teflon material of disc 46. FIG. 6 is a schematic representation of initial severing and opening of a rupture disc of the prior art in which the cutting element consisted of three radially positioned blades as shown and described in the '236 patent. In this instance, the small triangular area 86 of the test disc 88 initially opened by engagement of the disc with the pointed peak of the three blades is significantly smaller than the half-moon area 82 opened in disc 46. Tests have demonstrated that there is a more than 500% increase in the half-moon shaped opening area when using the V-blade design of the present invention as compared with the small triangular initial opening formed by conventional three-blade structure as shown and described in the '236 patent. Test results comparing opening a rupture disc with the V-shaped cutting element of the present invention as compared with severing of a rupture disc with a conventional three-blade unit are set forth in the example below: It is desirable that the point of the knife blade that first engages the rupture disc upon reversal be extremely sharp in order to effect immediate severing and opening of the disc material. However, because the weld fillets that join adjacent edges of the blades of a three-blade unit fill the crevices between adjacent blades, these filler fillets prevent the disc engaging point of the blades from being as sharp as desired, thus retarding initiation of the opening of the disc. Tests verify that the V-shaped cutting element of the present invention provides an improved opening area, especially seen in the lower pressure applications of the pressure relief assembly 10. Because the force generated during reversal of the leg segments 38 of the control spider device 32 is substantially constant regardless of the blade configuration, i.e., V-shaped or three separate, triangularly positioned blades, the two sharp leg components 18 and 20 of V-shaped cutting element 16 provide an increased pressure on each knife edge when compared to a three-blade configuration. The welded three-blade design as shown for example in the '236 patent, relies on even alignment of three points to create a single sharp cutting region. Irregular gaps between the blades can cause inconsistent openings. The folded one blade design of this invention provides a better transition from the apex peak 26 along cutting segment edges of leg segments 18 and 20 assisting in creating smooth transitions between the two cutting lines and longer cuts in the seal. The preferred forms of the invention described above are to be used as illustration only, and should not be used in a limiting sense to interpret the scope of the present invention. Obvious modifications to the exemplary embodiments, set forth above, could be readily made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of the present invention. The inventors hereby state their intent to rely on the Doctrine of Equivalents to determine and assess the reasonably fair scope of the present invention as it pertains to any apparatus not materially departing from but outside the literal scope of the invention as set forth in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to a rupture disc assembly having a bi-directional, concavo-convex rupture disc and a support body for the rupture disc that is provided with a generally V-shaped cutting element in plan view and disposed to engage and sever the disc when the disc is deflected toward the cutting element. The cutting element has a pair of leg components that are connected to the interior wall surface of the support body and that converge and join at their innermost extremities. In particular, the V-shaped cutting element is of one-piece construction with the central V-shaped cutting edge section of the cutting element defined by a unitary crease in the cutting element being positioned to extend into the concave portion of the rupture disc. The cutting edge of the cutting element includes cutting edge segments that extend along the full length of each of the leg components of the cutting element, and that are arcuate along the longitudinal length of each leg component. The holder member for the bi-directional rupture disc having a unitary, one-piece V-shaped cutting element, which is particularly useful for sanitary processes and equipment in food, beverage, and pharmaceutical applications, meets current third-party industry approved 3A sanitary standard 60-00. The V-shaped cutting element opens a significantly greater initial area than obtained with three-blade knife structure. 2. Description of the Prior Art There has long been a need for reliable reverse buckling rupture disc assemblies that open at predictable positive and negative pressures. This is especially true in the pharmaceutical industry where the valuable content of a process vessel must be protected from cyclic vacuum conditions that could cause contamination of the contents of the vessel, or result in an expensive shutdown of the vessel and interfere with the overall manufacturing process. Specifications for protection of processes often require that a safety device such as a rupture disc be capable of rupturing to release pressure in a vessel when the positive pressure in the vessel exceeds a predetermined protective value. That same disc, however, must also protect against relatively small negative pressure conditions imposed on the process contents and thereby the protective rupture disc. The single disc must control against dangerous overpressures, and at the same time reverse and open under minimal vacuum conditions in order to protect the process vessel and its contents. For example, in certain applications, the process specifications require that a protective disc reverse and open fully under a vacuum condition as little as one inch of water imposed on the convex face of the disc. At the same time that disc must be capable of resisting rupture at a relatively high positive pressure on the concave face of the disc. In order to assure full opening of a disc under a specified vacuum, it has been the practice to provide a holder for the disc which includes a knife blade located on the concave side of the disc so that upon reversal of the disc in response to a vacuum condition, the disc is severed by the knife and desirably opens fully. A number of different knife blade configurations for assuring opening of a concavo-convex disc have been proposed, with some achieving substantial commercial acceptance. One such knife blade design is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,119,236 of Oct. 10, 1978. In the '236 patent, the cutting member is in the form of a triangular knife having radially extending knife blade sections that terminate in a central knife blade edge. The angle between adjacent knife blade sections is the same, i.e., 60°. Because the knife of the '236 patent is made up of three separate angularly disposed knives, the knives must be welded at their zones of joinder. This means that there is a residual weld fillet along the width of each of the adjacent knife blades. These weld fillets are believed to be in part responsible for what is deemed to be the unacceptable failure rates of discs to open upon reversal and engagement with the tri-knife cutting member. Rupture discs used with tri-knife blades of the '236 patent type that are designed for use in sanitary food and pharmaceutical production facilities generally employ a relatively thin, flexible rupture disc of Teflon® or the like as a barrier disc. Teflon is a tough synthetic resin material that can resist timely and required extent of severing if a significant area of the disc is not immediately cut accompanied by a rapid rate of propagation of the sever lines. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a rupture disc holder member especially useful for sanitary applications and that provides for more reliable and consistent severing and fuller opening of a bi-directional rupture disc and especially at lower pressures when the disc reverses under a vacuum condition and is deflected against a disc cutting element mounted in the holder, than prior holders employing a welded three-blade configuration. A generally V-shaped cutting element for the disc is mounted in the disc holder and has a pair of elongated leg components connected to and supported by the interior wall surface of the holder. The leg components extend inwardly from the holder member wall surface, converge toward one another, and join at their innermost extremities. The V-shaped cutting element is of one-piece construction, thereby eliminating the problems associated with required welding of adjacent tri-knife blades. The innermost extremities of the leg components define a cutting edge located to engage and sever the disc when the disc is deflected and reverses, even under a relatively low-level vacuum condition. The leg components of the cutting element are located in a position defining an angle therebetween of approximately 120°. This widely spread leg arrangement of the leg components of the cutting element assures that the separate segments of the Teflon bi-directional rupture disc, upon severing, pass cleanly through the two areas on opposite sides of the cutting element without a tendency to hang up on the cutting element, especially at the joinder area of the converging leg segments of the cutting element. Comparative tests have demonstrated that the V-shaped, one-piece cutting element of the present invention provides an initial moon-shaped opening area in a Teflon disc that is more than 500% greater than the initial triangular opening area in a Teflon disc using a conventional three-blade knife. | 20050114 | 20111018 | 20060720 | 75216.0 | F16K1740 | 0 | HYLTON, ROBIN ANNETTE | HOLDER WITH V-KNIFE BLADE FOR BI-DIRECTIONAL RUPTURE DISC ASSEMBLY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | F16K | 2,005 |
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11,036,267 | ACCEPTED | Method, system, apparatus and computer-readable media for directing input associated with keyboard-type device | In one aspect of the present invention a computer-implemented method is provided of processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, wherein the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad. In this aspect, input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system are received and monitored for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period. In response to identifying the first predefined input key event, the input key events are redirected from the first process to a second process. The input key events are monitored for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events. In response to identifying the second predefined input key event, the input key events are redirected to the first process. | 1. A computer-implemented method of processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad, the method comprising: (a) receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) in response to identifying the first predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process; (d) monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) in response to identifying the second predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events to another process. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the another process is the first process. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the second predefined input key event is identified in association with user deselection of the first key. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the second predefined input key event is identified in association with user selection of a second key. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the first predefined input key event is identified by detecting a selection signal for at least the predetermined time period, the selection signal indicating user selection of the first key. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the first predefined input key event is identified by receiving an indication that the first key was selected for at least the predetermined time period. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the first predefined keyboard event is identified by detecting generation of one or more auto-repeated characters by auto-repeat functionality associated with the first key. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein detecting generation of one or more auto-repeated characters comprises detecting receipt of at least one message associated with the first key and having a repetition indication. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the first key represents an alpha-numeric character. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the keyboard is displayed as a virtual keyboard represented in a graphical user interface (GUI). 11. The method of claim 1, wherein identification of the first predefined keyboard event further comprises providing a copy of the input key events to the second process for monitoring by the second process. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein redirecting the input key events to the second process comprises providing representations of further keyboard events to the second process, but not to the first process, for processing. 13. The method of claim 1, further comprising processing the input key events in the second process while it is redirected to the second process. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein redirecting the input key events to the second process is contingent upon the first predefined keyboard event meeting a process switching criterion, wherein different process switching criteria may be associated with different processes being executed as the first process. 15. A computer-readable medium having stored instructions for use in execution of the method of claim 1. 16. A system for processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad, the system comprising: (a) means for receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) means for monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) means for redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process in response to identifying the first predefined input key event; (d) means for monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) means for redirecting the input key events to another process in response to identifying the second predefined input key event. 17. A keyboard-type device comprising: (a) a plurality of user input signal generators for producing first input signals in response to user actuation thereof; (b) a display device; (c) a processor circuit in communication with said display device and said user input signal generators, said processor circuit configured to: (i) generate a plurality of predictive text completion candidates in response to said first input signals and display said plurality of predictive text completion candidates on said display device; and (ii) communicate at least one of said predictive text completion candidates to a personal computing device remote from the keyboard-type device in response to user selection of the at least one of said pred1ictive text completion candidates. 18. The keyboard-type device of claim 17, wherein the plurality of user input signal generators comprises a plurality of keys. 19. The keyboard-type device of claim 18, wherein the plurality of keys comprises a plurality of physical keys. 20. The keyboard-type device of claim 18, wherein the plurality of keys comprises a plurality of virtual keys. 21. The keyboard-type device of claim 20, wherein the display device comprises a touch-screen display, and wherein the plurality of virtual keys comprises a plurality of respective portions of a touch-sensitive surface of said touch-screen display. 22. The keyboard-type device of claim 17, wherein the processor circuit is configured to receive display information from the remote personal computing device and to display such display information on a touch-sensitive portion of the display device. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a method, system, apparatus and computer-readable media for directing input associated with a keyboard-type device. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer-implemented method of processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad. In this aspect, the method comprises: (a) receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) in response to identifying the first predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process; (d) monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) in response to identifying the second predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events to another process. Many variations of this method are contemplated, as described further in this specification. There is also provided a computer-readable medium having stored instructions for use in execution of the aforementioned method and its variations. In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a system for processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad. In one arrangement, the system comprises: (a) means for receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) means for monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) means for redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process in response to identifying the first predefined input key event; (d) means for monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) means for redirecting the input key events to another process in response to identifying the second predefined input key event. In yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a keyboard-type device comprising: (a) a plurality of user input signal generators for producing first input signals in response to user actuation thereof; (b) a display device; (c) a processor circuit in communication with said display device and said user input signal generators, said processor circuit configured to: (i) generate a plurality of predictive text completion candidates in response to said first input signals and display said plurality of predictive text completion candidates on said display device; and (ii) communicate at least one of said predictive text completion candidates to a personal computing device remote from the keyboard-type device in response to user selection of the at least one of said predictive text completion candidates. Several other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the accompanying drawings which illustrate embodiments of the invention, FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an input management system in use in association with a first process and a second process, according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of a personal computing device loaded with a data entry system, according to a first embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 3 and 4 are flow diagrams illustrating the operation of an input management system in accordance with the first embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a block diagram of a data structure for a keyboard message used in connection with the first embodiment; FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating operation of a keyboard when keyboard input is redirected to a second process, according to the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 7 is a block diagram illustrating another form of operation of a keyboard when keyboard input is redirected to a second process, according to the first embodiment of the invention; FIG. 8 is a block diagram of an input management system in use in association with a first process and a second process, according to another embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 9 and 10 are flow diagrams illustrating the operation of an input management system in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 8; FIG. 11 is a block diagram illustrating an arrangement of registered expander processes, in accordance with the embodiment of the present invention shown in FIG. 8; FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating yet another embodiment of the invention; FIGS. 13 and 14 are flow diagrams illustrating the operation of an input management system and an input management director in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 is a flow diagram illustrating the operation of another variation of an input management director in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 16 to 20 are diagrams illustrating yet further aspects and variations in accordance with the present invention; and FIGS. 21 to 25 are diagrams illustrating further aspects and variations associated with an enhanced keyboard-type device, in accordance with the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference will now be made in detail to implementations and embodiments of the invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. Introduction Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2, in accordance with a first embodiment a computer-implemented input management system 20 is configured to process input key events associated with user input received by a personal computing device 10 from a keyboard-type device 14. In the first embodiment, for illustration purposes, the personal computing device 10 is a laptop and the keyboard-type device 14 is a keyboard 14.1 (for example, a QWERTY-type keyboard). As discussed further below, however, many various types of personal computing devices and keyboard-type devices (including keyboards and keypads) can be used in connection with the present invention and the components described in the first embodiment are meant to be illustrative only. The input management system 20 operates in association with a computer-implemented operating system 22, which for the purposes of the first embodiment is Windows XP™. Both the input management system 20 and the operating system 22 are stored on and run on the personal computing device 10 in the first embodiment. In other embodiments, the personal computing device may be operative over a computer network with some or all of the operating system 22 located on a host computer server or other remote computing device. Similarly, the input management system 20 may be located on a remote computer server or other remote computing device and accessed remotely by a terminal-type unit or by another form of personal computing device (including personal computing device 10). The input management system 20 is configured to monitor a user input stream 24 associated with a first process 30 active within the operating system 22. The user input stream 24 comprises codes representing input key events associated with user operation of the keyboard-type device 14. As the user operates the keyboard-type device 14, selecting and deselecting keys, the codes are received by the personal computing device 10 and identified as input key events by the operating system 22. The input management system 20 monitors the user input stream 24 for an occurrence of a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device 14 for at least a predetermined time period T1. In the first embodiment, the input management system 20 comprises a monitoring module 28 configured to perform the monitoring of the user input stream 24. In response to identifying the occurrence of the first predefined input key event, the input management system 20 is configured to redirect the user input stream 24 from the first process 30 to a second process 34. For the purposes of this specification, the term “process” means a computer-implemented process for completing a set of computer-implemented instructions in order to provide predetermined functionality to a user and which is receptive to user input. Such a process can be a computer program, including a software application, applet or the like, and can be either an independent program or it may be a program that provides certain functionality to a larger program. Windows Applications In the first embodiment, processes are represented by windows applications which are displayed on a graphical user interface. For illustration purposes, the first process 30 is a word processor application, more particularly Microsoft™ Word™, and the second process 34 is a predictive text entry system 34.1. In the illustrated embodiment, the predictive text entry system 34.1 is an application configured to predict and retrieve predictive text completion candidates (or completion candidates) from a dictionary by determining which predictive text completion candidates in the dictionary are more likely to be the ones that the user is attempting to type based on the characters in the partial text entry generated by the user, as illustrated in co-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/399,560 (corresponding to PCT/CA01/01473, International Publication No. WO 02/33527 A2). Various forms of the predictive text entry system 34.1 may be used as illustrated in PCT/CA01/01473. Preferably, potential completion candidates retrieved by the predictive text entry system 34.1 are displayed in a searchable list and may be selected using the keyboard or a mouse or a combination of both the keyboard and the mouse. Other types of predictive text entry systems may be used in the present case. By way of example, other predictive text entry systems are illustrated in co-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/272,700 (PCT/CA00/000285, International Publication No. WO 00/57265). As indicated above, the use of the word processor application as the first process 30 and the predictive text entry system 34.1 as the second process 34 are for illustration purposes. It will be appreciated that many other end-user processes may be used in substitution of a word processor and the predictive text entry system 34.1. By way of example, the first process 30 can, in the alternative, be a spreadsheet, a browser, a database interface, an enterprise resource planning system, or some other form of process providing functionality to a user and receptive to user input in association with a keyboard-type device. In addition or in the alternative, the second process 34 can be another form of predictive text entry system or some other process configured to provide additional functionality to the user in association with the first process 30 or to another process operative in connection with the second process 34 in response to redirection of the user input stream 24. Redirecting the user input stream 24 to the second process 34 in response to the first predefined input key event for at least the predetermined time period T1 enables the input management system 20 to provide an adaptive interface for enhancing the functionality of the first process 30 with functionality provided by the second process 34. Alternatively, the redirection mechanism provided by the input management system 20 can be used to invoke one or more other processes to enhance the functionality of the first process 30 or another process available on or through the personal computing device 10. The redirection mechanism of the input management system 20 is described in further detail below. In the first embodiment, once the user input stream 24 has been redirected to the second process 34, the input management system 20 monitors the user input stream 24 for an occurrence of a second predefined input key event associated with further redirecting the user input stream 24. In response to identifying the occurrence of the second predefined input key event, the input management system 20 redirects the user input stream 24 to either the first process 30 or another process. In the case of the first embodiment, the input management system 20 redirects the user input stream 24 back to the first process 30. Input Key Events and Keyboard-Type Input Input key events associated with user operation of the keyboard-type device 14 are communicated to the applicable process via the operating system 22. An input key event represents an event associated with a particular key or set of keys supported by the keyboard-type device 14. In general, an input key event is associated with user selection or deselection of a key or set of keys available the keyboard-type device 14. For example, selection of a particular key on the keyboard-type device 14 represents one input key event, and deselection of the selected key represents another input key event. Selection of a particular key for at least predefined period of time T1 represents another input key event associated with user operation of the keyboard-type device 14. Input key events are used by the input management system 20 to manage the direction of the user input stream 24 and to determine which process or set of processes will receive the user input stream 24 in response to or during a particular input key event or set of input key events. As mentioned earlier, in the first embodiment the keyboard-type device 14 is preferably a keyboard 14.1. In this case, keyboard input is received from the keyboard 14.1 by the personal computing device 10 in the form of input key events (in this embodiment, also referred to as keyboard events) which are processed by the operating system 22. Preferably, keyboard input is received by the operating system 22 via a keyboard device driver that receives scan codes from the keyboard 14.1. The scan codes represent identifiers associated with the respective keys on the keyboard 14.1. Each key on the keyboard 14.1 preferably has a unique scan code value associated with it. The mechanism by which scan codes are implemented can be device dependent and therefore the keyboard device driver applicable to the keyboard 14.1 device in use provides a mechanism for receiving scan codes from the applicable keyboard 14.1 and for having the scan codes translated into virtual key codes recognizable by the operating system 22. Keyboard device drivers and their use in connection with keyboard devices are well known in the art. In the first embodiment, where the operating system 22 is Windows XP™, the keyboard device driver interprets a scan code and translates it into a virtual key code which is a device independent value defined by the operating system 22 that identifies the purpose of a key. The keyboard 14.1 generates two scan codes when a user selects a key on the keyboard 14.1. One scan code is generated when the user selects the key and another is generated when the user deselects the key. System Level Focus for Keyboard Input Keyboard input received from the keyboard 14.1 is communicated via the operating system 22 to the process that has the keyboard focus. The keyboard focus is used as a mechanism for determining which process is currently assigned to receive keyboard input. The keyboard focus can be set to a particular process using the commands available with the applicable operating system 22. For example, with Windows XP™ the keyboard focus can be given to one of the applications (or windows) preferably by calling the SetFocus function and the AttachThreadInput function available with the Windows XP™ operating system. With Windows XP™ a window can be made active and brought to the foreground in the graphical user interface by setting the window using the SetActiveWindow and SetForegroundWindow functions provided by Windows XP™. In the first embodiment, keyboard input received from the keyboard 14.1 is translated by the operating system 22 and posted as a keyboard message to a message queue of the thread that created the window with the keyboard focus. Eventually, the keyboard message is removed from the message queue and passed to the appropriate window procedure of the window with the keyboard focus. This form of keyboard focus is well known in the art and is referred to in this specification as operating system-level keyboard focus. More generally, the term “system-level input focus” is used in this specification to refer to the assignment of input received from a keyboard-type device to a process through functionality provided by the operating system (such as through a programmable interface or API available with the operating system). System-level input focus includes the operating system-level keyboard focus described above. In the first embodiment, the operating system 22 shares the keyboard 14.1 among the various processes running within the operating system 22 (where these processes are represented in the first embodiment as windows applications running within Windows XP™), by shifting the keyboard focus from one window (process) to another window (process) at the user's direction. The window that has the keyboard focus receives the keyboard messages from the user input stream 24 until the keyboard focus changes to a different window. The keyboard focus can be shifted from one window (process) to another window (process) through a variety of activities including, but not limited to, the user opening a new application using the keyboard 14.1, a mouse or another human input device; by the user shifting keyboard focus from one window to another window that does not currently have keyboard focus (for example by switching windows by using the mouse to click on a window that does not currently have keyboard focus), or by some other action of the user that the operating system 22 is configured to recognize as a shift in keyboard focus from one window (process) to another window (process) running on the operating system 22. Other examples of a user switching windows would be by a user selecting a window that does not have system focus by using the ALT and TAB key or ALT and ESC key, or by selecting it from the task bar in Windows XP™. In the absence of the input management system 20, keyboard input, once translated by the applicable keyboard device driver, would be placed in an applicable message queue for receipt by the application in the window that currently has the keyboard focus. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the input management system 20 interposes itself between the translated keyboard input and the process(es) which may receive the translated keyboard input. By interposing itself in this way, the input management system 20 can be used to redirect keyboard input received in the user input stream 24 to one or more other processes that provide enhanced functionality (expander processes) in association with the process that previously had keyboard focus before redirection occurred. Logical Focus As discussed above, keyboard input can be directed to a particular process using the system-level input focus provided by the operating system 22. This is one approach to control the flow of the user input stream 24 for some embodiments, if the operating system 22 and the associated personal computing device operate fast enough to handle a rapid stream of input from the keyboard-type device. However, managing redirection of the user input stream 24 solely through the assignment of system-level input focus can present certain challenges. For example, from the perspective of the input management system 20, with certain Windows™ applications such as the Internet Explorer™ browser or the Excel™ spreadsheet, one cannot reliably maintain the same state of the original application when switching input focus at the operating system level back to the original application following a redirection. As well, with certain operating systems such as Windows™, certain applications, such as the MS-DOS™ command window, will not automatically give up system-level input focus. In the first embodiment, a timer mechanism is preferably implemented to provide another layer of keyboard focus. In this way, with the introduction of the input management system 20, at least two levels of keyboard focus are supported: the keyboard focus provided at the operating system level (earlier referred to more generally as the system-level input focus), and a logical keyboard focus supported by the input management system 20. For the purposes of this specification, “logical keyboard focus” refers to an assignment of keyboard input to a process while another process continues to be assigned operating system-level keyboard focus. More generally, in this specification the term “logical input focus” refers to an assignment of input from a keyboard-type device to a process while another process continues to be assigned system-level input focus. Thus, in the first embodiment, through the use of logical keyboard focus, the input management system 20 is configured to support the redirection of keyboard input from one process to another process even though the first process continues to be assigned keyboard focus at the operating system level. In this way, keyboard input from the keyboard 14.1 can be directed towards the appropriate process based on the context in which the keyboard input is being received even though another process has been assigned keyboard focus at the operating system level and would be therefore entitled to otherwise receive the keyboard input. Enabling the redirection of keyboard input to be independent of which process has keyboard focus at the operating system level provides a significant advantage in that it allows the input management system 20 to support redirection of the keyboard input to one or more processes independent of limitations imposed by the operating system 22 on keyboard focus at the operating system level. Moreover, this approach provides improved consistency in how input from the keyboard 14.1 (more generally, from a keyboard-type device) is received by applications in the presence of one or more processes that provide expanded functionality for one or more of the other processes resident in the operating system 22. Operating Environment The personal computing device 10 in the first embodiment is a laptop computer having a graphical display device comprising a liquid crystal display. FIG. 2 shows, for illustration purposes, a block diagram of personal computing device 10 according to the first embodiment. As shown in FIG. 2, the personal computing device 10 comprises a processing unit 12 (for example, a CPU) connected via bus 11 to a computer-readable medium 16. The computer-readable medium 16 provides a memory store for computer programs and data residing in the personal computing device 10, including, in the first embodiment, the input management system 20, the operating system 22, the first process 30, represented by the word processor Microsoft™ Word™, and the second process 34, represented by the predictive text entry system 34.1. The computer-readable medium 16 can include one or more types of computer-readable media including volatile memory such as Random Access Memory (RAM), and non-volatile memory, such as a hard disk or Read Only Memory (ROM). In the first embodiment, the computer-readable medium available on the personal computing device 10 comprises RAM, ROM and a hard disk drive. Other types of user programs can also be stored in the personal computing device 10 and used in connection with the input management system 20 such as a browser or micro-browser, a spreadsheet, an email application or another user application. The keyboard-type device 14 provides a mechanism for providing user input to programs running on the personal computing device 10. As discussed earlier, user input is received from the keyboard-type device 14 in the form of codes received in user input stream 24 and which represent input key events associated with user operation of the keyboard-type device 12. As indicated above, in the first embodiment the keyboard-type device 14 is a QWERTY-type keyboard. However, the keyboard-type device 14 can be a keyboard, a keypad or both a keyboard and a keypad, and the actual configuration of a keyboard or keypad can vary (such as, by way of example, keyboard configurations from Logitech™, keyboard configurations from Dell Corporation, the Half keyboard™ by Matias Corporation, and the Dvorak keyboard layout). In addition, various types of keyboards and keypads may be used in connection with the input management system, including, but not limited to, physical keyboards and keypads, and virtual keyboards and virtual keypads (also referred to as soft keyboards and soft keypads). Physical keyboards and keypads may be wired, wireless or encased within (or forming part of) the personal computing device (such as with many laptops and hand held devices). With virtual keyboards and keypads, a visual representation of the keyboard or keypad (as the case may be) is displayed using a display device such as a computer monitor, LCD screen, touch sensitive screen, digital projector or some other display device for displaying images generated by a computing device. In certain cases with virtual keyboards and keypads, the display device also serves as a physical input interface for the user, such as with touch-sensitive screens. Moreover, in another aspect, keys formed on a physical keyboard-type device or displayed on a virtual keyboard-type device can be more generally referred to as a plurality of user input signal generators. In certain circumstances the plurality of user input signal generators comprise a plurality of physical keys. In other circumstances, the plurality of user input signal generators comprise a plurality of virtual keys. Virtual keys can be displayed on a display device or projected onto a display area (such as with holographic keyboards or keypads). It will also be appreciated that while in the first embodiment the personal computing device 10 is a laptop, the aspects and features of the present invention may be practiced with a wide range of personal computing devices including personal computers, workstations, laptops, hand held computing devices including personal digital assistants and tablet PCs, computer terminal units and the like, and other electronic devices including mobile phones, Internet appliances (including home and office computers and TVs connected to the Internet), and embedded devices (including home and office devices), provided the aforementioned personal computing devices have or are operative with, directly or indirectly, a suitable graphical display device and a virtual or physical keyboard-type device receptive to user operation. Other types of equivalent personal computing devices to which the features and aspects of the present invention are applicable include, by way of example, an Internet appliance controlled via a virtual or physical keyboard-type device (for instance, running an Internet application though a television or other display device in association with a wireless keyboard). With respect to the computer-readable medium 16 described above, it will be appreciated that software entities (for example, input management system 20 and second process 34) can be stored as computer-readable instructions on one or more types of computer-readable media including smart media, flash memory, a memory key such as a USB memory key, a hard disk drive, a network drive, a micro-drive, CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD (+/-R, +/-RW), optical disk, mini-disk, floppy disk, a ZIP disk, or some other computer-readable media, provided the computer-readable media is capable of storing computer-readable instructions and can operate as part of or in communication with the personal computing device 10. For the purposes of the first embodiment, the operating system 22 installed on the personal computing device 10 is Windows XP™. However, the operating system 22 can be any operating system suitable for supporting the operation of the input management system 20 in connection with the applicable personal computing device. For example, for hand-held devices the operating system 22 can be an operating system suitable for the applicable hand-held device, such as, by way of example, Windows CE™, PocketPC™, EPOC™, PalmOS™, or an equivalent operating system. For larger personal computing devices, such as workstations, laptops or desktop computers, an operating system suitable for the applicable personal computing device may be used, such as, by way of example, Windows™ (including Windows XP™, Windows 2000™ or the like), MacOS™, UNIX™, Linux™, or the like. System Flow Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, logical flow diagrams illustrate the operation of the input management system 20 shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. In the discussion that follows, the word processor representing the first process 30 initially has system-level input focus and is therefore designated, in so far as the operating system 22 is concerned, to receive keyboard input. Redirection of keyboard input from the first process 30 to the second process 34 and back is handled by the input management system 20 based on the keyboard input received from the keyboard 14.1 and the state of the keyboard input when it is received. In the first embodiment, when the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, the second process 34) is initially launched, the predictive text entry system 34.1 initializes the input management system 20. As part of this initialization, the input management system 20 calls functionality supplied by the operating system 22 so as to make the input management system 20 available to the operating system 22. For the first embodiment, where Windows XP™ is used, the Windows™ SetWindowsHookEx function is called so as to make the input management system 20 available to the operating system 22. In addition, the predictive text entry system 34.1 starts a system focus recorder 34.2 which is configured to monitor the system-level input focus associated with the operating system 22 on a reoccurring basis. The system focus recorder 34.2 starts a reoccurring timer loop which records the system-level input focus on a reoccurring basis every N number of milliseconds (where N represents a predetermined number of milliseconds, for example, 20 milliseconds). In the first embodiment, the system focus recorder 34.2 obtains the system-level input focus by invoking the GetFocus function provided by Windows XP™. With Windows XP™, system-level input focus is assigned to a particular window (for example, the first process 30 in the example shown in FIG. 1), and each window has a window handle associated with it. In recording the system-level input focus, the system focus recorder 34.2 keeps track of the current window handle of the window with system-level input focus (other than the window associated with the process in which the system focus recorder 34.2 resides). Thus, when invoked, the GetFocus function returns the window handle for the window that has system-level input focus. The predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, the second process 34) uses this window handle to communicate with the process with system-level input focus, which in the first embodiment is the first process 30. The input management system 20 monitors user input stream 24 for keyboard input received by the personal computing device 10 from the keyboard 14.1. In the first embodiment, the keyboard input is received by the personal computing device 10 in the form of scan codes associated with the applicable key on the keyboard 14.1, which the user has selected and then deselected. As indicated earlier, in response to the selection of a key on the keyboard 14.1, a particular scan code is generated by the keyboard 14.1, which is translated by the operating system 22 into a virtual key code for use by one or more processes using the operating system 22. In response to receiving a virtual key code, the input management system 20 checks at block 100 to see if a request for keyboard input redirection has been previously received by the input management system 20 from another process. More generally, block 100 involves evaluating whether the occurrence of a first predefined input key event has taken place. In the first embodiment, from the user's perspective, a redirection request occurs when the user selects an alphanumeric key on keyboard 14.1 for a sufficient period of time to cause a redirection timer to reach the predetermined time period T1. From the perspective of the programming logic in the first embodiment, requests for the redirection of keyboard input are made to the input management system 20 by an input management director 34.3 embedded in the predictive text entry system 34.1. The input management director 34.3 is configured to identify when a redirection event has occurred and to set a redirection flag in the input management system 20 when the redirection event is identified. The input management director 34.3 is also operative to pass keyboard input received from the input management system 20 on to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for further processing. The operation of the input management director 34.3, including when it passes keyboard input on to the predictive text entry system 34.1 is discussed further below. The processing at block 100 involves checking to see whether the redirection flag in the input management system 20 has been set (e.g. if the redirection flag has been set to “ON” or “ACTIVE”). In the first embodiment, a redirection timer associated with the redirection flag is used by the input management director 34.3 to set the redirection flag. When the redirection timer fires, the input management director 34.3 is configured to set the redirection flag so that it is “ON”. The redirection timer fires when it has reached the predetermined time period T1. Preferably, the redirection flag takes the form of a coding variable in the input management system 20. The setting and resetting of the redirection flag is discussed in further detail below. If the input management system 20 determines at block 100 that it has previously received a redirection request for keyboard input from another process (in this case, the input management director 34.3), then processing proceeds to block 102 where the virtual key code and the related information regarding the state of the associated key are sent as a registered message (more generally, a keyboard message) to the input management director 34.3 for further processing (discussed in further detail below in the context of FIG. 4). The registered message sent at block 102 to the input management director 34.3 comprises (1) the virtual key code for the key currently selected on the keyboard 14.1 (the selected key), (2) the scan code associated with the selected key and received from the keyboard 14.1, and (3) the Key_Down indication (in the form of a Key_Down flag) associated with the selected key. For illustration purposes, a data structure 50 representing the registered message sent to the input management director 34.3 is shown in FIG. 5. Note that the use of registered messages, above and in what follows, is a feature of Windows XP™ in the first embodiment. Registered messages are sent from one process to another process in the first embodiment using the PostMessage function provided by Windows XP™. More generally, keyboard messages that are not “registered messages” (such as is used by Windows XP) may be used in operating systems that do not require the use of registered messages. Furthermore, in other operating systems, other mechanisms supported by those operating systems can be used, such as shared memory. Once the input management system 20 sends the registered message at block 102 to the input management director 34.3, the input management system 20 waits to receive further keyboard input. If the input management system 20 determines at block 100 that it is not in a state where it has been configured to initiate redirection of keyboard input to the input management director 34.3, then processing proceeds to block 104. At block 104 the input management system 20 evaluates whether the keyboard input currently received has a repetition indication associated with it. The keyboard input currently received will have a repetition indication associated with it if the key associated with such keyboard input has been selected for a period of time sufficient to active the automated repeat feature of the keyboard device driver. If the answer to the evaluation at block 104 is “NO”, then processing proceeds to block 106 where a copy of the keyboard input is sent, in the form of a registered message, to the input management director 34.3 which in this case will pass the copy of the keyboard input on to the predictive text entry system 34.1 at block 146 (note that in the drawings the predictive text entry system 34.1 is referred to as PredictionLogic). This action is taken in the first embodiment so as to allow the predictive text entry system 34.1 to update its predictive engine. In order for the predictive engine to predict completion candidates preferably on an ongoing basis, the predictive text entry system 34.1 needs to be kept informed of the keyboard inputs received by the personal computing device 10 in association with the first process 30 (in this case, Microsoft™ Word™), whether or not a redirection request has been made or acted upon. Thus, keyboard input is forwarded by the input management system 20 to the predictive text entry system 34.1 in order to update that application's prediction engine, even while the first process 30 (Microsoft™ Word™) has both the system-level input focus and the logical input focus. This feature is particular to the operation of the predictive text entry system in the first embodiment. In other embodiments, where the second process 34 is a function expanding process that does not need to know substantially all of the keyboard input received in association with the first process 30, transmitting a copy of the keyboard input to the second process 34 at block 106 or another block in association therewith need not take place. In the first embodiment, using Windows XP™, the keyboard input sent at block 106 to the input management director 34.3 is sent as a registered message, as described above, using the PostMessage function provided by Windows XP™. While a copy of the keyboard input is sent in the first embodiment at block 106 to the input management director 34.3 so that it may be passed on to the predictive text entry system 34.1 at block 146, the original keyboard input itself is passed on at block 108 to a chain of monitoring processes, handled by the operating system 22, where once the original keyboard input has been processed through the chain of processes (if any), the original keyboard input is delivered to the first process 30, provided that the monitoring processes in the chain did not process the original keyboard input themselves. If the chain of monitoring processes is empty, then the input management director 34.3 instructs the operating system 22 to pass the original keyboard input on to the first process 30. In the first embodiment, the original keyboard input is passed on to the chain of monitoring processes by calling the CallNextHookEx function provided by Windows XP™. If the input management system 20 determines at block 104 that the keyboard input currently received has a repetition indication associated with it, processing proceeds to block 110. At block 110, the input management system 20 checks to see whether the keyboard input currently received represents a key from a set of predefined keys whose repetition the input management system 20 is configured not to use as a redirection instruction (referred to here as “non-redirectional repetitive keys”). In the first embodiment, the input management system 20 is configured to recognize non-alphanumeric keys as non-redirectional repetitive keys, such as the arrow keys, the Backspace key, the Control key, the Shift key, the Alt key, the Del key, and the like. If the keyboard input currently received is determined at block 110 to be a non-redirectional repetitive key, then processing proceeds to blocks 114, 116 and 118. Blocks 114, 116 and 118 provide a mechanism for arranging to have the keyboard input currently received sent to the first process 30 and for arranging to have a copy of the keyboard input currently received sent to the predictive text entry system 34.1 notwithstanding the fact that input management system 20 has identified a repetition indication in association with the keyboard input currently received. At block 114, the input management system 20, preferably in the monitoring module 28, transforms the non-redirectional repetitive key into individual keystroke events. Before the transformation, the non-redirectional repetitive key is represented by a keyboard message comprising (1) the virtual key code for the selected key, (2) the scan code associated with the selected key and received from the keyboard 14.1, (3) the Key_Down indication (in the form of a Key_Down flag) associated with the selected key, (4) a repetition indication (in the form of a ON/OFF flag), and (5) a repetition number indicating the amount of repetitions collected by the keyboard 14.1 before the input management system 20 was notified). The transformation at block 114 transforms the keyboard message representing the non-redirectional repetitive key into at least one pair of registered messages, with each registered message within the pair comprising the same information as the keyboard message except that (1) the repetition indication information is not stored by either registered message in the pair, and (2) the first registered message in the pair contains the Key_Up indication and second registered message in the pair contains the Key_Down indication. At block 116 the registered messages generated at block 114 are sent to the input management director 34.3, which passes the registered messages to the input management director 34.3 to be passed on to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for further processing. At block 118, the original keyboard input currently received is passed on, in the same manner described with respect to block 108, to a chain of monitoring processes, where the original keyboard input currently received will be delivered to the first process 30 (Microsoft™ Word™), provided that the monitoring processes in the chain did not process the original keyboard input themselves. Following block 118, processing by the input management system 20 of the keyboard input currently received ends and the input management system 20 waits to receive the next keyboard input. Referring back to block 110, if the keyboard input currently received is determined at block 110 to not be a non-redirectional repetitive key, the current keyboard input is not sent on to either the first process 30 or to the predictive text entry system 34.1, but is instead simply ignored (effectively removing the current keyboard input) and the input management system 20 waits to receive the next keyboard input. In this way, the input management system 20 is configured in the first embodiment to remove, from keyboard input intended for the first process 30, any repeated entries of an alphanumeric key that would ordinarily result in input within a Microsoft™ Word™ document when an alphanumeric key is held down for a sufficient period of time. The repeated entries of an alphanumeric key (but not the first instance of the key itself before the repetition takes place) are removed from the input stream sent to the first process 30 in order to set up the first process 30 to a predetermined input state wherein the first instance of the alphanumeric key has been received and the further repeated instances of the alphanumeric key arising from continued selection of the alphanumeric key have not been received. This provides a consistent predetermined input state for the current application represented by the first process 30, advantageously allowing the predictive text entry system 34.1 (where predictive text entry is used) to know what the input state was for the first process 30 just before redirection occurred. Setting the Redirection Timer Once the input management director 34.3 receives the copy of the keyboard input sent by input management system 20, the input management director 34.3 will set the redirection timer in order to monitor for redirection requests with respect to future keyboard input. The setting of the redirection timer is described in further detail below with reference to blocks 140 and 144 (see FIG. 4). Referring to FIG. 4, the input management director 34.3 is configured to check whether the second process 34 (in the first embodiment, predictive text entry system 34.1) has been assigned logical input focus at block 130. In the first embodiment, this is carried out by testing whether the redirection flag has been set to “ON”. This check is performed when keyboard input is received by the input management director 34.3 from the input management system 20. If the answer to this question at block 130 is “YES” then processing proceeds to block 132 where the keyboard input state is checked for the redirection cancellation key. In the first embodiment, the “redirection cancellation key” refers to the last key recorded (at block 150) when the redirection timer fired (as represented by block 148). The input state of the redirection cancellation key is used by the input management director 34.3 to determine when further redirection of keyboard input is to take place (in the first embodiment, redirection back to the first process 30). The input management director 34.3 monitors for a redirection event using the redirection timer. A redirection event occurs when the redirection timer fires (ie. reaches predetermined time period T1). Once the redirection timer fires (identified in block 148 as a redirection event) the input management director 34.3 assigns logical input focus to the predictive text entry system 34.1 and records the redirection cancellation key. In the first embodiment, the redirection cancellation key is the last keyboard input received from the keyboard 14.1 when the redirection timer fired. The last keyboard input received is recorded at block 150 so that a further indication of redirection (a further redirection event) can be identified. The further redirection event is an indication of when logical input focus needs to be redirected back to the first process 30. With the recordation of last keyboard input received when the redirection timer fired, the input management director 34.3 can determine (at block 132, as discussed above) when the further redirection event occurs so that steps can be taken to redirect keyboard input back to the first process 30. In the first embodiment, logical input focus is assigned to the predictive text entry system 34.1 by the input management director 34.3 setting the redirection flag, located in the input management system 20, to “ON” at block 150. With the redirection flag set to “ON”, the logical input focus is assigned to the predictive text entry system 34.1. For the first embodiment the selection of the space bar key on the keyboard 14.1 for the predetermined time period T1 is used as one of the triggers for a redirection event. While this is not necessary for all embodiments, where this is carried out in the first embodiment, then through the operation of the input management system 20 the virtual key code for the space bar will be sent on to the first process 30 even in instances where the user intended only to use the space bar as a trigger to invoke the functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1. To resolve this issue, at block 150 the input management director 34.3 backs out of an instance of the space bar entry sent to the first process 30 if the redirection event was triggered by the selection of the space bar. Note that once logical input focus is assigned to the predictive text entry system 34.1, if the keyboard input state for keyboard input received by the input management director 34.3 indicates a Key_Up state, then this is an indication that a key selected by the user is being released. If the key selected by the user is being released (which is interpreted as an indication of a further redirection event), then in the first embodiment this means that redirection cancellation has been requested, in which case the logical input focus assigned to the predictive text entry system 34.1 is released and reassigned to the first process 30. In this case, when a selected key is identified at block 132 as being released (or deselected), processing proceeds to blocks 134 and 136 where the input management director 34.3 is configured to pass the redirection cancellation request (also referred to as a termination request) to the predictive text entry system 34.1 (also referred to as PredictionLogic) and to set the logical input focus to the first process 30 by setting the redirection flag to “OFF” (i.e. the redirection flag located in the input management system 20 is cleared). In response to being passed the redirection cancellation request, the predictive text entry system 34.1 is configured to terminate the availability of the selection functionality provided by the predictive text entry system 34.1 while it is assigned logical input focus and to send the selected completion candidate (if any has been selected by the user using the predictive text entry system 34.1 while it was assigned logical input focus) to the last recorded process 30 that previously received keyboard input. Referring back to block 132, if the input management director 34.3 determines that there has not been a redirection cancellation request, then processing proceeds to block 138 where the keyboard input received is passed on in the form of a key message to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for further processing. The key message comprises information associated with the keyboard input received, including the (1) the virtual key code for the key currently selected on the keyboard 14.1 (the selected key), (2) the scan code associated with the selected key and received from the keyboard 14.1, and (3) an indication of the input state of the selected key (a Key_Down indication). In response to receiving the key message passed by the input management director 34.3 at block 138, the predictive text entry system 34.1 invokes the applicable expanded functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1 available in association with the particular keyboard input received. For instance, with reference to FIG. 6, when the “space bar” keyboard input is received by the predictive text entry system 34.1 while the predictive text entry system 34.1 has logical input focus, the predictive text entry system 34.1 is configured to allow for use of alphanumeric keys on the keyboard as navigational keys to navigate one or more lists of completion candidates while the space bar remains selected. In the first embodiment, the selection of the “space bar” (where the space bar is shown selected at block 42) for a period of time sufficient to have the redirection timer fire (reach or exceed T1) results in logical input focus being assigned to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for so long as the space bar remains selected. While the predictive text entry system 34.1 continues to have logical input focus in this case, other alphanumeric keys can be used according to their enhanced functionality as made available by the predictive text entry system 34.1. For illustration purposes, a summary of the enhanced functionality of the alphanumeric keys in association with the predictive text entry system 34.1 is set out below: ‘a’, ‘s’, ‘d’, ‘f’, and ‘g’ keys behave as the down arrow key, which are used to select the next member from the list of completion candidates supplied by the predictive text entry system 34.1 and displayed in a graphical user interface; ‘q’, ‘w’, ‘e’, ‘r’, and ‘t’ keys behave as the up arrow key, which are used to select a previous member from the list of completion candidates supplied by the predictive text entry system 34.1 and displayed in a graphical user interface; ‘h’, ‘j’, ‘k’, ‘l’, ‘;’ and ‘′’ keys behave as the right arrow key, which are used to activate the current selected completion candidate in the aforementioned list of completion candidates; and ‘y’, ‘u’, ‘i’, ‘o’, and ‘p’ keys behave as the left arrow key, which are used to undo or correct the recent activation of a completion candidate in the aforementioned list of completion candidates. Similarly, when another alphanumeric key, other than the space bar, such as the letter “d” or “i” (see block 44 of FIG. 7), is selected for a period of time sufficient to have the redirection timer fire (i.e. reach or exceed T1), the logical input focus will switch from the first process 30 to the predictive text entry system 34.1 and the enhanced functionality provided for alphanumeric keys by the predictive text entry system 34.1 becomes available to the user. This is illustrated in FIG. 7. In general, the alphanumeric keys, other than the alphanumeric key that triggered the switch of logical input focus to the predictive text entry system 34.1, may be used according to the enhanced functionality provided for in association with such alphanumeric keys by the predictive text entry system 34.1 while the predictive text entry system 34.1 continues to have logical input focus. Referring back to block 130 of FIG. 4, if the input management director 34.3 determines at block 130 that the predictive text entry system 34.1 has not been assigned logical input focus when keyboard input is received, then processing proceeds to block 140. At block 140 the input management director 34.3 determines whether, based on the state of the keyboard input currently received, the redirection timer should be started. If the keyboard input currently received is determined at block 140 to have a keyboard input state indicating that a key has been selected, then the redirection timer is started at block 144. In the first embodiment, the keyboard input currently received has a keyboard input state indicating that a key has been selected when the Key_Down state is identified in connection with the keyboard input currently received. Once the redirection timer is commenced, the keyboard input currently received is, at block 146, passed on in the form of a key message to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for processing by the predictive engine of the predictive text entry system 34.1 in order to keep the prediction engine up-to-date with the keyboard input being received from the keyboard 14.1. Note more generally that the redirection timer is activated (started) when a key on the keyboard 14.1 is selected (a Key_Down event) and, once activated, the redirection timer is deactivated (cleared) once a Key_Up event is received in association with the same key that initiated the activation of the redirection timer. If the keyboard input currently received by the input management director 34.3 is determined at block 140 to not have a keyboard input state indicating that a key has been selected, then the redirection timer is cleared at block 142 if the keyboard input state is identified as Key_Up. Following block 142, the keyboard input currently received is, at block 146, passed on in the form of a key message to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for processing by the predictive engine of the predictive text entry system 34.1 in order to keep the prediction engine up-to-date with the keyboard input being received from the keyboard 14.1. It will be noted that for the embodiment illustrated the second process 34 serves as a function expander, providing additional functionality relevant to the operation of the first process 30. While the second process 34 has logical input focus, the user is able to make use of the additional functionality provided by the second process 34 to enhance the use of the first process 30 in ways that would not otherwise be available without the presence of the second process 34. From a programming perspective, using the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 as a mechanism to redirect keyboard input to the second process 34 so that additional functionality can be accessed and used by the user in connection with the first process 30 enables the programming framework to be highly adaptive to a wide range of function enhancing (or function adding) processes (such as predictive text entry system 34.1) configured to provide additional functionality in association with the first process 30. With this approach, additional function enhancing processes can be configured independent of the process that is to have its functionality enhanced (the target process, i.e. the second process 34), preferably without having to modify the programming code of the target process or application in question. In the first embodiment, as described above, the user will continue to have access to the additional functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, the second process 34) provided the user continues to keep the input key on the keyboard 34.1 selected that was used to invoke redirection of the keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1. Once the user deselects the selected key that triggered redirection of the keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1, the input management system 20 is configured to redirect further keyboard input to the first process 30 and the functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1 controllable from the keyboard 14.1 becomes, from the user's perspective, temporarily unavailable, at least until keyboard input is once again redirected to the predictive text entry system 34.1. In certain cases, it may be tiring to a user to have to keep the key that triggered redirection selected in order to maintain access to the functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1. To address this issue where it may be desired, in a variation to the first embodiment the key that triggered the redirection of keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally the second process 34) need not remain selected in order for the user to maintain access to the functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1 once keyboard input has been redirected to the predictive text entry system 34.1. In this variation, the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 are configured to continue redirecting keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1 until the input management director 34.3 receives keyboard input in the form of a predetermined key entry or sequence that is recognized as an instruction from the user to redirect keyboard input back to the first process 30 (or to another third process). In this variation, logical input focus, once assigned to predictive text entry system 34.1 would not be reassigned to the first process 30 unless the predetermined key entry or sequence was identified by the input management director 34.3. In this way, the user can continue to use the enhanced functionality of the predictive text entry system 34.1 without having to keep the key selected that triggered redirection of keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1. An embodiment of this variation is illustrated with reference to FIGS. 3 and 17 (where FIG. 17 is a variation of FIG. 4). The particular embodiment illustrated with FIGS. 3 and 17 operates largely in the manner described above for the first embodiment (with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4). However, in the embodiment illustrated with FIGS. 3 and 17, the input management director 34.3 is configured to recognize selection of a predetermined key entry as an indication of a redirection cancellation command at block 132A. In this case, it is the identification of the new selection of the predetermined entry key (i.e. in a Key_Down state), after redirection to the predictive text entry system 34.1 has taken place, that results in processing to proceed to blocks 134 and 136 where the input management director 34.3 is configured to pass the redirection cancellation request (also referred to as a termination request) to the predictive text entry system 34.1 (also referred to as PredictionLogic) and to set the logical input focus to the first process 30 by setting the redirection flag to “OFF”. In response to being passed the redirection cancellation request, the predictive text entry system 34.1 is configured to terminate the availability of the selection functionality provided by the predictive text entry system 34.1 while it is assigned logical input focus and to send the selected completion candidate (if any has been selected by the user using the predictive text entry system 34.1 while it was assigned logical input focus) to the last recorded process (e.g. the first process 30) that previously received keyboard input. Note with variation shown in FIG. 17 it is not necessary to record the pressed last key pressed at block 150B (a variation of block 150 in FIG. 4) since a predetermined redirection cancellation key is used. Additional Aspects and Features The input management system 20 can include a variety of aspects and features to further enhance functionality and flexibility for the user, in addition to the various aspects and features discussed above in this specification. Furthermore, as with the aspects and features described above with reference to the earlier embodiments, each of the following aspects and features individually provides a beneficial enhancement and is an embodiment of the present invention. These additional aspects and features will now be described below. As before, the following aspects and features can be applied to or used with many types of personal computing devices and can be stored as computer-readable instructions in one or more types of computer-readable media. Context Sensitive Approach with Multiple Function Expanders Referring to FIGS. 8, 9 and 10, there is shown a further embodiment. In this further embodiment, there is shown a context-sensitive mechanism for redirection of input from a keyboard-type device in which the mechanism is adapted for use with multiple function expander processes (illustrated by processes 34.1, 35, 36, 37 and 38). In this case, the input management director 34.3 operates in the manner described above with reference to the first embodiment (see FIG. 3), with registered messages comprising information associated with keyboard input being sent to the input management director 34.3 at the equivalent of blocks 102, 106 and 116 of FIG. 3. Referring to FIG. 9, the input management director 34.3 monitors for a redirection event block 148. As with the first embodiment, a redirection timer is used, which is activated at block 144 when an alphanumeric key is identified at block 140 with a Key_Down state. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 8, 9 and 10, the input management director 34.3 collects information associated with keyboard input, such as the virtual key code and the input state (Key_Up or Key_Down), at block 146A so that the collected information can be sent to an expander process once a redirection event occurs (block 148) and such an expander process is selected to receive the collected information, as described below. Once the redirection timer is activated at block 144 and the input management director 34.3 detects a redirection event at block 148, this results in the redirection flag being set to “ON” and the redirection cancellation key being recorded at block 150. In addition, at block 152 processing proceeds to block 160 in FIG. 10 where the input management director 34.3 checks for and displays registered expanders with an interest in the detected redirection event. More particularly, at block 160 the input management director 34.3 checks to see whether the detected redirection event associated with the selected key has been flagged by one or more registered expanders as an indication that the keyboard input can be redirected to those one or more registered expanders. An example of a lookup table listing registered expanders is shown in FIG. 11. Registered expanders that have flagged the detected redirection event as an indication that the keyboard input can be redirected to those one or more registered expanders are also referred to here as registered expanders that have an interest in the detected redirection event. If any registered expanders are found with an interest in the detected redirection event, then they are displayed at block 160 in a user interface for potential selection by the user. At block 162 the input management director 34.3 monitors whether or not the user has selected one of the registered expanders displayed, and if a user selection of one of the displayed registered expanders is identified, processing proceeds to block 164 where the collected information associated with keyboard input is passed on to the selected expander process and a flag is set directing the input management director 34.3 to send future keyboard input to the selected expander process until a redirection cancellation request is identified, leading to the processing at blocks 134A and 136. At block 134A, a termination request is sent to the selected expander instructing the selected expander that it will no longer have logical input focus. The input management director 34.3 also preferably waits for a confirmation instruction from the selected expander, confirming that the termination request has been received. Waiting for the confirmation instruction provides the selected expander with time to conclude its use of the keyboard input in an orderly manner. In yet another variation, where multiple expander processes are used (such as illustrated in FIG. 8), the redirection cancellation key associated with the applicable expander process to which redirection has occurred can be determined by looking (such as at block 160 of FIG. 10) at a lookup table or the like for the redirection cancellation key associated with the applicable expander. In this further variation, each expander process can register with the input management system 20 so that the redirection cancellation key applicable to each particular expander process can be recorded in a lookup table or the like. This can be done, for instance, by expanding the table in FIG. 11 to include a field for each registered expander which indicates a predetermined redirection cancellation key associated with the respective registered expander. In this way, various redirection cancellation keys (the same or different) can be used to bring redirection of keyboard input to a particular expander process to an end. In another variation of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 8, 9 and 10, the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, the second process 34) is configured to provide an interface to multiple expander processes potentially available for user selection, as illustrated in FIG. 12. Key-Based Repetition Indications Referring to FIGS. 13 and 14, there is shown yet a further embodiment. In this further embodiment, the input management system 20 (FIG. 1) uses the logical input focus mechanism described earlier in this specification in order to direct and redirect the keyboard input from one process to another. However, in the further embodiment shown in FIGS. 13 and 14 the input management system 20 uses the repetition indications associated with the keyboard input events (or more generally, input key events) to determine whether or not a redirection request has been made, rather than the redirection timer technique described in the first embodiment. Thus, when a key on the keyboard 14.1 remains selected for a sufficient period of time, an automated repeat feature is activated and the key received by the operating system 22 is flagged with a repetition indication. This can be done, for example, either by the operating system 22, using for example the applicable keyboard device driver, or by the keyboard 14.1 itself (in which case the key and the associated repetition indication are then interpreted by the applicable keyboard device driver). When keyboard input is received by the input management system 20 it is processed in a manner similar to that described in the first embodiment. However, if the keyboard input received has been flagged with a repetition indication, then, in this further embodiment, at block 120 of FIG. 13, the input management system 20 determines whether or not the keyboard input received and flagged with the repetition indication is the first repeated instance of the keyboard input. For greater certainty, in this further embodiment the first repeated instance of a keyboard input occurs when the same keyboard input is received for the second time in a row by the input management system 20 but now flagged with the repetition indication. If the keyboard input received is the first repeated instance of that keyboard input, then processing proceeds to block 122 where a registered message associated with the keyboard input is sent to the input management director 34.3. In this case, the registered message sent to the input management director 34.3 comprises (1) the virtual key code for key currently selected on the keyboard 14.1 (the selected key), (2) the scan code associated with the selected key and received from the keyboard 14.1, (3) the Key_Down indication (in the form of a Key_Down flag) associated with the selected key, (4) the repetition indication (in the form of a ON/OFF flag), and (5) a repetition number indicating the amount of repetitions collected by the keyboard 14.1 before the input management system 20 was notified). If, at block 120, the keyboard input received is found to not be the first repeated instance of that keyboard input, then the input management system 20 filters out the keyboard input by not passing it on for further processing. Keyboard input is preferably filtered out in this way when the repeated instance of the keyboard input is not the first repeated instance so as to provide a consistent user input state while redirection of keyboard input to the second process 34 is taking place. Referring to FIG. 14, registered messages received by the input management director 34.3 from the input management system 20 are treated as keyboard input and evaluated largely in the same way as described in the first embodiment with reference to FIG. 4. However, since the repetition indications associated with keyboard input are used in place of a redirection timer, the input management director 34.3 checks at block 141 for a repetition indication associated with the keyboard input currently received. If the keyboard input currently received by the input management director 34.3 is found to have the repetition indication at block 141, then processing proceeds to block 150 where the redirection flag in the input management system 20 is set to “ON” and the redirection cancellation key is recorded. If the keyboard input currently received by the input management director 34.3 is found to not have the repetition indication at block 141, then the keyboard input currently received is, in the form of a key message, passed on at block 146 to the predictive text entry system 34.1 for further processing. Note that since the input management system 20 preferably filters out repeated instances of the keyboard input other than the first repeated instance of the keyboard input, if the input management director 34.3 determines at block 141 that the keyboard input currently received has the repetition indication associated with it, the input management director 34.3 will know that keyboard input currently received is the first repeated instance in a row of that keyboard input. In yet another variation, the further embodiment shown in FIGS. 13 and 14 can be implemented without using logical input focus to manage redirection of keyboard input. In this variation, the input management system 20 operates in the same manner as with the embodiment shown in FIG. 13. However, the input management director 34.3, as shown in FIG. 15, is configured to reassign, at block 150A, system-level input focus from the first process 30 to the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, to the second process 34) in response to detection at block 141 that the keyboard input currently received by the input management director 34.3 has a repetition indication. In this variation, the input management director 34.3 is also configured to assign system-level input focus back to the first process 30 in response to a redirection cancellation request being received. In FIG. 15, system-level input focus is assigned back to the first process 30 at block 136A. In this variation, when Windows™ is used, the system-level input focus is assigned and reassigned using the AttachThreadinput function, the SetActiveWindow function, the SetFocus function and the SetForegroundWindow function, provided by Windows™. Referring to FIG. 16, in a variation of the first embodiment (shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3 and 4), logical input focus is not used to manage redirection of keyboard input. In this variation, the redirection timer is still used, as is the case in the first embodiment. In this variation, the input management system 20 continues to operate in the same manner as with the first embodiment (described earlier in connection with FIG. 3). However, the input management director 34.3, as shown in FIG. 16, is configured to reassign, at block 150A, system-level input focus from the first process 30 to the predictive text entry system 34.1 in response to detection of a redirection event at block 148. The input management director 34.3 is also configured to assign system-level input focus back to the first process 30 in response to a redirection cancellation request being received. In FIG. 16, system-level input focus is assigned back to the first process 30 at block 136A. In this variation, when Windows™ is used, the system-level input focus is assigned and reassigned using the AttachThreadInput function, the SetActiveWindow function, the SetFocus function and the SetForegroundWindow function, provided by Windows™. Rapid Dictionary Updates Using Control-C Referring to FIGS. 18 and 19, in another aspect, when the predictive text entry system 34.1 is used, such as in the first embodiment, a character sequence already displayed in an editor window of an applicable process (such as the word processor representing first process 30) can be made readily available for addition to a dictionary used by the predictive text entry system 34.1 by having the input management system 20 monitoring for a keyboard event indicating that control-C has been selected for predetermined time limit T1. As illustrated in FIG. 18, in this variation, the input management system 20 checks at block 100A the input state of the control key. In Windows™, this is done by invoking the GetKeyState function provided by Windows™ to determine whether the control key is currently selected. At block 100B, the input management system 20 checks to see whether no control key has been selected or whether the control-C key has been selected. If either the control key has not been selected or the control-C key in particular has been selected, processing proceeds to block 100 where the input management system 20 will check whether redirection has been request as with the first embodiment. Note that keyboard input received by the input management system 20 that is not selected in conjunction with the control key, such as ordinary alphanumeric characters and the like, will be passed on to block 100 and processed by the input management system 20 in the manner described above for the first embodiment. If the control-C input sequence is identified at block 100B, the input management system 20 the control-C input sequence will be processed via blocks 100, 104 and 110 (as applicable). On the other hand, if the control key is selected with a key other than “C”, then any characters selected in conjunction with the control key will be passed on for use by the first process 30 via block 103. If the control-C input sequence is detected at block 100B and a redirection request for keyboard input is detected at block 100, then the C entries in conjunction with the control key are passed on to the input management director 34.3 in the form of registered messages at block 102. The input management director 34.3 will, in this case, simply ignore the repeated C entries (after the first instance of C) received in conjunction with the control key. If the control-C input sequence is detected at block 100B and but no redirection request for keyboard input is detected at block 100, then processing proceeds to block 104 where, if a redirection indication is detected in the manner described in the first embodiment, processing proceeds to block 105. If the control-C input sequence is identified at block 105, the input management system 20 passes the control-C input sequence on to the operating system 22 by calling the CallNextHookEx function. In this way, the first process 30 can act upon the control-C input sequence by placing a copy of the selected character sequence (if any) into the clipboard managed by Windows XP™ (or more generally, by the operating system 22). If the control-C input sequence is not identified at block 105, then the keyboard input is sent as a registered message to the input management director 34.3 in the ordinary manner described above for the first embodiment. In this variation, if the control-C input sequence is selected long enough by the user, the keyboard 14.1 starts an automatic repeat feature, flagging keyboard input events with a repetition indication. When the first occurrence of the repetition of the control-C input sequence is identified by the input management system 20 at block 111, a registered message indicating a control-C event is sent at block 113 to the input management director 34.3. The input management director 34.3 will, at block 139, identify the registered message indicating a control C event, and in response will, at block 150A, set the redirection flag and record the redirection cancellation key (in this case the key associated with the letter “c”) for the purposes of identifying when redirection should stop and keyboard input should be sent to the first process 30. Once this is carried out, the predictive text entry system 34.1 starts a dialog window displaying the content captured in the clipboard by the control-C input sequence and questions the user whether this content should be added to a dictionary used by the predictive text entry system 34.1. Multilingual Display In another aspect, the predictive text entry system 34.1 (or more generally, the second process 34) is configured to display variations of a character selected by the user in response to a redirection event in which keyboard input is redirected to the predictive text entry system 34.1. In this case, when an alphanumeric key on the keyboard 14.1 is selected for predetermined time limit T1, keyboard input is redirected from the first process 30 to input management director 34.3. The input management director 34.3 checks at block 130 (FIG. 4) that logical input focus has been redirected, in the same manner as described above for the first embodiment. In response to determining that logical input focus has been redirected to the predictive text entry system 34.1, the input management director 34.3 passes the keyboard input to the predictive text entry system 34.1 which identifies the keyboard input, and, if the keyboard input is associated with selection of an alphanumeric key, then the predictive text entry system 34.1 retrieves and displays a list of available variations of the alphanumeric key for user selection. The available variations of the alphanumeric key for user selection include preferably a set of variations representing a plurality of ways in which the alphanumeric key can be displayed, including variations of the alphanumeric key having accents used in certain languages. For illustration purposes, a selectable list of available variations of the alphanumeric character “a” is shown displayed in FIG. 20, in response to the letter “a” being selected for the predetermined time limit T1. When a particular variation of the alphanumeric character “a” is selected, it will replace the corresponding alphanumeric character “a” in the text editor window of the first process 30. Alternative Character Sets In the first embodiment, the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 use alphanumeric characters that are selected for a predetermined period of time as the trigger for a redirection of keyboard input from the first process 30 to the second process 34. In another aspect of the present invention, the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 can be configured to use other character sets to serve as the trigger for a redirection of keyboard input. In this variation, redirection of keyboard input is triggered by the selection of a character from another character set for the predetermined period of time. In this variation, the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 can be configured to support any set of characters which the user may then select and use to enter text into the personal computing device 10. The terms “character set” and “set of characters” refer to a set containing a plurality of letters, numbers and/or other typographic symbols. Examples of character sets include, but are not limited to, one or more alphabets of a written language (for example, English, French, German, Spanish, Italian, Chinese, or Japanese), and binary-coded character sets such as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interexchange Code), BCD (Binary Coded Decimal), and Unicode. Pointer-Type Events In another variation of the first embodiment, when a virtual keyboard is used in place of the physical keyboard 14.1, selection and deselection of keys on the virtual keyboard are preferably communicated directly to the predictive text entry system 34.1. Pointer-type devices such as a stylus and a mouse are used to generate pointer-type input events. In general, pointer-type input events comprise information identifying the state of the pointer-type device, for example, the “up” state or no contact state, and the “down” state or contact state. In addition, selection and deselection of a completion candidate display in a graphical user interface, through the use of a pointer-type device, will also preferably result in communication of the pointer-type input events directly to the predictive text entry system 34.1. In response to receiving a pointer-type input event, the predictive text entry system 34.1 in this variation is configured to verify whether the pointer-type input event is associated with a recognizable region of the touch sensitive screen. If the pointer-type input event is not associated with the recognizable region of the touch sensitive screen, the predictive text entry system 34.1 simply ignores the event. If the pointer-type input event is associated with the recognizable region of the touch sensitive screen, the predictive text entry system 34.1 translates the pointer-type input event into a translated event representing (a) an equivalent input key event if the pointer-type input event is associated with selection or deselection of a key on the virtual keyboard, or (b) an unrecognized input key event if the pointer-type input event is associated with selection or deselection of a completion candidate displayed in the graphical user interface. Equivalent input key events are passed on to the input management director 34.3 for processing, which processes such equivalent input key events following the logic described in the first embodiment above with reference to FIG. 4. After an equivalent input key event is processed by the input management director 34.3, it is passed back to the predictive text entry system 34.3, which determines whether the output related to this input key event needs to be sent to the process with system-level input focus in the form of character messages. Note here that the predictive text entry system 34.1 continues to use on the focus recorder, as in the first embodiment, to decide where the input associated with the selected completion candidate or virtual key (as the case may be) should be sent. In the variation immediately above, continued selection of a virtual key on the virtual keyboard using a pointer-type device (such as a stylus or mouse) preferably results in the redirection process being triggered as described in the first embodiment with reference to FIG. 4. Here a pointer-type input event identifying an “up” state for the associated pointer-type device will initiate the process of redirection cancellation described in the first embodiment with reference to FIG. 4. In another alternative variation, the virtual keyboard can operate as a separate entity from the predictive text entry system 34.1. With this arrangement, where the virtual keyboard produces input key events as a result of key selection and deselection, similar to a physical keyboard, the input management system 20 (as in the first embodiment) preferably monitors for selections and deselections of keys from the virtual keyboard. An example of such a virtual keyboard is the On-Screen keyboard provided by Windows XP™. Enhanced Keyboard-Type Device Referring to FIGS. 21 and 22, in yet another aspect, there is provided an enhanced keyboard-type device 200. In this aspect, the enhanced keyboard-type device comprises: (a) a plurality of user input signal generators for producing first input signals in response to user actuation thereof; (b) a display device; and (c) a processor circuit in communication with the display device and the user input signal generators. In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 21 and 22, the plurality of user input signal generators comprises a plurality of keys, and more particularly, a plurality of physical keys represented by keyboard 206, which operates as an ordinary keyboard. In this embodiment, the display device comprises a touch-screen display which is represented by touch sensitive screen 210. The processor circuit is illustrated in FIG. 21 and comprises, in the embodiment shown, a processing unit 202 (for example, a CPU) connected via bus 201 to a computer readable medium 218. The computer-readable medium 218 provides a memory store for computer programs and data located in the enhanced keyboard-type device 200, including, in this embodiment, input management system 20, operating system 22A, and second process 34 (represented by the predictive text entry system 34.1A). The computer-readable medium 218 can include one or more types of computer-readable media including volatile memory such as Random Access Memory (RAM), and non-volatile memory, such as a hard disk or Read Only Memory (ROM). In the embodiment shown, the computer-readable medium 218 comprises RAM, ROM and flash memory. Like the predictive text entry system 34.1 in the first embodiment, the predictive text entry system 34.1A is an application configured to predict and retrieve predictive text completion candidates (or completion candidates) from a dictionary by determining which predictive text completion candidates in the dictionary are more likely to be the ones that the user is attempting to type based on the characters in the partial text entry generated by the user. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 21 and 22, the predictive text entry system 34.1A is configured to operate on the enhanced keyboard-type device 200. Note that other types of user programs, such as a calculator or thesaurus, can also be stored in the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 and used in connection with the input management system 20. The processor circuit shown in FIG. 21 is configured to: (i) generate a plurality of predictive text completion candidates in response to the first input signals produced by the user input signal generators in response to user actuation thereof and to display the plurality of predictive text completion candidates on the display device; and (ii) communicate (via interface 214) at least one of the predictive text completion candidates to a personal computing device remote from the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 in response to user selection of the at least one of the predictive text completion candidates. Thus, the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 provides both a mechanism for providing keyboard-type input (input signals) generated through user actuation of the keyboard 206 to the remote personal computing device and a mechanism for processing the keyboard-type input using the processor circuit so that predictive text completion candidates can be displayed on the touch sensitive screen 210 and are available for user selection and transmission to the remote personal computing device for processing by a remote computer program running on the remote personal computing device. Preferably, such processing includes inserting the user selected predictive text completion candidate in a text editor window provided by the remote computer program and displayed on a remote display device associated with the remote personal computing device. The user can provide user input to the remote personal computing device using either the keyboard 206 or the touch sensitive screen 210. The keyboard 206 operates in a similar way as the keyboard 14.1 in the first embodiment. Each selection of a key and each deselection of a key on the keyboard 206 will result in a scan code being sent by the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 to the remote personal computing device. However selections and deselections of keys on the keyboard 206 will also be received as input key events by the input management system 20 operating within the keyboard-type device 200. In response to receiving such input key events, the input management system 20 is configured to process the input key events according to the flow diagram shown in FIG. 24. The logical flow of the operation of the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3 for the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is shown in FIGS. 24 and 25. In this embodiment, the predictive text entry system 34.1A, which is running on the enhanced keyboard-type device 200, is configured to display on a display area on the touch sensitive screen 210 a plurality of predictive text completion candidates for user selection, wherein the plurality of predictive text completion candidates are generated by the predictive text entry system 34.1A based on the contents of an input string generated from the input key events received by the predictive text entry system 34.1A from the keyboard 206. The enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is also configured to direct the input key events being sent to the remote personal computing device instead to the input management system 20 in response to identifying (detecting) a first predefined input key event for at least a predetermined time period T1. In the present embodiment, the first predefined input key event is the selection of an alphanumeric key on the keyboard 206 for a predetermined time period T1. The detection of a first predefined input key event for at least a predetermined time period T1 represents a redirection event. In the embodiment shown, a redirection timer is used to determine if the first predefined input key event is detected for predetermined time period T1. In response to detection of the redirection event, the input management system 20 is configured to set a redirection flag to “ON” (see blocks 148 and 150) and to direct all user input (in the form of input key events) to the input management director 34.3 located within the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 (in the illustrative embodiment, embedded within the predictive text entry system 34.1A) effectively stopping the flow of keystrokes to the remote personal computing device from the keyboard 206 for so long as the redirection event is not terminated (canceled). During the redirection event, the input management director 34.3 is configured to pass the input key events (in the form of keyboard messages) on to the predictive text entry system 34.1A at block 138C. The predictive text entry system 34.1A in turn is configured to update the list of available predictive text completion candidates for display in the touch sensitive screen 210 based on the input key events received from the input management director 34.3. When the user selects a predictive text completion candidate displayed on the touch sensitive screen 210 a “mouse down” event (more generally, a “point device down” event) will be received by the predictive text entry system 34.1A. Continuing selection of the selected predictive text completion candidate will trigger the redirection event once the redirection timer (set at block 144 of FIG. 25) reaches the predetermined time period T1. The predictive text entry system 34.1A is configured to treat reception of a “mouse up” event as detection of a redirection cancellation event. In the present embodiment, the “mouse up” event indicates the occurrence of the redirection cancellation event and is identified at block 132 of FIG. 25 as a redirection cancellation required. If the redirection cancellation event is detected (in the form of a redirection cancellation request), the input management director 34.3 is configured to pass at block 134C a termination request (representing an indication of the redirection cancellation event) to the predictive text entry system 34.1A so that the predictive text entry system 34.1A can finalize its selection (if any) of a predictive text completion candidate from the list of predictive text completion candidates displayed in the touch sensitive screen 210. In this case, if a predictive text completion candidate is selected when a redirection cancellation event occurs, it will be transmitted by the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 to the remote personal computing device for use by a remote program operating on the remote personal computing device. Transmission of the selected predictive text completion candidate (where one is selected) comprises sending a sequence of associated scan codes for each character of the selected predictive text completion candidate to the remote personal computing device where the sequence of scan codes represent the selection and deselection of keys for the selected predictive text completion candidate in the same way that such scan codes would represent the selection and deselection of keys for the sequence of characters making up the selected predictive text completion candidate had the sequence of characters been typed by the user using simply the keyboard 206. In response to detecting a redirection cancellation event at block 132 (of FIG. 25), the input management director 34.3 is also configured to instruct the input management system 20 to direct further input key events received from the keyboard 206 to the remote personal computing device. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 21, 22, 24 and 25, this is performed by clearing the redirection flag at block 136. The particular embodiment illustrated with FIGS. 24 and 25 operates largely in the manner described above for the first embodiment (with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4). However, in the embodiment illustrated with FIGS. 24 and 25, the user input management system 20 is configured to send a scan code to the remote personal computing device at blocks 102, 108 and 118. As well, in the embodiment shown with FIGS. 24 and 25 system-level input focus is not recorded and therefore there is no need to use a focus recorder such as is used in the first embodiment. Instead the input management director 34.3 is configured in FIG. 25 to check whether the redirection flag is set at block 130A. In addition, the input management director 34.3 is configured at blocks 138C and 146C to pass input key event currently received (ie. keyboard input current received) from the input management system 20 to the predictive text entry system 34.1A in the form of a key message. Preferably, events generated through operation of the touch sensitive screen 210 (e.g. mouse down and mouse up events) are immediately received by the predictive text entry system 34.1A, bypassing the input management system 20 and the input management director 34.3. In this case, when a mouse up event is received by the predictive text entry system 34.1A while the redirection flag is set to “ON”, the predictive text entry system 34.1A is configured to notify the input management director 34.3 that a redirection cancellation event has occurred, in which case processing proceeds according to blocks 132, 134C and 136. On start-up of the enhanced keyboard-type device 200, the user selects the user-preferred keyboard layout available on the portable keyboard, which should be known and selected on the remote personal computing device. In this manner both the remote personal computing device as well as the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 are in synch insofar as the scan codes being used, when these scan codes are sent from the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 to the remote personal computing device following user input. The arrangement of the keys for this keyboard layout can vary according to the user's preference. The communication between the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 and the remote personal computing device occurs in the form of scan codes. The enhanced keyboard-type device 200 generates two scan codes when the user types a key, one when the user presses the key and another when the user releases the key. This technique is well known art in the industry. In the above embodiment, the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is configured to send the scan codes representing a selected predictive text completion candidate to the remote personal computing device at a rate that the remote personal computing device is able to handle. It will be noted that the above embodiment (shown in FIGS. 21, 22, 24 and 25) separates a portion of the input processing and associated data from the remote personal computing device that the keyboard-type input and associated data (e.g. completion candidates, if selected) will be used upon. In one aspect, this provides an operating system-independent way of storing and using a prediction system. In another aspect, this provides an improved set of functionality on the enhanced keyboard-type device 200, allowing for a more intelligent keyboard. In another aspect, the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is also portable and adaptive to different types of remote personal computing devices. In an alternative arrangement, a plurality of operating system-specific configurations of the predictive text entry system 34.1 and at least one instance of the data associated with predictive text entry system 34.1 can be stored on an external computer-readable medium (such as a removable USB drive) configured to communicate with the enhanced keyboard-type device 200. In this arrangement, the operating system running on the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is one of the operating systems for which there is an operating system-specific configuration of the predictive text entry system 34.1 stored on the external computer-readable medium. The enhanced keyboard-type device 200 in this case is configured to operate the operating system-specific configuration of the predictive text entry system 34.1 from the external computer-readable medium if it is available and to use the associated data (e.g. a dictionary comprising predictive text completion candidates) located on the external computer-readable medium. In this alternative arrangement, the external computer-readable medium is adapted to be disconnected (decouplable) from the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 and to be connected (couplable) directly to the remote personal computing device for operation and use of the predictive text entry system 34.1 directly on the remote personal computing device. Preferably, the external computer-readable medium is adapted to be connected to a second physical instance of the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 for use and operation of that second physical instance in connection with one or more remote personal computing devices. In this arrangement, the data associated with the predictive text entry system 34.1 can also be stored on the external computer-readable medium. Moreover, as one or more of the operating system-specific configurations of the predictive text entry system 34.1 located on the external computer-readable medium are used, the associated data (such as the dictionary) is preferably updated whenever the predictive text entry system 34.1 is instructed to update its dictionary. In this way, a very portable input system is available to the user, containing personal data associated with one or more of the operating system-specific configurations of the predictive text entry system 34.1 so that the user-specific configuration of the one or more of the operating system-specific configurations of the predictive text entry system 34.1 can be used on any type of personal computing device compatible with the external computer-readable medium. In another variation of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 21, 22, 24 and 25, as illustrated in FIG. 23, the display device of the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 comprises a touch-screen display, and the plurality of user input signal generators comprises a plurality of virtual keys which comprise a plurality of respective portions of a touch-sensitive surface of the touch-screen display. In the arrangement shown in FIG. 23, the keyboard 206A is a virtual keyboard displayed on touch-sensitive screen 210A. In yet another variation of the embodiment shown in FIGS. 21, 22, 24 and 25, the enhanced keyboard-type device 200 is configured to receive display information from the remote personal computing device and to display such display information on a touch-sensitive portion of the display device of the enhanced keyboard-type device 200. This can be advantageous when a mouse cursor needs to be positioned on a screen. Although this invention has been described with reference to illustrative and preferred embodiments of carrying out the invention, this description is not to be construed in a limiting sense. Various modifications of form, arrangement of parts, steps, details and order of operations of the embodiments illustrated, as well as other embodiments of the invention, will be apparent to persons skilled in the art upon reference to this description. It is therefore contemplated that the appended claims will cover such modifications and embodiments as fall within the true scope of the invention. | <SOH> FIELD OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to a method, system, apparatus and computer-readable media for directing input associated with a keyboard-type device. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a computer-implemented method of processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad. In this aspect, the method comprises: (a) receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) in response to identifying the first predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process; (d) monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) in response to identifying the second predefined input key event, redirecting the input key events to another process. Many variations of this method are contemplated, as described further in this specification. There is also provided a computer-readable medium having stored instructions for use in execution of the aforementioned method and its variations. In another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a system for processing input key events associated with user input received from a keyboard-type device, the keyboard-type device selected from at least one of a keyboard and a keypad. In one arrangement, the system comprises: (a) means for receiving input key events associated with a first process active within an operating system; (b) means for monitoring the input key events for a first predefined input key event associated with user selection of a first key of the keyboard-type device for at least a predetermined time period; (c) means for redirecting the input key events from the first process to a second process in response to identifying the first predefined input key event; (d) means for monitoring the input key events for a second predefined input key event associated with further redirection of the input key events; and (e) means for redirecting the input key events to another process in response to identifying the second predefined input key event. In yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a keyboard-type device comprising: (a) a plurality of user input signal generators for producing first input signals in response to user actuation thereof; (b) a display device; (c) a processor circuit in communication with said display device and said user input signal generators, said processor circuit configured to: (i) generate a plurality of predictive text completion candidates in response to said first input signals and display said plurality of predictive text completion candidates on said display device; and (ii) communicate at least one of said predictive text completion candidates to a personal computing device remote from the keyboard-type device in response to user selection of the at least one of said predictive text completion candidates. Several other aspects and features of the present invention will become apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review of the following description of specific embodiments of the invention in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | 20050113 | 20131008 | 20060713 | 68978.0 | G09G500 | 10 | PERVAN, MICHAEL | METHOD, SYSTEM, APPARATUS AND COMPUTER-READABLE MEDIA FOR DIRECTING INPUT ASSOCIATED WITH KEYBOARD-TYPE DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G09G | 2,005 |
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11,036,274 | ACCEPTED | Method for pre-processing block based digital data | The present invention relates to a method for pre-processing block-based digital data, wherein a pre-processing step (S5, S6) is performed for each digital pixel (X) based on a respective data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j) for the respective data pixel (X) within at least one data block (DB) and wherein a step (S5) of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements or data filter matrices (Fk,j) is essentially based on operations of data shifting and/or register shifting only. | 1. Method for pre-processing block-based digital data, in particular block-based digital video data, wherein for at least one data block (DB) of digital data said data block (DB) being contained or embedded in a data arrangement or data matrix (DM1, . . . , DMn) of data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) for each data item or data pixel (X) of said data items or data pixels (DPk,j) of said at least one data block (DB) within said data arrangement or data matrix (DM1, . . . , DMn) a data sub-arrangement or data sub-matrix assigned for or to said respective data item or data pixel (X) within said respective data block (DB) of said data arrangement or data matrix (DM1, . . . , DMn) is used as a assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j), wherein a processing step (S5, S6) is performed for each of said data items or data pixels (DPk,j) based on the respective data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j) for the respective data item or data pixel (X) within said at least one data block (DB), and wherein a step (S5) of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices (Fk,j) is essentially based on opera-tions of data shifting and/or of register shifting only. 2. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data item or data pixel (X) and said assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j) are chosen to be based on a certain and/or fixed positional relationship with respect to each other and with respect to said respective data block (DB). 3. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data item or data pixel (X) is in a central region of the respective assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j). 4. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data item or data pixel (X) is the central data item or data pixel of the respective assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix (Fk,j). 5. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data arrangement or data matrix (DM1, . . . , DMn) has a rectangular form of a given certain number of lines or rows and of a given certain number of columns of data items or data pixels (DPk,j). 6. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data block (DB) is chosen and designed to have a given certain number M of lines or rows and a given certain number L of columns of M×L items or data pixels (DPk,j). 7. Method according to claim 1, wherein said data filter arrangement or said data filter matrix (Fk,j) has a rectangular form with a given certain—in particular odd—number K of lines or rows and a given certain—in particular odd—number J of columns of data items or data pixels (DPk,j). 8. Method according to claim 1, wherein said step (S5) of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices (Fk,j) and in particular said opera-tions of data shifting and/or said operations of register shifting are essentially based on and/or are essentially performed with respect to an embedding data block (EDB) which contains and/or embeds said respective data block (DB) to be pre-processed—or a copy (DB′) thereof—and said data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices (Fk,j) and which is common for all data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices (Fk,j)—or a copy (Fk,j′) thereof—assigned for each of said data items or data pixels (X) of said data block (DB) to be pre-processed. 9. Method according to claim 8, wherein said embedding data block (EDB) is chosen and/or designed to have a rectangular form of M+K−1 lines or rows and of L+J−1 columns of data items or data pixels (DPi,j) of said data arrangement and/or of said data matrices (DM1, . . . , DMn). 10. Method according to claim 8, wherein for all data filter arrangements and/or for all data filter matrices (Fk,j) for a given data block (DB) to be pre-processed a common and fixed filter mask area (FMA) within said embedding data block (EDB) is used for said step (S5) of select-ing, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices (Fk,j). 11. Method according to claim 10, wherein said filter mask area (FMA) is chosen and/or designed to be a simply connected corner block, in particular of rectangular form and/or of K lines or rows and of J columns of data items or data pixels (DPk,j) of said embedding data block (EDB). 12. Method according to claim 1, wherein said respective data block (DB) is pre-processed row by row, in particular starting with a top row of said data block (DB) to be pre-processed and/or in particular by pre-processing the rows or lines of said data block (DB) in their sequential order. 13. Method according to claim 12, wherein within each row or line the respective data items and/or data pixels (X) are pre-processed in their sequential order with respect to the columns of the data block (DB) to be pre-processed, in particular starting with a first or most left data item and/or data pixel (X) in the respective row or line. 14. Method according to claim 1, wherein within said step (S5) of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices (Fk,j) an order is used which corresponds to the order of pre-processing said respective data items and/or data pixels (X) within said respective data block (DB) to be pre-processed. 15. Method according to claim 14, wherein the data shift operations and/or the register shift operations are chosen from the group which consists from the following operations: (a) shift all data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) of the embedding data block (EDB) one step to the left, i.e. in each line (k=1, . . . , M+K−1) to the next lower indexed column (j:=j−1), in the case of a data item and/or a data pixel (DPk,j) of a first column (j=1) to the last column (j=L+J−1) of the next lower indexed row or line (k:=k−1), or cancel the respective data item and/or data pixel (DPk,j) from the embedding data block (EDB) if it is in the first column (j=1) of the first line (k=1), and (b) shift all data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) of the embedding data block (EDB) one row or line to the top, i.e. for each line (k=1, . . . , M+K−1) shift all data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) of the last L−1 columns J-times to the left, i.e. to the respective J-times lower indexed column (j:=j−J) and simultaneously for each but the first line (k=2, . . . , M+K−1) shift all data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) of the first J columns (j=1, . . . , J) to the last J columns (j=L, . . . , L+J−1) of the next lower indexed row or line (k:=k−1), for the first line (k=1) cancel the data item and/or data pixel (DPk,j) of the first J columns (j=1, . . . , J). 16. Method according to claim 15, wherein the step of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices (Fk,j) is realized by the following consecutive steps: generating and/or loading (S3) the respective embedding data block (EDB), pre-processing (S5, S6) the data block (DB) to be pre-processed starting with the most left upper data item and/or data pixel (DPk,j), i.e. with the data item and/or data pixel (DPk,j) with k=1, j=1 by using the section of the embed-ding data block (EDB) as a respective data filter arrangement and/or data filter matrix (Fk,j) which is given by and/or corresponding to the common filter mask area (FMA), and pre-processing (S5, S6) the further data items and/or data pixels (DPk,j) by sequentially (M−1)-times applying for each line (L−1)-times the shift operation (a) followed by an shift operation (b), and by using the section of the embedding data block (EDB) as a respective data filter arrangement, and/or data filter ma-trix (Fk,j) which is given by and/or corresponding to the common filter mask area (FMA) after each of said shift operations (a) and (b). 17. Method according to claim 1, wherein a shift register—in particular with the M+K−1 lines or rows and L+J−1 columns of pixel registers—is used to realize and/or to store said embedding data block (EDB) and in particular said common filter mask area (FMA). 18. Method according to claim 17, wherein each pixel register if provided with a 3-input multiplexer so as to select one of the shift operations (a) and/or (b). 19. Method according to claim 1, which if controlled or controllable by a state machine or a state machine process. 20. System for pre-processing block-based digital data, which is adapted and/or designed to realize the method for pre-processing block-based digital data according to claim 1. 21. Computer program product, comprising computer program means which is adapted to realize and/or to per-form the method for pre-processing block-based digital data according to claim 1. 22. Computer readable storage medium, comprising a computer program product according to claim 21. | The present invention relates to a method for pre-processing block-based digital data and in particular to a method for pre-processing block-based digital video data. More particular, the present invention relates to a method and a circuit for realizing a cash buffer for filtering block-based digital data and in particular block-based digital video data. The present invention applies to the field of processing digital data and in particular to the field of processing digital video data. In known video processing methods and video processing systems before processing said digital data and in particular said digital video data sometimes a data selection is necessary in the sense that provided digital data or provided digital video data to be processed based on a block structure have to be arranged and/or selected by building blocks of said digital data or said digital video data. Therefore, it is necessary to filter the incoming or provided digital data or digital video data in a two-dimensional manner, i.e. by using a digital spatial two-dimensional filter or two-dimensional FIR filter with respect to the provided or incoming digital data items or digital data pixels. It is an object of the present invention to provide a method for pre-processing digital data or digital video data and a system for realizing said method, which have a particular simple and reliable structure. The object is achieved by a method for pre-processing block-based digital data according to the characterizing features of independent claim 1. Preferred embodiments are defined within the dependent subclaims. The object is further achieved by a system for pre-processing block-based digital data according to claim 20 as well as by a computer programmed product and a computer-readable storage medium according to independent claims 21 and 22, respectively. The inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data is in particular designed for pre-processing block-based digital video data. According to the present invention it is provided that for at least one data block of digital data for each data item or a data pixel a data sub-arrangement or data sub-matrix is provided, generated, and/or used as an assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix. I.e. in more detail: According to the present invention it is provided that for at least one data block of digital data—said data block being contained or embedded in a data arrangement or a data matrix of data items or data pixels—for each data item or a data pixel of said data items or data pixels of said at least one data block within said data arrangement or data matrix a data sub-arrangement or data sub-matrix that is assigned for or to said respective data item or data pixel within said respective data block of said data arrangement or data matrix is provided, generated, and/or used as a assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix. Further, a pre-processing step is performed for each of said data items or data pixels within said at least one data block based on the respective data filter arrangement or data filter matrix for the respective data item or data pixel within said at least one data block. According to the present invention a step of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements or data filter matrices is essentially based on operations of data shifting and/or register shifting only. It is therefore a basic idea of the present invention to realize and/or provide the data filter arrangements or data filter matrices that are necessary for a step of pre-processing the data items or data pixels of a given data block of digital data by using data shift operations and/or register shift operations only. Therefore, only a single process of data loading is necessary with respect to the respective data block and the embedding data arrangement. Further, the shift operations or register shift operations have a particular simple structure and can be realized by compared simple technical means, thereby realizing a simple, reliable and less time-consuming strategy for selecting, constructing and/or supplying the necessary data filter arrangements. According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention said respective data item or data pixel and said assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix are chosen to be based on a certain positional relationship with respect to each other and/or with respect to the respective data block to be pre-processed. It is of particular advantage if said respective data item or data pixel is positioned in a central region of the respective assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix. More advantageously, said respective data item or data pixel is the central data item or data pixel of the respective assigned data filter arrangement or data filter matrix. According to a preferred embodiment of the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data said respective data arrangement or data matrix are chosen and designed to have a rectangular form of a given certain number of lines or rows and of a given certain number of columns of data items or data pixels. It is of further advantage to design the respective data block to be pre-processed with a given certain number M of lines or rows and a given certain number L of columns of M×L data items or data pixels. It is of further advantage to choose or design said data filter arrangement or said data filter matrix with a rectangular form having a given certain—in particular odd—number K of lines or rows and a given certain—in particular odd—number J of columns of data items or data pixels. According to a preferred embodiment of the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data said step of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices and in particular said operations of data shifting and/or register shifting are essentially based on and/or are essentially performed using an embedding data block which contains and/or embeds said respective data block to be pre-processed—or a copy thereof—and said data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices—or copies thereof—and which is common for all of said data filter arrangements and/or for all of said data filter matrices assigned to each of said data items and/or data pixels of said data block to be pre-processed. According to the particular measure said embedding data block is used to evaluate and to pre-process the selected data block to be pre-processed. It is a further basic aspect of the present invention to choose and design the respective embedding data block. The data of said embedding data block has to be chosen and stored only one time. Based on the embedding data block the respective shifting operations or register shifting operations lead to the data filter arrangements or data filter matrices in a straightforward and sequential manner. According to a further aspect of the present invention said embedding data block is chosen and/or designed to have a rectangular form of M+K−1 lines or rows and of L+J−1 columns of digital items or digital pixels of said data arrangement and/or of said data matrix. Additionally or alternatively, for all data filter arrangements and/or for all data filter matrices for a given data block to be pre-processed a common and fixed filter mask area within said embedding data block may be used for said step of selecting, constructing, and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices. Further additionally or alternatively, said filter mask arrangement may be chosen to be simply connected corner block, in particular of rectangular form and/or of K lines or rows and of J columns of data items or data pixels of said embedding data block. According to a preferred embodiment of the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data said respective data block is pre-processed row by row or line by line, in particular starting with a top row or top line of said data block to be pre-processed and/or in particular pre-processing the rows or lines of said data block in their sequential order. Of course, the processing can also be performed starting with a button row and pre-processing the rows of the data block inverse to their sequential order. Alternatively also a pre-processing column by column is possible either from left to right or from right to left in their sequential order inverted to their sequential order, respectively. In all these cases within each row or line (column) the respective data items or data pixels are pre-processed in their sequential order with respect to the columns (rows or lines) of the data block to be pre-processed, in particular starting with a first or most left data item or data pixel in the respective row or line. It is of further advantage when according to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention within said step of selecting, constructing and/or supplying said data filter arrangements and/or said data filter matrices an order is used which corresponds to the order of pre-processing said respective data items and/or data pixels within said respective data block to be pre-processed. According to this measure a direct correspondence or assignment between the pixels of the data block to be pre-processed and the data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices is realized in a particular simple and reliable manner. According to a further preferred embodiment of the present invention the shift operations may be chosen from the group, which consists of the following operations: (a) All data items and/or data pixels of the embedding data block are shifted one step to the left, i.e. in each line to the next lower indexed column (j:=J−1) and in the case of a data item and/or data pixel of a first column (j=1) to the last column (j=L+J−1) of the next lower indexed row or line (k:=k−1). The respective data item and/or data pixel is cancelled from the embedding data block if it is in the first column (j=1) of the first line (k=1). (b) All data items and/or data pixels of the embedding data block are shifted by one row or line to the top, i.e. for each line (k=1, . . . , M+K−1) all data items and/or data pixels of the last L−1 columns are shifted J steps to the left, i.e. to the respective J-times lower indexed column (J:=J−J). Simultaneously, for each but the first line (k=2, . . . , M+K−1) all data items and/or data pixels of the first J columns (j=1, . . . , J) are shifted to the last J columns (J=L, . . . , L+J−1) of the next lower indexed row or line (k:=k−1). In the case of the first line (k=1) the respective data items and/or data pixels of the first J columns are cancelled from the embedding data block. According to the present invention the step of selecting, constructing, and/or supplying said data filter arrangement and/or said data filter matrices is realized by the following steps: The respective embedding data block is loaded. The data block DB to be pre-processed is pre-processed by starting with the most left upper data item and/or data pixel of said data block DB to be pre-processed, i.e. with the data item and/or data pixel of said data block DB to be pre-processed having row and column indices 1 and 1 within the data block DB to be pre-processed. This is done by using the section of the embedding data block as a respective data filter arrangement and/or data filter matrix which is given by or corresponding to said common filter mask area which is in particular in a fixed spatial relationship to the embedding data block for all data filter arrangements and/or for all data filter matrices, i.e. for all pixels within said data block to be pre-processed. The further data blocks and/or data pixels are pre-processed by applying the shift operation (a)—as described above—(L−1) times for all M lines, whereas the shift operation (b)—as described above—is applied (M−1) times. In other words, the further data blocks and/or data pixels are pre-processed by sequentially (M−1) times applying for each line (L−1) times the shift operation (a) followed by an shift operation (b) and by using the respective section of the embedding data block as a respective data filter arrangement and/or data filter matrix which is given by and/or corresponding to said common filter mask area after each of said shift operation (a) and after each of said shift operation (b). According to a further preferred embodiment a shift register is used to realize and/or to store said embedding data block and in particular said common filter mask area. Said shift register has in particular M+K−1 lines or rows and L+J−1 columns of pixel registers or pixel storing elements. In this case each of said pixel storing elements or pixel registers may be provided with a 3-input multiplexers as to realize a selection of one of the above described shift operations (a) and/or (b). It is of further advantage to control the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data by a state machine and/or by a state machine process. According to a further aspect of the present invention a system, apparatus, or device is provided which is adapted and/or designed to realize and/or to perform the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data and the steps thereof. According to another aspect of the present invention a computer program product is provided which comprises computer program means being adapted to realize and/or to perform the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data and/or the inventive system for pre-processing block-based digital data when it is executed on a computer, a digital processing means and/or the like. Additionally, a computer readable storage medium is provided and comprises the inventive computer program product. In the following these and further aspects of the present invention will be explained in further detail: The present invention particularly relates inter alia to a method and to a circuit of cache buffering for filtering block based video data. The here described invention applies to a digital video processing system, where each field out of a sequence of video fields is split into a number of rectangular blocks with a size of L×M pixels each. Such video processing systems are used for e.g. motion estimation or format conversion applications. This is according to the fact that block based video field processing helps minimizing the data access bandwidth to the main video memory. This invention describes the method and structure of a cache buffer that enables a simple processing of video blocks with a size of L×M pixels by a digital spatial 2D FIR filter with J×K parallel input pixels e.g. used for noise reduction or picture sharpness improvement. The here described cache buffer has a simple and regular structure, which makes it easy to implement in programmable logic or ASIC. This invention describes a method of filtering video data in a block based video processing system by a spatial 2D filter. A possible solution of the problem could be, to store the video data in a fixed register-matrix and select the filter input data by multiplexers. However this approach would increase the number of logic gates and signal delay time significantly, especially at filters with many parallel input pixels, where wide-range multiplexers are needed. The here described idea of storing pixel data in a shift register, whose output lines are directly connected to the input of the filter, helps to keep the number of logic gates low and allows an easy adaptation to different filter sizes. Due to the scaleable architecture, the signal delay time and therefore the system speed are not influenced by the filter size. The present invention therefore covers inter alia a shift register with above mentioned properties and structure and a state-machine to control the switching behavior of this shift register. In the following these and further aspects of the present invention will be described in further detail by taking reference to the accompanying figures. FIG. 1 is a schematical block diagram demonstrating several basic aspects of the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data. FIG. 2 demonstrates some relationships of the different data structures used within the present invention. FIG. 3-4D schematically describe further aspects of the data structures used within the present invention. FIG. 5 is a schematical block diagram of a state machine or a state machine process used within the present invention. FIG. 6A, B are schematical diagrams of a shift register and of its operation which both can be used to realize the present invention. FIG. 7A, B demonstrate by means of schematical block diagrams data shift operations, which can be used within the present invention. FIG. 8A, B are schematical block diagrams demonstrating further details of preferred embodiments of the present invention. In the following, similar elements, structures and functionalities are denoted by the same reference symbols. A detailed description is not given in each case of their occurrence. FIG. 1 is a schematical block diagram that elucidates some basic aspects of the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data. Within a first step S1 said digital data to be pre-processed are received and/or supplied in the form of a digital data stream DS. Within a second step S2 a certain data block DB to be pre-processed is selected. Within a third step S3 an embedding data block EDB is generated and/or initialized. Any shift operation or data shift operation according to the present invention is performed on the embedding data block EDB which is a copy of a respective data section contained in or embedded in the received data stream DS. Within a fourth step S4 a filter mask area FMA is generated, selected, and/or assigned. Said filter mask area is common for all pixels of the selected data block DB to be pre-processed and consequently common for all data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices for each of said pixels within said data block DB on the basis of which the pre-processing of each of said respective pixels within said data block DB is performed within a following step S5. Step S5 may be followed by an optional pre-processing step S6 which is indicated in FIG. 2. After having finished the processing of the entire data block DB it is checked on whether or not a further data block DB has to be pre-processed in which case the processing of FIG. 1 branches again to the second step S2 of selecting a further data block DB to be pre-processed. Otherwise, the process shown in FIG. 1 ends. FIG. 2 schematically describes the relationship between the different data structures used within the inventive method for pre-processing block-based digital data. Digital data are—as already indicated with respect to FIG. 1—as a digital data stream DS. After pre-processing the digital data contained in the digital data stream DS a processed digital data stream PDS is obtained. The digital data stream DS is built up by data fields DF1 . . . , DFn. Each data field DF1 . . . , DFn is built up by a data matrix DM1, . . . , DMn. In the situation shown in FIG. 2 a certain given data field DF1 is subjected to a pre-processing step. Therefore the respective data matrix DM1 is selected. Within said data matrix or data arrangement DM1 a certain data block DB to be pre-processed is selected. The respective data arrangement or data matrix DM1 and therefore the data block DB to be pre-processed is built up by respective data items or data pixels DPk,j which are selected as selected data items or data pixels X in their sequential order. It is important to choose and select an embedding data block EDB which is a copy of the respective data region within the respective selected data matrix DM1 of the provided data stream DS. The embedding data block EDB is chosen and designed to be an embedding for the selected data block DB to be pre-processed as well as for the respective data filter arrangements or data filter matrices Fk,j which have to be constructed for each of the selected pixels X, X′ of the selected data block DB, DB′. Additionally a filter mask area FMA is selected within the embedding data block EDB at a fixed position. Therefore a common filter mask area FMA for all possible data filter arrangements and/or data filter matrices Fk,j is built up. The data which coincide with the respective filter mask area FMA are copied and used as said data filter arrangement and/or as said data filter matrix Fk,j for each of the pixels X, X′ which are selected from the data block DB, DB′. By using data shift operations only which are applied to the embedding data block EDB the copied data within the embedding data block EDB are shifted in a way that the fixedly positioned filter mask area FMA sees the respective data within the embedding data block which correspond to the respective data filter arrangement and/or the respective data filter matrix Fk,j which corresponds to the selected data item or data pixel X, X′ of the plurality of pixels DPk,j within the copy DB′ of the data block DB, thereby selecting and providing the data section defined by the filter mask area FMA within the embedding data block EDB as a data filter arrangement or data filter matrix Fk,j on the basis of which the pre-processing step S5 of FIG. 1 is performed so as to yield on the basis of said data filter arrangement or data filter matrix Fk,j a pre-processed selected data item or data pixel X which corresponds to the respective pre-processed data pixel DPk,j within the pre-processed digital data stream PDS. These relationships hold for each of said selected data pixels or data items X within the selected data block DB to be pre-processed, and further for all selected data blocks DB of a selected data arrangement or data matrix DM1 constituting the data fields DF1 within the received digital data stream DS. FIGS. 3 to 4D schematically describe several aspects of the signals and/or data structures used within the present invention. The pre-processing of a data block of L×M data pixels DPk,J by a 2-dimensional J×K sized FIR filter is shown in FIG. 3. As an example a data block DB of 8×4 pixels is filtered by a 7×5 filter or data filter arrangement or data filter matrix Fk,j. This means that for each pixel X of the data block DB to be pre-processed J×K=35 parallel input data pixels DPk,j are needed to be processed to give one resultant pre-processed data pixel PX in a processed data block PBK said pre-processed data pixel PX corresponding to said given data pixel X. The resultant pixel PX is usually located in the center of the J×K matrix, therefore J and K are usually odd numbers. The J×K filter Fk,j moves over the L×M data block DB by shifting the data pixels DPk,j through the fixedly positioned filter mask area FMA. This is realized in the following way: The pre-processing starts with the upper left pixel of the L×M data block DB. The processing order of the L×M data pixels is from left to right. At the end of each line or row, the pre-processing continues with the first pixel of the next line until all L×M pixels are processed. Dependent on the values J and K of the filter, data pixels from adjacent blocks are involved in the processing. Therefore, a total amount of [(L+J)−1]×[(M+K)−1] data pixels is needed to process a block of L×M data pixels. All mentioned shift operations and their effect on the filter input are demonstrated in FIG. 4A-4D. The example shows the embodiment of an 8×4-pixel video-processing block with a 7×5 FIR-filter mask or filter mask area FMA. Including overlapping pixels from adjacent blocks, a total of 14×8 pixels are involved in the processing. The first 7 pixels of the first 5 lines are connected to the 7×5 filter. FIG. 4A shows the initial state of the shift register after reload operation. New pixel positions after the first shift operation are shown in FIG. 4B. The second pixel of each line now moved to the first position of the 7×5-filter mask, the third pixel to the second position and so on. This is equivalent to moving the 7×5-filter mask one position to the right. The pixel shift is continued (L−1) times, until the last pixel of the first line is processed. At the end of the first line, pixels are in the position shown in FIG. 4C. Now the filter mask jumps to the beginning of the next line. As the video-processing filter has a width of J=7 pixels, all pixels inside the shift register are therefore shifted left by 7 positions. This brings the pixels of the former second line to the first line of the 7×5-filter as is shown in FIG. 4D. Then processing continues with the second line of the 8×4 block and so on, until all pixels in the 8×4 block are processed. All shift and reload operations may be controlled by a state-machine or state machine process as is shown in FIG. 5. During “Load Reg”-state all registers of the [(L+J)−1]×[(M+K)−1] array are reinitialized. Parallel or sequential register reload is possible. After register loading, the state-machine switches to the “Shift by 1 position”-state. In this state, all pixels are shifted one position to the left, which means that they are replaced by their right neighbor pixel. Shifting pixels left is equivalent to moving the J×K filter in FIG. 3 one position to the right. After processing all pixels of the first line, processing continues with the first pixel of the second line. This is achieved by shifting all pixels J positions to the left. Afterwards the state-machine switches back to the “Shift by 1 Position”-state until the second line is processed and so on. At the end of the last line in an L×M block, the state-machine receives the trigger condition “next block”, which means another restart of the whole block processing cycle. A structure of a possible cache buffer realizing the embedding data block EDB is shown in FIG. 6A. Each box represents a pixel of n parallel bits of e.g. typical values of 8 or 10 bits per pixel. The first J pixels of the first K lines are directly connected to the J×K filter input. The cache buffer is organized as shift register. It consists of [(M+K)−1] lines with each line containing [(L+J)−1 ] pixels. All lines and pixels are connected in a way that the last pixel of a line is followed by the first pixel of the next line and so on. Instead of moving the J×K filter over the L×M block, which would need large multiplexers at the filter input, the J×K filter mask always stays at the same position relative to the shift register, while the pixels are shifted. After each shift operation, the pixels in the J×K filter input array move to the new position needed for the calculation of the next result pixel. A 3-input multiplexer is assigned to each pixel in order to select the appropriate shift operation. FIG. 6B illustrates the respective operation (a) and the respective operation (b) as described above. Three different operations are possible: 1. Load new cache content, i.e. a new data block DB to be pre-processed. Thereby, replace all data pixels by completely new values. 2. Process or pre-process a next data pixel of a given data block DB. Therefore, shift all data pixels one position to the left, wherein the first data pixel of each line is shifted to the end of the upper line as is shown in FIG. 7A. 3. Perform a line jump. This is done by shifting all data pixels J positions to the left, wherein the first J data pixels of each line or row are moved to the last J positions of the upper line or row as is shown in FIG. 7B. The register loading strategy depends on the video data processing speed of the implemented filter. Blank positions inside the shift register can be refilled continuously with new video data of the next processing block as shown in FIG. 8A. After processing the last pixel of the previous video block, previous block data can be replaced by the block data of the next processing block. During the time needed for video data replacement, video signal processing has to be interrupted in order to avoid invalid filter input data mixed from the previous and next video block. If it is not possible to interrupt video data processing during data replacement time, at least some lines of next block video data have to be copied from a swap buffer to the filter processing area of the shift register in a single step operation. In order to have enough next block video data in the swap buffer, some additional helper registers might be necessary. After performing the swap operation the shift register is shown in FIG. 8B. All next block data have been copied to the processing area of the shift register and the processing of the first video pixel of the next video block can be started. In order to keep the shift register running without further interruption, blank positions of the shift register have to be filled with the rest of next block video data. REFERENCE SYMBOLS B blank pixel DB data block to be processed/pre-processed DB′ copy data block to be processed/pre-processed DP, DPk,j data item/data pixel belonging to row/line k and column j DP′, DPk,j′ copy of data item/data pixel belonging to row/line k and column j DS input data stream of digital data to be processed/pre-processed DS′ output or processed/pre-processed data stream DF, DF1 data field of data stream; (1=1, . . . , n) DF′, DF1′ processed/pre-processed data field of processed/pre-processed data stream DM, DM1 data arrangement/matrix for data field DF, DF1; (1=1, . . . , n) DM′, DM1′ processed/pre-processed data arrangement/matrix for data field DF, DF1; (1=1, . . . , n) EDB embedding data block, shift register area/block Fk,j data filter arrangement/matrix belonging to data pixel DPk,j FMA filter mask, filter mask area J number of rows/lines of data filter arrangement/matrix Fk,j and/or of filter mask area FMA K number of columns of data filter arrangement/matrix Fk,j and/or of filter mask area FMA L number of columns of data block DB, DB′, PDB M number of rows/lines of data block DB, DB′, PDB PDB processed/pre-processed data block PDP, PDPk,J processed/pre-processed data item/pixel belonging to row/line and column j X selected data item/pixel of data block DB X′ copy of selected data item/pixel of data block DB′ | 20050113 | 20100713 | 20051222 | 90329.0 | 0 | PE, GEEPY | METHOD FOR PRE-PROCESSING BLOCK BASED DIGITAL DATA | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,497 | ACCEPTED | Vectors, host cells, and methods for production of uridine phosphorylase and purine nucleotide phosphorylase | Novel strains of genetically modified prokaryotic micro-organisms capable of expressing polypeptides having the enzyme activity of the enzymes uridine phosphorylase (UdP) and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) are described; the strains in question can be used, both in the form of whole cells and in the form of crude or purified extracts, to catalyse transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base with particularly high yields. The associated plasmid vectors are also described. | 1. A method of catalyzing transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base comprising culturing transformed E.coli host cells, said host cells (i) expressing 120-1000 times higher uridine phosphorylase activity, purine nucleoside phosphorylase activity, or both, than the corresponding non-transformed prokaryotic host cells, and (ii) harboring a plasmid expression vector, said vector comprising: a) a gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having uridine phosphorylase enzyme activity and a gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme activity; and b) at least one gene sequence coding for tetracycline or kanamycin resistance or a combination thereof. 2. A method according to claim 1, wherein that the at least one gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium encoding a polypeptide having uridine phosphorylase enzyme activity, the at least one gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme activity and the gene sequence coding for tetracycline and/or kanamycin resistance are cloned into the plasmid pUC18. 3. A method according to claim 1, wherein the mesophilic bacterium is E.coli. 4. A method according to claim 3, wherein the sequence encoding a polypeptide having uridine phosphorylase enzyme activity is the sequence udp. 5. A method according to claim 4, wherein the sequence is the EMBL sequence having accession number X15689. 6. A method according to claim 3, wherein the sequence encoding a polypeptide having purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme activity is the sequence deoD. 7. A method according to claim 6, wherein the sequence is the EMBL sequence having accession number M60917. 8. A method according to claim 1, wherein the sequence coding for tetracycline resistance is the Tet gene of pBR322. 9. A method according to claim 1, wherein the sequence coding for kanamycin resistance is the kan gene of pET29c. 10. A method according to claim 1, wherein the acceptor base is a purine or pyrimidine base. 11. A method according to claim 10, wherein the purine or pyrimidine base is natural or substituted. 12. A method according to claim 11, wherein the substituted purines are selected from the group consisting of purine, 2-azapurine, 8-azapurine, 1-deazapurine (imidazopyridine), 3-deazapurine, and 7-deazapurine. 13. A method according to claim 11, wherein the purine bases are substituted at least one of the 1, 2 and 6 positions of the purine ring and the pyrimidine bases are substituted at least one of the 3 and 5 positions of the pyrimidine ring. 14. A method according to claim 1, wherein the acceptor bases are heterocyclic compounds containing at least one nitrogen atom. 15. A method according to claim 14, wherein the heterocyclic compounds are selected from the group consisting of imidazoles, triazoles and pyrazoles. 16. A method according to claim 1, wherein the donor nucleoside is selected from nucleosides containing D-ribose and 2′ deoxyribose. 17. A method according to claim 1, wherein the donor nucleoside contains the ribose group modified in the 2′, 3′ or 5′ positions. 18. A method according to claim 1, wherein the sugar of the donor nucleoside is selected from the group consisting of β-D-arabinose, α-L-xylose, 3′-deoxyribose, 3′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′,3′-dideoxyribose, 5′-deoxyribose, 2′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′-amino-2′-deoxyribose, 3′-amino-3′-deoxyribose, and 2′-fluoro-2′-deoxyribose. 19. A method of catalyzing transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base comprising culturing transformed host cells, said host cells (i) expressing 120-1000 times higher uridine phosphorylase activity, purine nucleoside phosphorylase activity, or both, than the corresponding non-transformed prokaryotic host cells, and (ii) harboring a plasmid expression vector, said vector comprising: a) a gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having uridine phosphorylase enzyme activity, wherein said gene comprises the sequence of nucleotides 243 to 1021 of SEQ ID NO: 6, and a gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having purine nucleoside phosphorylase enzyme activity, wherein said gene comprises the sequence of nucleotides 1037 to 1766 of SEQ ID NO: 6; and b) at least one gene sequence coding for tetracycline or kanamycin resistance or a combination thereof. 20. A method according to claim 19, wherein said transformed host cells are E.coli cells. 21. A method according to claim 19, wherein the acceptor base is a purine or pyrimidine base. 22. A method according to claim 21, wherein the purine or pyrimidine base is natural or substituted. 23. A method according to claim 22, wherein the substituted purines are selected from the group consisting of purine, 2-azapurine, 8-azapurine, 1-deazapurine (imidazopyridine), 3-deazapurine, and 7-deazapurine. 24. A method according to claim 22, wherein the purine bases are substituted at least one of the 1, 2 and 6 positions of the purine ring and the pyrimidine bases are substituted at least one of the 3 and 5 positions of the pyrimidine ring. 25. A method according to claim 19, wherein the acceptor bases are heterocyclic compounds containing at least one nitrogen atom. 26. A method according to claim 25, wherein the heterocyclic compounds are selected from the group consisting of imidazoles, triazoles and pyrazoles. 27. A method according to claim 19, wherein the donor nucleoside is selected from nucleosides containing D-ribose and 2′ deoxyribose. 28. A method according to claim 19, wherein the donor nucleoside contains the ribose group modified in the 2′, 3′ or 5′ positions. 29. A method according to claim 19, wherein the sugar of the donor nucleoside is selected from the group consisting of β-D-arabinose, α-L-xylose, 3′-deoxyribose, 3′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′,3′-dideoxyribose, 5′-deoxyribose, 2′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′-amino-2′-deoxyribose, 3′-amino-3′-deoxyribose, and 2′-fluoro-2′-deoxyribose. | This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/891,865, which is a continuation of international application Ser. No. PCT/EP99/10416, filed Dec. 23, 1999, each of which is incorporated by reference in their entirety. The present invention relates to novel genetically modified bacterial strains capable of expressing polypeptides having the enzyme activity of the enzymes UdP and PNP; the strains in question can be used to catalyse transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base. Natural nucleosides or the modified analogues thereof have important applications, both directly and as intermediates, in the field of drugs having an anti-viral and anti-tumour action, as well as in the preparation of oligonucleotides for therapeutic and diagnostic use. Nucleosides can be prepared using methods of chemical synthesis which normally require a large number of steps processes for the protection and deprotection of labile groups and the use of reagents and operating conditions which, on an industrial level, may be both difficult to apply and economically disadvantageous. In addition, those reactions do not generally have high overall yields owing also to the formation of mixtures of stereo- and regio-isomers from which the compound of interest has to be separated. An alternative approach to the preparation of nucleosides and modified analogues thereof is based on interconversion between a sugar-donating nucleoside and an acceptor base by means of enzymes which catalyse the general reversible reactions (Hutchinson, Trends Biotechnol. 8, 348-353, 1990) given below in scheme 1: where Pi=organic phosphate. Reaction 1 is catalysed by the enzyme uridine phosphorylase or UdP (E.C.2.4.2.3.) while reaction 2 is catalysed by the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase or PNP (E.C.2.4.2.1.). The UdP and PNP enzymes can be used individually to catalyse transglycosylation reactions between a donor pyrimidine nucleoside and an acceptor pyrimidine base or between a donor purine nucleoside and an acceptor purine base, respectively. In addition, when the two enzymes are used in combination, it is possible to transfer the sugar from a donor pyrimidine nucleoside to a purine or pyrimidine acceptor base as well as from a donor purine nucleoside to a pyrimidine or purine acceptor base, depending on the starting materials used. In each case the phosphorolysis reactions involve a configuration change at position 1 of the sugar to give an (α-sugar-1-phosphate which constitutes the intermediate substrate of the transglycosylation reactions and which is subsequently transferred to the acceptor base, with restoration of the original β configuration. Those enzyme reactions can advantageously be carried out starting from a mixture of a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base in the simultaneous presence of the two enzymes and without isolating the intermediate sugar phosphate or in two steps comprising phosphorolysis with formation of the intermediate sugar phosphate, its isolation and subsequent condensation with the acceptor base. With regard to chemical synthesis, an important advantage of transglycosylation reactions catalysed by phosphorylases is the maintenance of stereo-selectivity and regio-selectivity, as a result of which the end product retains the β configuration of natural nucleosides. The UdP and PNP enzymes which participate physiologically in the catabolism and interconversion reactions of nucleosides are the product, respectively, of the udp and deoD genes, occurring widely in nature, and have been identified and studied in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms (Parks and Agarwal, Enzymes 7, 3rd ed., 483-514, Academic Press, New York; Munch-Petersen, Metabolism of nucleotides, nucleosides and nucleobases in micro-organisms, Academic Press, London, 1982). From the point of view of use as catalysts for the synthesis of nucleosides and modified analogues thereof, the enzymes of prokaryotic organisms are generally preferred because they have a lower substrate specificity and they can catalyse transglycosylation reactions starting also from donor nucleosides containing modified sugars and from acceptor bases comprising both purine or pyrimidine structures and various nitrogen-containing heterocyclic systems (Stoeckler et al., Biochemistry 19, 102-107, 1980; Browska et al., Z. Naturforsch., 45, 59-70, 1990). The transglycosylation reactions can be carried out using purified or partially purified enzyme preparations (Krenitsky et al., Biochemistry 20, 3615-3621, 1981; EP-002192) or, alternatively, using the whole bacterial cells of microorganisms selected because they contain the necessary enzymes (Utagawa et al., Agric.Biol.Chem. 49, 3239-3246,1985) or whole cells cultivated in the presence of inducers of the production of those enzymes (Doskocil et al., Collect. Czech. Chem. Commun. 42, 370-383, 1977). For biocatalysis reactions carried out at a preparative level, the use of whole cells both obviates the need to extract and purify the enzymes and enables the cells to be recovered easily at the end of the reaction, for example by centrifugation or ultrafiltration, and to be re-used for other, subsequent, reaction cycles; alternatively, it is possible to use the UdP and PNP enzymes extracted from the cells in the form of a crude or purified soluble cell fraction. Both UdP and PNP are enzymes characterised by good thermal stability which enables the transglycosylation reactions to be carried out at temperatures of up to approximately 60° C. without significant activity losses and enables the recovered enzyme preparations to be re-used. Approaches have also been described where the recycling of cells used as catalysts was carried out by micro-encapsulation in both hydrophilic gels (Votruba et al., Collect.Czech.Chem. Commun. 59, 2303-2330, 1994) and hydrophobic gels (Yokozeki et al., Eur.J.Appl.Microbiol. Biotechnol., 14, 225-231, 1982). The main limitations of the methods known hitherto for the preparation of natural nucleosides and modified analogues thereof by transglycosylation reactions using bacterial cells reside in the low enzyme concentration obtainable, even after induction, and in the impossibility of using optimised amounts of the two enzyme activities required to catalyse the transfer of the sugar from a donor nucleoside to an acceptor base. Both in the case of selection of wild-type bacterial strains and in the case of cultivation of strains under induction conditions, cells are obtained that contain levels of UdP and PNP which are generally not higher than 10 times the base levels (F. Ling et al., Process Biochem. 29,355-361,1994) and which are in non-predeterminable ratios. Furthermore, because one of the two enzymes (generally PNP) is present in the induced cells in lower amounts, it is usually necessary to use an excess of cells such as to ensure the presence of the limiting enzyme at levels compatible with acceptable overall kinetics of the interconversion reaction. From an operating point of view, this means that a significant portion of the reaction mixture is constituted by the cell suspension, with consequent restriction of the volume that can be used to solubilise the substrates and, finally, with a lower volumetric yield of end product. The present invention therefore relates to the construction of genetically modified bacterial strains capable of solving the problems described above and, in particular, of catalysing transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base with high yields which are foreseeable and, above all, reproducible on an industrial scale and with particularly rapid enzyme kinetics. The literature has described the cloning and expression of some recombinant phosphorylases, such as, for example, human UdP (Watanabe and Uchida, Biochem.Biophys.Res.Commun. 216, 265-272, 1996), murine UdP (Watanabe et al., J.Biol.Chem. 270, 12191-12196, 1995), of Escherichia coli (Mikhailov et al., Biochem.Internat. 26, 607-615, 1992) and human PNP (Erion et al., Biochemistry 36, 11725-11734, 1997), of the thermophilic micro-organism Bacillus stearothermophilus (Hamamoto et al., Biosci.Biotech.Biochem. 61, 272-275, 1997; Hamamoto et al., Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 61, 276-280, 1997) in addition to UdP and PNP from Klebsiella sp (Takehara et al., Biosci.Biotech.Biochem. 59, 1987-1990, 1995). In particular, Japanese patent application JP-06-253854 describes the expression in E.coli of bacterial plasmids containing the gene sequences of the enzymes purine and/or pyrimidine nucleoside phosphorylase derived solely from thermophilic bacteria, that is bacteria having optimum growth at temperatures of from 50 to 60° C., such as, for example, Bacillus stearotermophilus. Novel genetically modified bacterial strains that contain the genes coding for polypeptides having the enzyme activity of the enzymes uridine phosphorylase (UdP) and/or purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), both separately and together, have now been found and constitute part of the subject matter of the present invention. The cultivation of these novel strains enables both high levels of biomass and high levels of expression of the recombinant enzymes to be obtained; the novel strains according to the present invention can also be used either directly or after extraction of the soluble cell fraction as catalysts for the production of natural nucleosides and modified analogues thereof with substantial improvements in the process in comparison with the prior art. In contrast to what has been described in JP-06-253854, the plasmid vectors according to the present invention can be obtained by cloning both separately and simultaneously the udp and deoD genes of mesophilic bacteria, that is bacteria having optimum growth at temperatures of from 30 to 37° C. such as, for example, E.coli. To be more precise, the gene sequences preferably used for the purposes of the present invention are the E.coli sequences that encode the udp and deoD genes and that are deposited in the EMBL data bank with the accession numbers X15689 (udp) and M60917 (deoD); however, it is also possible to use other widely available sequences, such as, for example, AC CG01747 (udp) and AC CG00327 (deoD). The expression plasmid vectors which may be used for the purposes of the invention and which form part of the subject matter thereof are therefore characterised in that they comprise: a) at least one gene sequence of a mesophilic bacterium coding for a polypeptide having enzyme UdP and/or enzyme PNP activity; and b) at least one gene sequence coding for antibiotic resistance. The at least one sequence coding for antibiotic resistance is preferably a sequence coding for tetracycline, kanamycin and/or ampicillin resistance. The plasmid vectors of the present invention can be obtained by cloning either the sequence coding for udp and/or the sequence coding for deoD or, optionally, the sequence coding for tetracycline and/or kanamycin resistance into the plasmid pUC18 (Yanish and Perron, Gene 33, 103-119, 1985; EMBL accession number L08752) which already contains the ampicillin resistance gene. The relative position of the sequences coding for udp and deoD is not, however, relevant for the purposes of the invention: that is to say, the sequence coding for udp can be positioned either downstream or upstream of the sequence coding for deoD. Furthermore, and as it will be appreciated from the Examples which follow, the gene sequences coding for udp and deoD may also be fused together so to express novel fusion proteins wherein the enzymes UdP and PNP are either covalently bonded together (UdP-PNP) or, alternatively, the novel fusion protein may have the formula UdP-(L)-PNP wherein L is a polipeptide linker of more than one aminoacidic unit. In these novel fusion proteins, the relative position of the two components is not however relevant for the purposes of the invention: that is to say, the PNP component can be either at the NH2-terminal or at the COOH-terminal position of the fused proteins. The novel proteins thus obtainable, which are a further object of the present invention, are characterized by possessing a bifunctional activity as they are able to perform both the activity of the enzyme UdP and that of the enzyme PNP. An additional object of the present invention is then represented by the method for producing the above mentioned fusion proteins, said method comprising: (a) producing a plasmid expression vector as above indicated; (b) transforming a host bacteria cell with said expression vector; and (c) isolating and purifying the fusion protein from the transformed bacteria cell. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1. Cloning vectors for the expression of UdP and PNP enzymes. FIGS. 2A to 2D. 5′ and 3′ sequences of upd and deoD genes cloned in plasmid pUC18. Restriction sites of different constructs are underlined. The bases of nucleotide sequences of udp and deoD genes and the amino acid residues of PNP and UdP proteins are reported in italics. (A) Plasmid pUC18: 5′ sequence of lacZ gene. (B) Plasmid pGM678 and pGM707: sequence of lacZ-deoD fused gene. (C) plasmid pGM679 and pGM708: sequence of lacZ-upd fused genes. (D) Plasmid pGM712 and pGM716: 5′ and 3′ sequence of deoD gene. FIGS. 3A and 3B. Construction of cloning vectors for the expression of UdP and PNP enzymes. FIG. 4. Construction of cloning vectors for the expression of UdP-(L)-PNP enzymes. FIG. 5. Expression of PNP and UdP in recombinant E. coli strains. Gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of total protein exctracts from strains MG1655/pGM707, MG1655/pGM708, and MG1655/pGM716 grown overnight in LD medium supplemented with 12.5 mg/liter of tetracycline. Lanes 15, 2, and 0.3 correspond to protein extracted from 15, 2, and 0.3 ml of bacterial culture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The methods for transforming a host bacteria cell with an expression vector and for isolating and purifying the expressed peptide are well known to any skilled in this art and are for example disclosed in Swartz J R, Escherichia coli recombinant DNA technology, and in Neidahrt F C et al. (edts), Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium: Cellular and molecular biology, 2nd edition, pp 1693-1711, ASM, Washington, herein incorporated as a reference. The hosts preferably used for the expression of the recombinant enzymes according to the present invention are bacterial cells of Escherichia coli; the strains K12 (preferably DH5α or MG1655) and/or the B strains are of particular interest. Alternatively, however, it is possible to use cells of other prokaryotic micro-organisms which are acceptable for industrial use because they are not dangerous to operators and the environment and they can be readily cultivated to obtain high levels of biomass. As will also be seen from the Examples, the presence of a bacterial promoter, and in particular of the lac promoter, is not an essential element for the purposes of the present invention because it has been found that cell growth and the expression of polypeptides do not depend on the presence of an inducer (IPTG). For ease of performance, the gene sequence encoding a polypeptide having enzyme UdP activity and/or enzyme PNP activity is cloned into the plasmid pUC18 in the reading frame relative to the lac promoter. Finally, the sequence coding for tetracycline resistance is preferably the Tet gene of pBR322; the sequence coding for kanamycin resistance is the kan gene of pET29c. Thus, in accordance with well-known methods which will become clear from the Examples, the following plasmids, which are represented in FIGS. 1, 3 and 4, were constructed: pGM679: udp gene cloned into plasmid pUC18 (SEQ ID NO 1). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM679 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 242: pUC18 sequence; from 243 to 1021: E.coli udp gene sequence; from 1022 to 3444: pUC18 sequence. pGM708: udp gene cloned into plasmid pUC18 together with the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 2). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM708 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 242: pUC18 sequence; from 243 to 1021: E.coli udp gene sequence; from 1022 to 1039: pUC18 sequence; from 1040 to 1482: pHP45Ω sequence; from 1483 to 2883: pBR322 Tet gene sequence; from 2884 to 3151: pHP45Ω sequence; from 3152 to 5556: pUC18 sequence. pGM678: deoD gene cloned into plasmid pUC18 (SEQ ID NO 3). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM678 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 230: pUC18 sequence; from 231 to 960: E.coli deoD gene sequence; from 961 to 3383: pUC18 sequence. pGM707: deoD gene cloned into plasmid pUC18 together with the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 4). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM707 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 230: pUC18 sequence; from 231 to 960: E.coli deoD gene sequence; from 961 to 978: pUC18 sequence; from 979 to 1422: pHP45Ω sequence; from 1423 to 2822: pBR322 Tet gene sequence; from 2823 to 3090: pHP45Ω sequence; from 3091 to 5495: pUC18 sequence. pGM712: udp and deoD genes cloned into plasmid pUC18 (SEQ ID NO 5). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM712 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 242: pUC18 sequence; from 243 to 1021: E.coli udp gene sequence; from 1022 to 1025: pUC18 sequence; from 1026 to 1036: pBAD24 sequence; from 1037 to 1766: E.coli deoD gene sequence; from 1767 to 1792: pBAD24 sequence; from 1793 to 4189: pUC18 sequence. pGM716: udp and deoD genes cloned into plasmid pUC18 together with the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 6). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM716 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 242: pUC18 sequence; from 243 to 1021: E.coli udp gene sequence; from 1022 to 1025: pUC18 sequence; from 1026 to 1036: pBAD24sequence; from 1037 to 1766: E.coli deoD gene sequence; from 1767 to 1792: pBAD24 sequence; from 1793 to 1794: pUC18 sequence; from 1795 to 2228: pHP45Ω sequence; from 2229 to 3628: pBR322 Tet gene sequence; from 3629 to 3896: pHP45Ω sequence; from 3897 to 6301: pUC18 sequence. pGM709: gene deoD cloned in pBAD24 (SEQ ID NO 7). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM709 coincides with that of the pBAD24 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 1311: pBAD24 sequence; from 1312 to 2042: sequence corresponding to 230-960 of pGM678; from 2043 to 5241: pBAD24 sequence. pGM769: pGM716 with deletion of HpaI fragment (SEQ ID NO 8). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM769 coincides with that of pGM716 sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 914: pGM716 sequence; from nucleotide 915 to 5822: sequence corresponding to 1394-6301 of pGM716. pGM771: genes udp and deoD cloned in pUC18 so to create a fusion between the two proteins; the plasmid also bears the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 9). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM771 coincides with that of pGM716 sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 1011: pGM716 sequence; from nucleotide 1012 to 6269: sequence corresponding to 1044-6301 of pGM716. pGM795: genes udp and deoD cloned in pUC18 so to create a fusion between the two proteins bonded to each other via an aminoacidic linker; the plasmid also bears the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 10). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM795 coincides with that of pGM716 sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 1011: pGM771 sequence; from 1012 to 1041: linker sequence; from 1042 to 6299: sequence corresponding to 1044-6301 of pGM716. pGM746: cloning vector derived from pUC18 (SEQ ID NO 11). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM746 coincides with that of the pUC18 vector sequence; from nucleotide 1 to 54: pUC18 sequence; from 55 to 109: pUC18 polylinker sequence; from 110 to 2297 pUC18 sequence. pGM747: deoD gene cloned into pGM746 without upstream promoter (SEQ ID NO 12). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM747 coincides with that of pGM746; from nucleotide 1 to 79: pGM746 sequence; from 80 to 837:sequence corresponding to 1301-2058 of pGM709; from 838 to 3031: pGM746 sequence. pGM75 1: deoD gene cloned downstream promoter ptac (SEQ ID NO 13). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM751 coincides with that of pGM747; from nucleotide 1 to 72: pGM747 sequence; from 73 to 171: ptac sequence from pGZ119; from 172 to 3128: pGM747 sequence. pGM800: genes udp and deoD cloned downstream ptac promoter into a vector derived from pUC18 (SEQ ID NO 14). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM800 coincides with that of pGM751; from nucleotide 1 to 923: pGM751 sequence; from 924 to 1741: udp sequence corresponding to 203-1020 of pGM679; from 1742 to 3934: pGM751 sequence. pGM807: genes udp and deoD cloned downstream ptac promoter into a vector containing the tetracycline resistance gene (SEQ ID NO 15). In the sequence numbering, coordinate 1 of pGM807 coincides with that of pGM800; from nucleotide 1 to 1742: pGM800 sequence; from 1743 to 3855: Tc sequence from pHP45α; from 3856 to 6046: pGM800 sequence. The recombinant strains so obtained express polypeptides having enzyme UdP and PNP activity in large amounts, minimising any compatibility and/or solubility problems which can be caused by the presence of heterologous proteins. In particular, the bacterial strains called DH5α/pGM678, MG1655/pGM678, DH5α/pGM707 and MG1655/pGM707 which overexpress the enzyme PNP; the strains DH5α/pGM679, MG1655/pMG679, DH5α/pGM708 and MG1655/pGM708 which overexpress the enzyme UdP; the strains DH5α/pGM712, DH5α/pGM716, MG1655/pGM716, DH5α/pGM800 and DH5α/pGM807 which overexpress the enzymes PNP and UdP simultaneously in the same cell; and the strains DH5α/pGM771, MG1655/pGM771, DH5α/pGM795, MG1655/pGM795, which overexpress the bifunctional fusion proteins UdP-(L)-PNP, were constructed. The efficiency of these novel strains, both as producers of the enzymes PNP and UdP and as biocatalysts for the preparation of nucleosides by bioconversion reactions, was compared with a preparation of Enterobacter aerogenes cells cultivated in the presence of inducers because that micro-organism, according to the data available in the literature, has hitherto been regarded as one of the best for catalysing transglycosylation reactions (Utagawa et al., Agric.Biol.Chem. 49, 1053-1058, 1985; Utagawa et al., Agric.Biol.Chem. 49, 2711-2717, 1985). The present invention relates also to the use of the novel recombinant strains in the production of polypeptides having enzyme UdP activity and/or enzyme PNP activity and/or as catalysts of transglycosylation reactions between a donor nucleoside and an acceptor base. The enzyme activity of the recombinant strains was determined by incubating directly the cell suspension, or cell extracts obtained by mechanical and/or enzymatic lysis, in phosphate buffer with a pyrimidine nucleoside (for example uridine) to test for UdP activity or with a purine nucleoside (for example inosine) to test for PNP activity and by determining the formation of the pyrimidine base (uracil) or purine base (hypoxanthine), respectively, by reverse phase high pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), as indicated in Example 7. Applying that test, the enzyme activities of UdP and PNP were measured in the recombinant bacterial strains to which the present invention relates and in the comparison E.aerogenes strain, to give the results indicated in Tables 1 and 2, which show that the recombinant strains of the present invention have enzyme activities up to approximately 10-30 times higher than that of the comparison strain cultivated under induction conditions and up to approximately 120-1000 times higher than that of the non-transformed E.coli host strains. TABLE 1 Comparison of the enzyme activities of uridine phosphorylase (UdP) and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) in recombinant E. coli strains and in the comparison E. aerogenes strain. Novel bacterial strains UdP activity PNP activity according to the invention units/g of wet cells units/g of wet cells wild-type MG1655 4.5 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.2 MG1655/pGM707 7.5 ± 0.1 2400.0 ± 50.0 MG1655/pGM708 1550.0 ± 60.0 6.5 ± 0.5 MG1655/pGM716 5400.0 ± 450.0 850.0 ± 30.0 Comparison strain Non-induced E. aerogenes 3.7 ± 0.2 3.0 ± 0.2 ATCC 13048 Induced E. aerogenes ATCC 168.3 ± 2.9 19.0 ± 2.2 13048 TABLE 2 Comparison of the enzyme activities of uridine phosphorylase (UdP) and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) assayed into the cell extracts of the recombinant E. coli strains MG1655 and DH5α, in the corresponding wild-type strains and in the non-induced and induced comparison E. aerogenes strains. Novel bacterial strains UdP activity PNP activity according to the invention units/g of wet cells units/g of wet cells non-transformed MG1655 9 ± 0.4 5 ± 0.3 MG1655/pGM707 15 ± 0.2 996 ± 29 MG1655/pGM708 3100 ± 120 10 ± 0.7 MG1655/pGM716 6000 ± 160 643 ± 11 non-transformed DH5α 10 ± 1.0 3 ± 0.2 DH5α/pGM707 14 ± 0.2 1000 ± 20 DH5α/pGM708 10400 ± 750 4 ± 0.6 DH5α/pGM716 6200 ± 150 600 ± 10 E. aerogenes ATCC 13048 7.4 ± 0.4 4.5 ± 0.3 Induced E. aerogenes ATCC 335 ± 5 29 ± 3.3 13048 The surprisingly high level of enzyme activity of these novel recombinant strains is confirmed by an indirect comparison with the strains described in JP-06-253854: the strains considered in the present invention permit enzyme activities from 340 to 1040 times (as regards the activity of UdP) and from 120 to 200 times (as regards the activity of PNP) higher than the enzyme activities of the non-transformed wild-type strains; the strains described in JP-06-253854, on the other hand, have an enzyme activity in E.coli 150 and 91 times higher, respectively, than that of the corresponding wild-type strain. It is also noteworthy that the enzyme activity of the strains of the present invention was determined at 30° C. while that of the strains of JP-06-253854 was established while operating at 70° C., or at a temperature which permits markedly higher kinetics. This high level of enzyme activity is also confirmed by the overexpression of the enzymes UdP and PNP which can be demonstrated both by electrophoretic analysis (FIG. 5) and by quantitative determination by RP-HPLC analysis which demonstrated levels of specific expression of from 55 to 120 milligrams of UdP/gram of wet cell paste and/or from 15 to 65 milligrams of PNP/gram of wet cell paste, as indicated in the example of Table 3. TABLE 3 Quantitative determination of UdP and PNP expression levels by RP-HPLC analysis. Bacterial strains of the mg UdP/g wet cell mg PNP/g wet present invention paste cell paste MG1655/pGM707 — 60 MG1655/pGM716 55 15 DH5α/pGM707 — 65 DH5α/pGM708 120 — DH5α/pGM716 60 15 The whole cells of the recombinant strains described in the present invention, or their crude or purified extracts, can advantageously be used as biocatalysts for the preparation of natural nucleosides and modified analogues thereof starting from a sugar-donating nucleoside and from an acceptor base by means of bioconversion reactions which require the presence of only one type of phosphorylase (UdP or PNP) or the simultaneous presence of UdP and PNP according to the following general schemes: a) pyrimidine nucleoside P1+pyrimidine base P2→pyrimidine nucleoside P2+pyrimidine base P1, in the presence of recombinant cells that overexpress UdP; b) purine nucleoside P1+purine base P2→purine nucleoside P2+purine base P1, in the presence of recombinant cells that overexpress PNP; c) pyrimidine nucleoside+purine base→purine nucleoside+pyrimidine base, in the presence of a mixture of recombinant cells that overexpress UdP and PNP separately or of cells of a single recombinant strain that co-expresses UdP and PNP; d) purine nucleoside+pyrimidine base pyrimidine nucleoside+pyrimidine base, in the presence of a mixture of recombinant cells that overexpress UdP and PNP separately or of cells of a single recombinant strain that co-express UdP and PNP. According to the information given in the literature, in the bioconversion reactions catalysed by UdP and PNP, there come into consideration as donor nucleosides both natural or modified nucleosides containing D-ribose and 2′-deoxyribose, and nucleosides containing the ribose group modified in the 2′, 3′ and/or 5′ positions and, in particular, nucleosides in which the sugar is constituted by β-D-arabinose, α-L-xylose, 3′-deoxyribose, 3′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′,3′-dideoxyribose, 5′-deoxyribose, 2′,5′-dideoxyribose, 2′-amino-2′-deoxyribose, 3′-amino-3′-deoxyribose, 2′-fluoro-2′-deoxyribose. The acceptor bases which can be used in the bioconversion reactions catalysed by UdP and PNP are natural or substituted pyrimidine and purine bases, in particular purine bases substituted in the 1, 2 and/or 6 positions, pyrimidine bases substituted in the 3 and/or 5 positions and also other heterocyclic systems containing one or more nitrogen atoms, such as, for example, purine, 2-azapurine, 8-azapurine and substituted analogues thereof, 1-deazapurine (imidazopyridine), 3-deazapurine, 7-deazapurine and substituted analogues thereof, triazole and substituted analogues thereof, pyrazole and substituted analogues thereof, imidazole compounds and substituted analogues thereof. Another method of preparing natural and modified nucleosides made possible by the present invention is to use recombinant cells or corresponding crude or purified cell extracts to catalyse the phosphorolysis reaction of a donor nucleoside (using UdP or PNP, depending on the base present in the donor nucleoside) and obtain α-sugar-1-phosphate which can optionally be isolated by chromatography, extraction or precipitation techniques and used in the subsequent reaction of transferring the sugar onto a suitable acceptor base in the presence of UdP or PNP (depending on the nature of the acceptor base). The availability of recombinant bacterial strains which overexpress the UdP and PNP enzymes separately also enables the conditions of the transglycosylation reactions to be fixed, in terms of optimum activity of each of the two enzymes, by means of preliminary tests in which the reaction is carried out in the presence of mixtures containing varying proportions of cells of each of the two strains. For each transglycosylation reaction it is therefore possible to define, on an analytical scale, the optimum ratios of UdP and PNP enzyme activity while, in the subsequent preparative scale-up, it is possible to use either a mixture of cells of the two strains that express UdP and PNP individually, or only the strain that co-expresses UdP and PNP if their ratios are already optimum, or optionally the strain that co-expresses UdP and PNP, integrated with cells of strains expressing UdP or PNP. Such optimisation of the reaction conditions can be carried out using crude or purified cell extracts prepared from the cell paste of recombinant strains overexpressing UdP and PNP. By way of example of optimisation of the bioconversion reactions in the present invention, a detailed description is given of the procedures relating to the preparation of 9-β-D-arabinofuranosyladenine(Ara-A) and 1-β-D-ribofuranosyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide (ribavirin) which indicated that the best results were obtained with UdP:PNP activity ratios of 2:1 and 1:1, respectively, and with a concentration of 10 units/ml of UdP and 5 units/ml of PNP for Ara-A and 10 units/ml of either UdP or PNP for ribavirin. These enzyme activity ratios, or others found to be optimum for the reaction concerned, can be readily implemented using the recombinant strains described in the present invention, in order to optimise the concentration of cells to be used as biocatalysts, while at the same time obtaining the maximum bioconversion yield compatible with the constants of equilibrium of the enzyme reactions and a reduction in the reaction times. Analogously, it is possible to optimise all the transglycosylation reactions for the preparation of nucleosides and modified analogues thereof. When the novel recombinant strains expressing the fusion proteins UdP-PNP or UdP-(L)-PNP (or the corresponding crude or purified extracts) are used for the bioconversion reactions, there is the advantage of using bifunctionals polipeptides in which the components having the activity of enzymes UdP and PNP are present in the stechiometric ratio 1:1. Furthermore, as nucleosides production via bioconversion is carried out by way of two successive reactions catalyzed respectively by UdP and PNP, the use of biocatalysts based on the bifunctionals fusion proteins UdP-PNP or UdP-(L)-PNP according to the present invention may improve the overall kinetic of the reactions thanks to a more efficient transfer of intermediates products from a reaction site to the other one. The novel recombinant strains described in the present invention enable natural nucleosides and modified nucleosides to be prepared with significantly better results than those obtained by the enzyme techniques known hitherto which are based on the use of isolated enzymes or on the use of bacterial cells of wild-type micro-organism strains and cultivated micro-organism strains under conditions for inducing the activities of the phosphorylase enzymes. A comparison of various transglycosylation reactions which were carried out using constant ratios between the concentration of donor nucleoside (60 mM) and acceptor base (20 mM) and in which a productivity parameter was calculated (Simon et al., Angew.Chem 24, 539-553, 1985) which, in addition to specific activity, also takes into account operating factors, such as, for example, intra-cellular and extra-cellular transport phenomena and the volumetric concentration of the end products, indicates that the use of the recombinant strains or of the corresponding crude or purified extracts to which the present invention relates is always characterised by greater bioconversion efficiency and by higher productivity per unit of time and of volume compared with the use of conventional micro-organisms (Table 4). TABLE 4 Comparison of the efficiency of transglycosylation reactions catalysed by recombinant Escherichia coli cells (E) and by control Enterobacter aerogenes cells (C). The reactions were carried out at 60° C. for the time indicated, using the same concentrations of donor nucleoside (60 mM) and of acceptor base (20 mM). The bioconversion yield was calculated relative to the acceptor base by RP-HPLC analysis of the reaction mixture. The efficiency of the reaction is expressed by the productivity index P, calculated by the following formula P = n · m−1 · t−1 · 1000 where n = concentration of the end product (g/l); m = wet cell paste (g/l of reaction mixture) and t = reaction time in hours. Cell paste t Bioconversion Nucleoside Base g/100 ml hours % P Product 60 mM 20 mM C E C E C E C E Ribavirin Uridine 1,2,4-triazole- 5 0.1 25 6 85 92 3 750 3-carbox-amide 2′-deoxy-guanosine 2′-deoxy-uridine Guanine 5 0.5 4 2 80 86 25 550 2′-deoxy-adenosine 2′-deoxy-uridine Adenine 1 0.05 2 1 95 95 240 9600 Thymidine 2′-deoxy-uridine Thymine 0.5 0.05 1 3 59 60 600 2000 2′-deoxy- 2′-deoxy-uridine 2,6-diamino- 2 0.05 2 1.5 89 91 125 6660 ribofuranosyl-2,6- purine diamino-purine Ara-A Ara-U Adenine 5 0.5 20 2 85 87 5 480 In particular, as shown in the example given in Table 5 regarding the preparation of Ara-A from Ara-U and adenine, the use of the recombinant strains enables conventional bioconversion processes to be improved both from the technical point of view and from the economic point of view and enables higher bioconversion yields, shorter reaction times, and a higher volumetric yield of end products to be obtained using a lower concentration of cells or corresponding crude or purified extract. TABLE 5 Comparison of the operating conditions for the preparation of Ara-A by transglycosylation catalysed by recombinant E. coli cells and by a comparison E. aerogenes preparation. Operating Recombinant E. coli E. aerogenes conditions Cells Cells Strain MG1655/pGM716 Induced E. aerogenes ATCC or DH5α/pGM716 13048 Ara-U:Adenine ratio 75:75 (mM) 40:40 (mM) Cell concentration 0.5% 5% Reaction time 4 hours 20 hours Bioconversion yield 70% 55% Volumetric yield 14 g Ara-A/litre 5 g Ara-A/litre A further advantage derived from the use of the recombinant strains to which the present invention relates is the simplification of the processes for recovering and re-using the cell biomass or the corresponding crude or purified cell extract resulting from the presence of a lower cell concentration; thus, for example, any recovery of the cells or the extract by filtration or ultrafiltration and their subsequent recycling is considerably faster when the recombinant strains described in the present invention are used. In some cases, in particular when substrates having a high affinity for enzymes are used, the concentration of recombinant cells or of the corresponding crude or purified cell extract is reduced to such low values that it may be economically advantageous to avoid having to recover them, with a further simplification of the production process. The purpose of the Examples given below is to illustrate the present invention without constituting a limitation of the field of application thereof. EXAMPLE NO. 1 Cloning of the udp Gene of Escherichia coli into an Expression Vector The E.coli udp gene sequence was found in the EMBL data bank with the accession number X15689. The gene was amplified by PCR with the oligonucleotides 5′-ATCGGTACCATCCATGTCCAAGTCTGATGTTTTTCATCTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO :16) and 5′-AGACGGTCGACAAGAGAATTACAGCAGACGACGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 17) from the E.coli strain K12 MG1655 (Singer et al., Microbiol. Rev. 53, 1-24, 1989). The amplified region comprises the entire sequence of the udp gene starting from the start codon ATG up to 7 bp downstream of the stop codon TAA. A KpnI restriction site was inserted at the 5′ of the gene, followed by four bases selected at random. A SalI site is present at the 3′ of the gene. The amplified fragment, digested with KpnI and SalI, was cloned into the polylinker region of the pUC18 vector which carries the ampicillin resistance gene (Yanish and Perron, Gene 33, 103-119, 1985; EMBL accession number L08752). After transformation of the DH5α strain (Hanahan, J. Mol. Biol. 166, 557-580, 1983), the pGM679 plasmid was obtained (FIG. 1). In the construct, a fusion is created between the first codons of the lacZ gene of pUC18 and the entire udp sequence (FIG. 2) and the transcription is under the control of the lac promoter of the vector. The cloned region was completely sequenced and it was found to be completely identical with the data bank sequence. The pGM679 plasmid sequence is listed. The pBR322 Tet gene, which confers tetracycline resistance (Bolivar et al., Gene 2, 95-113, 1977; EMBL accession number J01749) was then inserted into the pGM679 plasmid. The gene, preceded by its promoter, was obtained by HindIII digestion from the interposon pHP45W708-Tet (Fellay et al., Gene 52, 147-154, 1987) and cloned into the HindIII site of pGM679. The resultant plasmid was named pGM708 (FIG. 1). Its complete sequence is listed. EXAMPLE NO. 2 Cloning of the deoD Gene of Escherichia coli into an Expression Vector The E.coli deoD gene sequence was found in the EMBL data bank with the accession number M60917. The gene was amplified by PCR with the oligonucleotides 5′-CTGAATTCTTCCATGGCTACCCCACACATTAATGCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 18) and 5′-TCATGGTCGACTTACTCTTTATCGCCCAGCAGAACG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 19) from the E.coli strain K12 MG1655 (Singer et al., Microbiol. Rev. 53, 1-24, 1989). The amplified region comprises the entire sequence of the deoD gene starting from the start codon ATG up to the stop codon TAA. An EcoRI restriction site was inserted at the 5′ of the gene, followed by four bases selected at random. A SalI site is present at the 3′ of the gene. The amplified fragment, digested with EcoRI and SalI, was cloned into the polylinker region of the pUC18 vector, which carries the gene for ampicillin resistance (Yanish and Perron, Gene 33, 103-119, 1985; EMBL accession number L08752). After transformation of the DH5cc strain (Hanahan, J. Mol. Biol. 166, 557-580, 1983), the pGM678 plasmid was obtained (FIG. 1). In the construct, a fusion is created between the first codons of the lacZ gene of pUC18 and the entire deoD sequence (FIG. 2) and the transcription is under the control of the lac promoter of the vector. The cloned region was completely sequenced and was found to be completely identical with the data bank sequence. The pGM678 plasmid sequence is listed. The Tet gene, which confers tetracycline resistance, was then inserted into the pGM678 plasmid, in a manner analogous to that described in Example No. 1. The resultant plasmid was called pGM707 (FIG. 1). Its complete sequence is listed. The deoD gene was also cloned in a different vector as reported herebelow. The region PvuII-NdeI of pUC18 plasmid (end filled with Klenow) containing the replication origin was linked to the fragment EcoRI (filled)-HindIII (filled) containing the polylinker to obtain the resulting plasmid pGM746whose sequence is listed. pGM746 was subsequently digested with BamHI (filled)-SphI and linked to fragment NheI (filled)-SphI of plasmid pGM709 in which is contained the deoD gene preceded by a Shine-Dalgarno sequence for the ribosome binding site (see example 3). The resulting plasmid was called pGM747 and its sequence is also listed. The region containing the tac promoter was obtained by PCR amplification with oligonucleotides 5′-ATTGAGCTCGACATCATAACGGTTCTGGC (SEQ ID NO: 20) and 5′-ATTGGATCCTGTGTGAAATTGTTATCCGC (SEQ ID NO: 21) of plasmid pGZ119 (Lessl et al., J. Bacteriol. 174, 2493-2500, 1992), digestion of the fragment with BamHI-SacI and insertion in BamHI-SacI of pGM747 upstream deoD. The resulting plasmid pGM751 (FIG. 3) contains the deoD gene starting from tac promoter and expresses the PNP enzyme identical to the wild-type one. The pGM751 sequence is listed. EXAMPLE NO. 3 Cloning of the udp and deoD Genes into a Single Expression Vector The udp and deoD genes were cloned into the same vector in order to express the UdP and PNP enzymes simultaneously inside the same cell. This was effected by inserting the deoD gene into the pGM679 plasmid, downstream of udp. For the construction, the EcoRI-SalI fragment of pGM678, containing the deoD gene, was cloned into the pBAD24 vector (Guzman et al., J. Bacteriol. 177, 4121-4230, 1995; EMBL accession number X81838) obtaining plasmid pGM709. The fragment NheI (with the ends filled) - SphI of this construct was cloned into pGM679, digested SalI (filled)-SphI, to give pGM712 (FIG. 1). In pGM712, both of the udp and deoD genes are transcribed starting from the lac promoter, but the translation of deoD is independent of that of udp because a sequence for the attachment of ribosomes is present upstream of deoD (FIG. 2). It will be appreciated that the PNP protein expressed by pGM712 is identical to the wild protein because the fusion with the first codons of lacZ at the 5′ of the gene was eliminated (FIG. 2). The complete pGM712 sequence is listed. The Tet gene, which confers tetracycline resistance, was subsequently inserted into the pGM712 plasmid as described in Example No. 1. The resultant plasmid was called pGM716 (FIG. 1). Its complete sequence is listed. The udp and deoD genes were also cloned in a different vector in which they are simultaneously expressed in this order starting from tac promoter, as herebelow reported. The fragment SalI-HindIII, obtained by PCR amplification using the pGM679 DNA as a template and the oligonucleotides 5′-TCCAGTCGACACAGGAAACAGCTATGA (SEQ ID NO: 22) and 5′-TACGAAGCTTA AGAGAATTACAGCAGACG (SEQ ID NO: 23), was inserted into plasmid pGM751, digested with SalI-HindIII, in order to obtain plasmid pGM800 bearing gene udp cloned downstream deoD. Both genes are transcribed starting from ptac but the transduction is independent. The complete sequence of pGM800 is listed. The gene Tc for tetracycline resistance was subsequently inserted into pGM800 according to an analogous process to that reported in example 1, thus obtaining plasmid pGM807 (FIG. 3) whose sequence is also listed. EXAMPLE NO. 4 Cloning of Fusion Proteins UdP-PNP and UdP-(L)-PNP The sequence coding for UdP and PNP have been fused to each other either directly or separated by a short aminoacidic linker. The plasmids were obtained by subsequent steps starting from pGM716. In particular, plasmid pGM716 was digested with HpaI and closed again so to have the deletion in the terminal part of gene udp and in the starting part of deoD and create plasmid pGM769 with a unique site HpaI. The 3′ portion of udp was amplified by PCR with the oligonucleotides 5′-GGCCGTTAACCGCACCCAGCAAGAG (SEQ ID NO: 24) and 5′-AGCCATGGACAGCAGACGACGCGCC (SEQ ID NO: 25); the 5′ portion of deoD was amplified in the same way with the oligonucleotides 5′-GCTGTCCATGGCTACCCCACACATTAAT (SEQ ID NO: 26)and 5′-CCGGGTTAACTTTGGAATCGGTGCAGG (SEQ ID NO: 27). Subsequently, using the product of the two PCRs as a template and the two extreme sequences, the complete region was amplified: the obtained fragment creates a fusion between udp and deoD, replacing the udp stop codon with a codon for serine, followed by deoD ATG codon. The fragment was digested with HpaI (site present at the two extremities) and cloned in pGM769 HpaI site. The resulting plasmid was called pGM771 (FIG. 4). In pGM771, the fused protein UdP-PNP is then transcribed starting from lac promoter. The plasmid sequence is listed. Plasmid pM771 was subsequently modified by inserting the 5′-CATGGGCGGT GGCAGCCCGGGCATTCTGGCCATG (SEQ ID NO: 28) linker in the unique NcoI site, immediately upstream the starting deoD ATG. The resulting plasmid, called pGM795 (FIG. 4) expresses a fusion protein formed by UdP+a 11 aminoacid linker (ser-met-gly-gly-gly-ser-pro-gly-ile-leu-ala) (SEQ ID NO: 29)+PNP. The pGM795 sequence is listed. EXAMPLE NO. 5 Transformation of E.coli The E.coli strain K12 DH5α, which carries the recA1 mutation (Hanahan, J.Mol.Biol. 166, 557-580, 1983) and the wild-type strain MG1655 (Singer et al., Microbiol.Rev. 53, 1-24, 1989) were transformed with plasmids pGM678, pGM679, pGM707, pGM708, pGM712, pGM716, pGM771, pGM795, pGM751, pGM800 and pGM807. The genotype of the strains and some characteristics of the recombinant strains are given in Tables 6 and 7. The pGM678, pGM679, pGM712, pGM751 and pGM807 transformants were selected on medium containing ampicillin (50 μg /ml) and the pGM707, pGM708, pGM716, pGM771,pGM795 and pGM907. pGM771, pGM795 and pGM807 transformants were selected on medium containing tetracycline (12.5 μg/ml). TABLE 6 Genotype of the host strains Strain Genotype Reference E. coli K12 F−,φ80dlacZΔM15, Δ(lacZYA- Hanahan, J. Mol. Biol. DH5α argF)U169, deoR, recA1, endA1, 166, 557-580, hsdR17(rK−, mK+), phoA, supE44, 1983 λ−, thi 1, gyrA96, relA1 E. coli K12 LAM-rph-1 Singer et al., MG1655 Microbiol. Rev. 53, 1-24, 1989 TABLE 7 Characteristics of the novel recombinant strains Name of the strain Expression of the cloned proteins Resistence DH5α/pGM678 purine nucleoside phosphorylase ampicillin DH5α/pGM679 uridine phosphorylase ampicillin DH5α/pGM707 purine nucleoside phosphorylase tetracycline/ampicillin DH5α/pGM708 uridine phosphorylase tetracycline/ampicillin DH5α/pGM712 purine nucleoside phosphorylase and ampicillin uridine phosphorylase DH5α/pGM716 purine nucleoside phosphorylase and tetracycline/ampicillin uridine phosphorylase MG1655/pGM678 purine nucleoside phosphorylase ampicillin MG1655/pGM679 uridine phosphorylase ampicillin MG1655/pGM707 purine nucleoside phosphorylase tetracycline/ampicillin MG1655/pGM708 uridine phosphorylase tetracycline/ampicillin MG1655/pGM716 purine nucleoside phosphorylase and tetracycline/ampicillin uridine phosphorylase DH5α/pGM771 fusion protein UdP-PNP tetracycline/ampicillin DH5α/pGM795 fusion protein UdP-(L)-PNP tetracycline/ampicillin MG1655/pGM771 fusion protein UdP-PNP tetracycline/ampicillin MG1655/pGM795 fusion protein UdP-(L)-PNP tetracycline/ampicillin DH5α/pGM751 purine nucleoside phosphorylase ampicillin DH5α/pGM800 purine nucleoside phosphorylase and ampicillin uridine phosphorylase DH5α/pGM807 purine nucleoside phosphorylase and tetracycline/ampicillin uridine phosphorylase The presence of the plasmid in the transformed strains was confirmed by extraction of the plasmid DNA and analysis on 0.6% agarose gel. The growth of the transformed strains in LD broth (composition per litre: 10 g Bactotryptone (Difco), 5 g Yeast extract (Difco), 5 g NaCl) or in solid medium (LD+10 g/l agar), to which was added ampicillin (50 μg/ml) or tetracycline (12.5 μg/ml, only for the strains transformed with pGM707, pGM708, pGM716, pGM771, pGM795 and pGM807) is comparable to that of the control strains transformed with the pUC18 vector. In addition, the strains transformed with the plasmids pGM707, pGM708, pGM716, pGM771, pGM795 and pGM807, carrying both resistance genes, do not demonstrate differences in growth in the presence of ampicillin and tetracycline. EXAMPLE NO. 6 Evaluation of the Expression of the UdP and PNP Proteins in the Recombinant Strains Precultures of the recombinant strains were obtained by inoculating single clones into LD medium to which an antibiotic had been added and by incubating without agitation at 37° C. overnight. The cultures were diluted 1:20 in LD medium+antibiotic in a flat-bottomed flask and incubated at 37° C. with agitation until the stationary phase was reached, corresponding to cell density values of approximately 2 units of optical density at 600 nm. The total proteins extracted from 1 ml of culture were separated on 15% polyacrylamide gel under reducing conditions (SDS-PAGE) and the proteins were visualised by staining with Coomassie Blue. The PNP and UdP proteins were identified on the basis of the molecular weight of approximately 26.6 kDa for PNP and 28.2 kDa for UdP. The result obtained from the extracts of strains MG1655/pGM707, pGM708 and pGM716 is given in FIG. 5. Electrophoretic analysis shows that, in all the samples studied, overexpression of UdP and PNP has occurred, because the corresponding protein bands represent a significant percentage of the total cell proteins; this result is confirmed by the quantitative determination of the enzyme activities which is given in Tables 1 and 2 and by the quantitative determination of UdP and PNP expression effected by reverse phase high pressure liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). For that purpose, the soluble extract was analysed on a C4-Vydac analytical column, dimensions 4.6×250 mm, using a mobile phase constituted by acetonitrile-H2O containing 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid and operating in accordance with the following parameters: flow rate of 0.75 ml/minute; elution with a gradient from 40% acetonitrile to 65% acetonitrile in 30 minutes; temperature of 45° C.; UV detection at a wavelength of 215 nm. Under the analysis conditions applied, the elution times for UdP and PNP were approximately 13 minutes and 15 minutes, respectively. The quantitative determination was carried out by comparing the area of the peak of interest with the area of the peak of standard UdP and PNP preparations separated under the same conditions as the samples. Because, in the recombinant strains, the deoD and udp genes are cloned under the control of the lac promoter, the growth of the cells and the expression of the UdP and PNP proteins were monitored both in the absence and in the presence of 40 mg/l of IPTG as transcription inducer. The results obtained indicated that the presence of IPTG does not modify cell growth and does not increase the level of PNP and UdP expression (possibly due to the insufficient amount of repressor in those strains). This last result indicates that, in the recombinant strains to which the present invention relates, the expression of the deoD and udp genes is constitutive and reaches very high levels without phenomena of cell damages or diminished cell vitality. EXAMPLE NO. 7 Determination of the Enzyme Activity of Uridine Phosphorylase and Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Expressed Intracellularly in Recombinant Bacterial Cells The strains were grown as described in Example No. 5. The cells were harvested by centrifugation, weighed in the form of wet cell paste and stored at −20° C. until enzyme analysis was carried out. The activity of the UdP enzyme was determined in a phosphorolysis test by incubating for 5 minutes at 30° C. the soluble fraction (cell extract) obtained by sonication of a known amount of a suspension of the cell paste and by centrifugation of the homogenate in 100 mM-pH 7 phosphate buffer containing 60 mM of the uridine substrate. The enzyme reaction was blocked by acidification with 0.1N HCl; the suspension was filtered and analysed by RP-HPLC on a C18 column (Hypersyl 100; 4.6×250 mm), eluting under isocratic conditions with a mobile phase constituted by 0.02 M K2HPO4 in methanol-H2O (4:96 v/v) and adjusted to pH 4.5 with NH4OH. The amount of uracil formed in the reaction was determined by reference to a standard curve and the enzyme activity of the cell preparation was calculated in μmol uracil/min/g wet cell paste (units/g). The activity of the PNP enzyme was determined in a phosphorolysis test by incubating for 10 minutes at 30° C. the soluble fraction (cell extract) obtained by sonication of a known amount of a suspension of the cell paste and by centrifugation of the homogenate in 100 mM-pH 7 phosphate buffer containing 50 mM of the inosine substrate. The enzyme reaction was blocked by acidification with O.1N HCl; the suspension was filtered and analysed by RP-HPLC on a C18 column (Hypersyl 100; 4.6×250 mm), eluting under isocratic conditions with a mobile phase constituted by 0.02 M K2HPO4 in methanol-H2O (4:96 v/v) and adjusted to pH 4.5 with NH4OH. The amount of hypoxanthine formed in the reaction was determined by reference to a standard curve and the enzyme activity of the cell preparation was calculated in μmol hypoxanthine/min/g wet cell paste (units/g). EXAMPLE NO. 8 Fermentation of the Recombinant Strains. The recombinant strains to which the present invention relates were cultivated at high biomass either under batch mode or under fed-batch mode fermentation conditions. The batch-mode fermentations were carried out using a fermenter having a working volume of 10 litres which was filled with 9 litres of medium having the following composition (per litre): 0.6 g KH2PO4; 3.2 g K2HPO4; 20 g Soytone (Difco); 36 g yeast extract (Difco); 1 g MgSO4-7H2O; 0.0125 g tetracycline (or other antibiotic used as a selection marker) and which was inoculated with 1 litre of a bacterial suspension previously cultivated for 20 hours at 30° C. in medium having the following composition, per litre: 20 g tryptone; 10 g yeast extract; 10 g NaCl; 0.0125 g tetracycline. The fermentation was carried out in accordance with the following operating parameters: 30° C.; air flow of 1 litre/litre of culture/minute; initial agitation 250 rev/min modified automatically to maintain a level of O2 at 20% of the saturation concentration; pH maintained at 7 by additions of H3PO4 or NH4OH; time 24 hours. When fermentation was complete, the culture medium was centrifuged, the cell pellet was washed in 30 mM-pH 7 phosphate buffer. The biomass obtained (40-50 grams of wet cell paste/litre of culture medium) was stored at −20° C. until it was brought into use. The fed-batch mode fermentations were carried out using a fermenter having a working volume of 10 litres which was filled with 7 litres of medium at pH 6.8-7 having the following composition, per litre: 13.3 g KH2PO4; 4 g (NH4)2HPO4; 1.25 g Soytone (Difco); 0.125 extract (Difco); 1.7 g citric acid; 2.5 g glycerol; 1.5 g MgSO4-7H2O; 0.08 g CaCl2; 0.01 g thiamine, 0.0125 g tetracycline (or other antibiotic selector); 0.08 g FeSO4-7H2O; 0.02 g MnSO4-H2O; 0.03 g ZnSO4-7H2O; 0.003 g H3BO3; 0.06 g CuSO4-5H2O; 0.008 g CoCl2-6H2O; 0.004 g NaMoO4-2H2O. The fermenter was inoculated with 1 litre of bacterial suspension previously cultivated for 18-20 hours at 30° C. in medium having the following composition, per litre: 13.3 g KH2PO4; 4 g (NH4)2HPO4; 5 g Soytone (Difco); 1.7 g citric acid; 10 g glycerol; 0.01 g thiamine; 0.0125 g tetracycline; 0.05 g CaCl2-2H2O; 1 g MgSO4-7H2O; 0.03 g FeSO4-7H2O: 0.01 g MnSO4-H2O; 0.01 g ZnSO4-7H2O; 0.003 g H3BO3; 0.02 g CuSO4-5H2O; 0.002 g CoCl2-6H2O; 0.002 g NaMoO4-2H2O. The fermentation was carried out in accordance with the following operating parameters: 30° C.; air flow of 1-1.2 litre/litre of culture/minute; initial agitation 150 rev/min modified automatically to maintain a level of O2 at 20% of the saturation concentration for approximately 8-10 hours (batch phase) and subsequently a level of 02 at 10% of the saturation concentration (fed-batch phase); pH maintained at 6.8-7 by additions of H3PO4 or NH4OH. During the fed-batch phase, the fermentation was automatically supplied with a total of 2 litres of a solution having the following composition, per litre: 400 g glycerol; 200 g Soytone; 20 g yeast extract; 3 g MgSO4-7H2O; 0.0125 g tetracycline. When fermentation was completed (after approximately 50 hours) the culture medium was centrifuged, the cell pellet was washed in 30 mM-pH 7 phosphate buffer. The biomass obtained (150-200 grams of wet cell paste/litre of culture medium) was stored at −20° C. until it was brought into use. EXAMPLE No. 9 Transglycosylation Reactions on a Laboratory Scale and Calculation of the Productivity Index The transglycosylation reactions were carried out using various sugar-donating nucleosides at a concentration of 60 mM (uridine, 2′-deoxyuridine, Ara-U) and various acceptor bases at a concentration of 20 mM (1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide, guanine, adenine, thymine, 2,6-diaminopurine) at pH 7 in phosphate buffer (30 mM) in the presence of various concentrations of cell paste or corresponding crude or purified extract derived either from cultures of the control micro-organism E.aerogenes or from cultures of the recombinant E.coli strain MG1655/pGM716 which overexpresses the UdP and PNP enzymes. The reactions were carried out at 60° C. for various periods of time (from 1 hour to 25 hours) and the percentage bioconversion, relative to the initial concentration of acceptor base, was determined by RP-HPLC analysis of the diluted reaction mixture. The results obtained are given in Table 2. The productivity index P was calculated for each reaction by applying the following formula: P=n·m−1·t−1·1000 where n=concentration of the end product (g/l) m=wet cell paste (g/l of reaction mixture) t=reaction time in hours. The productivity index represents an overall measure of the efficiency of the reaction because it takes into account both the characteristics of the enzyme-substrate interaction itself and operating parameters, such as the reaction time, the amount of cells used and the volumetric yield of end product. EXAMPLE No. 10 Optimisation of the Use of Recombinant E.coli Cells in Transglycosylation Reactions The preparation of ribavirin starting from uridine (60 mM) and 1,2,4-triazole-3-carboxamide (40 mm) and of Ara-A starting from Ara-U (40 mM) and adenine (40 mM) were studied as examples of optimisation of the use of recombinant E.coli cells in bioconversion reactions. In each case, the reactions were carried out at 60° C. in the presence of 30 mM of potassium phosphate at pH 7 and in the presence of various amounts of cell paste obtained by fermentation of the strains MG1655/pGM707 (overexpressing the UdP enzyme) and MG1655/pGM708 (overexpressing the PNP enzyme). At predetermined intervals, aliquots of the reaction mixture were taken and analysed by RP-HPLC in order to determine the percentage bioconversion (calculated relative to the concentration of acceptor base). The study was initially carried out by incubating the reaction mixture for 20 hours in the presence of a limiting concentration of cell paste (with total enzyme activity equal to or less than 2 units/ml) and by operating in such a manner as to have ratios of UdP enzyme units and PNP enzyme units varying in the following proportions 5:1; 2:1; 1:1; 1:2; 1:5. The results obtained in the two bioconversion reactions are given in Table 8. TABLE 8 Study of the transglycosylation reaction conditions The reactions were carried out for 20 hours at 60° C. in the presence of limiting concentrations of cell paste. Preparation of ribavirin Preparation of Ara-A UdP PNP Bioconversion yield UdP PNP Bioconversion yield units/ml % units/ml % 1 0.2 60.7 1 0.2 54.0 1 0.5 77.3 1 0.5 65.2 1 1 81.6 1 1 63.8 0.5 1 80.0 0.5 1 26.4 0.2 1 78.1 0.2 1 9.2 The results given in the Table demonstrate that the optimum UdP and PNP activity ratios are 1:1 and 0.5, respectively, for the reaction for the formation of ribavirin and Ara-A. These data were confirmed in the subsequent study in which enzyme concentrations 10 times higher were used, with the same proportions being maintained between the UdP units and the PNP units; in this study, the reaction kinetics were also determined by taking samples of reaction mixture at intervals of 1 hour for RP-HPLC analysis and calculation of the percentage bioconversion. Tables 9 and 10 show, for the ribavirin and Ara-A preparation reactions, respectively, the optimum parameters in terms of percentage bioconversion and reaction time for the various proportions of UdP and PNP studied. TABLE 9 Optimisation of the reaction conditions for the preparation of ribavirin UdP PNP Reaction time units/ml units/ml hours Bioconversion % 10 2 20 89.4 10 5 4 89.5 10 10 2 91.2 5 10 2 91.2 2 10 2 91.1 TABLE 10 Optimisation of the reaction conditions for the preparation of Ara-A. UdP PNP Reaction time units/ml units/ml hours Bioconversion % 10 2 3 70.5 10 5 2 70.8 10 10 2 70.6 5 10 6 70.1 2 10 6 70.0 The results of the optimisation study indicate that ribavirin can be obtained in two hours with a bioconversion yield of 91% using 10 units/ml of either UdP or PNP while Ara-A can be obtained in two hours with a bioconversion yield of approximately 71% using 10 units/ml of UdP and 5 units/ml of PNP. On the basis of the enzyme activity titre of the recombinant E.coli strains described in the present invention, it is therefore possible to calculate the amount of cell paste necessary to prepare ribavirin and Ara-A under optimum conditions. In the case, for example, of the strains MG1655/pGM707 and MG1655/pGM716 having the specific activities given in Table 1, 0.4 and 0.2 gram of wet cell paste/100 ml of reaction mixture, respectively, will be used for the preparation of ribavirin and Ara-A. EXAMPLE No. 11 Pilot-Scale Preparation of Ara-A by Transglycosylation Reaction Carried out with the E. aerogenes Comparison Strain, with the Recombinant E.coli Strains and with the Corresponding Cell Extracts The process for the preparation of Ara-A by transglycosylation catalysed by E. aerogenes cells or by recombinant cells of E.coli MG1655/pGM716 or DH5a/pGM716 overexpressing UdP and PNP was studied on a reaction scale of 1000 litres. 50 kg of wet cell paste obtained by fermenting E. aerogenes were resuspended in approximately 200 litres of 30 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7 and mixed with 800 litres of phosphate buffer in which had been dissolved at elevated temperature 5.4 kg of adenine (final concentration 40 mM) and 8.9 kg of Ara-U (final concentration 40 mM). The mixture was maintained at 60° C., with agitation, for 20 hours, diluted to approximately 3000 litres with hot H20 and subjected to diafiltration on a membrane, collecting approximately 5000 litres of ultrafiltrate. The bioconversion yield determined by RP-HPLC was approximately 55%. The residue containing the cell paste is used for a subsequent reaction. The ultrafiltrate was concentrated to approximately 1000 litres and cooled to collect the precipitate constituted by Ara-A contaminated with non-reacted adenine (approximately 30 g of adenine per 100 g of Ara-A). 5 kg of Ara-A (total yield approximately 46%) with a degree of purity higher than 99.5% were finally obtained after crystallisation with H2O. 5 kg of wet cell paste or the corresponding crude or purified extract obtained by fermenting the strain MG1655/pGM716 or the strain DH5α/pGM716 were resuspended in approximately 20 litres of 30 mM phosphate buffer at pH 7 and mixed with 980 litres of phosphate buffer in which had been dissolved at elevated temperature 10.1 kg of adenine (final concentration approximately 74.6 mM) and 18.3 kg of Ara-U (final concentration approximately 74.6 mM). The mixture was maintained at 60° C., with agitation, for 4 hours to obtain a bioconversion yield of approximately 70%. The cell paste was recovered in order to be used again in subsequent reactions by dilution at elevated temperature and diafiltration in accordance with the procedure described above. The ultrafiltrate was concentrated to a volume of approximately 1000 litres, cooled to collect the precipitate constituted by Ara-A which was subsequently crystallised from water to obtain approximately 14 kg of Ara-A with a degree of purity higher than 99.5%. According to an alternative procedure, in which the cells were not recovered and the diafiltration step was omitted, at the end of the reaction the mixture was heated to approximately 90° C. and filtered at elevated temperature to eliminate the cells, and the filtrate was cooled to precipitate Ara-A contaminated with non-reacted adenine (approximately 20 g of adenine per 100 g of Ara-A). 14 kg of Ara-A (total yield 65%) having a degree of purity higher than 99.5% were finally obtained after crystallisation from reaction of 1000 litres. Similar results were obtained starting from a mixture of the cell pastes or the corresponding crude or purified extracts obtained by fermenting the recombinant E.coli strains MG1655/p707 or MG1655/p708 and the strains DH5α/pGM707 or DH5α/pGM707 overexpressing UdP and PNP, respectively. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 . Cloning vectors for the expression of UdP and PNP enzymes. FIGS. 2A to 2 D. 5′ and 3′ sequences of upd and deoD genes cloned in plasmid pUC18. Restriction sites of different constructs are underlined. The bases of nucleotide sequences of udp and deoD genes and the amino acid residues of PNP and UdP proteins are reported in italics. (A) Plasmid pUC18: 5′ sequence of lacZ gene. (B) Plasmid pGM678 and pGM707: sequence of lacZ-deoD fused gene. (C) plasmid pGM679 and pGM708: sequence of lacZ-upd fused genes. (D) Plasmid pGM712 and pGM716: 5′ and 3′ sequence of deoD gene. FIGS. 3A and 3B . Construction of cloning vectors for the expression of UdP and PNP enzymes. FIG. 4 . Construction of cloning vectors for the expression of UdP-(L)-PNP enzymes. FIG. 5 . Expression of PNP and UdP in recombinant E. coli strains. Gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of total protein exctracts from strains MG1655/pGM707, MG1655/pGM708, and MG1655/pGM716 grown overnight in LD medium supplemented with 12.5 mg/liter of tetracycline. Lanes 15, 2, and 0.3 correspond to protein extracted from 15, 2, and 0.3 ml of bacterial culture. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050114 | 20100824 | 20050630 | 87681.0 | 0 | STEADMAN, DAVID J | CATALYZING TRANSGLYCOSYLATION USING A RECOMBINANT HOST CELL OVEREXPRESSING URIDINE PHOSPHORYLASE AND PURINE NUCLEOSIDE PHOSPHORYLASE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,606 | ACCEPTED | Bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamino sulfonamide retroviral protease inhibitors | Selected bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamino sulfonamide compounds are effective as retroviral protease inhibitors, and in particular as inhibitors of HIV protease. The present invention relates to such retroviral protease inhibitors and, more particularly, relates to selected novel compounds, composition and method for inhibiting retroviral proteases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease, prophylactically preventing retroviral infection or the spread of a retrovirus, and treatment of a retroviral infection. | 1. A compound represented by the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2-5 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 2-5 carbon atoms, hydroxyalkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, alkoxyalkyl of 1-3 alkyl and 1-3 alkoxy carbon atoms, cyanoalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, alkylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, arylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms or cycloakylalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms and 3-6 ring member carbon atoms; R3 represents of alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkyl of 5-8 ring members or cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members; R10 represents hydrogen, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl or alkoxyalkyl wherein alkyl and alkoxy are each 1-3 carbon atoms; R11 represents a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, hydroxyalkyl of 1-4 carbon atoms, alkoxyalkyl of 1-4 alkyl carbon atoms, benzyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2SCH3 or —CH2SCH3 or sulfone or sulfoxide derivatives thereof; R4 represents aryl provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical, or R4 represents benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl or benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo; or a radical of the formula wherein A and B each independently represent O, S, SO or SO2; R6 represents deuterium, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, fluoro or chloro; R7 represents a hydrogen radical, a deuterium radical, methyl, fluoro or chloro; or a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, heteroaralkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, heterocycloalkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, aminoalkyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl of 2 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms wherein said substituents are alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, carboxyalkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, alkoxycarbonylalkyl of 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, cyanoalkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms or hydroxyalkyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms; R21 represents a hydrogen radical or alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; or the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents a 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo; and R22 represents alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms or R20R21N-alkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms; and R12 and R13 each independently represent a hydrogen radical, alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxyalkyl, aryl or heteroaryl, wherein alkyl is 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkyl is 3-6 ring membered cycloalkyl optionally benzo fused, and heteroaryl is 5 to 6 ring membered heteroaryl optionally benzo fused. 2. The compound of claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents alkyl of 1-4 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2-3 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 3-4 carbon atoms, cyanomethyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents alkyl of 3-5 carbon atoms, arylmethyl, alkylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, arylthiomethyl or cycloalkylmethyl of 5-6 ring member carbon atoms; R3 represents alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members, cyclohexyl, or cycloheptyl; and, R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl, 3-aminophenyl, or 4-aminophenyl, provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents 2-amino-benzothiazol-5-yl, 2-amino-benzothiazol-6-yl, benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, benzoxazol-5-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl or 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl; or a radical of the formula wherein A and B each represent O; R6 represents a deuterium radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl or fluoro; and R7 represents a hydrogen radical, a deuterium radical, methyl or fluoro; or a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, heterocycloalkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, or N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl of 2 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms wherein said substituents are alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and R21 represents a hydrogen radical or methyl; or the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, 4-methylpiperazinyl, 4-benzylpiperazinyl, morpholinyl or thiamorpholinyl; and R22 represents alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and R12 and R13 each independently represent a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, 5 to 6 ring member heteroaralkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, cycloalkyl of 3-6 ring members, cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members, hydroxyalkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, methoxyalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms or phenyl. 3. The compound of claim 2, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents iso-propyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3, or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents isobutyl, n-butyl, CH3SCH2CH2—, phenylthiomethyl, (2-naphthylthio)methyl, benzyl, 4-methoxyphenylmethyl, 4-hydroxyphenylmethyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R3 represents propyl, isoamyl, isobutyl, butyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclopentylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R10 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, methoxymethyl, methoxyethyl, hydroxymethyl or hydroxyethyl; R11 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, secbutyl, isobutyl, tertbutyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, methoxymethyl or methoxyethyl; and, R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxphenyl provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, benzoxazol-5-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl or 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl; or a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, benzyl, 2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperazinyl)ethyl, 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl, 2-(1-morpholinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-thiamorpholinyl)ethyl or 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl; R21 represents a hydrogen radical; and R22 represents methyl radical; and R12 and R13 each independently represent a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylmethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-methoxyethyl or phenyl. 4. The compound of claim 3, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents sec-butyl, tert-butyl, iso-propyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl, or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; R2 represents benzyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R10 and R11 each independently represent hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; R4 represents phenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxyphenyl provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-6-yl or 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzimidazol-5-yl; R12 represents a hydrogen radical or methyl; and, R13 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, cyclopropyl, isopropyl, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl or 2-methoxyethyl. 5. A pharmaceutically acceptable salt of a compound of claim 1 wherein said pharmaceutically acceptable salt is a hydrochloric acid salt, a sulphuric acid salt, a phosphoric acid salt, an oxalic acid salt, a maleic acid salt, a succinic acid salt, a citric acid salt or a methanesulfonic acid salt. 6. The pharmaceutically acceptable salt of claim 5 wherein said pharmaceutically acceptable salt is a hydrochloric acid salt, an oxalic acid salt, a citric acid salt or a methanesulfonic acid salt. 7. (canceled) 8. A composition comprising a compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 9. A method of inhibiting a retroviral protease comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 10. A method of treating a retroviral infection comprising administering an effective amount of a composition of claim 8. 11. A method of preventing replication of a retrovirus comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 12. A method of preventing replication of a retrovirus in vitro comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. 13. A method of treating AIDS comprising administering an effective amount of a composition of claim 8. 14. The compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the stereochemistry of the carbon atom bonded to R1 is designated as (S). 15. The compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the stereochemistry of the carbon atom bonded to R2 is designated as (S). 16. The compound of claim 1 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the stereochemistry of the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl (—OH) group is designated as (R). 17. A compound of claim 1 represented by the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, R10, R11, R12, and R13 are as defined in claim 1. 18. The compound of claim 17, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents alkyl of 1-4 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2-3 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 3-4 carbon atoms, cyanomethyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents alkyl of 3-5 carbon atoms, arylmethyl, alkylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, arylthiomethyl or cycloalkylmethyl of 5-6 ring member carbon atoms; R3 represents alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members, cyclohexyl, or cycloheptyl; and, R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl, 3-aminophenyl, or 4-aminophenyl, provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents 2-amino-benzothiazol-5-yl, 2-amino-benzothiazol-6-yl, benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, benzoxazol-5-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl or 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl; or a radical of the formula wherein A and B each represent O; R6 represents a deuterium radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl or fluoro; and R7 represents a hydrogen radical, a deuterium radical, methyl or fluoro; or a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, heterocycloalkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, or N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl of 2 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms wherein said substituents are alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and R21 represents a hydrogen radical or methyl; or the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, 4-methylpiperazinyl, 4-benzylpiperazinyl, morpholinyl or thiamorpholinyl; and R22 represents alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and R12 and R13 each independently represent a hydrogen radical, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, 5 to 6 ring member heteroaralkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, cycloalkyl of 3-6 ring members, cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members, hydroxyalkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, methoxyalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms or phenyl. 19. The compound of claim 18, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents iso-propyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH32SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3, or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents isobutyl, n-butyl, CH3SCH2CH2—, phenylthiomethyl, (2-naphthylthio)methyl, benzyl, 4-methoxyphenylmethyl, 4-hydroxyphenylmethyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R3 represents propyl, isoamyl, isobutyl, butyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclopentylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R10 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, methoxymethyl, methoxyethyl, hydroxymethyl or hydroxyethyl; R11 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, secbutyl, isobutyl, tertbutyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, methoxymethyl or methoxyethyl; and, R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxphenyl provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, benzoxazol-5-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl or 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl; or a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, benzyl, 2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperazinyl)ethyl, 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl, 2-(1-morpholinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-thiamorpholinyl)ethyl or 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl; R21 represents a hydrogen radical; and R22 represents methyl; and R12 and R13 each independently represent a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-methoxyethyl or phenyl. 20. The compound of claim 19, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 represents sec-butyl, tert-butyl, iso-propyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl, or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3; R2 represents benzyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl; R10 and R11 each independently represent hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; R4 represents phenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxyphenyl provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-6-yl or 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzimidazol-5-yl; R12 represents a hydrogen radical or methyl; and, R13 represents a hydrogen radical, methyl, ethyl, propyl, cyclopropyl, isopropyl, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl or 2-methoxyethyl. 21. A composition comprising a compound of claim 17 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. | RELATED CASE This is a continuation-in-part of co-owned and co-pending application Ser. No. 08/402,450, filed Mar. 10, 1995 which is referenced herein in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to retroviral protease inhibitors and, more particularly, relates to novel compounds, composition and method for inhibiting retroviral proteases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease. This invention, in particular, relates to bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamine sulfonamide protease inhibitor compounds, composition and method for inhibiting retroviral proteases, prophylactically preventing retroviral infection or the spread of a retrovirus, and treatment of a retroviral infection, e.g., an HIV infection. The subject invention also relates to processes for making such compounds as well as to intermediates useful in such processes. During the replication cycle or gene transcription products are translated as proteins. These proteins are subsequently processed by a virally encoded protease (or proteinase) to yield viral enzymes and structural proteins of the virus core. Most commonly, the gag precursor proteins are processed into the core proteins and the pol precursor proteins are processed into the viral enzymes, e.g., reverse transcriptase and retroviral protease. It has been shown that correct processing of the precursor proteins by the retroviral protease is. necessary for assembly of infectious virons. For example, it has been shown that frameshift mutations in the protease region of the pol gene of HIV prevents processing of the gag precursor protein. It has also been shown through site-directed mutagenesis of an aspartic acid residue in the HIV protease active site that processing of the gag precursor protein is prevented. Thus, attempts have been made to inhibit viral replication by inhibiting the action of retroviral proteases. Retroviral protease inhibition typically involves a transition-state mimetic whereby the retroviral protease is exposed to a mimetic compound which binds (typically in a reversible manner) to the enzyme in competition with the gag and gag-pol proteins to thereby inhibit specific processing of structural proteins and the release of retroviral protease itself. In this manner, retroviral replication proteases can be effectively inhibited. Several classes of compounds have been proposed, particularly for inhibition of proteases, such as for inhibition of HIV protease. Such compounds include hydroxyethylamine isosteres and reduced amide isosteres. See, for example, EP 0 346 847; EP 0 342,541; Roberts et al, “Rational Design of Peptide-Based Proteinase Inhibitors, “Science, 248, 358 (1990); and Erickson et al, “Design Activity, and 2.8 Å Crystal Structure of a C2 Symmetric Inhibitor Complexed to HIV-1 Protease,” Science, 249, 527 (1990). U.S. Pat. No. 5,157,041, WO 94/04491, WO 94/04492, WO 94/04493, WO 94/05639, WO 92/08701 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/294,468, filed Aug. 23, 1994, (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) for example describe hydroxyethylamine, hydroxyethylurea or hydroxyethyl sulfonamide isostere containing retroviral protease inhibitors. Several classes of compounds are known to be useful as inhibitors of the proteolytic enzyme renin. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,599,198; U.K. 2,184,730; G.B. 2,209,752; EP 0 264 795; G.B. 2,200,115 and U.S. SIR H725. Of these, G.B. 2,200,115, GB 2,209,752, EP 0 264,795, U.S. SIR H725 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,599,198 disclose urea-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors. EP 468 641 discloses renin inhibitors and intermediates for the preparation of the inhibitors which include sulfonamide-containing hydroxyethylamine compounds, such as 3-(t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-cyclohexyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)amino-2(5)-butanol. G.B. 2,200,115 also discloses sulfamoyl-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors, and EP 0264 795 discloses certain sulfonamide-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors. However, it is known that, although renin and HIV proteases are both classified as aspartyl proteases, compounds which are effective renin inhibitors generally are not predictive for effective HIV protease inhibition. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to selected retroviral protease inhibitor compounds, analogs and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters and prodrugs thereof. The subject compounds are characterized as bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamine sulfonamide inhibitor compounds. The invention compounds advantageously inhibit retroviral proteases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease. Therefore, this invention also encompasses pharmaceutical compositions, methods for inhibiting retroviral proteases and methods for treatment or prophylaxis of a retroviral infection, such as an HIV infection. The subject invention also relates to processes for making such compounds as well as to intermediates useful in such processes. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the present invention, there is provided a retroviral protease inhibiting compound of the formula: or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, prodrug or ester thereof, wherein R1 represents alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxyalkyl, cyanoalkyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; preferably, R1 represents alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2-5 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 2-5 carbon atoms, hydroxyalkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, alkoxyalkyl of 1-3 alkyl and 1-3 alkoxy carbon atoms, cyanoalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; more preferably, R1 represents alkyl of 1-4 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2-3 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 3-4 carbon atoms, cyanomethyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2S(O)2NH2, —CH2SCH3, —CH2S(O)CH3, —CH2S(O)2CH3, —C(CH3)2SCH3, —C(CH3)2S(O)CH3 or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; and most preferably, R1 represents sec-butyl, tert-butyl, iso-propyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; R2 represents alkyl, aralkyl, alkylthioalkyl, arylthioalkyl or cycloalkylalkyl radicals; preferably, R2 represents radicals of alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, alkylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, arylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms or cycloalkylalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms and 3-6 ring member carbon atoms; more preferably, R2 represents radicals of alkyl of 3-5 carbon atoms, arylmethyl, alkylthioalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, arylthiomethyl or cycloalkylmethyl of 5-6 ring member carbon atoms radicals; even more preferably,; R2 represents isobutyl, n-butyl, CH3SCH2CH2—, benzyl, phenylthiomethyl, (2-naphthylthio)methyl, 4-methoxyphenylmethyl, 4-hydroxyphenylmethyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl or cyclohexylmethyl radicals; even more preferably, R2 represents benzyl, 4-fluorophenylmethyl or cyclohexylmethyl radicals; most preferably, R2 represents benzyl; R3 represents alkyl, cycloalkyl or cycloalkylalkyl radicals; preferably, R3 represents radicals of alkyl radical of 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkyl of 5-8 ring members or cycloalkylmethyl radical of 3-6 ring members; more preferably, R3 represents propyl, isoamyl, isobutyl, butyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl, cyclohexyl or cycloheptyl radicals; more preferably R3 represents isobutyl or cyclopentylmethyl radicals; R4 represents aryl, heteroaryl or heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical and R4 represents heterocyclo or benzo fused heteroaryl radicals provided R11 is a hydrogen radical; preferably, R4 represents aryl, benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl or benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical and R4 represents benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl or benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is a hydrogen radical; or R4 represents a radical of the formula wherein A and B each independently represent O, S, SO or SO2; preferably, A and B each represent O; R6 represents deuterium, alkyl or halogen radicals; preferably, R6 represents deuterium, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, fluoro or chloro radicals; more preferably R6 represents deuterium, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl or fluoro radicals; R7 represents hydrogen, deuterium, alkyl or halogen radicals; preferably, R7 represents hydrogen, deuterium, alkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, fluoro or chloro radicals; more preferably, R7 represents hydrogen., deuterium, methyl or fluoro radicals; or R6 and R7 each independently represent fluoro or chloro radicals; and preferably, R6 and R7 each represent a fluoro radical; or R4 represents a radical of the formula wherein Z represents O, S or NH; and R9 represents a radical of formula wherein Y represents O, S or NH; X represents a bond, O or NR21; R20 represents hydrogen, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aminoalkyl, N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl wherein said substituents are alkyl or aralkyl radicals, carboxyalkyl, alkoxycarbonylalkyl, cyanoalkyl or hydroxyalkyl radicals; preferably, R20 represents hydrogen, alkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, alkenyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, alkynyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, heteroaralkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, heterocycloalkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, aminoalkyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms, N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl of 2 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms wherein said substituents are radicals of alkyl of 1 to 3 carbon atoms, aralkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms radicals, carboxyalkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, alkoxycarbonylalkyl of 1 to 5 alkyl carbon atoms, cyanoalkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms or hydroxyalkyl of 2 to 5 carbon atoms; more preferably, R20 represents hydrogen, alkyl of 1 to 5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, heterocycloalkyl of 5 to 6 ring members and 1 to 3 alkyl carbon atoms, or N-mono-substituted or N,N-disubstituted aminoalkyl of 2 to 3 carbon atoms wherein said substituents are alkyl radicals of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and most preferably, R20 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, benzyl, 2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperidinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-piperazinyl)ethyl, 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl, 2-(1-morpholinyl)ethyl, 2-(1-thiamorpholinyl)ethyl or 2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl radicals; R21 represents hydrogen or alkyl radicals; preferably, R21 represents hydrogen radical or alkyl radical of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; more preferably, R21 represents hydrogen or methyl radicals; and most preferably, R21 represents a hydrogen radical; or the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents a heterocyclo radical; preferably, the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents a 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo radical; more preferably, the radical of formula —NR20R21 represents pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, 4-methylpiperazinyl, 4-benzylpiperazinyl, morpholinyl or thiamorpholinyl radicals; and R22 represents alkyl or R20R21N-alkyl radicals; preferably, R22 represents alkyl or R20R21N-alkyl radicals wherein alkyl is 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and more preferably, R22 represents alkyl radical of 1 to 3 carbon atoms; and preferably R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 3,4-dimethoxyphenyl, 3-aminophenyl or 4-aminophenyl radicals provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical, or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, 2-amino-benzothiazol-5-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-5-yl, 2-amino-benzothiazol-6-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino) benzothiazol-6-yl, 5-benzoxazolyl, 6-benzoxazolyl, 6-benzopyranyl, 3,4-dihydrobenzopyran-6-yl, 7-benzopyranyl, 3,4-dihydrobenzopyran-7-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-l, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl, 5-benzimidazolyl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzimidazol-5-yl, 6-quinolinyl, 7-quinolinyl, 6-isoquinolinyl or 7-isoquinolinyl radicals; more preferably, R4 represents phenyl, 2-naphthyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxyphenyl radicals provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical, or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, benzoxazol-5-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-5-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-6-yl or 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzimidazol-5-yl radicals; and most preferably, R4 represents phenyl, 4-methoxyphenyl or 4-hydroxyphenyl radicals provided R11 is other than a hydrogen radical, or R4 represents benzothiazol-5-yl, benzothiazol-6-yl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl, benzofuran-5-yl, 1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-dideutero-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl, 1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl, 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzothiazol-6-yl or 2-(methoxycarbonylamino)benzimidazol-5-yl radicals; R10 represents hydrogen, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl or alkoxyalkyl radicals; preferably, R10 represents hydrogen, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl or alkoxyalkyl radicals, wherein alkyl and alkoxy are each 1-3 carbon atoms; more preferably, R10 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, methoxymethyl or methoxyethyl radicals; most preferably, R10 represents hydrogen, methyl or ethyl radicals; R11 represents hydrogen, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxyalkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, alkylthioalkyl or the sulfone or sulfoxide derivatives thereof, —CH2CH2CONH2 or —CH2CONH2 radicals; preferably, R11 represents hydrogen, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, hydroxyalkyl of 1-4 carbon atoms, alkoxyalkyl of 1-4 alkyl carbon atoms, benzyl, imidazolylmethyl, —CH2CH2CONH2, —CH2CONH2, —CH2CH2SCH3 or —CH2SCH3 radicals or the sulfone or sulfoxide derivatives thereof; more preferably, R11 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, secbutyl, isobutyl, tertbutyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, methoxymethyl or methoxyethyl radicals; most preferably, R11 represents hydrogen, methyl or ethyl radicals; and R12 and R13 each independently represent hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxyalkyl, aryl or heteroaryl radicals; preferably, R12 and R13 each independently represent hydrogen, alkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, alkoxyalkyl, aryl or heteroaryl radicals, wherein alkyl is 1-5 carbon atoms, cycloalkyl is 3-6 ring member cycloalkyl optionally benzo fused, and heteroaryl is 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl optionally benzo fused; more preferably, R12 and R13 each independently represent hydrogen, alkyl of 1-5 carbon atoms, phenylalkyl of 1-3 alkylcarbon atoms, 5 to 6 ring member heteroaralkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms, cycloalkyl of 3-6 ring members, cycloalkylmethyl of 3-6 ring members, hydroxyalkyl of 1-3 carbon atoms, methoxyalkyl of 1-3 alkyl carbon atoms or phenyl radicals; even more preferably, R12 and R13 each independently represent hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-methoxyethyl or phenyl radicals; most preferably, R12 represents hydrogen or methyl radicals; and most preferably, R13 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, cyclopropyl, isopropyl, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl or 2-methoxyethyl radicals. Another family of compounds of interest within Formula I as defined above wherein R4 represents aryl, heteroaryl or heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is other than hydrogen or alkyl radicals, and R4 represents heterocyclo or benzo fused heteroaryl radicals provided R11 is a hydrogen or alkyl radical; preferably, R4 represents aryl, benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl or benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is other than hydrogen or alkyl radicals, and R4 represents benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heteroaryl or benzo fused 5 to 6 ring member heterocyclo radicals provided R11 is a hydrogen or alkyl radical. The absolute stereochemistry of the carbon atom of —CH(OH)— group is preferably (R). The absolute stereochemistry of the carbon atom of —CH(R1)— group is preferably (S). The absolute stereochemistry of the carbon atom of—CH(R2)— groups is preferably (S). A family of compounds of particular interest within Formula I are compounds embraced by the formula or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, prodrug or ester thereof, wherein n, R1, R2, R3, R4, R10, R11 and R13 are as defined above. A family of compounds of further interest within Formula II are compounds embraced by the formula or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, prodrug or ester thereof, wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, R10, R11 and R13 are as defined above. A more preferred family of compounds within Formula III consists of compounds or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, prodrug or ester thereof, wherein R1 represents sec-butyl, tert-butyl, iso-propyl, 3-propynyl, cyanomethyl or —C(CH3)2S(O)2CH3 radicals; R2 represents a benzyl radical; R3 represents propyl, isoamyl, isobutyl, butyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclopentylmethyl or cyclohexylmethyl radicals; and R4 is as defined above; R10 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, hydroxymethyl or hydroxyethyl radicals; R11 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, secbutyl, isobutyl, tertbutyl, hydroxymethyl, hydroxyethyl, methoxymethyl or methoxyethyl radicals; and R13 represents hydrogen, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexylmethyl, benzyl, phenylethyl, 2-pyridylmethyl, 3-pyridylmethyl, 4-pyridylmethyl, 2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl, 2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl, furylmethyl, 2-furylethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-methoxyethyl or phenyl radicals. Compounds of interest include the following: 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-:methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S-[((N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-7methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S-[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3 S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino[propyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-methyl-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]3-methy-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,2-difluoro-1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-cyanopropanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N,N-dimethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-4-pentynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino-)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[( 2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl -butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-((1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-benzylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl) amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[f(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-l[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino)-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3 S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl) amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3-methyl-butanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl-pentanamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[phenylsulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent -4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[2-naphthyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide; and 2S—[[(N-2-methoxyethylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide. As utilized herein, the term “alkyl”, alone or in combination, means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl radical containing preferably from 1 to 8 carbon atoms, more preferably from 1 to 5 carbon atoms, most preferably 1 to 3 carbon atoms. Examples of such radicals include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, iso-amyl, hexyl, octyl and the like. The term “hydroxyalkyl”, alone or in combination, means a alkyl radical as defined above wherein at least one hydrogen atom has been replaced by a hydroxyl group, but no more than one hydrogen atom per carbon atom; preferably, 1 to 4 hydrogen atoms have been replaced by hydroxyl groups; more preferably, 1 to 2 hydrogen atoms have been replaced by hydroxyl groups; and most preferably, one hydrogen atom has been replaced by a hydroxyl group. The term “alkenyl”, alone or in combination, means a straight-chain or branched-chain hydrocarbon radical having one or more double bonds and containing preferably from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, more preferably from 2 to 8 carbon atoms, most preferably from 2 to 5 carbon atoms. Examples of suitable alkenyl radicals include ethenyl, propenyl, 2-methylpropenyl, 1,4-butadienyl and the like. The term “alkynyl”, alone or in combination, means a straight-chain or branched chain hydrocarbon radical having one or more triple bonds and containing preferably from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, more preferably from 2 to 5 carbon atoms. Examples of alkynyl radicals include ethynyl, propynyl (propargyl), butynyl and the like. The term “alkoxy”, alone or in combination, means an alkyl ether radical wherein the term alkyl is as defined above. Examples of suitable alkyl ether radicals include methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, isopropoxy, n-butoxy, iso-butoxy, sec-butoxy, tert-butoxy and the like. The term “alkoxyalkyl”, alone or in combination, means a alkyl radical as defined above wherein at least one hydrogen atom has been replaced by a alkoxy group, but no more than one hydrogen atom per carbon atom; preferably, 1 to 4 hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkoxy groups; more preferably, 1 to 2 hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkoxy groups; and most preferably, one hydrogen atom has been replaced by a alkoxy group. The term “cycloalkyl”, alone or in combination, means a saturated or partially saturated monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic alkyl radical wherein each cyclic moiety contains preferably from 3 to 8 carbon atom ring members, more preferably from 3 to 7 carbon atom ring members, most preferably from 5 to 6 carbon atom ring members, and which may optionally be a benzo fused ring system which is optionally substituted as defined herein with respect to the definition of aryl. Examples of such cycloalkyl radicals include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, octahydronaphthyl, 2,3-dihydro-1H-indenyl, adamantyl and the like. “Bicyclic” and “tricyclic” as used herein are intended to include both fused ring systems, such as naphthyl and 9-carbolinyl, and substituted ring systems, such as biphenyl, phenylpyridyl, naphthyl and diphenylpiperazinyl. The term “cycloalkylalkyl” means an alkyl radical as defined above which is substituted by a cycloalkyl radical as defined above. Examples of such cycloalkylalkyl radicals include cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl, 1-cyclopentylethyl, 1-cyclohexylethyl, 2-cyclopentylethyl, 2-cyclohexylethyl, cyclobutylpropyl, cyclopentylpropyl, cyclohexylbutyl and the like. The term “benzo”, alone or in combination, means the divalent radical C6H4=derived from benzene. The term “aryl”, alone or in combination, means a phenyl or naphthyl radical which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from alkyl, alkoxy, halogen, hydroxy, amino, nitro, cyano, haloalkyl, carboxy, alkoxycarbonyl, cycloalkyl, heterocyclo, alkanoylamino, amido, amidino, alkoxycarbonylamino, N-alkylamidino, alkylamino, dialkylamino, N-alkylamido, N,N-dialkylamido, aralkoxycarbonylamino, alkylthio, alkylsulfinyl, alkylsulfonyl and the like. Examples of aryl radicals are phenyl, p-tolyl, 4-methoxyphenyl, 4-(tert-butoxy)phenyl, 3-methyl-4-methoxyphenyl, 4-fluorophenyl, 4-chlorophenyl, 3-nitrophenyl, 3-aminophenyl, 4-CF3-phenyl, 3-acetamidophenyl, 4-acetamidophenyl, 2-methyl-3-acetamidophenyl, 2-methyl-3-aminophenyl, 3-methyl-4-aminophenyl, 2-amino-3-methylphenyl, 2,4-dimethyl-3-aminophenyl, 4-hydroxyphenyl, 3-methyl-4-hydroxyphenyl, 1-naphthyl, 2-naphthyl, 3-amino-1-naphthyl, 2-methyl-3-amino-1-naphthyl, 6-amino-2-naphthyl, 4,6-dimethoxy-2-naphthyl, piperazinylphenyl and the like. The terms “aralkyl” and “aralkoxy”, alone or in combination, means an alkyl or alkoxy radical as defined above in which at least one hydrogen atom is replaced by an aryl radical as defined above, such as benzyl, benzyloxy, 2-phenylethyl, dibenzylmethyl, hydroxyphenylmethyl, methylphenylmethyl, diphenylmethyl, diphenylmethoxy, 4-methoxyphenylmethoxy and the like. The term “aralkoxycarbonyl”, alone or in combination, means a radical of the formula aralkyl-O—C(O)— in which the term “aralkyl” has the significance given above. Examples of an aralkoxycarbonyl radical are benzyloxycarbonyl and 4-methoxyphenylmethoxycarbonyl. The term “aryloxy” means a radical of the formula aryl-O— in which the term aryl has the significance given above. The term “alkanoyl”, alone or in combination, means an acyl radical derived from an alkanecarboxylic acid, examples of which include acetyl, propionyl, butyryl, valeryl, 4-methylvaleryl, and the like. The term “cycloalkylcarbonyl” means an acyl radical of the formula cycloalkyl-C(O)— in which the term “cycloalkyl” has the significance give above, such as cyclopropylcarbonyl, cyclohexylcarbonyl, adamantylcarbonyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthoyl, 2-acetamido-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-naphthoyl, 1-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-naphthoyl and the like. The term “aralkanoyl” means an acyl radical derived from an aryl-substituted alkanecarboxylic acid such as phenylacetyl, 3-phenylpropionyl(hydrocinnamoyl), 4-phenylbutyryl, (2-naphthyl)acetyl, 4-chlorohydrocinnamoyl, 4-aminohydrocinnamoyl, 4-methoxyhydrocinnamoyl, and the like. The term “aroyl” means an acyl radical derived from an arylcarboxylic acid, “aryl” having the meaning given above. Examples of such aroyl radicals include substituted and unsubstituted benzoyl or napthoyl such as benzoyl, 4-chlorobenzoyl, 4-carboxybenzoyl, 4-(benzyloxycarbonyl)benzoyl, 1-naphthoyl, 2-naphthoyl, 6-carboxy-2 naphthoyl, 6-(benzyloxycarbonyl)-2-naphthoyl, 3-benzyloxy,2-naphthoyl, 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoyl, 3-(benzyloxyformamido)-2-naphthoyl, and the like. The terms “heterocyclo,” alone or in combination, means a saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic heterocycle radical containing at least one nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur atom ring member and having preferably 3 to 8 ring members in each ring, more preferably 3 to 7 ring members in each ring and most preferably 5 to 6 ring members in each ring. “Heterocyclo” is intended to include sulfones, sulfoxides, N-oxides of tertiary nitrogen ring members, and carbocyclic fused and benzo fused ring systems. Such heterocyclo radicals may be optionally substituted on one or more carbon atoms by halogen, alkyl, alkoxy, hydroxy, oxo, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaralkyl, amidino, N-alkylamidino, alkoxycarbonylamino, alkylsulfonylamino and the like, and/or on a secondary nitrogen atom (i.e., —NH—) by hydroxy, alkyl, aralkoxycarbonyl, alkanoyl, heteroaralkyl, phenyl or phenylalkyl and/or on a tertiary nitrogen atom (i.e., ═N—) by oxido. “Heterocycloalkyl” means an alkyl radical as defined above in which at least one hydrogen atom is replaced by a heterocyclo radical as defined above, such as pyrrolidinylmethyl, tetrahydrothienylmethyl, pyridylmethyl and the like. The term “heteroaryl”, alone or in combination, means an aromatic heterocyclo radical as defined above, which is optionally substituted as defined above with respect to the definitions of aryl and heterocyclo. Examples of such heterocyclo and heteroaryl groups are pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, thiamorpholinyl, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl (e.g., imidazol 4-yl, 1-benzyloxycarbonylimidazol-4-yl, etc.), pyrazolyl, pyridyl, (e.g., 2-(1-piperidinyl)pyridyl and 2-(4-benzyl piperazin-1-yl-1-pyridinyl, etc.), pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, furyl, tetrahydrofuryl, thienyl, tetrahydrothienyl and its sulfoxide and sulfone derivatives, triazolyl, oxazolyl, thiazolyl, indolyl (e.g., 2-indolyl, etc.), quinolinyl, (e.g., 2-quinolinyl, 3-quinolinyl, 1-oxido-2-quinolinyl, etc.), isoquinolinyl (e.g., 1-isoquinolinyl, 3-isoquinolinyl, etc.), tetrahydroquinolinyl (e.g., 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-quinolyl, etc.), 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolinyl (e.g., 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-oxo-isoquinolinyl, etc.), quinoxalinyl, 9-carbolinyl, 2-benzofurancarbonyl, 1-, 2-, 4- or 5-benzimidazolyl, methylenedioxyphen-4-yl, methylenedioxyphen-5-yl, ethylenedioxyphenyl, benzothiazolyl, benzopyranyl, benzofuryl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuryl, benzoxazolyl, thiophenyl and the like. The term “cycloalkylalkoxycarbonyl” means an acyl group derived from a cycloalkylalkoxycarboxylic acid of the formula cycloalkylalkyl-O—COOH wherein cycloalkylalkyl has the meaning given above. The term “aryloxyalkanoyl” means an acyl radical of the formula aryl-O-alkanoyl wherein aryl and alkanoyl have the meaning given above. The term “heterocycloalkoxycarbonyl” means an acyl group derived from heterocycloalkyl-O—COOH wherein heterocycloalkyl is as defined above. The term “heterocycloalkanoyl” is an acyl radical derived from a heterocycloalkylcarboxylic acid wherein heterocyclo has the meaning given above. The term “heterocyclo alkoxycarbonyl” means an acyl radical derived from a heterocycloalkyl-O—COOH wherein heterocyclo has the meaning given above. The term “heteroaryloxycarbonyl” means an acyl radical derived from a carboxylic acid represented by heteroaryl-O—COOH wherein heteroaryl has the meaning given above. The term “aminocarbonyl” alone or in combination, means an amino-substituted carbonyl (carbamoyl) group wherein the amino group can be a primary, secondary or tertiary amino group containing substituents selected from alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl radicals and the like. The term “aminoalkanoyl” means an acyl group derived from an amino-substituted alkylcarboxylic acid wherein the amino group can be a primary, secondary or tertiary amino group containing substituents selected from alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloalkylalkyl radicals and the like. The term “halogen” means fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine. The term “haloalkyl” means an alkyl radical having the meaning as defined above wherein one or more hydrogens are replaced with a halogen. Examples of such haloalkyl radicals include chloromethyl, 1-bromoethyl, fluoromethyl, difluoromethyl, trifluoromethyl, 1,1,1-trifluoroethyl and the like. The term “Leaving group” (L or W) generally refers to groups readily displaceable by a nucleophile, such as an amine, a thiol or an alcohol nucleophile. Such leaving groups are well known in the art. Examples of such leaving groups include, but are not limited to, N-hydroxysuccinimide, N-hydroxybenzotriazole, halides, triflates, tosylates and the like. Preferred leaving groups are indicated herein where appropriate. Procedures for preparing the compounds of Formula I are set forth below. It should be noted that the general procedure is shown as it relates to preparation of compounds having the specified stereochemistry, for example, wherein the absolute stereochemistry about the hydroxyl group is designated as (R). However, such procedures are generally applicable to those compounds of opposite configuration, e.g., where the stereochemistry about the hydroxyl group is (S). In addition, the compounds having the (R) stereochemistry can be utilized to produce those having the (S) stereochemistry. For example, a compound having the (R) stereochemistry can be inverted to the (S) stereochemistry using well-known methods. Preparation of Compounds of Formula I The compounds of the present invention represented by Formula I above can be prepared utilizing the following general procedures as schematically shown in Schemes I and II. An N-protected chloroketone derivative of an amino acid having the formula: wherein P represents an amino protecting group, and R2 is as defined above, is reduced to the corresponding alcohol utilizing an appropriate reducing agent. Suitable amino protecting groups are well known in the art and include carbobenzoxy, t-butoxycarbonyl, and the like. A preferred amino protecting group is carbobenzoxy. A preferred N-protected chloroketone is N-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone. A preferred reducing agent is sodium borohydride. The reduction reaction is conducted at a temperature of from −10° C. to about 25° C., preferably at about 0° C., in a suitable solvent system such as, for example, tetrahydrofuran, and the like. The N-protected chloroketones are commercially available, e.g., such as from Bachem, Inc., Torrance, Calif. Alternatively, the chloroketones can be prepared by the procedure set forth in S. J: Fittkau, J. Prakt. Chem., 315, 1037 (1973), and subsequently N-protected utilizing procedures which are well known in the art. The halo alcohol can be utilized directly, as described below, or, preferably, is reacted, preferably at room temperature, with a suitable base in a suitable solvent system to produce an N-protected amino epoxide of the formula: wherein P and R2 are as defined above. Suitable solvent systems for preparing the amino epoxide include ethanol, methanol, isopropanol, tetrahydrofuran, dioxane, and the like including mixtures thereof. Suitable bases for producing the epoxide from the reduced chloroketone include potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, potassium t-butoxide, DBU and the like. A preferred base is potassium hydroxide. Alternatively, a protected amino epoxide can be prepared, such as in co-owned and co-pending PCT patent application Ser. No. PCT/US93/04804 (WO 93/23388) and PCT/US94/12201, and U.S. patent application Attorney Docket No. C-2860, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety) disclose methods of preparing chiral epoxide, chiral cyanohydrin, chiral amine and other chiral intermediates useful in the preparation of retroviral protease inhibitors, starting with a DL-, D- or L-amino acid which is reacted with a suitable amino-protecting group in a suitable solvent to produce an amino-protected amino acid ester For the purposes of illustration, a protected L-amino acid with the following formula will be used to prepare the inhibitors of this invention: wherein P3 represents carboxyl-protecting group, e.g., methyl, ethyl, benzyl, tertiary-butyl, 4-methoxyphenylmethyl and the like; R2 is as defined above; and P1 and P2 independently are selected from amine protecting groups, including but not limited to, aralkyl, substituted aralkyl, cycloalkenylalkyl and substituted cycloalkenylalkyl, allyl, substituted allyl, acyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aralkoxycarbonyl and silyl. Examples of aralkyl include, but are not limited to benzyl, ortho-methylbenzyl, trityl and benzhydryl, which can be optionally substituted with halogen, alkyl of C1-C8, alkoxy, hydroxy, nitro, alkylerie, amino, alkylamino, acylamino and acyl, or their salts, such as phosphonium and ammonium salts. Examples of aryl groups include phenyl, naphthalenyl, indanyl, anthracenyl, durenyl, 9-(9-phenylfluorenyl) and phenanthrenyl, cycloalkenylalkyl or substituted cycloalkylenylalkyl radicals containing cycloalkyls of C6-C10. Suitable acyl groups include carbobenzoxy, t-butoxycarbonyl, iso-butoxycarbonyl, benzoyl, substituted benzoyl, butyryl, acetyl, tri-fluoroacetyl, tri-chloroacetyl, phthaloyl and the like. Preferably P1 and P2 are independently selected from aralkyl and substituted aralkyl. More preferably, each of P1 and P2 is benzyl. Additionally, the P1 and/or P2 protecting groups can form a heterocyclic ring with the nitrogen to which they are attached, for example, 1,2-bis(methylene)benzene, phthalimidyl, succinimidyl, maleimidyl and the like and where these heterocyclic groups can further include adjoining aryl and cycloalkyl rings. In addition, the heterocyclic groups can be mono-, di- or tri-substituted, e.g., nitrophthalimidyl. The term silyl refers to a silicon atom optionally substituted by one or more alkyl, aryl and aralkyl groups. Suitable silyl protecting groups include, but are not limited to, trimethylsilyl, triethylsilyl, tri-isopropylsilyl, tert-butyldimethylsilyl, dimethylphenylsilyl, 1,2-bis(dimethylsilyl)benzene, 1,2-bis(dimethylsilyl)ethane and diphenylmethylsilyl. Silylation of the amine functions to provide mono- or bis-disilylamine can provide derivatives of the aminoalcohol, amino acid, amino acid esters and amino acid amide. In the case of amino acids, amino acid esters and amino acid amides, reduction of the carbonyl function provides the required mono- or bis-silyl aminoalcohol. Silylation of the aminoalcohol can lead to the N,N,O-tri-silyl derivative Removal of the silyl function from the silyl ether function is readily accomplished by treatment with, for example, a metal hydroxide or ammonium flouride reagent, either as a discrete reaction step or in situ during the preparation of the amino aldehyde reagent. Suitable silylating agents are, for example, trimethylsilyl chloride, tert-buty-dimethylsilyl chloride, phenyldimethylsilyl chlorie, diphenylmethylsilyl chloride or their combination products with imidazole or DMF. Methods for silylation of amines and removal of silyl protecting groups are well known to those skilled in the art. Methods of preparation of these amine derivatives from corresponding amino acids, amino acid amides or amino acid esters are also well known to those skilled in the art of organic chemistry including amino acid/amino acid ester or aminoalcohol chemistry. The amino-protected L-amino acid ester is then reduced, to the corresponding alcohol. For example, the amino-protected L-amino acid ester can be reduced with diisobutylaluminum hydride at −78° C. in a suitable solvent such as toluene. Preferred reducing agents include lithium aluminium hydride, lithium borohydride, sodium borohydride, borane, lithium tri-ter-butoxyaluminum hydride, borane/THF complex. Most preferably, the reducing agent is diisobutylaluminum. hydride (DiBAL-H) in toluene. The resulting alcohol is then converted, for example, by way of a Swern oxidation, to the corresponding aldehyde of the formula: wherein P1, P2 and R2 are as defined above Thus, a dichloromethane solution of the alcohol is added to a cooled (−75 to −68° C.) solution of oxalyl chloride in dichloromethane and DMSO in dichloromethane and stirred for 35 minutes. Acceptable oxidizing reagents include, for example, sulfur trioxide-pyridine complex and DMSO, oxalyl chloride and DMSO, acetyl chloride or anhydride and DMSO, trifluoroacetyl chloride or anhydride and DMSO, methanesulfonyl chloride and DMSO or tetrahydro thiaphene-S-oxide, toluenesulfonyl bromide and DMSO, trifluoromethanesulfonyl anhydride (triflic anhydride) and DMSO, phosphorus pentachloride and DMSO, dimethylphosphoryl chloride and DMSO and isobutyl chloroformate and DMSO. The oxidation conditions reported by Reetz et al [Angew Chem., 99, p. 1186, (1987)], Angew Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 26, p. 1141, 1987) employed oxalyl chloride and DMSO at −78° C. The preferred oxidation method described in this invention is sulfur trioxide pyridine complex, triethylamine and DMSO at room temperature. This system provides excellent yields of the desired chiral protected amino aldehyde usable without the need for purification i.e., the need to purify kilograms of intermediates by chromatography is eliminated and large scale operations are made less hazardous. Reaction at room temperature also eliminated the need for the use of low temperature reactor which makes the process more suitable for commercial production. The reaction may be carried out under an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen or argon, or normal or dry air, under atmospheric pressure or in a sealed reaction vessel under positive pressure. Preferred is a nitrogen atmosphere. Alternative amine bases include, for example, tri-butyl amine, tri-isopropyl amine, N-methylpiperidine, N-methyl morpholine, azabicyclononane, diisopropylethylamine, 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine, N,N-dimethylaminopyridine, or mixtures of these bases. Triethylamine is a preferred base. Alternatives to pure DMSO as solvent include mixtures of DMSO with non-protic or halogenated solvents such as tetrahydrofuran, ethyl acetate, toluene, xylene, dichloromethane, ethylene dichloride and the like. Dipolar aprotic co-solvents include acetonitrile, dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide, acetamide, tetramethyl urea and its cyclic analog, N-methylpyrrolidone, sulfolane and the like. Rather than N,N-dibenzylphenylalaninol as the aldehyde precursor, the phenylalaninol derivatives discussed above can be used to provide the corresponding N-monosubstituted [either P1 or P2=H] or N,N-disubstituted aldehyde. In addition, hydride reduction of an amide or ester derivative of the corresponding benzyl (or other suitable protecting group) nitrogen protected phenylalanine, substituted phenylalanine or cycloalkyl analog of phenylalanine derivative can be carried out to provide the aldehydes. Hydride transfer is an additional method of aldehyde synthesis under conditions where aldehyde condensations are avoided, cf, Oppenauer Oxidation. The aldehydes of this process can also be prepared by methods of reducing protected phenylalanine and phenylalanine analogs or their amide or ester derivatives by, e.g., sodium amalgam with HCl in ethanol or lithium or sodium or potassium or calcium in ammonia. The reaction temperature may be from about −20° C. to about 45° C., and preferably from abut 5° C. to about 25° C. Two additional methods of obtaining the nitrogen protected aldehyde include oxidation of the corresponding alcohol with bleach in the presence of a catalytic amount of 5 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-pyridyloxy free radical. In a second method, oxidation of the alcohol to the aldehyde is accomplished by a catalytic amount of tetrapropylammonium perruthenate in the presence of N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide. Alternatively, an acid chloride derivative of a protected phenylalanine or phenylalanine derivative as disclosed above can be reduced with hydrogen and a catalyst such as Pd on barium carbonate or barium sulphate, with or without an additional catalyst moderating agent such as sulfur or a thiol (Rosenmund Reduction). The aldehyde resulting from the Swern oxidation is then reacted with a halomethyllithium reagent, which reagent is generated in situ by reacting an alkyllithium or arylithium compound with a dihalomethane represented by the formula X1CH2X2 wherein X1 and X2 independently represent I, Br or Cl. For example, a solution of the aldehyde and chloroiodomethane in THF is cooled to −78° C. and a solution of n-butyllithium in hexane is added. The resulting product is a mixture of diastereomers of the corresponding amino-protected epoxides of the formulas: The diastereomers can be separated e.g., by chromatography, or, alternatively, once reacted in subsequent steps the diastereomeric products can be separated. A D-amino acid can be utilized in place of the L-amino acid in order to prepare compounds having an (S) stereochemistry at the carbon bonded to R2. The addition of chloromethylithium or bromomethylithium to a chiral amino aldehyde is highly diastereoselective. Preferably, the chloromethyllithium or bromomethylithium is generated in-situ from the reaction of the dihalomethane and n-butyllithium. Acceptable methyleneating halomethanes include chloroiodomethane, bromochloromethane, dibromomethane, diiodomethane, bromofluoromethane and the like. The sulfonate ester of the addition product of, for example, hydrogen bromide to formaldehyde is also a methyleneating agent. Tetrahydrofuran is the preferred solvent, however alternative solvents such as toluene, dimethoxyethane, ethylene dichloride, methylene chloride can be used as pure solvents or as a mixture. Dipolar aprotic solvents such as acetonitrile, DMF, N-methylpyrrolidone are useful as solvents or as part of a solvent mixture. The reaction can be carried out under an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen or argon. For n-butyl lithium can be substituted other organometalic reagents reagents such as methyllithium, tert-butyl lithium, sec-butyl lithium, phenyllithium, phenyl sodium and the like. The reaction can be carried out at temperatures of between about −80° C. to 0° C. but preferably between about −80° C. to −20° C. The most preferred reaction temperatures are between −40° C. to −15° C. Reagents can be added singly but multiple additions are preferred in certain conditions. The preferred pressure of the reaction is atmospheric however a positive pressure is valuable under certain conditions such as a high humidity environment. Alternative methods of conversion to the epoxides of this invention include substitution of other charged methylenation precurser species followed by their treatment with base to form the analogous anion. Examples of these species include trimethylsulfoxonium tosylate or triflate, tetramethylammonium halide, methyldiphenylsulfoxonium halide wherein halide is chloride, bromide or iodide. The conversion of the aldehydes of this invention into their epoxide derivative can also be carried out in multiple steps. For example, the addition of the anion of thioanisole prepared from, for example, a butyl or aryl lithium reagent, to the protected aminoaldehyde, oxidation of the resulting protected aminosulfide alcohol with well known oxidizing agents such as hydrogen peroxide, tert-butyl hypochlorite, bleach or sodium periodate to give a sulfoxide. Alkylation of the sulfoxide with, for example, methyl iodide or bromide, methyl tosylate, methyl mesylate, methyl triflate, ethyl bromide, isopropyl bromide, benzyl chloride or the like, in the presence of an organic or inorganic base Alternatively, the protected aminosulfide alcohol can be alkylated with, for example, the alkylating agents above, to provide a sulfonium salts that are subsequently converted into the subject epoxides with tert-amine or mineral bases. The desired epoxides formed, using most preferred conditions, diastereoselectively in ratio amounts of at least about an 85:15 ratio (S:R). The product can be purified by chromatography to give the diastereomerically and enantiomerically pure product but it is more conveniently used directly without purification to prepare retroviral protease inhibitors. The foregoing process is applicable to mixtures of optical isomers as well as resolved compounds. If a particular optical isomer is desired, it can be selected by the choice of starting material, e.g., L-phenylalanine, D-phenylalanine, L-phenylalaninol, D-phenylalaninol, D-hexahydrophenylalaninol and the like, or resolution can occur at intermediate or final steps. Chiral auxiliaries such as one or two equivilants of camphor sulfonic acid, citric acid, camphoric acid, 2-methoxyphenylacetic acid and the like can be used to form salts, esters or amides of the compounds of this invention. These compounds or derivatives can be crystallized or separated chromatographically using either a chiral or achiral column as is well known to those skilled in the art. The amino epoxide is then reacted, in a suitable solvent system, with an equal amount, or preferably an excess of, a desired amine of the formula R3NH2, wherein R3 is hydrogen or is as defined above. The reaction can be conducted over a wide range of temperatures, e.g., from about 10° C. to about 100° C., but is preferably, but not necessarily, conducted at a temperature at which the solvent begins to reflux. Suitable solvent systems include protic, non-protic and dipolar aprotic organic solvents such as, for example, those wherein the solvent is an alcohol, such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and the like, ethers such as tetrahydrofuran, dioxane and the like, and toluene, N,N-dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and mixtures thereof. A preferred solvent is isopropanol. The resulting product is a 3-(N-protected amino)-3-(R2)-1-(NHR3)-propan-2-ol derivative (hereinafter referred to as an amino alcohol) can be represented by the formulas: wherein P, P1, P2, R2 and R3 are as described above. Alternatively, a haloalcohol can be utilized in place of the amino epoxide. The amino alcohol defined above is then reacted in a suitable solvent with the sulfonyl chloride R4 SO2Cl, the sulfonyl bromide R4SO2Br or the corresponding sulfonyl anhydride, preferably in the presence of an acid scavenger. Suitable solvents in which the reaction can be conducted include methylene chloride, tetrahydrofuran and the like. Suitable acid scavengers include triethylamine, pyridine and the like. The resulting sulfonamide derivative can be represented, depending on the epoxide utilized by the formulas wherein P, P1, p2, R2, R3 and R4 are as defined above. These intermediates are useful for preparing inhibitor compounds of the present invention. The sulfonyl halides of the formula R4SO2X can be prepared by the reaction of a suitable aryl, heteroaryl and benzo fused heterocyclo Grignard or lithium reagents with sulfuryl chloride, or sulfur dioxide followed by oxidation with a halogen, preferably chlorine. Aryl, heteroaryl and benzo fused heterocyclo Grignard or lithium reagents can be prepared from their corresponding halide (such as chloro or bromo) compounds which are commercially available or readily prepared from commercially available starting materials using known methods in the art. Also, thiols may be oxidized to sulfonyl chlorides using chlorine in the presence of water under carefully controlled conditions. Additionally, sulfonic acids, such as arylsulfonic acids, may be converted to sulfonyl halides using reagents such as PCl5, SOCl2, ClC(O)C(O)Cl and the like, and also to anhydrides using suitable dehydrating reagents. The sulfonic acids may in turn be prepared using procedures well known in the art. Some sulfonic acids are commercially available In place of the sulfonyl halides, sulfinyl halides (R4SOX) or sulfenyl halides (R4SX) can be utilized to prepare compounds wherein the —SO2— moiety is replaced by an —SO— or —S— moiety, respectively. Arylsulfonic acids, benzo fused heterocyclo sulfonic acids or heteroaryl sulfonic acids can be prepared by sulfonation of the aromatic ring by well known methods in the art, such as by reaction with sulfuric acid, SO3, SO3 complexes, such as DMF(SO3), pyridine (SO3), N,N-dimethylacetamide (SO3), and the like. Preferably, arylsulfonyl halides are prepared from aromatic compounds by reaction with DMF(SO3) and SOCl2 or ClC(O)C(O)Cl. The reactions may be performed stepwise or in a single pot. Arylsulfonic acids, benzo fused heterocyclo sulfonic acids, heteroaryl sulfonic acids, arylmercaptans, benzo fused heterocyclo mercaptans, heteroarylmercaptans, arylhalides, benzo fused heterocyclo halides, heteroarylhalides, and the like are commercially available or can be readily prepared from starting materials commercially available using standard methods well known in the art. For example, a number of sulfonic acids (R4SO3H) represented by the formulas wherein A, B, Z, R6, R7 and R9 are as defined above, have been prepared from 1,2-benzenedithiol, 2-mercaptanphenol, 1,2-benzenediol, 2-aminobenzothiazole, benzothiazole, 2-aminobenzimidazole, benzimidazole, and the like, which are commercially available, by Carter, U.S. Pat. No. 4,595,407; Ehrenfreund et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,634,465; Yoder et al., J. Heterocycl. Chem. 4:166-167 (1967); Cole et al., Aust. J. Chem. 33: 675-680 (1980); Cabiddu et al., Synthesis 797-798 (1976); Ncube et al., Tet. Letters 2345-2348 (1978); Ncube et al., Tet. Letters 255-256 (1977); Ansink & Cerfontain, Rec. Trav. Chim. Pays-Bas 108: 395-403 (1989); and Kajihara & Tsuchiya, EP 638564 A1, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. For example, 1,2-benzenedithiol, 2-mercaptanphenol or 1,2-benzenediol can be reacted with R6R7C(L′)2, where L′ is as defined below, preferably, Br or I, in the presence of a base, such as hydroxide, or R6R7C═O in the presence of acid, such as toluenesulfonic acid, or P2O5, to prepare the substituted benzo fused heterocycle of formula which can then be sulfonylated to the sulfonic acid above. For example, CF2Br2 or CD2Br2 can be reacted with 1,2-benzenedithiol, 2-mercaptanphenol or 1,2-benzenediol in the presence of base to produce the compounds respectively, wherein A and B are O or S and D is a deuterium atom. Also, when A and/or B represent S, the sulfur can be oxidized using the methods described below to the sulfone or sulfoxide derivatives. Following preparation of the sulfonamide derivative, the amino protecting group P or P1 and P2 amino protecting groups are removed under conditions which will not affect the remaining portion of the molecule. These methods are well known in the art and include acid hydrolysis, hydrogenolysis and the like. A preferred method involves removal of the protecting group, e.g., removal of a carbobenzoxy group, by hydrogenolysis utilizing palladium on carbon in a suitable solvent system such as an alcohol, acetic acid, and the like or mixtures thereof. Where the protecting group is a t-butoxycarbonyl group, it can be removed utilizing an inorganic or organic acid, e.g., HCl or trifluoroacetic acid, in a suitable solvent system, e.g., dioxane or methylene chloride. The resulting product is the amine salt derivative. Following neutralization of the salt, the amine is then coupled to the DL-, D-, or L-amino acid corresponding to the formula PNHCH(R1)COOH, wherein P and R1 are as defined above, followed by deprotection of the amine as described above, and coupling to wherein R10 and R11 are as defined above, W is a leaving group, such as mesylate, bromo or chloro, and L is leaving group such as halide, anhydride, active ester, and the like. For example when R10 and R11 are both hydrogen radical, bromoacetyl halide, chloroacetyl halide or the corresponding anhydride can be used. Finally, reacting the above intermediate with the amine R12R13NH can produce the antiviral compounds of the present invention having the formula wherein R1, R2, R3, R4, R10, R11, R12 and R13 are as defined above. Amines of the formula R12R13NH are commercially available, such as dimethylamine, isobutylamine, isopropylamine, benzylamine, and the like; or can readily be prepared from commercially available starting materials using standard methods well known in the art. Alternatively, following neutralization of the salt, the amine of formula is then coupled to the DL-, D-, or L-amino acid corresponding to the formula PNHCH(R1)COOH, wherein P and R1 are as defined above, followed by deprotection of the amine as described above and then coupling the deprotected amine to the amino acid of formula or specific stereoisomer thereof, wherein R10, Rh11, R12, and R13 are as defined above, such as N-methylalanine, N,N-dimethylalanine, N,N,2,2-tetramethylglycine, N-benzylserine and the like, to produce the antiviral compounds of the present invention. The amino acids are commercially available or are readily prepared from a protected carboxylic acid with a leaving group W (defined above), W—(R10) (R11)C—CO2P3, by reaction with the amine R12R13NH as shown in Scheme III, wherein P3, R10, R11, R12, and R13 are as defined above. Alternatively, following neutralization of the salt, the amine of formula is then coupled to the DL-, D-, or L-amino acid corresponding to the formula wherein R1, R10, R11, R12, and R13 are as defined above, which can be prepared in a similar fashion to the coupling methods described above from DL-, D-, or L-amino acid corresponding to the formula NH2CH(R1)COOP3, wherein P3 and R1 are as defined above. The DL-, D-, or L-amino acid corresponding to the formula PNHCH(R1)COOH or NH2CH(R1)COOP3, wherein P, P3 and R1 are as defined above, are commercially available (Sigma Chemical Co.), or readily prepared using standard methods well known in the art from readily available starting materials. Preferably, P is a benzyloxycarbonyl or t-butoxycarbonyl radical and P3 is benzyl or tert-butyl radicals. Standard coupling procedures can be used to couple the amino acids and amines. The carboxylic acid group is reacted to form an anhydride, mixed anhydride, acid halide, such as chloride or bromide, or active ester, such as esters of N-hydroxysuccinimide, HOBT and the like, using well known procedures and conditions. Appropriate solvent systems include tetrahydrofuran, ethylether, methyl-tert-butylether, methylene chloride, N,N-dimethylformamide and the like, including mixtures thereof. Alternatively, the protected amino alcohol from the epoxide opening can be further protected at the newly introduced amino group with a protecting group P′ which is not removed with the removal of the amino protecting groups P or P1 and P2 One skilled in the art can choose appropriate combinations of P′, P, P1 and P2 For example, suitable combinations are P=Cbz and P′=Boc; P′=Cbz and P=Boc; P1=Cbz, P2=benzyl and P′=Boc; and P1=P2=benzyl and P′=Boc. The resulting compound represented by the formula can be carried through the remainder of the synthesis to provide a compound of the formula wherein P′, R1, R2, R3, R10, R11, R12, and R13 are as defined above. The protecting group P′ is then selectively removed and the resulting amine is reacted with the sulfonyl chloride R4SO2Cl, the sulfonyl bromide R4SO2Br or the corresponding sulfonyl anhydride, preferably in the presence of an acid scavenger, to form the compounds of the present invention. This selective deprotection and conversion to the sulfonamide can be accomplished at either the end of the synthesis or at any appropriate intermediate step if desired. The chemical reactions described above are generally disclosed in terms of their broadest application to the preparation of the compounds of this invention. Occasionally, the reactions may not be applicable as described to each compound included within the disclosed scope. The compounds for which this occurs will be readily recognized by those skilled in the art. In all such cases, either the reactions can be successfully performed by conventional modifications known to those skilled in the art, e.g., by appropriate protection of interfering groups, by changing to alternative conventional reagents, by routine modification of reaction conditions, and the like, or other reactions disclosed herein or otherwise conventional, will be applicable to the preparation of the corresponding compounds of this invention. In all preparative methods, all starting materials are known or readily prepared from known starting materials. Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, using the preceding description, utilize the present invention to its fullest extent. The following preferred specific embodiments are, therefore, to be construed as merely illustrative, and not limitative of the remainder of the disclosure in any way whatsoever. All reagents were used as received without purification. All proton and carbon NMR spectra were obtained on either a Varian VXR-300 or VXR-400 nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. The following Examples illustrate the preparation of inhibitor compounds of the present invention and intermediates useful in preparing the inhibitor compounds of the present invention. EXAMPLE 1 Preparation of 2S-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanol METHOD 1: 2S-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanol from the DIBAL Reduction of N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)-L-Phenylalanine phenylmethyl ester Step 1: A solution of L-phenylalanine (50.0 g, 0.302 mol), sodium hydroxide (24.2 g, 0.605 mol) and potassium carbonate (83.6 g, 0.605 mol) in water (500 mL) was heated to 97° C. Benzyl bromide (108.5 mL, 0.605 mol) was then slowly added (addition time—25 min). The mixture was stirred at 97° C. for 30 minutes under a nitrogen atmosphere. The solution was cooled to room temperature and extracted with toluene (2×250 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with water and brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to an oil. The identity of the product was confirmed as follows. Analytical TLC (10% ethyl acetate/hexane, silica gel) showed major component at Rf value=0.32 to be the desired tribenzylated compound, N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)-L-phenylalanine phenylmethyl ester. This compound can be purified by column chromatography (silica gel, 15% ethyl acetate/hexane). Usually the product is pure enough to be used directly in the next step without further purification. 1H NMR spectrum was in agreement with published literature. 1H NMR (CDCL3) ∂, 3.00 and 3.14 (ABX-system, 2H, JAB=14.1 Hz, JAX=7.3 Hz and JBX=5.9 Hz), 3.54 and 3.92 (AB-System , 4 H, JAB=13.9 Hz), 3.71 (t, 1H, J=7.6 Hz), 5.11 and 5.23 (AB-System, 2H, JAB=12.3 Hz), and 7.18 (m, 20 H). EIMS: m/z 434 (M−1). Step 2: The benzylated phenylalanine phenylmethyl ester (0.302 mol) from the previous reaction was dissolved in toluene (750 mL) and cooled to −55° C. A 1.5 M solution of DIBAL in toluene.(443.9 mL, 0.666 mol) was added at a rate to maintain the temperature between −55 to −50° C. (addition time—1 hr). The mixture was stirred for 20 minutes under a nitrogen atmosphere and then quenched at −55° C. by the slow addition of methanol (37 ml). The cold solution was then poured into cold (5° C.) 1.5 N HCl solution (1.8 L). The precipitated solid (approx. 138 g) was filtered off and washed with toluene. The solid material was suspended in a mixture of toluene (400 mL) and water (100 ml) The mixture was cooled to 5° C. and treated with 2.5 N NaOH (186 mL) and then stirred at room temperature until solid dissolved. The toluene layer was separated from the aqueous phase and washed with water and brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to a volume of 75 mL (89 g). Ethyl acetate (25 mL) and hexane (25 mL) were added to the residue upon which the desired alcohol product began to crystallize. After 30 min, an additional 50 mL hexane were added to promote further crystallization. The solid was filtered off and washed with 50 mL hexane to give 34.9 g of first crop product. A second crop of product (5.6 g) was isolated by refiltering the mother liquor. The two crops were combined and recrystallized from ethyl acetate (20 mL) and hexane (30 mL) to give 40 g of βS-2-[Bis(phenyl-methyl)amino]benzenepropanol, 40% yield from L-phenylalanine. An additional 7 g (7%) of product can be obtained from recrystallization of the concentrated mother liquor. TLC of product Rf=0.23 (10% ethyl acetate/hexane, silica gel); 1H NMR (CDCl3) ∂ 2.44 (m, 1H,), 3.09 (m, 2H), 3.33 (m, 1H), 3.48 and 3.92 (AB-System, 4H, JAB=13.3 Hz), 3.52 (m, 1H) and 7.23 (m, 15H); [α]D25+42.4 (c 1.45, CH2Cl2); DSC 77.67° C.; Anal. Calcd. for C23H25ON: C, 83.34; H, 7.60; N, 4.23. Found: C, 83.43; H, 7.59; N, 4.22. HPLC on chiral stationary phase: Cyclobond I SP column (250×4.6 mm I.D.), mobile phase: methanol/triethyl ammonium acetate buffer pH 4.2 (58:42, v/v), flow-rate of 0.5 ml/min, detection with detector at 230 nm and a temperature of 0° C. Retention time: 11.25 min., retention time of the desired product enantiomer: 12.5 min. METHOD 2: Preparation of βS-2-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanol from the N,N-Dibenzylation of L-Phenylalaninol L-phenylalaninol (176.6 g, 1.168 mol) was added to a stirred solution of potassium carbonate (484.6 g, 3.506 mol) in 710 mL of water. The mixture was heated to 65° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere. A solution of benzyl bromide (400 g, 2.339 mol) in 3 A ethanol (305 mL) was added at a rate that maintained the temperature between 60-68° C. The biphasic solution was stirred at 65° C. for 55 min and then allowed to cool to 10° C. with vigorous stirring. The oily product solidified into small granules. The product was diluted with 2.0 L of tap water and stirred for 5 minutes to dissolve the inorganic by products. The product was isolated by filtration under reduced pressure and washed with water until the pH is 7. The crude product obtained was air dried overnight to give a semi-dry solid (407 g) which was recrystallized from 1.1 L of ethyl acetate/heptane (1:10 by volume). The product was isolated by filtration (at −8° C.), washed with 1.6 L of cold (−10° C.) ethyl acetate/heptane (1:10 by volume) and air-dried to give 339 g (88% yield) of βS-2-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanol, Mp=71.5-73.0° C. More product can be obtained from the mother liquor if necessary. The other analytical characterization was identical to compound prepared as described in Method 1. EXAMPLE 2 Preparation of 2S-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanaldehyde Method 1: 2S-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanol (200 g, 0.604 mol) was dissolved in triethylamine (300 mL, 2.15 mol). The mixture was cooled to 12° C. and a solution of sulfur trioxide/pyridine complex (380 g, 2.39 mol) in DMSO (1.6 L) was added at a rate to maintain the temperature between 8-17° C. (addition time—1.0 h). The solution was stirred at ambient temperature under a nitrogen atmosphere for 1.5 hour at which time the reaction was complete by TLC analysis (33% ethyl acetate/hexane, silica gel). The reaction mixture was cooled with ice water and quenched with 1.6 L of cold water (10-15° C.) over 45 minutes. The resultant solution was extracted with ethyl acetate (2.0 L), washed with 5% citric acid (2.0 L), and brine (2.2 L), dried over MgSO4 (280 g) and filtered. The solvent was removed on a rotary evaporator at 35-40° C. and then dried under vacuum to give 198.8 g of 2S-[Bis-(phenylmethyl)amino]-benzenepropanaldehyde as a pale yellow oil (99.9%). The crude product obtained was pure enough to be used directly in the next step without purification. The analytical data of the compound were consistent with the published literature.[α]D25=−92.9° (c 1.87, CH2Cl2); 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) ∂, 2.94 and 3.15 (ABX-System, 2H, JAB=13.9 Hz, JAX=7.3 Hz and JBX=6.2 Hz), 3.56 (t, 1H, 7.1 Hz), 3.69 and 3.82 (AB-System, 4H, JAB=13.7 Hz), 7.25 (m, 15 H) and 9.72 (s, 1H); HRMS Calcd for (M+1) C23H24NO 330.450, found: 330.1836. Anal. Calcd. for C23H23ON: C, 83.86; H, 7.04; N, 4.25. Found: C, 83.64; H, 7.42; N, 4.19. HPLC on chiral stationary phase: (S,S) Pirkle-Whelk-O 1 column (250×4.6 mm I.D.), mobile phase: hexane/isopropanol (99.5:0.5, v/v), flow-rate: 1.5 ml/min, detection with UV detector at 210 nm. Retention time of the desired S-isomer: 8.75 min., retention time of the R-enantiomer 10.62 min. Method 2: A solution of oxalyl chloride (8.4 ml, 0.096 mol) in dichloromethane (240 ml) was cooled to −74° C. A solution of DMSO (12.0 ml, 0.155 mol) in dichloromethane (50 ml) was then slowly added at a rate to maintain the temperature at −74° C. (addition time ˜1.25 hr). The mixture was stirred for 5 min. followed by addition of a solution of βS-2-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanol (0.074 mol) in 100 ml of dichloromethane (addition time −20 min., temp. −75° C. to −68° C). The solution was stirred at −78° C. for 35 minutes under a nitrogen atmosphere. Triethylamine (41.2 ml, 0.295 mol) was then added over 10 min. (temp. −78° to −68° C.) upon which the ammonium salt precipitated. The cold mixture was stirred for 30 min. and then water (225 ml) was added. The dichloromethane layer was separated from the aqueous phase and washed with water, brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated. The residue was diluted with ethyl acetate and hexane and then filtered to further remove the ammonium salt. The filtrate was concentrated to give αS-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanaldehyde. The aldehyde was carried on to the next step without purification. Method 3: To a mixture of 1.0 g (3.0 mmoles) of βS-2-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanol 0.531 g (4.53 mmoles) of N-methyl morpholine, 2.27 g of molecular sieves (4 A) and 9.1 mL of acetonitrile was added 53 mg (0.15 mmoles) of tetrapropylammonium perruthenate(TPAP). The mixture was stirred for 40 minutes at room temperature and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was suspended in 15 mL of ethyl acetate, filtered through a pad of silica gel. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure to give a product containing approximately 50% of αS-2-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene propanaldehyde as a pale yellow oil. Method 4: To a solution of 1.0 g (3.02 mmoles) of βS-2-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzenepropanol in 9.0 mL of toluene was added 4.69 mg (0.03 mmoles) of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy, free radical (TEMPO), 0.32 g (3.11 mmoles) of sodium bromide, 9.0 mL of ethyl acetate and 1.5 mL of water. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and an aqueous solution of 2.87 mL of 5% household bleach containing 0.735 g (8.75 mmoles) of sodium bicarbonate and 8.53 mL of water was added slowly over 25 minutes. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 60 minutes. Two more additions (1.44 mL each) of bleach was added followed by stirring for 10 minutes. The two phase mixture was allowed to separate. The aqueous layer was extracted twice with 20 mL of ethyl acetate. The combined,organic layer was washed with 4.0 mL of a solution containing 25 mg of potassium iodide and water(4.0 mL), 20 mL of 10% aqueous sodium thiosulfate solution and then brine solution. The organic solution was dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 1.34 g of crude oil containing a small amount of the desired product aldehyde, αS-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino) benzenepropanaldehyde. Method 5: Following the same procedures as described in Method 1 of this Example except 3.0 equivalents of sulfur trioxide pyridine complex was used and αS-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino] benzenepropanaldehyde was isolated in comparable yields. EXAMPLE 3 Preparation of N,N-dibenzyl-3(S)-amino-1,2-(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane Method 1: A solution of αS-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanaldehyde (191.7 g, 0.58 mol) and chloroiodomethane (56.4 mL, 0.77 mol) in tetrahydrofuran (1.8 L) was cooled to −30 to −35° C. (colder temperature such as −70° C. also worked well but warmer temperatures are more readily achieved in large scale operations) in a stainless steel reactor under a nitrogen atmosphere. A solution of n-butyl lithium in hexane (1.6 M, 365 mL, 0.58 mol) was then added at a rate that maintained the temperature below −25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. More additions of reagents were carried out in the following manner: (1) additional chloroiodomethane (17 mL) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (110 mL) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated once. (2) Additional chloroiodomethane (8.5 mL, 0.11 mol) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (55 mL, 0.088 mol) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated 5 times. (3) Additional chloroiodomethane (8.5 mL, 0.11 mol) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (37 mL, 0.059 mol) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated once. The external cooling was stopped and the mixture warmed to ambient temp. over 4 to 16 hours when TLC (silica gel, 20% ethyl acetate/hexane) indicated that the reaction was completed. The reaction mixture was cooled to 10° C. and quenched with 1452 g of 16% ammonium chloride solution (prepared by dissolving 232 g of ammonium chloride in 1220 mL of water), keeping the temperature below 23° C. The mixture was stirred for 10 minutes and the organic and aqueous layers were separated. The aqueous phase was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×500 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was combined with the tetrahydrofuran layer. The combined solution was dried over magnesium sulfate (220 g), filtered and concentrated on a rotary evaporator at 65° C. The brown oil residue was dried at 70° C. in vacuo (0.8 bar) for 1 h to give 222.8 g of crude material. (The crude product weight was >100%. Due to the relative instability of the product on silica gel, the crude product is usually used directly in the next step without purification). The diastereomeric ratio of the crude mixture was determined by proton NMR: (2S)/(2R): 86:14. The minor and major epoxide diastereomers were characterized in this mixture by tic analysis (silica gel, 10% ethyl acetate/hexane), Rf=0.29 & 0.32, respectively. An analytical sample of each of the diastereomers was obtained by purification on silica-gel chromatography (3% ethyl acetate/hexane) and characterized as follows: N,N,αS-Tris (phenylmethyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) ∂ 2.49 and 2.51 (AB-System, 1H, JAB=2.82), 2.76 and 2.77 (AB-System, 1H, JAB=4.03), 2.83 (m, 2H), 2.99 & 3.03 (AB-System, 1H, JAB=10.1 Hz), 3.15 (m, 1H), 3.73 & 3.84 (AB-System, 4H, JAB=14.00), 7.21 (m, 15H); 13C NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) ∂ 139.55, 129.45, 128.42, 128.14, 128.09, 126.84, 125.97, 60.32, 54.23, 52.13, 45.99, 33.76; HRMS Calcd for C24H26NO (M+1) 344.477, found 344.2003. N,N,αS-Tris(phenylmethyl)-2R-oxiranemethanamine 1H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl3) ∂ 2.20 (m, 1H), 2.59 (m, 1H), 2.75 (m, 2H), 2.97 (m, 1H), 3.14 (m, 1H), 3.85 (AB-System, 4H), 7.25 (m, 15H). HPLC on chiral stationary phase: Pirkle-Whelk-O 1 column (250×4.6 mm I.D.), mobile phase: hexane/isopropanol (99.5:0.5, v/v), flow-rate: 1.5 ml/min, detection with UV detector at 210 nm. Retention time of (8): 9.38 min., retention time of enantiomer of (4): 13.75 min. Method 2: A solution of the crude aldehyde 0.074 mol and chloroiodomethane (7.0 ml, 0.096 mol) in tetrahydrofuran (285 ml) was cooled to −78° C., under a nitrogen atmosphere. A 1.6 M solution of n-butyl lithium in hexane (25 ml, 0.040 mol) was then added at a rate to maintain the temperature at −75° C. (addition time—15 min.). After the first addition, additional chloroiodomethane (1.6 ml, 0.022 mol) was added again, followed by n-butyl lithium (23 ml, 0.037 mol), keeping the temperature at −75° C. The mixture was stirred for 15 min. Each of the reagents, chloroiodomethane (0.70 ml, 0.010 mol) and n-butyl lithium (5 ml, 0.008 mol) were added 4 more times over 45 min. at −75° C. The cooling bath was then removed and the solution warmed to 22° C. over 1.5 hr. The mixture was poured into 300 ml of saturated aq. ammonium chloride solution. The tetrahydrofuran layer was separated. The aqueous phase was extracted with ethyl acetate (1×300 ml). The combined organic layers were washed with brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to give a brown oil (27.4 g). The product could be used in the next step without purification. The desired diastereomer can be purified by recrystallization at a subsequent step. The product could also be purified by chromatography. Method 3: A solution of αS-[Bis(phenylmethyl)amino]benzene-propanaldehyde (178.84 g, 0.54 mol) and bromochloromethane (46 mL, 0.71 mol) in tetrahydrofuran (1.8 L) was cooled to −30 to −35° C. (colder temperature such as −70° C. also worked well but warmer temperatures are more readily achieved in large stale operations) in a stainless steel reactor under a nitrogen atmosphere. A solution of n-butyl lithium in hexane (1.6 M, 340 mL, 0.54 mol) was then added at a rate that maintained the temperature below −25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. More additions of reagents were carried out in the following manner: (1) additional bromochloromethane (14 mL) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (102 mL) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated once. (2) Additional bromochloromethane (7 mL, 0.11 mol) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (51 mL, 0.082 mol) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated 5 times. (3) Additional bromochloromethane (7 mL, 0.11 mol) was added, followed by n-butyl lithium (51 mL, 0.082 mol) at <−25° C. After addition the mixture was stirred at −30 to −35° C. for 10 minutes. This was repeated once. The external cooling was stopped and the mixture warmed to ambient temp. over 4 to 16 hours when TLC (silica gel, 20% ethyl acetate/hexane) indicated that the reaction was completed. The reaction mixture was cooled to 10° C. and quenched with 1452 g of 16% ammonium chloride solution (prepared by dissolving 232 g of ammonium chloride in 1220 mL of water), keeping the temperature below 23° C. The mixture was stirred for 10 minutes and the organic and aqueous layers were separated. The aqueous phase was extracted with ethyl acetate (2×500 mL). The ethyl acetate layer was combined with the tetrahydrofuran layer. The combined solution was dried over magnesium sulfate (220 g), filtered and concentrated on a rotary evaporator at 65° C. The brown oil residue was dried at 70° C. in vacuo (0.8 bar) for 1 h to give 222.8 g of crude material. Method 4: Following the same procedures as described in Method 3 of this Example except the reaction temperatures were at −20° C. The resulting N,N,αS-tris(phenylmethyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine was a diastereomeric mixture of lesser purity then that of Method 3. Method 5: Following the same procedures as described in Method 3 of this Example except the reaction temperatures were at −70-78° C. The resulting N,N,αS-tris(phenylmethyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine was a diastereomeric mixture, which was used directly in the subsequent steps without purification. Method 6: Following the same procedures as described in Method 3 of this Example except a continuous addition of bromochloromethane and n-butyl lithium was used at −30 to −35° C. After the reaction and work up procedures as described in Method 3 of this Example, the desired N,N,αS-tris(phenylmethyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine was isolated in comparable yields and purities. Method 7: Following the same procedures as described in Method 2 of this Example except dibromomethane was used instead of chloroiodomethane. After the reaction and work up procedures as described in Method 2 of this Example, the desired N,N,αS-tris(phenylmethyl)-2S-oxirane-methanamine was isolated. EXAMPLE 4 Preparation of N-[3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine To a solution of crude N,N-dibenzyl-3(S)-amino-1,2(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane (388.5 g, 1.13 mol) in isopropanol (2.7 L) (or ethyl acetate) was added isobutylamine (1.7 kgm, 23.1 mol) over 2 min. The temperature increased from 25° C. and to 30° C. The solution was heated to 82° C. and stirred at this temperature for 1.5 hours. The warm solution was concentrated under reduced pressure at 65° C., The brown oil residue was transferred to a 3-L flask and dried in vacuo (0.8 mm Hg) for 16 h to give 450 g of 3S—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol as a crude oil. An analytical sample of the desired major diastereomeric product was obtained by purifying a small sample of crude product by silica gel chromatography (40% ethyl acetate/hexane). Tlc analysis: silica gel, 40% ethyl acetate/hexane; Rf=0.28; HPLC analysis: ultrasphere ODS column, 25% triethylamino-/phosphate buffer pH 3-acetonitrile, flow rate 1 mL/min, UV detector; retention time 7.49 min.; HRMS Calcd for C28H27N2O (M+1) 417.616, found 417.2887. An analytical sample of the minor diastereomeric product, 3S—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2S-ol was also obtained by purifying a small sample of crude product by silica gel chromatography (40% ethyl acetate/hexane). EXAMPLE 5 Preparation of N-(3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine●oxalic acid salt To a solution of oxalic acid (8.08 g, 89.72 mmol) in methanol (76 mL) was added a solution of crude 3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol {39.68 g, which contains about 25.44 g (61.06 mmol) of 3(S) 2(R) isomer and about 4.49 g (10.78 mmol) of 3(S),2(S) isomer} in ethyl acetate (90 mL) over 15 minutes. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 2 hours. Solid was isolated by filtration, washed with ethyl acetate (2×20 mL) and dried in vacuo for about 1 hour to yield 21.86 g (70.7% isomer recovery) of 97% diastereomerically pure salt (based on HPLC peak areas). HPLC analysis: Vydec-peptide/protein C18 column, UV detector 254 nm, flow rate 2 mL/min., gradient {A=0.05% trifluoroacetic acid in water, B=0.05% trifluoroacetic acid in acetonitrile, 0 min. 75% A/25% B, 30 min. 10% A/90% B, 35 min. 10% A/90% B, 37 min. 75% A/25% B}; Retention time 10.68 min. (3(S), 2(R) isomer) and 9.73 min. (3(S), 2(S) isomer). Mp=174.99° C.; Microanalysis: Calc.: C 71.05%, H 7.50%, N 5.53%; Found: C 71.71%, H 7.75%, N 5.39%. Alternatively, oxalic acid dihydrate (119 g, 0.94 mole) was added to a 5000 mL round bottom flask fitted with a mechanical stirrer and a dropping funnel. Methanol (1000 ml) was added and the mixture stirred until dissolution was complete. A solution of crude 3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol in ethyl acetate (1800 ml, 0.212 g amino alcohol isomers/mL, 0.9160 moles) was added over a twenty minute period. The mixture was stirred for 18 hours and the solid product was isolated by centrifugation in six portions at 400 G. Each portion was washed with 125 mL of ethyl acetate. The salt was then collected and dried overnight at 1 torr to yield 336.3 g of product (71% based upon total amino alcohol). HPLC/MS (electrospray) was consistent with the desired product (m/z 417 [M+H]+). Alternatively, crude 3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (5 g) was dissolved in methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE) (10 mL) and oxalic acid (1 g) in methanol (4 mL) was added. The mixture was stirred for about 2 hours. The resulting solid was filtered, washed with cold MTBE and dried to yield 2.1 g of white solid of about 98.9% diastereomerically pure (based on HPLC peak areas). EXAMPLE 6 Preparation of N-[3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine-acetic acid salt To a solution of crude 3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol in methyl-tert-butylether (MTBE) (45 mL, 1.1 g amino alcohol isomers/mL) was added acetic acid (6.9 mL) dropwise. The mixture was stirred for about 1 hour at room temperature. The solvent was removed in vacuo to yield a brown oil about 85% diastereomerically pure product (based on HPLC peak areas). The brown oil was crystallized as follows: 0.2 g of the oil was dissolved in the first solvent with heat to obtain a clear solution, the second solvent was added until the solution became cloudy, the mixture was heated again to clarity, seeded with about 99% diastereomerically pure product, cooled to room temperature and then stored in a refrigerator overnight. The crystals were filtered, washed with the second solvent and dried. The diastereomeric purity of the crystals was calculated from the HPLC peak areas. The results are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 First Second Solvent Recovery Diastereomeric Solvent Solvent Ratio Weight (g) Purity (%) MTBE Heptane 1:10 0.13 98.3 MTBE Hexane 1:10 0.03 99.6 Methanol Water 1:1.5 0.05 99.5 Toluene Heptane 1:10 0.14 98.7 Toluene Hexane 1:10 0.10 99.7 Alternatively, crude 3(S)—[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (50.0 g, which contains about 30.06 g (76.95 mmol) of 3(S), 2(R) isomer and about 5.66 g (13.58 mmol) of 3(S), 2(S) isomer) was dissolved in methyl-tert-butylether (45.0 mL). To this solution was added acetic acid (6.90 mL, 120.6 mmol) over a period of about 10 min. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 1 hour and concentrated under reduced pressure. The oily residue was purified by recrystallization from methyl-tert-butylether (32 mL) and heptane (320 mL). Solid was isolated by filtration, washed with cold heptane and dried in vacuo for about 1 hour to afford 21.34 g (58.2% isomer recovery) of 96% diastereomerically pure monoacetic acid salt (based on HPLC peak areas). Mp 105-106° C.; Microanalysis: Calc.: C, 75.53%; H, 8.39%; N, 5.87%; Found: C, 75.05%; H, 8.75%; N, 5.71%. EXAMPLE 7 Preparation of N-[3(S)-N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.L-tartaric acid salt Crude 3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino)-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (10.48 g, which contains about 6.72 g (16.13 mmol) of 3(S),2(R) isomer and about 1.19 g (2.85 mmol) of 3(S),2(S) isomer) was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (10.0 mL). To this solution was added a solution of L-tartaric acid (2.85 g, 19 mmol) in methanol (5.0 mL) over a period of about 5 min. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 10 min. and concentrated under reduced pressure. Methyl-tert-butylether (20.0 mL) was added to the oily residue and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 1 hour. Solid was isolated by filtration to afford 7.50 g of crude salt. The crude salt was purified by recrystallization from ethyl acetate and heptane at room temperature to yield 4.13 g (45.2% isomer recovery) of 95% diastereomerically pure L-tartaric acid salt (based on HPLC peak areas). Microanalysis: Calc.: C, 67.76%; H, 7.41%; N, 4.94%; Found: C, 70.06%; H, 7.47%; N, 5.07%. EXAMPLE 8 Preparation of N-[3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.dihydrochloric acid salt Crude 3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (10.0 g, which contains about 6.41 g (15.39 mmol) of 3(S),2(R) isomer and about 1.13 g (2.72 mmol) of 3(S),2(S) isomer) was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (20.0 mL). To this solution was added hydrochloric acid (20 mL, 6.0 N) over a period of about 5 min. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 1 hour and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was recrystallized from ethanol at 0° C. to yield 3.20 g (42.7% isomer recovery) of 98% diastereomerically pure dihydrochloric acid salt (based on HPLC peak areas). Microanalysis: Calc.: C, 6.64%; H, 7.76%; N, 5.72%; Found: C, 68.79%; H, 8.07%; N, 5.55%. EXAMPLE 9 Preparation of N-[3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.toluenesulfohic acid salt Crude 3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (5.0 g, which contains about 3.18 g (7.63 mmol) of 3(S),2(R) isomer and about 0.56 g (1.35 mmol) of 3(S),2(S) isomer) was dissolved in methyl-tert-butylether (10.0 mL). To this solution was added a solution of toluenesulfonic acid (2.28 g, 12 mmol) in methyl-tert-butylether (2.0 mL) and methanol (2.0 mL) over a period of about 5 min. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 2 hours and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was recrystallized from methyl-tert-butylether and heptane at 0° C., filtered, washed with cold heptane and dried in vacuo to yield 1.85 g (40.0% isomer recovery) of 97% diastereomerically pure monotoluenesulfonic acid salt (based on HPLC peak areas). EXAMPLE 10 Preparation of N-[3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.methanesulfonic acid salt Crude 3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2(R)-ol (10.68 g, which contains about 6.85 g (16.44 mmol) of 3(S),2(R) isomer and about 1.21 g (2.90 mmol) of 3(S),2(S) isomer} was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (10.0 mL). To this solution was added methanesulfonic acid (1.25 mL, 19.2 mmol). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for about 2 hours and concentrated under reduced pressure. The oily residue was recrystallized from methanol and water at 0° C., filtered, washed with cold methanol/water (1:4) and dried in vacuo to yield 2.40 g (28.5% isomer recovery) of 98% diastereomerically pure monomethanesulfonic acid salt (based on HPLC peak areas). EXAMPLE 11 Preparation of N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol Method 1: L-Phenylalaninol (89.51 g, 0.592 moles) was dissolved in 375 mL of methanol under inert atmosphere, 35.52 g (0.592 moles) of glacial acetic acid and 50 mL of methanol was added followed by a solution of 62.83 g (0.592 moles) of benzaldehyde in 100 mL of methanol. The mixture was cooled to approximately 15° C. and a solution of 134.6 g (2.14 moles) of sodium cyanoborohydride in 700 mL of methanol was added in approximately 40 minutes, keeping the temperature between 15° C. and 25° C. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 18 hours. The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure and partitioned between 1 L of 2M ammonium hydroxide solution and 2 L of ether. The ether layer was washed with 1 L of 1M ammonium hydroxide solution, twice with 500 mL water, 500 mL of brine and dried over magnesium sulfate for 1 hour. The ether layer was filtered, concentrated under reduced pressure and the crude solid product was recrystallized from 110 mL of ethyl acetate and 1.3 L of hexane to give 115 g (81% yield) of N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol as a white solid. Method 2: L-Phenylalaninol (5 g, 33 moles) and 3.59 g (33.83 mmoles) of benzaldehyde were dissolved in 55 mL of 3 A ethanol under inert atmosphere in a Parr shaker and the mixture was warmed to 60° C. for 2.7 hours. The mixture was cooled to approximately 25° C. and 0.99 g of 5% platinum on carbon was added and the mixture was hydrogenated at 60 psi of hydrogen and 40° C. for 10 hours. The catalyst was filtered off, the product was concentrated under reduced pressure and the crude solid product was recrystallized from 150 mL of heptane to give 3.83 g (48% yield) of N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol as a white solid. EXAMPLE 12 Preparation of N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol (2.9 g, 12 mmoles) was dissolved in 3 mL of triethylamine and 27 mL of methanol and 5.25 g (24.1 mmoles) of di-tert-butyl dicarbonate was added. The mixture was warmed to 60° C. for 35 minutes and concentrated under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in 150 mL of ethyl acetate and washed twice with 10 mL of cold (0-5° C.), dilute hydrochloric acid (pH 2.5 to 3), 15 mL of water, 10 mL of brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product oil was purified by silica gel chromatography (ethyl acetate:hexane, 12:3 as eluting solvent) to give 3.98 g (97% yield) of colorless oil. EXAMPLE 13 Preparation of N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal Method 1: To a solution of 0.32 g (0.94 mmoles) of N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol in 2.8 mL of toluene was added 2.4 mg (0.015 mmoles) of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy, free radical (TEMPO), 0.1 g (0.97 mmoles) of sodium bromide, 2.8 mL of ethyl acetate and 0.34 mL of water. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and an aqueous solution of 4.2 mL of 5% household bleach containing 0.23 g (3.0 mL, 2.738 mmoles) of sodium bicarbonate was added slowly over 30 minutes. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 10 minutes. Three more additions (0.4 mL each) of bleach was added followed by stirring for 10 minutes after each addition to consume all the stating material. The two phase mixture was allowed to separate. The aqueous layer was extracted twice with 8 mL of toluene. The combined organic layer was washed with 1.25 mL of a solution containing 0.075 g of potassium iodide, sodium bisulfate (0.125 g) and water (1.1 mL), 1.25 mL of 10% aqueous sodium thiosulfate solution, 1.25 mL of pH 7 phosphate buffer and 1.5 mL of brine solution. The organic solution was dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 0.32 g (100% yield) of N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal. Method 2: To a solution of 2.38 g (6.98 mmoles) of N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninol in 3.8 mL (27.2 mmoles) of triethylamine at 10° C. was added a solution of 4.33 g (27.2 mmoles) of sulfur trioxide pyridine complex in 17 mL of dimethyl sulfoxide. The mixture was warmed to room temperature and stirred for one hour. Water (16 mL) was added and the mixture was extracted with 20 mL of ethyl acetate. The organic layer was washed with 20 mL of 5% citric acid, 20 mL of water, 20 mL of brine, dried over magnesium sulfate and filtered. The filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure to give 2.37 g (100% yield) of N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal. EXAMPLE 14 Preparation of 3 (S)-[N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzylamino]-1.2-(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane Method 1: A solution of 2.5 g (7.37 mmoles) of N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal and 0.72 mL of chloroiodomethane in 35 mL of THF was cooled to −78° C. A 4.64 mL of a solution of n-butyllithium (1.6 M in hexane, 7.42 mmoles) was added slowly, keeping the temperature below −70° C. The mixture was stirred for 10 minutes between −70 to −75° C. Two additional portions of 0.22 mL of chloroiodomethane and 1.4 mL of n-butyllithium was added sequentially and the mixture was stirred for 10 minutes between −70 to −75° C. after each addition. Four additional portions of 0.11 mL of chloroiodomethane and 0.7 mL of n-butyllithium was added sequentially and the mixture was stirred for 10 minutes between −70 to −75° C. after each addition. The mixture was warmed to room temperature for 3.5 hours. The product was quenched at below 5° C. with 24 mL of ice-cold water. The biphasic layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted twice with 30 mL of ethyl acetate. The combined organic layers was washed three times with 10 mL water, then with 10 mL brine, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 2.8 g of a yellow crude oil. This crude oil (>100% yield) is a mixture of the diastereomeric epoxides N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine and N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2R-oxiranemethanamine. The crude mixture is used directly in the next step without purification. Method 2: To a suspension of 2.92 g (13.28 mmoles) of trimethylsulfoxonium iodide in 45 mL of acetonitrile was added 1.49 g (13.28 mmoles) of potassium t-butoxide. A solution of 3.0 g (8.85 mmoles) of N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal in 18 mL of acetonitrile was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for one hour. The mixture was diluted with 150 mL of water and extracted twice with 200 mL of ethyl acetate. The organic layers were combined and washed with 100 mL water, 50 mL brine, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 3.0 g of a yellow crude oil. The crude product was purified by silica gel chromatography (ethyl acetate/hexane: 1:8 as eluting solvent) to give 1.02 g (32.7% yield) of a mixture of the two diastereomers N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine and N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2R-oxiranemethanamine. Method 3: To a suspension of 0.90 g (4.42 mmoles) of trimethylsulfonium iodide in 18 mL of acetonitrile was added 0.495 g (4.42 mmoles) of potassium t-butoxide. A solution of 1.0 g (2.95 mmoles) of N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-benzyl-L-phenylalaninal in 7 mL of acetonitrile was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for one hour. The mixture was diluted with 80 mL of water and extracted twice with 80 mL of ethyl acetate The organic layers were combined and washed with 100 mL water, 30 mL brine, dried over sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 1.04 g of a yellow crude oil. The crude product was a mixture of the two diastereomers N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine and N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2R-oxiranemethanamine. EXAMPLE 15 Preparation of 3S-[N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol To a solution of 500 mg (1.42 mmoles) of the crude epoxide (a mixture of the two diastereomers N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine and N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2R-oxiranemethanamine) in 0.98 mL of isopropanol was added 0.71 mL (7.14 mmoles) of isobutylamine. The mixture was warmed to reflux at 85° C. to 90° C. for 1.5 hours. The mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure and the product oil was purified by silica gel chromatography (chloroform:methanol, 100:6 as eluting solvents) to give 330 mg of 3S-[N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol as a colorless oil (54.5% yield). 3S-[N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)-N-(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2S-ol was also isolated. When purified N,αS-bis(phenylmethyl)-N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-2S-oxiranemethanamine was used as starting material, 3S-[N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(phenylmethyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol was isolated after purification by chromatography in an 86% yield. EXAMPLE 16 Preparation of 3S-(N-t-Butoxycarbonyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-1,2R-diol To a solution of 1 g (3.39 mmoles) of 2S-(N-t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-1S-hydroxy-3-phenylbutanoic acid (commercially available from Nippon Kayaku, Japan) in 50 mL of THF at 0° C. was added 50 mL of borane-THF complex (liquid, 1.0 M in THF), keeping the temperatures below 5° C. The reaction mixture was warmed to room temperature and stirred for 16 hours. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and 20 mL of water was added slowly to destroy the excess BH3 and to quench the product mixture, keeping the temperature below 12° C. The quenched mixture was stirred for 20 minutes and concentrated under reduced pressure. The product mixture was extracted three times with 60 mL of ethyl acetate. The organic layers were combined and washed with 20 mL of water, 25 mL of saturated sodium chloride solution and concentrated under reduced pressure to give 1.1 g of crude oil. The crude product was purified by silica gel chromatography (chloroform/methanol, 10:6 as eluting solvents) to give 900 mg (94.4% yield) of 3S-(N-t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-1,2R-diol as a white solid. EXAMPLE 17 Preparation of 3S-(N-t-Butoxycarbonyl)amino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbut-1-yl Toluenesulfonate To a solution of 744.8 mg (2.65 mmoles) of 3S-(N-t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-1,2R-diol in 13 mL of pyridine at 0° C. was added 914 mg of toluenesulfonyl chloride in one portion. The mixture was stirred at 0° C. to 5° C. for 5 hours. A mixture of 6.5 mL of ethyl acetate and 15 mL of 5% aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution was added to the reaction mixture and stirred for 5 minutes. The product mixture was extracted three times with 50 mL of ethyl acetate The organic layers were combined and washed with 15 mL of water, 10 mL of saturated sodium chloride solution and concentrated under reduced pressure to give about 1.1 g of a yellow chunky solid. The crude product was purified by silica gel chromatography (ethyl acetate/hexane 1:3 as eluting solvents) to give 850 mg (74% yield) of 3S-(N-t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbut-1-yl toluenesulfonate as a white solid. EXAMPLE 18 Preparation of 3S-[N-(t-Butoxycarbonyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol To a solution of 90 mg (0.207 mmoles) of 3S-(N-t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbut-1-yl toluenesulfonate in 0.143 mL of isopropanol and 0.5 mL of toluene was added 0.103 mL (1.034 mmoles) of isobutylamine. The mixture was warmed to 80 to 85° C. and stirred for 1.5 hours. The product mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure at 40 to 50° C. and purified by silica gel chromatography (chloroform/methanol, 10:1 as eluting solvents) to give 54.9 mg (76.8% yield) of 3S-[N-(t-butoxycarbonyl)amino]-1-(2-methylpropyl)amino-4-phenylbutan-2R-ol as a white solid. EXAMPLE 19 Preparation of N-[3(S)-benzyloxycarbonylamino-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isoamylamine Part A: To a solution of 75.0 g (0.226 mol) of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone in a mixture of 807 mL of methanol and 807 mL of tetrahydrofuran at −2° C., was added 13.17 g (0.348 mol, 1.54 equiv.) of solid sodium borohydride over one hundred minutes. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure at 40° C. and the residue dissolved in ethyl acetate (approx. 1L). The solution was washed sequentially with 1M potassium hydrogen sulfate, saturated sodium bicarbonate and then saturated sodium chloride solutions. After drying over anhydrous magnesium sulfate and filtering, the solution was removed under reduced pressure. To the resulting oil was added hexane (approx. 1 L) and the mixture warmed to 60° C. with swirling. After cooling to room temperature, the solids were collected and washed with 2L of hexane. The resulting solid was recrystallized from hot ethyl acetate and hexane to afford 32.3 g (43% yield) of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1-chloro-4-phenyl-2(S)-butanol, mp 150-151° C. and M+Li+=340. Part B: To a solution of 6.52 g (0.116 mol, 1.2 equiv.) of potassium hydroxide in 968 mL of absolute ethanol at room temperature, was added 32.3 g (0.097 mol) of N—CBZ-3(S)-amino-1-chloro-4-phenyl-2(S)-butanol. After stirring for fifteen minutes, the solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the solids dissolved in methylene chloride. After washing with water, drying over magnesium sulfate, filtering and stripping, one obtains 27.9 g of a white solid. Recrystallization from hot ethyl acetate and hexane afforded 22.3 g (77% yield) of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1,2(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane, mp 102-103° C. and MH+ 298. Part C: A solution of N-benzyloxycarbonyl 3(S)-amino-1,2-(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane (1.00 g, 3.36 mmol) and isoamylamine (4.90 g, 67.2 mmol, 20 equiv.) in 10 mL of isopropyl alcohol was heated to reflux for 1.5 hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature, concentrated in vacuo and then poured into 100 mL of stirring hexane whereupon the product crystallized from solution. The product was isolated by filtration and air dried to give 1.18 g, 95% of N=[[3(S)-phenylmethylcarbamoyl)amino-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]N-[(3-methylbutyl)]amine mp 108.0-109.5° C., MH+ m/z=371. EXAMPLE 20 Preparation of N-[(1,1-dimethylethoxyl)carbonyl]-N-[2-methylyproyl)-3S-[N1-(phenylethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutylamine To a solution of 7.51 g (20.3 mmol) of N-[3S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-2-methylpropylamine in 67 mL of anhydrous tetrahydrofuran was added 2.25 g (22.3 mmol) of triethylamine. After cooling to 0° C., 4.4 g (20.3 mmol) of di-tert-butyldicarbonate was added and stirring continued at room temperature for 21 hours. The volatiles were removed in vacuo, ethyl acetate added, then washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 9.6 g of crude product. Chromatography on silica gel using 30% ethyl acetate/hexane afforded 8.2 g of pure N-[[3S-(phenylmethylcarbamoyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-1-[(2-methylpropyl)amino-2-(1,1-dimethylethoxyl)carbonyl]butane, mass spectum m/e=477 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 21 Preparation of 2S-[[bromoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[N1-(3-methyl-butyl)-N1-(phenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutaneamide Part A: To a solution of N—CBZ-L-tert-leucine (450 mg, 1.7 mmol) and N-hydroxybenzotriazole (260 mg, 1.7 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added EDC (307 mg, 1.6 mmol). The solution was stirred for 60 minutes at room temperature and then 2R-hydroxy-3-[N-(3-methylbutyl)-N-(phenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (585 mg, 1.5 mmol) in DMF (2 mL) was added. The reaction was stirred for 16 hours at room temperature, then poured into a 50% saturated solution of sodium bicarbonate (200 mL). The aqueous mixture was extracted thrice with ethyl acetate (50 mL). The combined ethyl acetate layers were washed with water (50 mL) and saturated NaCl solution (50 mL), then dried over magnesium sulfate. Filtration and concentration produced an oil which was chromatographed on silica gel (50 gm) eluting with 20% ethyl acetate in hexane. The phenylmethyl [1S-[[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylbutyl)(phenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]amino]carbonyl]-2,2-dimethylpropyl]carbamate was obtained as a solid Anal. Calcd for C35H47N3O6S: C, 65.91; H, 7.43; N, 6.59. Found: C, 65.42; H, 7.24; N, 6.55. Part B: A solution of phenylmethyl [1S-[[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylbutyl)(phenylsulfonyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]amino]carbonyl]-2,2-dimethylpropyl]carbamate (200 mg, 0.31 mmol) in methanol (15 mL) was hydrogenated over 10% palladium on carbon for 2 hours. The reaction was filtered through diatomaceous earth and concentrated to an oil. Part C: The resulting free amine from part B (150 mg, 0.3 mmol) was combined with diisopropylethylamine (114 uL, 0.33 mmol) in dichloromethane (5 mL). To this was added bromoacetyl chloride (27 uL, 0.33 mmol) dropwise. The reaction was stirred for 30 minutes at room temperature, then diluted with dichloromethane (30 mL) and extracted with 1 N HCl, water, and then saturated NaCl solution (25 mL each). The organic solution was dried over MgSO4 and concentrated to a solid. The 2S-[[bromoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylbutyl)(phenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutaneamide was sufficiently pure for use in the next step. This material can also be prepared by substituing bromoacetic anhydride for bromoacetyl chloride, or one can use chloroacetyl chloride or chloracetic anhydride. EXAMPLE 22 Preparation of 2S-[chloroacetylamino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[N1-(2-methylpropyl)-N1-(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide Part A: To a solution of 2R-hydroxy-3-[(2-methylpropyl)(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (1.70 g, 4.18 mmol) in 40 mL of dichloromethane was added N-carbobenzyloxy-L-isoleucine-N-hydroxysuccinamide ester (1.51 g, 4.18 mmol) and the solution stirred under nitrogen atmosphere for 16 hours. The contents were concentrated in vacuo and the residue was redissolved in ethyl acetate. The ethyl acetate solution was washed with an aqueous solution of 5% KHSO4, saturated sodium bicarbonate, and saturated sodium chloride, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered, and concentrated to yield 2.47 g of crude product. The product was purified by silica gel chromatography using 1 2:1 hexane:ethyl acetate eluant to yield 2.3 g. (84% yield) of 2S-[(carbobenzyloxy)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylpropyl)(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide. Part B: (1.18 g, 1.8 mmol) of the product from Part A was dissolved in 50 mL of methanol, and to this was added 250 mg of 10% Palladium on Carbon while under a stream of nitrogen. The suspension was hydrogenated using 50 psig of hydrogen for 20 hours. The contents were purged with nitrogen and filtered through celite, and concentrated in vacuo to yield 935 mg of 2S-(amino)-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylpropyl)(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide, which was used without further purification. Part C: (0.935 g, 1.8 mmol) of the amine from Part B was dissolved in 15 mL of dioxane and to this was added (190 mg, 1.85 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine folowed by (0.315 g, 1.8 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride. The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen atmosphere for 3 hours, concentrated in vacuo, and redissolved in ethyl acetate. The ethyl acetate solution was washed with 50 mL of 5% agueous KHSO4, saturated NaHCO3, and saturated NaCl solution, dried over MgSO4, filtered and concentrated to yield 613 mg, (68% yield) of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-methylpropyl)(4-methoxyphenylsulfonyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide, after purification by silica gel chromatography using 1:1 hexane:ethyl acetate. EXAMPLE 23 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine Part A: Preparation of 5-(2,3-dihydrobenzofuranyl)sulfonyl chloride To a solution of 3.35 g of anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide at 0° C. under nitrogen was added 6.18 g of sulfuryl chloride, whereupon a solid formed. After stirring for 15 minutes, 4.69 g of 2,3-dihydrobenzofuran was added, and the mixture heated at 100° C. for 2 hours. The reaction was cooled, poured into ice water, extracted with methylene chloride, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated the crude material. This was recrystallized from ethyl acetate to afford 2.45 g of 5-(2,3-dihydrobenzofuranyl)sulfonyl chloride. Part B: Preparation of Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)-propyl-, phenylmethyl ester To a solution of 1.11 g (3.0 mmol) of N-[3S-benzyloxy carbonylamino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-N-isobutylamine in 20 mL of anhydrous methylene chloride, was added 1.3 mL (0.94. g, 9.3 mmol) of triethylamine. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and 0.66 g of 5-(2,3-dihydrobenzofuranyl)sulfonyl chloride was added, stirred for 15 minutes at 0° C., then for 2 hour at room temperature. Ethyl acetate was added, washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried and concentrated to yield 1.62 g of crude material. This was recrystallized from diethyl ether to afford 1.17 g of pure carbamic acid, [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester. Part C: Preparation of [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydro benzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine A solution of 2.86, g of carbamic acid, [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester in 30 mL of tetrahydrofuran was hydrogenated 0.99 g of 10% palladium-on-carbon under 50 psig of hydrogen for 16 hours. The catalyst was removed by filtration and the filtrate concentrated to afford 1.99 g of the desired [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine. EXAMPLE 24 Preparation of Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-aminobenzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester 0.30 g (0.571 mmol) was added to a well mixed powder of anhydrous copper sulfate (1.20 g) and potassium thiocyanate (1.50 g) followed by dry methanol (6 mL) and the resulting black-brown suspension was heated at reflux for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was diluted with water (5 mL) and heated at reflux. Ethanol was added to the reaction mixture, cooled and filtered. The filtrate upon concentration afforded a residue which was chromatographed (ethyl acetate:hexane 80:20) to afford 0.26 g (78%) of the desired compound as a solid. EXAMPLE 25 Preparation of Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester Method 1: Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-aminobenzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester (0.25 g, 0.429 mmol) was added to a solution of isoamylnitrite (0.116 mL, 0.858 mmol) in dioxane (5 mL) and the mixture was heated at 85° C. After the cessation of evolution of nitrogen, the reaction mixture was concentrated and the residue was purified by chromatography (hexane:ethyl acetate 5:3) to afford 0.130 g (53%) of the desired product as a solid. Method 2: Crude benzothiazole-6-sulfonyl chloride in ethyl acetate (100 mL) was added to N-[3S-benzyloxycarbonyl amino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-N-isobutylamine (1.03 g, 2.78 mmol) followed by N-methylmorpholine (4 mL). After stirring at room temperature for 18 hr., the reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (100 mL), washed with citric acid (5%, 100 mL), sodium bicarbonate (saturated, 100 mL) and brine (100 mL), dried (MgSO4) and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was chromatographed (silica gel, ethyl acetate:hexane 1:1) to afford 0.340 g (23%) of desired product. EXAMPLE 26 Preparation of Carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino benzothiazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)proyl-, phenylmethyl ester; and Carbamic acid. 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-aminobenzothiazol-7-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester The carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[(3-aminophenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester 0.36 g (0.685 mmol) was added to a well mixed powder of anhydrous copper sulfate (1.44 g) and potassium thiocyanate (1.80 g) followed by dry methanol (10 mL) and the resulting black-brown suspension was heated at reflux for 2 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was diluted with water (5 mL) and heated at reflux. Ethanol was added to the reaction mixture, cooled and filtered. The filtrate upon concentration afforded a residue which was chromatographed (ethyl acetate:hexane 1:1) to afford 0.18 g (45%) of the 7-isomer as a solid. Further elution of the column with (ethyl acetate:hexane 3:2) afforded 0.80 g (20%) afforded the 5-isomer as a solid. EXAMPLE 27 Preparation of N-[3(S)-benzyloxycarbonylamino-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenyl]N-isobutylamine Part A: N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1-chloro-4-phenyl-2(S)-butanol To a solution of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethyl ketone (75 g, 0.2 mol) in a mixture of 800 mL of methanol and 800 mL of tetrahydrofuran was added sodium borohydride (13.17 g, 0.348 mol, 1.54 equiv.) over 100 min. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours and then concentrated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in 1000 mL of ethyl acetate and washed with 1N KHSO4, saturated aqueous NaHCO3, saturated aqueous NaCl, dried over anhydrous MgSO4, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to give an oil. The crude product was dissolved in 1000 mL of hexanes at 60° C. and allowed to cool to room temperature where upon crystals formed that were isolated by filtration and washed with copious amounts of hexanes. This solid was then recrystallized from hot ethyl acetate and hexanes to provide 32.3 g 43% of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1-chloro-4-phenyl-2(S)-butanol, mp 150-151° C., FAB MS: MLi+=340. Part B: 3(S)-[N-(benzyloxycarbonyl)amino]-1,2(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane A solution of potassium hydroxide (6.52 g. 0.116 mol, 1.2 equiv.) in 970 mL of absolute ethanol was treated with N-benzyloxycarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1-chloro-4-phenyl-2(S)-butanol (32.3 g, 0.097 mol). This solution was stirred at room temperature for 15 minutes and then concentrated in vacuo to give a white solid. The solid was dissolved in dichloromethane and washed with water, dried over anhyd MgSO4, filetered and concentrated in vacuo to give a white solid. The solid was crystallized from hexanes and ethyl acetate to give 22.3 g, 77% of 3(S)-[N-(benzyloxycarbonyl)amino]-1,2(S)-epoxy-4-phenylbutane, mp 102-103° C., FAB MS: MH+=298. Part C: N-[3(S)-benzyloxycarbonylamino-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenyl]N-isobutylamine A solution of N-benzylcarbonyl-3(S)-amino-1,2-(S)-epoxy-4-phenyl butane (50.0 g, 0.168 mol) and isobutylamine (246 g, 3.24 mol, 20 equivalents) in 650 mL of isopropyl alcohol was heated to reflux for 1.25 hours. The solution was cooled to room temperature, concentrated in vacuo and then poured into 1 L of stirring hexane whereupon the product crystallized from solution. The product was isolated by filtration and air dried to give 57.56 g, 92% of N[3(S)-benzyloxycarbonylamino-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-N-isobutylamine, mp 108.0-109.5° C., MH+m/z=371. EXAMPLE 28 Preparation of 1,3-benzodioxole-5-sulfonyl chloride Method 1: To a solution of 4.25 g of anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide at 0° C. under nitrogen was added 7.84 g of sulfuryl chloride, whereupon a solid formed. After stirring for 15 minutes, 6.45 g of 1,3-benzodioxole was added, and the mixture heated at 100° C. for 2 hours. The reaction was cooled, poured into ice water, extracted with methylene chloride, dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to give 7.32 g of crude material as a black oil. This was chromatographed on silica gel using 20% methylene chloride/hexane to afford 1.9 g of (1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl chloride. Method 2: To a 22 liter round bottom flask fitted with a mechanical stirrer, a cooling condenser, a heating mantle and a pressure equalizing dropping funnel was added sulfur trioxide DMF complex (2778 g, 18.1 moles). Dichloroethane (4 liters) was then added and stirring initiated. 1,3-Benzodioxole (1905 g, 15.6 moles) as then added through the dropping funnel over a five minute period. The temperature was then raised to 75° C. and held for 22 hours (NMR indicated that the reaction was done after 9 hours.) The reaction was cooled to 26° and oxalyl chloride (2290 g, 18.1 moles) was added at a rate so as to maintain the temperature below 40° C. (1.5 hours). The mixture was heated to 67° C. for 5 hours followed by cooling to 16° C. with an ice bath. The reaction was quenched with water (5 l) at a rate which kept the 30 temperature below 20° C. After the addition of water was complete, the mixture was stirred for 10 minutes. The layers were separated and the organic layer was washed again twice with water (5 l). The organic layer was dried with magnesium sulfate (500 g) and filtered to remove the drying agent. The solvent was removed under vacuum at 50° C. The resulting warm liquid was allowed to cool at which time a solid began to form. After one hour, the solid was washed with hexane (400 mL), filtered and dried to provide the desired sulfonyl chloride (2823 g). The hexane wash was concentrated and the resulting solid washed with 400 mL hexane to provide additional sulfonyl chloride (464 g). The total yield was 3287 g (95.5% based upon-1,3-benzodioxole). Method 3: 1,4-benzodioxan-6-sulfonyl chloride was prepared according to the procedure disclosed in EP 583960, incorporated herein by reference. EXAMPLE 29 Preparation of 1-[N-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3(S)-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-4-phenyl-2(R)-butanol Method 1: To a 5000 mL, 3-necked flask fitted with a mechanical stirrer was added N-[3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.oxalic acid salt (354.7 g, 0.7 mole) and 1,4-dioxane (2000 mL). A solution of potassium carbonate (241.9 g, 1.75 moles) in water (250 mL) was then added. The resultant heterogeneous mixture was stirred for 2 hours at room temperature followed by the addition of 1,3-benzodioxole-5-sulfonyl chloride (162.2 g, 0.735 mole) dissolved in 1,4-dioxane (250 mL) over 15 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 18 hours. Ethyl acetate (1000 mL) and water (500 mL) were charged to the reactor and stirring continued for another 1 hour. The aqueous layer was separated and further extracted with ethyl acetate (200 mL). The combined ethyl acetate layers were washed with 25% brine solution (500 mL) and dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate. After filtering and washing the magnesium sulfate with ethyl acetate (200 mL), the solvent in the filtrate was removed under reduced pressure yielding the desired sulfonamide as an viscous yellow foamy oil (440.2 g 105% yield). HPLC/MS (electrospray) (m/z 601 [M+H]+]. EXAMPLE 30 Preparation of 1-[N-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3(S)-amino-4-phenyl-2(R)-butanol-methanesulfonic acid salt Method 1: Crude 1-[N-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3(S)-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-4-phenyl-2(R)-butanol (6.2 g, 0.010 moles) was dissolved in methanol (40 mL). Methanesulfonic acid (0.969 g, 0.010 moles) and water (5 mL) were then added to the solution. The mixture was placed in a 500 mL Parr hydrogenation bottle containing 20% Pd(OH)2 on carbon (255 mg, 50% water content). The bottle was placed in the hydrogenator and purged 5 times with nitrogen and 5 times with hydrogen. The reaction was allowed to proceed at 35° C. with 63 PSI hydrogen pressure for 18 hours. Additional catalyst (125 mg) was added and, after purging, the hydrogenation continued for and additional 20 hours. The mixture was filtered through celite which was washed with methanol (2×10 mL). Approximately one third of the methanol was removed under reduced pressure. The remaining methanol was removed by aziotropic distillation with toluene at 80 torr. Toluene was added in 15, 10, 10 and 10 mL portions. The product crystallized from the mixture and was filtered and washed twice with 10 mL portions of toluene. The solid was dried at room temperature at 1 torr for 6 hours to yield the amine salt (4.5 g, 84%). HPLC/MS (electrospray) was consistent with the desired product (m/z 421 [M+H]+). Method 2: Part A: N-[3(S)-[N,N-bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-2(R)-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-isobutylamine.oxalic acid salt (2800 g, 5.53 moles) and THF (4 L) were added to a 22 L round bottom flask fitted with a mechanical stirrer. Potassium carbonate (1921 g, 13.9 moles) was dissolved in water (2.8 L) and added to the THF slurry. The mixture was then stirred for one hour. 1,3-benzodioxole-5-sulfonyl chloride (1281 g, 5.8 moles) was dissolved in THF (1.4 L) and added to the reaction mixture over 25 minutes. An additional 200 mL of THF was used to rinse the addition funnel. The reaction was allowed to stir for 14 hours and then water (4 L) was added. This mixture was stirred for 30 minutes and the layers allowed to separate. The layers was removed and the aqueous layer washed twice with THF (500 mL). The combined THF layers were dried with magnesium sulfate (500 g) for one hour. This solution was then filtered to remove the drying agent and used in subsequent reactions. Part B: To the THF solution of crude 1-[N-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3(S)-[bis(phenylmethyl)amino]-4-phenyl-2(R)-butanol was added water (500 mL) followed by methane sulfonic acid (531 g, 5.5 moles). The solution was stirred to insure complete mixing and added to a 5 gallon autoclave. Pearlman's catalyst (200 g of 20% Pd(OH)2 on C/50% water) was added to the autoclave with the aid of THF (500 mL). The reactor was purged four times with nitrogen and four times with hydrogen. The reactor was charged with 60 psig of hydrogen and stirring at 450 rpm started. After 16 hours, HPLC analysis indicated that a small amount of the mono-benzyl intermediate was still present. Additional catalyst (50 g) was added and the reaction was allowed to run overnight. The solution was then filtered through celite (500 g) to remove the catalyst and concentrated under vacuum in five portions. To each portion, toluene (500 mL) was added and removed under vacuum to azeotropically removed residual water. The resulting solid was divided into three portions and each washed with methyl t-butyl ether (2 L) and filtered. The residual solvent was removed at room temperature in a vacuum oven at less than 1 torr to yield the 2714 g of the expected salt. If desired, the product can be further purified by the following procedure. A total of 500 mL of methanol and 170 g of material from above was heated to reflux until it all dissolved. The solution was cooled, 200 mL of isopropanol added and then 1000-1300 mL of hexane, whereupon a white solid precipitated. After cooling to 0° C., this precipitate was collected and washed with hexane to afford 123 g of the desired material. Through this procedure, the original material which was a 95:5 mixture of alcohol diastereomers was greater than 99:1 of the desired diastereomer. EXAMPLE 31 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine Part A: Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid phenylmethyl ester To a solution of 3.19 g(8.6 mmol) of N-[3S-benzyloxy carbonylamino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-N-isobutylamine in 40 mL of anhydrous methylene chloride, was added 0.87 g of triethylamine. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and 1.90 g of (1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl chloride was added, stirred for 15 minutes at 0° C., then for 17 hours at room temperature. Ethyl acetate was added, washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried and concentrated to yield crude material. This was recrystallized from diethyl ether/hexane to afford 4.77 g of pure 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid phenylmethyl ester. Part B: Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine A solution of 4.11 g of carbamic acid, 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-, phenylmethyl ester in 45 mL of tetrahydrofuran and 25 mL of methanol was hydrogenated over 1.1 g of 10% palladium-on-carbon under 50 psig of hydrogen for 16 hours. The catalyst was removed by filtration and the filtrate concentrated to afford 1.82 g of the desired 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine. EXAMPLE 32 Preparation of Benzothiazole-6-sulfonyl Chloride Part A: Preparation of N-(4-Sulfonamidophenyl)thiourea A mixture of sulfanilamide (86 g, 0.5 mole), ammonium thiocyanate (76.0 g, 0.5 mole) and dilute hydrochloric acid (1.5 N, 1 L) was mechanically stirred and heated at reflux for 2 hr. About 200 mL of water was distilled off and concentration of the reaction mixture afforded a solid. The solid was filtered and was washed with cold water and air dried to afford 67.5 g (59%) of the desired product as a white powder. Part B: Preparation of 2-Amino-6-sulfonamidobenzothiazole Bromine (43.20 g, 0.27 mol) in chloroform (200 mL) was added over 1 hr. to a suspension of N-(4-sulfonamidophenyl)-thiourea (27.72, 0.120 mol) in chloroform (800 mL). After the addition, the reaction mixture was heated at reflux for 4.5 hr. The chloroform was removed in vacuo and the residue was repeatedly distilled with additional amounts of chloroform. The solid obtained was treated with water (600 mL) followed by ammonium hydroxide (to make it basic), then was heated at reflux for 1 hr. The cooled reaction mixture was filtered, washed with water and air dried to afford 22.0 g (80%) of the desired product as a white powder. Part C: Preparation of Benzothiazole-6-sulfonic acid A suspension of 2-amino-6-sulfonamido-benzothiazole (10.0 g, 43.67 mmol) in dioxane (300 mL) was heated at reflux. Isoamylnitrite (24 mL) was added in two portions to the reaction mixture. Vigorous evolution of gas was observed (the reaction was conducted behind a shield as a precaution) and after 2 hr., a red precipitate was deposited in the reaction vessel. The reaction mixture was filtered hot, and the solid was washed with dioxane and was dried. The solid was recrystallized from methanol-water. A small amount of a precipitate was formed after 2 days. The precipitate was filtered off and the mother liquor was concentrated in vacuo to afford a pale red-orange solid (8.0 g, 85%) of pure product. Part D: Preparation of 6-Chlorosulfonylbenzothiazole Thionyl chloride (4 mL) was added to a suspension of the benzothiazole-6-sulfonic acid (0.60 g, 2.79 mmol) in dichloroethane (15 mL) and the reaction mixture was heated at reflux and dimethylformamide (5 mL) was added to the reaction mixture to yield a clear solution. After 1.5 hr. at reflux, the solvent was removed in vacuo and excess HCl and thionyl chloride was chased by evaporation with dichloroethane. EXAMPLE 33 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl1-2S-(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To a solution of 118.8 g (0.776 mol) of N-hydroxybenzotriazole and 137.1 g (0.52 mol) of N-carbobenzyloxycarbonyl-L-tert-leucine in 750 mL of anhydrous DMF at 0° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere, was added 109.1 g (0.57 mol) of EDC. After stirring at 0° C. for 2 hours, a solution of 273 g (0.53 mol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine methanesulfonate, previously neutralized with 228 mL (210 g, 2.08 mol) of 4-methylmorpholine, in 250 mL of anhydrous DMF was added. After stirring at 0° C. for 30 minutes, the mixture stirred at room temperature for 18 hours. The solvents were removed under reduced pressure at 45° C., 1.5 L of ethyl acetate added, washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicabonate, brine, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 400 g of crude material. This was chromatographed in 3 batches on a Prep 2000 Chromatogram on silica gel using 20%-50% ethyl acetate/hexane as eluent to yield 320 g of purified material, m/e=674 (M+Li), 98% by HPLC. Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 312 g of the Cbz compound from above in 1 L of tetrahydrofuran was hydrogenated in the presence of 100 g of 4% palladium-on-carbon catalyst under 60 psig of hydrogen for 6 hours at room temperature. The catalyst was removed by filtration and the solvents removed under reduced pressure to afford 240 g of the desired compound. Part C: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To a solution of 234.3 g (0.439 mol) of the amine from above in 1 L of methylene chloride, was added 80 mL (59.5 g, 0.46 mol) of diisopropylethylamine, followed by the slow addition at room temperature of 78.8 g (0.46 mol) of chloroacetic anhydride while maintaining the temperature below 35° C. After stirring for an additional 1 hour, analysis by HPLC indicated a small amount of starting material was still present, and 1.5 g of chloroacetic anhydride was added. After 10 minutes, the solvents were removed under reduced pressure, 1 L ethyl acetate added, washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to yield 314 g of crude material This was chromatographeed in 3 portions on a Prep 2000 Chromatogram on silica gel using 20-50% ethyl acetate/hexane to afford 165 g of the desired compound, m/e=616 (M+Li), 98% by HPLC. EXAMPLE 34 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3S-methylpentanamide To a cooled solution of N-t-Boc-L-isoleucine 2.02 g (8.74 mmol) and 2.00 g (13.11 mmol) of N-hydroxybenzotriazole in 17 mL of N,N-dimethylformamide was added 1.84 g (9.61 mmol) of EDC and stirred at 0° C. for one hour. To this was added a solution of 3.67 g (8.74 mmol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl amine in 6 mL of N,N-dimethylformamide and the solution stirred for 16 hours. The solvent was removed in vacuo, replaced with ethyl acetate, and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate, 5% citric acid and brine. The organic layers were dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to yield 6.1 grams of crude product, which was chromatoraphed on silica gel using 1:1 ethyl acetate:hexane eluant to produce 4.3 g (78% yield) of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3S-methylpentanamide. Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl) propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide.hydrochloride salt N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3S-methylpentanamide (4.29 g, 6.77 mmol) was dissolved in 20 mL of 4N HCl in dioxane and stirred for 20 minutes. The precipitated product was stripped two times from diethyl ether and the crude hydrochloride salt was used in subsequent reactions. Part C: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide-hydrochloride salt (3.62 g, 6.77 mmol) was dissolved in 45 mL of methylene chloride and to this was added 1.3 g (10.15 mmol) of N,N-diisopropylethyl amine to neutrallize the salt, and another 0.923 g (7.10 mmol) of diisopropylethyl amine followed by 1.22 g (7.11 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes. The contents were concentrated on a rotory evaporator and the residue was partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic layer was washed with 5% citric acid and then saturated sodium bicarbonate and brine. The organic layers were dried over magnesium sulfate filtered and concentrated to yield 4.12 g of crude product. Recrystallization from ethyl acetate hexane yielded 3.5 g (85% yield) of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide, as a white solid; mass spectrum m/z=616 (M+Li) EXAMPLE 35 Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-methylbutaneamide Part A: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3-methylbutaneamide A 250 mL round bottom flask equipped with magnetic stir bar was charged with N-Cbz-L-Valine (4.22 g, 16.8 mmol) in 20 mL DMF. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and charged with HoBt (2.96, 21.9 mmol) and EDC (3.22 g, 16.8 mmol) and stirred 1 hour. The reaction was then charged with N-methylmorpholine (1.7 g, 16.8 mmol), 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (7.55 g, 14.6 mmol) in 30 mL of DMF. The reaction was stirred overnight at room temperature then concentrated in vacuo and partioned between ethyl acetate and 5% Citric acid. The combined organic layers were washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate and brine, and dried over sodium sulfate. Concentration in vacuo yielded 10 g crude product. Purification by Prep HPLC (20-40% ethyl acetate/hexane) yielded 5.8 g (61%) of the desired compound. Part B: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-methylbutaneamide A 300 mL Fisher-Porter vessel equipped with magnetic stir bar was charged with N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3-methylbutaneamide (5.8 g), 2.3 g of 10% Pd—C in 75 mL tetrahydrofuran. The reaction was charged with 50 psi H2 and hydrogenated overnight. The reaction-mixture was filtered thru Celite and concentrated in vacuo to yield 4.4 g of white foam that was used in subsequent reactions without further purification. Part C: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-methylbutaneamide A 250 mL round bottom flask equipped with magnetic stir bar was charged with crude N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-methylbutaneamide (4.35 g) in 60 mL CH2C12. The reaction was charged with 1.19 g diisopropylamine followed by 1.5 g of chloroacetic anhydride and stirred until TLC indicated no remaining starting material (about 1.5 hours). The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and partioned between ethyl acetate and saturated sodium bicarbonate. The combined organic layers were washed with brine, and dried over sodium sulfate. Concentration in vacuo yielded 5.17 g of desired product that was used in subsequent reactions without furthur purification. EXAMPLE 36 Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide Part A: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-(methylthio)propaneamide N-t-Boc-S-methyl-(L)-cysteine (2.80 g, 11.9 mmol), 1-Hydroxybenzotriazole hydrate (1.92 g, 12.5 mmol), and 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (2.27 g, 11.9 mmol) were mixed in N,N-dimethylformamide (30.0 mL) at 0° C. for 10 min. N-Methylmorpholine (3.03 g, 33.0 mmol) was added and the solution stirred an additional 10 min at 0° C. 2R-Hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (5.00 g, 11.9 mmol) was added and the solution was warmed to room temperature and stirred for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was poured into ethyl acetate (500 mL) and washed with 10% aqueous hydrochloric acid (3×100 mL), saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (3×100 mL) and brine (2×100 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate and percolated through a bed of silica gel (50 g). The desired product (7.13 g, 11.19 mmol, 93% yield) was obtained as a white solid by removal of the solvent at reduced pressure; m/e calcd 637; found (M+Li) 644. Part B: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2s-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-(methylthio)propaneamide (7.10 g, 11.1 mmol) was dissolved in methanol (150 mL). A solution of oxone® (20.8 g, 33.9 mmol) in water (150 mL) was added dropwise to the solution at room temperature over 1.5 hours. The solution became cloudy and a precipitate formed during the addition. The reaction was stirred for an additional 1 hour and tetrahydrofuran (200 mL) was added. After an additional 1 hour of mixing the solution was poured into ethyl acetate (1000 mL) and washed with water (3×200 mL) followed by brine (2×300 ml). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and solvent removed at reduced pressure. The desired product (5.75 g, 8.86 1mol, 79% yield) was obtained as an off white solid; m/e calcd 669; found (M+H) 670. Part C: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide.hydrochloride salt N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide (5.5 g, 8.20 mmol) was dissolved in dichloromethane (100 mL) at room temperature. Anhydrous hydrochloric acid was bubbled through the solution for 15 min. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours and the solvent was removed at reduced pressure. The desired product (4.91 g, 8.10 mmol, 99% yield) was obtained as a white solid; m/e calcd 569; found (M+Li) 576. Part D: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino)-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-(methylsulfonyl)propaneamide.hydrochloride salt (4.00 g, 6.59 mmole) was mixed at room temperature in acetonitrile (40 mL). Triethylamine (2.10 g, 21.0 mmol) and chloroacetic anhydride (1.12 g, 6.59 mmol) were added. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours and poured into ethyl acetate (250 mL). The solution was washed with 10% aqueous acetic acid (2×100 mL), saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate 2×100 mL), and brine (2×100 mL). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and solvent removed at reduced pressure. The product (1.20 g, 1.85 mmol, 28% yield) was obtained as a white solid by crystallization from ethyl acetate and hexanes; m/e calcd 645; found (M+Li) 652. EXAMPLE 37 Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide Part A: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylthio)butaneamide The N-t-boc-S-methyl-L-penicillamine dicyclohexylamine salt (4.00 g, 9.00 mmol), 1-Hydroxybenzotriazole hydrate (1.69 g, 11.00 mmol), and 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (1.71 g, 9.00 mmol) were mixed in dimethylformamide (60.0 mL) at room temperature. The heterogeneous mixture was stirred for 1 hour and 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino)-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (3.78 g, 9.00 mmol) was added and the heterogenous mixture was stirred for 16 hours. The solution was poured into ethyl acetate (600 mL) and washed with 10% aqueous acetic acid (2×300 mL), saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (2×300 mL) and brine (300 mL). The solution was dried over sodium sulfate and the solvent was removed in vacuo. The desired product was purified by flash chromatography (0-80% ethyl acetate/hexanes on silica gel). The product (5.21 g, 7.83 mmol, 87% yield) was obtained as a white foam; m/e calcd 665; found (M+Li) 672. Part B: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylthio)butaneamide (5.01 g, 7.53 mmol) was dissolved in tetrahydrofuran (250 mL). A solution of oxone® (13.8 g, 22.6 mmol) in water (250 mL) was added dropwise to the solution at room temperature over 2 hours. The solution became cloudy and a precipitate formed during the addition. The solution was poured into ethyl acetate (500 mL) and washed with water (3×200 mL) followed by brine (2×300 mL)). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and solvent removed in vacuo. The product (4.72 g, 6.77 mmol, 89% yield) was obtained as a white foam; m/e calcd 697; found (M+Li) 704. Part C: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide.hydrochloride salt N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide (4.51 g, 6.46 mmol) was dissolved in dichloromethane (200 mL) at room temperature. Anhydrous hydrochloric acid was bubbled through the solution for 30 min. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 1 hour and the solvent was removed in vacuo. The product (4.02 g, 6.35 mmol, 99% yield) was obtained as a white solid; m/e calcd 697; found (M+Li) 704. Part D: Preparation of N-[[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3-methyl-3-(methylsulfonyl)butaneamide.hydrochloride salt (3.90 g, 6.15 mmole) was mixed at room temperature in acetonitrile (40 mL). Triethylamine (1.86 g, 18.45 mmol) and chloroacetic anhydride (1.05 g, 6.15 mmol) were added. The solution was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours and poured into ethyl acetate (250 mL). The solution was washed with 10% aqueous acetic acid (2×100 mL), saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (2×100 mL), and brine (2×100 mL). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate and solvent was removed in vacuo. A yellow oil (4.3 g) was obtained and purified by flash chromatography (silica gel, 50-75% ethyl acetates in hexanes. The product (2.15 g, 3,18 mmol, 52% Yield) was obtained as a white foam; m/e calcd 674; found (M+Li) 681. EXAMPLE 38 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[(1,1-dimethylethoxyl)carbonyl]-N-[2-methylpropyl]-3S-[N1-(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutylamine A solution of N-[3S-[N1-(benzyloxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amine (18.5 g, 50 mmol), BOC—ON (12.35 g, 50 mmol) and triethylamine (7 mL) in tetrahydrofuran (400 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 18 hours and then concentrated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (1 L) and washed with sodium hydroxide (5%, 2×200 mL) and brine, dried (MgSO4) and then concentrated in vacuo to afford 23.5 g (quantitative yield) of the pure desired product. Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide N-[(1,1-dimethylethoxyl)carbonyl]-N-[2-methylpropyl]-3S-[N1-(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutylamine in ethanol was hydrogenated at 45 psig of hydrogen in the presence of 5% pd(C) catalyst to yield N-[(1,1-dimethylethoxyl)carbonyl]-N-[2-methylpropyl]-3S-[N1-(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutylamine. Following standard workup, the crude amine (12.24 g, 36.42 mmol) was added to a mixture of N-carbobenzyloxycarbonyl-L-tert-leucine (9.67 g, 36.42 mmol), HOBT (4.92 g, 36.42 mmol) and EDC (6.98 g, 36.42 mmol) in DMF (300 mL) after the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 1 hour. The mixture was stirring for an additional 18 hours. The DMF was removed in vacuo, the residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (500 mL), washed with sodium hydroxide (5%, 2×200 mL) and brine (200 mL), dried and concentrated to afford 21 g (quantitative) of the desired product. Part C: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (20 g, 34.29 mmol) in methanol (250 mL) was hydrogenated at room temperature in the presence of Pd/C (10%, 5 g). The catalyst was filtered off and the filtrate was concentrated to afford 13.8 g (90%) of the pure desired product. Part D: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl) propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (12.45 g, 27.70 mmol) in dichloromethane (200 mL) was added chloroacetic anhydride (5.21 g, 30.48 mmol) and the reaction mixture was stirred for 18 hours. The reaction mixture was washed with citric acid (5%, 100 mL), sodium bicarbonate (saturated, 100 mL) and brine, dried (MgSO4) and concentrated to afford 12.0 g (82%) of the pure desired product. EXAMPLE 39 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,4-benzodioxan-6yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester To a solution of the N-[3S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amine (0.5 g, 1.35 mmol) in CH2Cl2 (5.0 mL) containing Et3N (0.35 mL, 2.5 mmol) was added 1,4-benzodioxan-6-sulfonyl chloride (0.34 g, 1.45 mmol) and stirred at 0° C. for 30 min. After stirring at room temperature for 1 hour, the reaction mixture was diluted with CH2Cl2 (20 mL), washed with cold 1N HCl (3×20 mL), water (2×20 mL), satd. NaHCO3 (2×20 mL) and water (3×20 mL), dried (Na2SO4) and concentrated under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was purified by flash chromatography using 35% EtOAc in hexane to give the desired product as a white amorphous solid which crystallized from MeOH as a white powder (0.65 g. 84% yield): m. p. 82-84° C., HRMS-FAB: calcd for C30H37N2O7S 569.2321 (MH+), found 569.2323. EXAMPLE 40 Preparation of 2S-(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide Part A. Preparation of 2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide To a cooled solution of N-t-Boc-L-propargyl glycine (5.0 g, 23.4 mmol) and 4.7 g (1.5 equiv.) of N-hydroxybenzotriazole in 40 mL of N,N-dimethylformamide was added 4.6 g (23.4 mmol) of EDC and stirred at 0 C for one hour. To this was added a solution of 12.10 g (23.4 mmol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine in 6 mL of N,N-dimethylformamide and the solution stirred for 16 hours. The solvent was removed by rotory evaporation, replaced with ehtyl acetate, and washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate, 5% citric acid and brine. The organics were dried over magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to yield 13.3 grams of crude product, which was crystallized from diethyl ether: ethyl acetate to yield 6.9 g of 2S-[[(1,1-dimethylethoxy)carbonyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide. Part B. Preparation of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide 5.0 g (8.12 mmol) of the product from Part A. was dissolved in 20 mL of 4N HCl in dioxane and stirred for 30 minutes. The precipitated product was stripped two times from diethyl ether and this crude hydrochloride salt was used in Part C. Part C. Preparation of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide 4.4 g (8.12 mmol) of amine hydrochloride from Part B was dissolved in 60 mL of methylene chloride and to this was added 3.0 g (24 mmol) of N,N-diisopropylethyl amine, followed by 1.38 g (8.1 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride. The solution was stirred at room temperature overnight. The contents were concentrated on a rotory evaporator and the residue was partitioned between ethyl acetate and water. The organic layer was washed with 5% citric acid and then saturated sodium bicarbonate and brine. The organics were dried over magnesium sulfate filtered and concentrated to yield 4.3 g of crude product. Recrystallization from ethyl acetate hexane yielded 3.6 g (75% yield) of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]pent-4-ynamide as a white solid. EXAMPLE 41 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine Part A: Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-nitrophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid phenylmethyl ester To a solution of 4.0 g (10.8 mmol) of N-[3S-benzyloxy carbonylamino-2R-hydroxy-4-phenyl]-N-isobutylamine in 50 mL of anhydrous methylene chloride, was added 4.5 mL (3.27 g, 32.4 mmol) of triethylamine. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and 2.63 g (11.9 mmol) of 4-nitrobenzene sulfonyl chloride was added, stirred for 30 minutes at 0° C., then for 1 hour at room temperature. Ethyl acetate was added, washed with 5% citric acid, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried and concentrated to yield 5.9 g of crude material. This was recrystallized from ethyl acetate/hexane to afford 4.7 g of pure [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-nitrophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid phenylmethyl ester, m/e=556(M+H). Part B: Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine A solution of 3.0 g (5.4 mmol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-nitrophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid phenylmethyl ester in 20 mL of ethyl acetate was hydrogenated over 1.5 g of 10% palladium-on-carbon catalyst under 35 psig of hydrogen for 3.5 hours. The catalyst was removed by filtration and the solution concentrated to afford 2.05 g of the desired 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine, m/e=392(M+H). EXAMPLE 42 Preparation of 2S-[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To 6.55 g (10.7 mmol) of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide was added 25 mL of tetrahydrofuran, the solvent removed under reduced pressure to remove any ethyl acetate, and then 25 mL of tetrahydrofuran was added. To this solution at 10° C. was added 19 mL (214 mmol) of 40% aqueous methylamine. After 2 hours, the solvents were removed under reduced pressure, added 1 L ethyl acetate, washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 6.0 g of crude material, which was assayed by HPLC to be 98% purity. EXAMPLE 43 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(N-methylamino)acetyl]amino]-3S-methylentanamide To 3.47 g (5.7 mmol) of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[((1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide was added 50 mL of tetrahydrofuran. To this solution was added 12 mL (135 mmol) of 40% aqueous methylamine. After 6 hours, the solvents were removed under reduced pressure, added ethyl acetate, washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 3.5 g of crude material, which was assayed by HPLC to be 96% purity. The product was chromatographically purified on basic alumina using methanol and ethyl acetate eluants to yield 2.88 g (85%) pure desired product (100% by HPLC); m/e C30H44N4O7S calcd 604.77; found (M+Li) 611. EXAMPLE 44 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(2-hydroxyethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 2.0 g 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide and 4.0 g 2-hydroxyethyl amine (20 eq.) in 8 mL tetrahydrofuran was stirred 6 hours at room temperature. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and partitioned between ethyl acetate and saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The combined organics were washed with brine, dried, and concentrated in vacuo to the crude free base. The product was dissolved in 25 mL acetonitrile and 2.0 eq. aqueous HCl was added. After 10 minutes the reaction was concentrated in vacuo and chased with 30 ml water and vacumn dried over P2O5. EXAMPLE 45 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(2-methoxyethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 2.0 g of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide and 4.8 mL 2-methoxyethyl amine (20 eq.) in 8 mL tetrahydrofuran was stirred 4 hours at room temperature. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and partitioned between ethyl acetate and saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The combined organics were washed with brine, dried, and concentrated in vacuo to the crude free base. The product was taken up in 25 mL acetonitrile and 2.0 eq. aqueous HCl was added. After 10 minutes the reaction was concentrated in vacuo and chased with 30 ml water and vacumn dried over P2O5. EXAMPLE 46 Preparation of 2S-[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 2.0 g of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethyl-butanamide and 4.5 mL cyclopropyl amine (20 eq.) in 8 mL tetrahydrofuran was stirred 24 hours at room temperature. The reaction was concentrated in vacuo and partitioned between ethyl acetate and saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The combined organics were washed with brine, dried, and concentrated in vacuo to the crude free base. The product was taken up in 25 mL acetonitrile and 2.0 eq. aqueous HCl was added. After 10 minutes the reaction was concentrated in vacuo and chased with 30 ml water and vacumn dried over P2O5 to yield 1.5 g white solid. EXAMPLE 47 Preparation of 5-chlorosulfonyl-2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazole A solution of 2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazole (5.0 g, 0.026 mole) in chlorosulfonic acid (35.00 mL) was stirred at 0° C. for 30 minutes and at room temperature for 3 hours. The resulting dark colored reaction mixture was poured into an ice-water mixture (200 mL), and stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes. The resulting precipitate was filtered and washed with cold water (500 mL). The solid was dried overnight under high vacuum in a desiccator over NaOH pellets to give 5-chlorosulfonyl-2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazole (5.9 g, 78%) as a grey powder. 1H NMR (DMSO-d6) d: 3.89 (s, 3H), 7.55 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.88 (s, 1H). (German Patent DE 3826036) EXAMPLE 48 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[N1-[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl]-N1-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester To a cold solution of N-[3S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-2R-hydroxy-4-phenylbutyl]-N-(2-methylpropyl)amine (5.0 g, 13.5 mmol) in dichloromethane (70 mL) was added triethylamine (5.95 g, 54.0 mmol) followed by the addition of 5-chlorosulfonyl-2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazole (4.29 g, 14.85 mmol) in small portions as a solid. The reaction mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 30 minutes and at room temperature for 2.5 hours when reaction of the amino alcohol was complete. The mixture was cooled and filtered, and the filtrate was concentrated. The resulting residue was dissolved in EtOAc (200 mL), washed successively with cold 5% citric acid (3×50 mL), saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (3×50 mL) and water (3×100 mL), then dried (Na2SO4), concentrated and dried under vacuum. The residue was triturated with methanol, cooled, filtered, washed with MeOH-EtOAc (1:1, v/v) and dried in a desiccator to give pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester (6.02 g, 72%) as a light brown powder: FABMS: m/z=630 (M+Li); HRMS: calcd. for C31H38N5O7S (M+H) 624.2492, found 624.2488. EXAMPLE 49 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methyl-propyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine A solution of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester (0.36 g, 0.58 mmol) in 2.5 N methanolic KOH (2.00 mL) was heated at 70° C. under a nitrogen atmosphere for 3 hours. The reaction mixture was diluted with water (10 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×15 mL). The combined organic extracts were washed with brine, dried (Na2SO4) and concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by reverse-phase HPLC using a 10-90% CH3CN/H2O gradient (30 min) at a flow rate of 70 mL/min. The appropriate fractions were combined and freeze dried to give pure 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenyl-methyl)propylamine (0.22 g, 58%) as a white powder: FAB-MS m/z=432 (M+H); HRMS: calcd. for C21H30N5O3S (M+H) 432.2069, found 432.2071. EXAMPLE 50 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester To a solution of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methyl-propyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (0.22 g, 0.33 1mol) in THF (3.00 mL), triethylamine (0.11 g, 1.1 mmol) and benzyloxycarbonyl succinimide (0.09 g, 0.36 mmol) were added, and the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours. The solution was concentrated, and the residue was partitioned between EtOAc (15 mL) and saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate. The organic phase was washed with brine, dried (Na2SO4), and concentrated. The resulting residue was purified by reverse-phase HPLC using a 10-90% CH3CN/H2O gradient (30 min) at a flow rate of 70 mL/min. The appropriate fractions were combined and freeze dried to give pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-amino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester (0.12 g, 61%) as a white powder: FAB-MS m/z=566 (M+H); HRMS: calcd. for C29H36N5O5S 566.2437 (M+H), found 566.2434. EXAMPLE 51 Preparation of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine A solution of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazole-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]carbamic acid phenylmethyl ester (2.5 g, 0.4 mmol) in MeOH (10 mL) and THF (50 mL) was hydrogenated in the presence of 10% Pd/C (1.2 g) at room temperature at 60 psi for 16 hours. The catalyst was removed by filtration, and the filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was triturated with ether and filtered. The solid substance thus obtained was washed with ether and dried in vacuo to afford pure 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (1.5 g, 77%) as an off white powder: Rt=12.8 min; FAB-MS m/z=490 (M+H); HRMS: calcd. for C23H32N5O5S 490.2124 (M+H), found 490.2142. EXAMPLE 52 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[N1-[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl]-N1-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(phenylmethoxy-carbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To a solution of N-carbobenzyloxycarbonyl-L-tert-leucine (0.65 g, 2.45 mmol) in DMF (10 mL) was added HOBt (0.5 g, 3.22 mmol) and EDC (0.49 g, 2.55 mmol), and the resulting mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 2 hours. Then a solution of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine (1.2 g, 2.45 mmol) in DMF (4 mL) and N-methyl morpholine (0.74 g, 7.3 mmol) was added, and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours. The DMF was then distilled away in vacuo, and the remaining residue was partitioned between cold 1N aqueous HCl (100 mL) and EtOAc (200 mL). The organic phase was washed successively with cold 1N HCl (2×50 mL), brine (2×50 mL), 0.25 N NaOH (3×50 mL), brine, dried (Na2SO4) and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting residue was purified by silica gel flash column chromatography using EtOAc as the eluent to afford 1.5 g (83%) of pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(phenylmethoxy-carbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethyl butanamide: Rt=21.2 min; FAB-MS m/z=737 (M+H), HRMS: calcd. for C37H49N6O8S 737.3333 (M+H), found 737.3334. Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (4.0 g, 5.4 mmol) in MeOH (15 mL) and THF (65 mL) was hydrogenated in the presence of 10% Pd/C (2.0 g) at room temperature at 50 psi for 16 hours. The catalyst was removed by filtration, and the filtrate was concentrated under reduced pressure. The resulting residue was triturated with ether and filtered. The solid residue was washed with ether and dried in vacuo to afford N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (2.9 g, 88%) as a pale yellow powder. A portion of the material was purified by reverse-phase HPLC using a 10-90% CH3CN/H2O gradient (30 min) at a flow rate of 70 mL/min. The appropriate fractions were combined and freeze dried to give pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)-propyl-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide as a white powder: Rt=13.9 min; FAB-MS m/z=609 (M+Li), 603 (M+H); HRMS: calcd. for C29H43N6O6S 603.2965 (M+H), found 603.2972. EXAMPLE 53 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A mixture of chloroacetic acid (0.32 g, 3.39 mmol), HOBt (0.78 g, 5.0 mmol), and EDC (0.65 g, 3.39 mmol) in DMF (5 mL) was stirred at 0° C. for 1 hour, and was then added to a solution of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (2.0 g, 3.3 mmol) in DMF (5 mL). The resulting mixture was stirred at 0° C. for 2 hours, and at room temperature for 1 hour when the reaction was complete. The DMF was removed in vacuo. The resulting residue was dissolved in EtOAc (50 mL) and washed successively with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate (3×25 mL), brine, dried (Na2SO4), and concentrated under reduced pressure. The resulting material was crystallized from EtOAc to give 1.2 g (53%) of pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide as a white powder: m.p. 253° C. (decomp); Rt 18.1 min; FAB-MS m/z=679 (M+H), HRMS: calcd. for C31H44N6O7SCl 679.2681 (M+H), found 679.2690. EXAMPLE 54 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(N-methylaminoacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide (0.7 g, 1.03 mmol) was dissoved in THF (3.00 mL). Methylamine (0.8 mL, 40% solution in water) was added and the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours. The mixture was diluted with water (10 mL), and extracted with ethyl acetate (2×20 mL). The combined organic extracts were washed with brine, dried (Na2SO4), and concentrated in vacuo. The resulting residue was purified by reverse-phase HPLC using a 5-70% CH3CN/H2O gradient (30 min) at a flow rate of 70 mL/min. The appropriate fractions were combined and freeze dried to give pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2-carbomethoxyamino-benzimidazol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl-2S-[(N-methylaminoacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide as a white powder: Rt14.1 min; FAB-MS m/z=674 (M+H); HRMS: C32H48N7O7S calcd. 674.3336 (M+H), found 674.3361. EXAMPLE 55 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of [2R-hydroxy-3-[(4-aminophenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid t-butyl ester A mixture of [2R-hydroxy-3-[(4-aminophenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine 3.7 g (9.45 mmol) and BOC—ON (2.33 g, 9.45 mmol) and triethylamine (0.954 g, 9.45 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (60 mL) was stirred for 16 h and concentrated in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (200 mL), washed with sodium hydroxide (1N, 100 mL), citric acid (5%, 100 mL), dried (MgSO4), and concentrated to afford 1.18 g (94%) of the desired product as a white solid. Part B: Preparation of [2R-Hydroxy-3-[(2-aminobenzothiazole-6-sulfonyl)-(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid t-butyl ester The [2R-hydroxy-3-[(4-aminophenylsulfonyl)(2-methlpropyl)]amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid t-butyl ester 1.12 g (2.279 mmol) was added to a well mixed powder of anhydrous copper sulfate (4.48 g) and potassium thiocyanate (5.60 g) followed by dry methanol (35 mL) and the resulting black-brown suspension was heated at reflux for 2 h. The reaction mixture turned grey. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was diluted with water (50 mL) and heated at reflux. Ethanol was added to the reaction mixture, cooled and filtered. The filtrate upon concentration afforded a rseidue which was chromatographed (ethyl acetate:methanol 90:10) to afford 0.80 g (78%) of the deprotected compound as a solid. This was directly reprotected via the following procedure; (2.25 g, 5.005 mmol) BOC—ON (1.24 g), and triethylamine (0.505 g, 5.005 mmol) in tetrahydrofuran (20 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 18 h. The reaction mixture was concentrated and the residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (200 mL) and was washed with sodium hydroxide (1N, 100 mL), citric acid (5%, 100 mL) dried (Mg SO4) and concentrated to afford a residue which was chromatographed (ethyl acetate:hexane 3:1) to afford 1.8 g (65%) of the desired product as a solid. Part C: Preparation of [2R-hydroxy-3-[(benzothiazole-6-sulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylcarbamic acid t-butyl ester The product of part B above (1.80 g, 3.2755 mmol) was added to a solution of isoamylnitrite (0.88 mL) in dioxane (20 mL) and the mixture was heated at 85° C. After the cessation of evolution of nitrogen, the reaction mixture was concentrated and the residue was purified by chromatography (hexane:ethyl acetate 1:1) to afford 1.25 g (78%) of the desired product as a solid. Part D: Preparation of [2R-hydroxy-3-[(benzothiazole-6-sulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine.hydrochloride The product of part C above was deprotected via the following procedure; (1.25 g, 2.3385 mmol) was added dioxane/HCl (4N, 10 mL) and was stirred at room temperature for 2 h and concentrated. Excess HCl was chased with toluene to afford 1.0 g (quantitative yield) of the desired product as its HCl salt. Part E: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)-amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(N-benzyloxy)carbonyl]amino]-3,3-dimethyl butanamide A mixture of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-t-butylglycine (2.0 g, 7.538 mmol), HOBT (1.02 g, 7.55 mmol), and EDC (1.45 g, 7.55 mmol) in DMF (20 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 1 hour. Then [2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine hydrochloride (3.825 g, 7.54 mmol) and N-methylmorpholine (3.80 g) were added and the stirring continued for 18 hours. The DMF was removed in vacuo, the residue was dissolved in dichloromethane (500 mL), and washed with citric acid (1N, 100 mL), sodium bicarbonate (100 mL), brine (200 mL), dried, filtered, and concentrated to afford 4.69 g (91%) of pure N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[N-(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide. Part F: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-(amino)-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.dihydrobromide A solution of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[N-(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3,3-dimethyl butanamide (4.69 g, 6.89 mmol) in dichloroethane (200 mL) was treated with HBr (48% in acetic acid, 7.1 mL), and the reaction mixture was stirred for 2 hours at room temperature. The reaction mixture was concentrated and the residue was washed with diethyl ether several times to afford 4.88 g of the desired dihydrobromide product as a powder: high resolution FAB-MS Calcd for C27H38N4O4S2: 547.2413, found: 547.2429 (M+H). Part G: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A mixture of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(benzothiazol-6-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-(amino)-3,3-dimethylbutanamide dihydrobromide (3.5 g, 4.9388 mmol), chloroacetic anhydride (0.929 g, 5.44 mmol) and triethylamine (1.097 g, 10.86 mmol) in dichloromethane (35 mL) was stirred at room temperature for 16 hours. The reaction mixture was washed with citric acid (1N, 30 mL), sodium bicarbonate (30 mL), brine (30 mL), dried, filtered and concentrated to afford 3.0 g of the desired product. EXAMPLE 56 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride To a solution of 2.0 g (3.3 mmol) 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide in 10 mL of tetrahydrofuran was added 2.2 mL of benzylamine. After 1 hour, an additional 2.0 mL of benzylamine was added. After 30 min, the reaction mixture was concentrated in vacuo, hexane was added and the heaxne decanted away from the oil. The oil was dissolved in ethyl acetate, washed with saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried with magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated the crude product. This was dissolved in diethyl ether and hexane added, which resulted in an insoluble oil. The solvents were decanted from the oil and the oily residue concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 1.85 g. This was dissolved in ethyl acetate and poured into hexane which resulted in an insoluble oil. The solvents were decanted and the residue concentrated to afford 1.56 g of the desired product, m/e=687 (M+Li) EXAMPLE 57 Preparation of 2S-[[N,N-(dimethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride To a solution of 2.0 g (3.3 mmol) 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide in 8 mL of tetrahydrofuran was added 8.2 mL of 40% aqueous dimethylamine. After 2 hours, the solvents were removed in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate, washed with brine, dried with magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 1.97 g of the desired product, m/e=619 (M+H}. EXAMPLE 58 Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(1phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride Part A: A solution of 1.0 grams (4.9 mmol) of N-t-BOC—N-methyl-D-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C., charged with 0.9 grams (6.4 mmol) of HOBT and 0.9 grams (4.9 mmol) of EDC and stirred for four hours. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 2.3 grams (4.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutaneamide and 1.3 grams (12.8 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 15 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 2.9 grams of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=725 (M+Li). Part B: A solution of 2.5 g of the compound from part A in 20 mL 4N HCl-dioxane and stirred for 1 hour at room temperature. Concentration in vacuo followed by trituration with Et2O yielded 2.2 g white solid. The product was vacumn dried over P2O5 to yield 2.1 g final product. EXAMPLE 59 Preparation of 2S-[[2R-aminopropionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hyrdoxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide To a solution of 1.0 g (4.5 mmol) of N-carbobenzyloxycarbonyl-D-alanine and 1.03 g of HOBt in 9 mL of anhydrous N,N-dimtheylformamide at 0° C., was added 0.95 g of EDC coupling agent. After 2 hours at 0° C., 2.39 g (4.5 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide was added. After stirring overnite, the solvents were removed in vacuo. the residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate, washed with 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate, saturated sodium bicarbonate, brine, dried with magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 3.2 g of crude material. This was chromatographed on 150 g of silica gel using 50-80% ethyl acetate/hexane as eluent to. afford 2.3 g of the desired product, which was used directly in the next step. Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-aminopropionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 2.3 g of the product of Part A in 20 mL of methanol was hydrogenated over 1.0 g of 4% Palldium-on-carbon under 50 psig of hydrogen for 1 hour. The catalyst was removed by filtration. The solvents were removed in vacuo to afford 1.5 g of the desired product, m/e=611 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 60 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 5.8 grams (22.0 mmol) of N—CBZ-L-isoleucine in 45 mL of anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) was cooled to 0° C and charged with 3.9 grams (28.7 mmol) of N-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBT) and 4.2 grams (22.0 mmol) of 1-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC). The ice bath was removed after 20 minutes and stirring was continued for an additional 40 minutes. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 8.0 grams (19.1 mmol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine and 2.2 grams (22.0 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 25 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 15 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 300 mL of ethyl acetate and 120 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 120 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water, and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 16.7 grams of crude material. The crude material was crystallized from ethanol, the solid was isolated by filtration, rinsed with one 50 mL portion of hexane, and air-dried to yield 12.0 grams (94%) of the desired product, m/e=672 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide A Fischer-Porter bottle equipped with a magnetic stir bar was charged with 11.9 grams (17.9 mmol) of the product from Part A and 75 mL of tetrahydrofuran (THF). The solution was hydrogenated in the presence of 5 grams of 10% palladium-on-carbon catalyst (50% water by weight) under 50 psig of hydrogen for 4 hours at room temperature. The catalyst was removed by filtration, and the solvents removed in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in 300 mL of ethyl acetate, washed with 120 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 8.8 grams of the desired product, m/e=532 (M+H). EXAMPLE 61 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(phenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(phenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 6.0 grams (22.6 mmol) of N—CBZ-L-isoleucine in 45 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C. and charged with 4.0 grams (29.5 mmol) of HOBT and 4.3 grams (22.6 mmol) of EDC The ice bath was removed after 20 minutes and stirring was continued for an additional 40 minutes. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 7.4 grams (19.7 mmol) of 2R-hydroxy-3-[(phenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propylamine and 2.3 grams (22.6 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 25 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 18 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 300 mL of ethyl acetate and 120 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 120 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 13 grams of crude material. The crude material crystallized from ethanol, the solid was isolated by filtration, rinsed with one 50 mL portion of hexane, and air-dried to yield 10.3 grams (84%) of the desired product, m/e=630 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[(phenylsulfonyl)(2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide A Fischer-Porter bottle equipped with a magnetic stir bar was charged with 10.2 grams (16.4 mmol) of the product from Part A and 75 mL of tetrahydrofuran (THF). The solution was hydrogenated in the presence of 4 grams of 10% palladium-on-carbon catalyst (50% water by weight) under 50 psig of hydrogen for 3 hours at room temperature. The catalyst was removed by filtration, and the solvents removed in vacuo. The residue was dissolved in 300 mL of ethyl acetate and washed with 120 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 7.4 grams of the desired product, m/e=490 (M+H). EXAMPLE 62 Preparation of 2S-[[2S-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2S-[N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(methyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 1.0 grams (4.9 mmol) of N-t-BOC—N-methyl-L-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C., charged with 0.9 grams (6.4 mmol) of HOBT and 0.9 grams (4.9 mmol) of EDC and stirred for four hours. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 2.3 grams (4.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutaneamide and 1.3 grams (12.8 m1o1) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 15 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 3.1 grams (100%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=725 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[2S-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 3.1 grams (4.3 mmol) of the product from Part•A in 10 mL of 1,4-dioxane was charged with 20 mL (40 mmol) of 4N HCl in dioxane solution and stirred for 2 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo to yield a white solid. The solid was triturated with diethyl ether and isolated by filtration. This solid was triturated with 35% acetonitrile/65% water (both with 1% HCl) and again isolated by filtration. The solid was dried by sequentially adding then removing under reduced pressure three volume of ethanol then three volumes of water. Final drying was done over phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5) under reduced pressure at room temperature and yielded 1.3 grams (46%) of the desired product as the HCl salt, m/e=625 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 63 Preparation of 2S-[[2S-aminopropionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2S-[(phenylmethoxycarbonyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 1.1 grams (4.9 mmol) of N—CBZ-L-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C., charged with 0.9 grams (6.4 mmol) of HOBT and 1.0 grams (4.9 mmol) of EDC and stirred for two hours. The reaction was then charged with a solution of 2.3 grams (4.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide and 1,3 grams (12.9 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 18 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 3.2 grams of crude material. The crude material was crystallized from ethanol, the solid was isolated by filtration, rinsed with one 40 mL portion of hexane, and air-dried to yield 3.0 grams (84%) of the desired product, m/e=745 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[2S-aminopropionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A Fischer-Porter bottle equipped with a magnetic stir bar was charged with 2.9 grams (3.9 mmol) of the product from Part A and 20 mL of tetrahydrofuran (THF). The solution was hydrogenated in the presence of 1.3 grams of 10% palladium-on-carbon catalyst (50% water by weight) under 50 psig of hydrogen for 2 hours at room temperature. The catalyst was removed by filtration, and the solvents removed under reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in 150 mL of ethyl acetate and washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated under reduced pressure to afford 2.1 grams of crude material. Purification was accomplished by flash chromatography on silica gel using 2-6% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.9 grams (83%) of thedesired product as a white solid, m/e=605 (M+H). EXAMPLE 64 Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide.hydrochloride salt Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-[N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(methyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 0.7 grams (3.3 mol) of N-t-BOC—N-methyl-D-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C., charged with 0.7 grams (5.0 mmol) of HOBT and 0.7 grams (3.8 mmol) of EDC and stirred for three hours. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 1.8 grams (3.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide and 1.0 grams (9.9 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 16 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water, and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 30-50% ethyl acetate/methylene chloride and yielded 1.9 grams (79%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=725 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide.hydrochloride salt A solution of 1.9 grams (4.3 mmol) of the product from Part A in 10 mL of 1,4-dioxane was charged with 20 mL (40 mmol) of 4N HCl in dioxane solution and stirred for 2 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo to yield a white solid. The solid was dried by sequentially adding then removing in vacuo three volumes of ethanol then three volumes of water. Final drying was done over phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5) under reduced pressure at room temperature and yielded 1.5 grams (88%) of the desired product as the HCl salt, m/e=625 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 65 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl) sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl pentanamide A solution of 1.5 grams (2.5 mmol) of 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl pentanamide in 10 mL of tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 5.3 grams (49.2 mmol) of benzylamine and stirred for 17 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 2.5 grams of crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-6% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.6 grams (96%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=687 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 66 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl1-2S-[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 1.5 grams (2.5 mmol) of 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide in 10 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 2.8 grams (49.2 mmol) of cyclopropylamine and stirred for 16 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 1.5 grams of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=637 (M+Li), 98% by HPLC. EXAMPLE 67 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(2-methoxyethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 1.5 grams (2.5 mmol) of 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(1,3-benzodiox-5-yl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]1-3S-methyl pentanamide in 10 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 3.7 grams (49.2 mmol) of 2-methoxyethylamine and stirred for 18 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 2 grams of crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-6% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.3 grams (81%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=655 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 68 Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-[N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(methyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sufonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 0.7 grams (3.3 mmol) of N-t-BOC—N-methyl-D-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C, charged with 0.7 grams (5.0 mmol) of HOBT and 0.7 grams (3.8 mmol) of EDC and stirred for three hours. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 1.7 grams (3.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide and 1.0 grams (9.9 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 18 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water, and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield 2.3 grams (100%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=711 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide.hydrochloride A solution of 2.3 grams (3.2 mmol) of the product from Part A in 10 mL of 1,4-dioxane was charged with 20 mL (40 mmol) of 4N HCl in dioxane solution and stirred for 2 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo to yield a white solid. The solid was dried by sequentially adding then removing in vacuo three volumes of ethanol then three volumes of water. Final drying was done over phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5) under reduced pressure at room temperature and yielded 1.9 grams (90%) of the desired product as the HCl salt, m/e=611 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 69 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide Part A: Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxy phenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-f(chloroacetyl)amino]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 4.4 grams (8.4 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide and 1.3 grams (10.1 mmol) of diisopropylethylamine in 30 mL of anhydrous methylene chloride was cooled in an ice bath and charged with 1.2 grams (7.1 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride and stirred for one-half hour. HPLC analysis at this time showed the reaction to be 83% complete. The solution was charged with an additional 0.2 gram (1.2 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride and stirred for 15 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 300 mL of ethyl acetate and 100 mL of 5% citric acid solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 100 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to afford 5.1 grams of crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 30-50% ethyl acetate/hexane and yielded 4.1 grams (82%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=602 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 1.3 grams (2.2 mmol) of the product from Part A in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 4.8 grams (44.6 mmol) of benzylamine and stirred for 16 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated to yield the crude material as an oil. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-4% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.3 grams (87%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=673 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 70 Preparation of 2S-[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 1.3 grams (2.2 mmol) of 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 2.6 grams (44.6 mmol) of cyclopropylamine and stirred for 18 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield 1.3 grams (93%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=623 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 71 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(2-methoxyethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl[(2-methyl propyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide A solution of 1.3 grams (2.2 mmol) of 2S-[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3,3-dimethylbutanamide in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 3.4 grams (44.6 1mol) of 2-methoxy ethylamine and stirred for 17 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL of brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-6% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.1 grams (77%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=641 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 72 Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide.hydrochloride salt Part A: Preparation of 2S-[[2R-[N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-N-(methyl)amino]propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 0.7 grams (3.3 mmol) of N-t-BOC—N-methyl-D-alanine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF was cooled to 0° C., charged with 0.7 grams (5.0 mmol) of HOBT and 0.7 grams (3.8 mmol) of EDC and stirred for three hours. The reaction solution was then charged with a solution of 1.7 grams (3.3 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide and 1.0 grams (9.9 mmol) of 4-methylmorpholine in 5 mL of anhydrous DMF and stirred for 16 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of 5% potassium hydrogen sulfate solution. The layers were separated, and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water, and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 30-50% ethyl acetate/hexane and yielded 1.6 grams (70%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=711 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of Preparation of 2S-[[2R-(N-methylamino)propionyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-amino-3S-methylpentanamide.hydrochloride salt A solution of 1.6 grams (2.2 mmol) of the product from Part A in 10 mL of 1,4-dioxane was charged with 20 mL (40 mmol) of 4N HCl in dioxane solution and stirred for 2 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo to yield a white solid. The solid was dried by sequentially adding then removing under reduced pressure three volumes of ethanol then three volumes of water. Final drying was done over phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5) under reduced pressure at room temperature and yielded 1.2 grams (86%) of the desired product as the HCl salt, m/e=611 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 73 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl pentanamide Part A: Preparation of 2S-[(chloroacetyl)amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 5.5 grams (10.6 mmol) of 2S-amino-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide and 1.6 grams (12.7 mmol) of diisopropylethylamine in 30 mL of anhydrous methylene chloride was cooled in an ice bath and charged with 1.5 grams (9.0 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride and stirred for one-half hour. HPLC analysis at this time showed the reaction to be 82% complete. The solution was charged with an additional 0.3 gram (1.8 mmol) of chloroacetic anhydride and stirred for 16 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 300 mL of ethyl acetate and 100 mL of 5% citric acid solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 100 mL each of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to afford 6.2 grams of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=602 (M+Li). Part B: Preparation of 2S-[[N-(phenylmethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methyl pentanamide A solution of 2.0 grams (3.4 mmol) of the chloroacetyl product from Part A in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 7.2 grams (67.1 mmol) of benzylamine and stirred for 64 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material as an oil. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-4% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.8 grams (80%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=673 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 74 Preparation of N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-2S-[[(N-cyclopropylamino)acetyl]amino]-3S-methyl pentanamide A solution of 2.0 grams (3.4 mmol) of 2-S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water. The solution was charged with 3.8 grams (67.1 mmol) of cyclopropylamine and stirred for 64 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material as a white solid. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 1-4% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.8 grams (81%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=623 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 75 Preparation of 2S-[[N-(2-methoxyethyl)aminoacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxyphenyl)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide A solution of 2.0 grams (3.4 mmol) of 2S-[[chloroacetyl]amino]-N-[2R-hydroxy-3-[[(4-methoxybenzene)sulfonyl](2-methylpropyl)amino]-1S-(phenylmethyl)propyl]-3S-methylpentanamide in 12 mL of THF and 0.5 mL of water was charged with 5.0 grams (67.1 mmol) of 2-methoxyethylamine and stirred for 64 hours. The solvents were removed in vacuo and the residue was partitioned between 150 mL of ethyl acetate and 50 mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, the layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 50 mL each of water and brine, then dried over anhydrous magnesium sulfate, filtered and concentrated in vacuo to yield the crude material. Purification was accomplished using flash chromatography on silica gel using 0-6% methanol/methylene chloride and yielded 1.6 grams (76%) of the desired product as a white solid, m/e=641 (M+Li). EXAMPLE 76 Following the procedures of the previous Examples, the compounds set forth in Tables 2 through 15 can be prepared. TABLE 2 Entry R3 R4 1 isobutyl 2-methyl-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 2 isobutyl 2-methyl-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 3 cyclopentylmethyl 2-methyl-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 4 cyclohexylmethyl 2-methyl-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 5 cyclopentylmethyl 1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 6 cyclohexylmethyl 1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 7 cyclopentylmethyl benzofuran-5-yl 8 cyclohexylmethyl benzofuran-5-yl 9 cyclopentylmethyl 2, 3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl 10 cyclohexylmethyl 2, 3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl 11 isobutyl 1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 12 isobutyl benzofuran-5-yl 13 isobutyl 2, 3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl 14 isobutyl 1, 4-benzodioxan-6-yl 15 isoamyl 1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 16 isoamyl 2, 3-dihydrobenzofuran-5-yl 17 isoamyl 1, 4-benzodioxan-6-yl 18 isobutyl benzothiazol-6-yl 19 isobutyl 2-amino-benzothiazol-6-yl 20 isobutyl benzoxazol-5-yl 21 cyclopentylmethyl 2, 2-difluoro-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl 22 cyclohexylmethyl 2, 2-difluoro-1, 3-benzodioxol-5-yl TABLE 3A Entry A TABLE 3B Entry A TABLE 3C Entry A TABLE 3D Entry A TABLE 3E Entry A TABLE 3F Entry A TABLE 3G Entry A TABLE 3H Entry A TABLE 4A Entry A TABLE 4B Entry A TABLE 4C Entry A TABLE 4D Entry A TABLE 4E Entry A TABLE 4F Entry A TABLE 4G Entry A TABLE 4H Entry A TABLE 5A Entry A TABLE 5B Entry A TABLE 5C Entry A TABLE 5D Entry A TABLE 5E Entry A TABLE 5F Entry A TABLE 5G Entry A TABLE 5H Entry A TABLE 6A Entry A TABLE 6B Entry A TABLE 6C Entry A TABLE 6D Entry A TABLE 6E Entry A TABLE 6F Entry A TABLE 6G Entry A TABLE 6H Entry A TABLE 7A Entry A TABLE 7B Entry A TABLE 7C Entry A TABLE 7D Entry A TABLE 7E Entry A TABLE 7F Entry A TABLE 7G Entry A TABLE 7H Entry A TABLE 8A Entry R2 (CH3)2CHCH2— (4-FC6H5)CH2— CH3CH2CH2CH2— (naphth-2-yl)CH2— CH3SCH2CH2— C6H11CH2— C6H5CH2— C6H5SCH2— (4-CH3OC6H5)CH2— (naphth-2-yl)SCH2— TABLE 8B Entry R2 (CH3)2CHCH2— (4-FC6H5)CH2— CH3CH2CH2CH2— (naphth-2-yl)CH2— CH3SCH2CH2— C6H11CH2— C6H5CH2— C6H5SCH2— (4-CH3OC6H5)CH2— (naphth-2-yl)SCH2— TABLE 8C Entry R2 (CH3)2CHCH2— (4-FC6H5)CH2— CH3CH2CH2CH2— (naphth-2-yl)CH2— CH3SCH2CH2— C6H11CH2— C6H5CH2— C6H5SCH2— (4-CH3OC6H5)CH2— (naphth-2-yl)SCH2— TABLE 8D Entry R2 (CH3)2CHCH2— (4-FC6H5)CH2— CH3CH2CH2CH2— (naphth-2-yl)CH2— CH3SCH2CH2— C6H11CH2— C6H5CH2— C6H5SCH2— (4-CH3OC6H5)CH2— (naphth-2-yl)SCH2— TABLE 9A Entry R3 —CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH(CH3)2—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 TABLE 9B Entry R3 —CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH(CH3)2—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 TABLE 9C Entry R3 —CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH(CH3)2—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 TABLE 9D Entry R3 —CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH2CH2CH3—CH2CH(CH3)2—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2 TABLE 10A Entry R1 TABLE 10B Entry R1 TABLE 10C Entry R1 TABLE 10D Entry R1 TABLE 10E Entry R1 TABLE 10F Entry R1 TABLE 11A Entry R4 TABLE 11B Entry R4 TABLE 11C Entry R4 TABLE 11D Entry R4 TABLE 11E Entry R4 TABLE 11F Entry R4 TABLE 12A Entry R4 TABLE 12B Entry R4 TABLE 12C Entry R4 TABLE 12D Entry R4 TABLE 12E Entry R4 TABLE 12F Entry R4 TABLE 13A Entry R4 TABLE 13B Entry R4 TABLE 13C Entry R4 TABLE 13D Entry R4 TABLE 13E Entry R4 TABLE 13F Entry R4 TABLE 14A Entry R4 TABLE 14B Entry R4 TABLE 14C Entry R4 TABLE 14D Entry R4 TABLE 14E Entry R4 TABLE 14F Entry R4 TABLE 15A Entry R4 TABLE 15B Entry R4 TABLE 15C Entry R4 TABLE 15D Entry R4 TABLE 15E Entry R4 TABLE 15F Entry R4 EXAMPLE 77 The compounds of the present invention are effective HIV protease inhibitors. Utilizing an enzyme assay as described below, the compounds set forth in the examples herein disclosed inhibited the HIV enzyme. The preferred compounds of the present invention and their calculated IC50 (inhibiting concentration 50%, i.e., the concentration at which the inhibitor compound reduces enzyme activity by 50%) values are shown in Table 16. The enzyme method is described below. The substrate is 2-Ile-Nle-Phe(p-NO2)-Gln-ArgNH2. The positive control is MVT-101 (Miller, M. et al, Science, 246, 1149 (1989)] The assay conditions are as follows: Assay buffer: 20 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.4 20% glycerol 1 mM EDTA 1 mM DTT 0.1% CHAPS The above described substrate is dissolved in DMSO, then diluted 10 fold in assay buffer. Final substrate concentration in the assay is 80 μM. HIV protease is diluted in the assay buffer to a final enzyme concentration of 12.3 nanomolar, based on a molecular weight of 10,780. The final concentration of DMSO is 14% and the final concentration of glycerol is 18%. The test compound is dissolved in DMSO and diluted in DMSO to 10× the test concentration; 10 μl of the enzyme preparation is added, the materials mixed-and then the mixture is incubated at ambient temperature for 15 minutes. The enzyme reaction is initiated by the addition of 40 μl of substrate. The increase in fluorescence is monitored at 4 time points (0, 8, 16 and 24 minutes) at ambient temperature. Each assay is carried out in duplicate wells. The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described reactants and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples. EXAMPLE 78 The effectiveness of various compounds were determined in the above-described enzyme assay and in a CEM cell assay. The HIV inhibition assay method of acutely infected cells is an automated tetrazolium based. colorimetric assay essentially that reported by Pauwles et al, J. Virol. Methods, 20, 309-321 (1988). Assays were performed in 96-well tissue culture plates. CEM cells, a CD4+ cell line, were grown in RPMI-1640 medium (Gibco) supplemented with a 10% fetal calf serum and were then treated with polybrene (2 μg/ml). An 80 μl volume of medium containing 1×104 cells was dispensed into each well of the tissue culture plate. To each well was added a 100 μl volume of test compound dissolved in tissue culture medium (or medium without test compound as a control) to achieve the desired final concentration and the cells were incubated at 37° C. for 1 hour. A frozen culture of HIV-1 was diluted in culture medium to a concentration of 5×104 TCID50 per ml (TCID50=the dose of virus that infects 50% of cells in tissue culture), and a 20 μL volume of the virus sample (containing 1000 TCID50 of virus) was added to wells containing test compound and to wells containing only medium (infected control cells). Several wells received culture medium without virus (uninfected control cells). Likewise, the intrinsic toxicity of the test compound was determined by adding medium without virus to several wells containing test compound. In summary, the tissue culture plates contained the following experiments: Cells Drug Virus 1. + − − 2. + + − 3. + − + 4. + + + In experiments 2 and 4 the final concentrations of test compounds were 1, 10, 100 and 500 μg/ml. Either azidothymidine (AZT) or dideoxyinosine (ddI) was included as a positive drug control. Test compounds were dissolved in DMSO and diluted into tissue culture medium so that the final DMSO concentration did not exceed 1.5% in any case. DMSO was added to all control wells at an appropriate concentration. Following the addition of virus, cells were incubated at 37° C. in a humidified, 5% CO2 atmosphere for 7 days. Test compounds could be added on days 0, 2 and 5 if desired. On day 7, post-infection, the cells in each well were resuspended and a 100 μl sample of each cell suspension was removed for assay. A 20 μL volume of a 5 mg/ml solution of 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) was added to each 100 μL cell suspension, and the cells were incubated for 4 hours at 27° C. in a 5% CO2 environment. During this incubation, MTT is metabolically reduced by living cells resulting in the production in the cell of a colored formazan product. To each sample was added 100 μl of 10% sodium dodecylsulfate in 0.01 N HCl to lyse the cells, and samples were incubated overnight. The absorbance at 590 nm was determined for each sample using a Molecular Devices microplate reader. Absorbance values for each set of wells is compared to assess viral control infection, uninfected control cell response as well as test compound by cytotoxicity and antiviral efficacy. TABLE 16 IC50 EC50 Entry Compound (nM) (nM) 1 2 18 2 2 35 3 2 4 2 85 5 2 10 6 3 24 7 2 8 8 2 9 3 17 10 2 22 11 1 12 2 13 3 14 2 15 2 16 2 17 2 18 2 19 3 The compounds of the present invention are effective antiviral compounds and, in particular, are effective retroviral inhibitors as shown above. Thus, the subject compounds are effective HIV protease inhibitors. It is contemplated that the subject compounds will also inhibit other retroviruses such as other lentiviruses in particular other strains of HIV, e.g. HIV-2, human T-cell leukemia virus, respiratory syncitial virus, simia immunodeficiency virus, feline leukemia virus, feline immuno-deficiency virus, hepadnavirus, cytomegalovirus and picornavirus. Thus, the subject compounds are effective in the treatment, proplylaxis of retroviral infections and/or the prevention of the spread of retroviral infections. The subject compounds are also effective in preventing the growth of retroviruses in a solution. Both human and animal cell cultures, such as T-lymphocyte cultures, are utilized for a variety of well known purposes, such as research and diagnostic procedures including calibrators and controls. Prior to and during the growth and storage of a cell culture, the subject compounds may be added to the cell culture medium at an effective concentration to prevent the unexpected or undesired replication of a retrovirus that may inadvertently, unknowingly or knowingly be present in the cell culture. The virus-may be present originally in the cell culture, for example HIV is known to be present in human T-lymphocytes long before it is detectable in blood, or through exposure to the virus. This use of the subject compounds prevents the unknowing or inadvertent exposure of a potentially lethal retrovirus to a researcher or clinician. Compounds of the present invention can possess one or more asymmetric carbon atoms and are thus capable of existing in the form of optical isomers as well as in the form of racemic or nonracemic mixtures thereof. The optical isomers can be obtained by resolution of the racemic mixtures according to conventional processes, for example by formation of diastereoisomeric salts by treatment with an optically active acid or base. Examples of appropriate acids are tartaric, diacetyltartaric, dibenzoyltartaric, ditoluoyltartaric and camphorsulfonic acid and then separation of the mixture of diastereoisomers by crystallization followed by liberation of the optically active bases from these salts. A different process for separation of optical isomers involves the use of a chiral chromatography column optimally chosen to maximize the separation of the enantiomers. Still another available method involves synthesis of covalent diastereoisomer⊥c molecules by reacting compounds of Formula I with an optically pure acid in an activated form or an optically pure isocyanate. The synthesized diastereoisomers can be separated by conventional means such as chromatography, distillation, crystallization or sublimation, and then hydrolyzed to deliver the enantiomerically pure compound. The optically active compounds of Formula I can likewise be obtained by utilizing optically active starting materials. These isomers may be in the form of a free acid, a free base, an ester or a salt. The compounds of the present invention can be used in the form of salts derived from inorganic or organic acids. These salts include but are not limited to the following: acetate, adipate, alginate, citrate, aspartate, benzoate, benzenesulfonate, bisulfate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, digluconate, cyclopentanepropionate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, glucoheptanoate, glycerophosphate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, fumarate, hydrochloride, hydrobromide, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactate, maleate, methanesulfonate, nicotinate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, oxalate, palmoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, succinate, tartrate, thiocyanate, tosylate, mesylate and undecanoate. Also, the basic nitrogen-containing groups can be quaternized with such agents as lower alkyl halides, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, and butyl chloride, bromides, and iodides; dialkyl sulfates like dimethyl, diethyl, dibutyl, and diamyl sulfates, long chain halides such as decyl, lauryl, myristyl and stearyl chlorides, bromides and iodides, aralkyl halides like benzyl and phenethyl bromides, and others. Water or oil-soluble or dispersible products are thereby obtained. Examples of acids which may be employed to form pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts include such inorganic acids as hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid and such organic acids as oxalic acid, maleic acid, succinic acid and citric acid. Other examples include salts with alkali metals or alkaline earth metals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium or with organic bases. Total daily dose administered to a host in single or divided doses may be in amounts, for example, from 0.001 to 10 mg/kg body weight daily and more usually 0.01 to 1 mg. Dosage unit compositions may contain such amounts of submultiples thereof to make up the daily dose. The amount of active ingredient that may be combined with the carrier materials to produce a single dosage form will vary depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. The dosage regimen for treating a disease condition with the compounds and/or compositions of this invention is selected in accordance with a variety of factors, including the type, age, weight, sex, diet and medical condition of the patient, the severity of the disease, the route of administration, pharmacological considerations such as the activity, efficacy, pharmacokinetic and toxicology profiles of the particular compound employed, whether a drug delivery system is utilized and whether the compound is administered as part of a drug combination. Thus, the dosage regimen actually employed may vary widely and therefore may deviate from the preferred dosage regimen set forth above. The compounds of the present invention may be administered orally, parenterally, by inhalation spray, rectally, or topically in dosage unit formulations containing conventional nontoxic pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, adjuvants, and vehicles as desired. Topical administration may also involve the use of transdermal administration such as transdermal patches or iontophoresis devices. The term parenteral as used herein includes subcutaneous injections, intravenous, intramuscular, intrasternal injection, or infusion techniques. Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspensions may be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution or suspension in a nontoxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution, and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil may be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid find use in the preparation of injectables. Suppositories for rectal administration of the drug can be prepared by mixing the drug with a suitable nonirritating excipient such as cocoa butter and polyethylene glycols which are solid at ordinary temperatures but liquid at the rectal temperature and will therefore melt in the rectum and release the drug. Solid dosage forms for oral administration may include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the active compound may be admixed with at least one inert diluent such as sucrose lactose or starch. Such dosage forms may also comprise, as in normal practice, additional substances other than inert diluents, e.g., lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate. In the case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage forms may also comprise buffering agents. Tablets and pills can additionally be prepared with enteric coatings. Liquid dosage forms for oral administration may include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups, and elixirs containing inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water. Such compositions may also comprise adjuvants, such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, and sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents. While the compounds of the invention can be administered as the sole active pharmaceutical agent, they can also be used in combination with one or more immunomodulators, antiviral agents or other antiinfective agents. For example, the compounds of the invention can be administered in combination with AZT, DDI, DDC or with glucosidase inhibitors, such as N-butyl-b 1-deoxynojirimycin or prodrugs thereof, for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of AIDS. When administered as a combination, the therapeutic agents can be formulated as separate compositions which are given at the same time or different times, or the therapeutic agents can be given as a single composition. The foregoing is merely illustrative of the invention and is not intended to limit the invention to the disclosed compounds. Variations and changes which are obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be within the scope and nature of the invention which are defined in the appended claims. From the foregoing description, one skilled in the art can easily ascertain the essential characteristics of this invention, and without departing from the spirit and scope thereof, can make various changes and modifications of the invention to adapt it to various usages and conditions. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to retroviral protease inhibitors and, more particularly, relates to novel compounds, composition and method for inhibiting retroviral proteases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease. This invention, in particular, relates to bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamine sulfonamide protease inhibitor compounds, composition and method for inhibiting retroviral proteases, prophylactically preventing retroviral infection or the spread of a retrovirus, and treatment of a retroviral infection, e.g., an HIV infection. The subject invention also relates to processes for making such compounds as well as to intermediates useful in such processes. During the replication cycle or gene transcription products are translated as proteins. These proteins are subsequently processed by a virally encoded protease (or proteinase) to yield viral enzymes and structural proteins of the virus core. Most commonly, the gag precursor proteins are processed into the core proteins and the pol precursor proteins are processed into the viral enzymes, e.g., reverse transcriptase and retroviral protease. It has been shown that correct processing of the precursor proteins by the retroviral protease is. necessary for assembly of infectious virons. For example, it has been shown that frameshift mutations in the protease region of the pol gene of HIV prevents processing of the gag precursor protein. It has also been shown through site-directed mutagenesis of an aspartic acid residue in the HIV protease active site that processing of the gag precursor protein is prevented. Thus, attempts have been made to inhibit viral replication by inhibiting the action of retroviral proteases. Retroviral protease inhibition typically involves a transition-state mimetic whereby the retroviral protease is exposed to a mimetic compound which binds (typically in a reversible manner) to the enzyme in competition with the gag and gag-pol proteins to thereby inhibit specific processing of structural proteins and the release of retroviral protease itself. In this manner, retroviral replication proteases can be effectively inhibited. Several classes of compounds have been proposed, particularly for inhibition of proteases, such as for inhibition of HIV protease. Such compounds include hydroxyethylamine isosteres and reduced amide isosteres. See, for example, EP 0 346 847; EP 0 342,541; Roberts et al, “Rational Design of Peptide-Based Proteinase Inhibitors, “Science, 248, 358 (1990); and Erickson et al, “Design Activity, and 2.8 Å Crystal Structure of a C 2 Symmetric Inhibitor Complexed to HIV-1 Protease,” Science, 249, 527 (1990). U.S. Pat. No. 5,157,041, WO 94/04491, WO 94/04492, WO 94/04493, WO 94/05639, WO 92/08701 and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/294,468, filed Aug. 23, 1994, (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) for example describe hydroxyethylamine, hydroxyethylurea or hydroxyethyl sulfonamide isostere containing retroviral protease inhibitors. Several classes of compounds are known to be useful as inhibitors of the proteolytic enzyme renin. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,599,198; U.K. 2,184,730; G.B. 2,209,752; EP 0 264 795; G.B. 2,200,115 and U.S. SIR H725. Of these, G.B. 2,200,115, GB 2,209,752, EP 0 264,795, U.S. SIR H725 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,599,198 disclose urea-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors. EP 468 641 discloses renin inhibitors and intermediates for the preparation of the inhibitors which include sulfonamide-containing hydroxyethylamine compounds, such as 3-(t-butoxycarbonyl)amino-cyclohexyl-1-(phenylsulfonyl)amino-2(5)-butanol. G.B. 2,200,115 also discloses sulfamoyl-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors, and EP 0264 795 discloses certain sulfonamide-containing hydroxyethylamine renin inhibitors. However, it is known that, although renin and HIV proteases are both classified as aspartyl proteases, compounds which are effective renin inhibitors generally are not predictive for effective HIV protease inhibition. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to selected retroviral protease inhibitor compounds, analogs and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, esters and prodrugs thereof. The subject compounds are characterized as bis-amino acid hydroxyethylamine sulfonamide inhibitor compounds. The invention compounds advantageously inhibit retroviral proteases, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) protease. Therefore, this invention also encompasses pharmaceutical compositions, methods for inhibiting retroviral proteases and methods for treatment or prophylaxis of a retroviral infection, such as an HIV infection. The subject invention also relates to processes for making such compounds as well as to intermediates useful in such processes. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | 20050118 | 20070109 | 20051013 | 86267.0 | 0 | KUMAR, SHAILENDRA | BIS-AMINO ACID HYDROXYETHYLAMINO SULFONAMIDE RETROVIRAL PROTEASE INHIBITORS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | 2,005 |
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11,036,626 | ACCEPTED | Connector having a movable member and connector assembly | A connector has a housing (20). A rotary lever (50) is mountable on shafts (45) of the housing (20) in either of two symmetric orientations selected in accordance with space restrictions and/or the orientation of a wire cover (30) on the housing (20). The rotary lever (50) has cam grooves (55) for engaging follower pins (15) on a mating housing (10). The housing (20) also has an insertion path (38) and a slide lever (60) is mountable in the insertion path (38) from either of two opposite directions selected in accordance with space restrictions. The slide lever (60) has cam grooves (63) for engaging the follower pins (15). The housing (20) has locks (41) for releasably holding the rotary lever (50) or the slide lever (60) at an initial position. | 1. A connector, comprising: a housing (20) connectable with a mating housing (10), the housing (20) including at least one shaft (45) and at least one insertion path (38); a rotary lever (50) rotatably mountable to the at least one shaft (45) and being formed with at least one cam groove (53) for engaging a follower pin (15) on the mating housing (10); and a slide lever (60) slidably mountable in the at least one insertion path (38) and being formed with at least one cam groove (63) for engaging the follower pin (15) on the mating housing (10), whereby one of the rotary lever (50) and the slide lever (60) is selectively mounted on the housing (20) and is movable on the housing (20) while engaging the follower pin (15) of the mating housing (10) for urging the housing (20) and the mating housing (10) into connection with one another. 2. The connector of claim 1, wherein the rotary lever (60) is configured for selective mounting in either of first and second orientations symmetrically disposed with respect to the at least one shaft (45). 3. The connector of claim 1, wherein the slide lever (60) is configured for selective mounting in either of first and second orientations symmetrically from opposite ends of the insertion path (38). 4. The connector of claim 1, wherein the rotary lever (50) and the slide lever (60) include engaging means (57; 67) for releasable engagement with at least one lock (41) on the housing (20) and releasably locking the rotary lever (50) or the slide lever (60) at an initial position (LIP; SIP) where the cam groove (55; 63) is aligned to receive the follower pin (15). 5. The connector of claim 4, wherein the lock (41) is configured to engage the engaging portions (55; 63) of either of the rotary lever (50) and the slide lever (60). 6. The connector of claim 4, wherein the at least one lock (41) includes a plurality of locks (41) symmetrically arranged with respect to the shaft (45). 7. The connector of claim 1, further comprising a wire cover (30) mountable on a rear surface of the housing (20) for at least partly accommodating wires drawn out from the housing (20) and guiding the wires in a specified direction. 8. The connector of claim 7, wherein the wire cover (30) is selectively mountable in either of two symmetric positions on the housing (20). 9. The connector of claim 1, wherein the shaft (45) for the rotary lever (50) is configured for locking the slide lever (60) at an end position. 10. The connector of claim 1, wherein the slide lever (60) comprises at least one guide groove (65) disposed and configured for receiving the shafts (45) during movement of the slide lever (60) towards an end position (SEP). 11. The connector of claim 10, wherein leading ends of the guide grooves (65) have slanted guiding surfaces (66) configured for guiding the shafts (45) into the guide grooves (65) as the slide lever (60) moves towards the end position (SEP). 12. A connector assembly comprising the connector of claim 1 and a mating connector connectable therewith along a connecting direction (CD). | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a lever-type connector. 2. Description of the Related Art Large multi-contact connectors often use levers to assist in the development of the necessary connecting force. Lever-type connectors generally use either a rotary lever, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,241,540 or a slide lever, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,113,407. A rotary lever connector has first and second housings and a lever supported rotatably on the first housing. The lever has cam groove that engages a cam follower pin on the second housing. The rotary lever is rotated to connect or separate the housings. A slide lever connector has first and second housings and a slide lever mounted on the first housing for sliding movement along a direction intersecting the connecting direction of two housings. The slide lever has a cam groove that engages a follower pin on the second housing. The slide lever is moved forward and backward to connect and separate the housings. The operation space for the lever of a lever-type connector often is restricted. Accordingly, lever-type connectors that have rotary and slide operating modes would be convenient because they could be used in accordance with operation spaces. However, this design has required a rotary lever, a slide lever and two kinds of housings in view of mounting constructions for the levers. Thus, there has been a demand for further improvements. The present invention was developed in view of the above situation, and an object thereof is to improve versatility of a connector. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a connector with a housing that is connectable with a mating housing. The connector further includes at least one movable member formed with at least one cam groove. The movable member is mountable on the housing and is engageable with at least one follower pin on the mating housing. The two housings are connectable with and separable from each other by displacing the follower pin along the cam groove as the movable member is displaced. The movable member comprises a rotary lever and a slide lever each formed with the cam groove. The housing includes a shaft used to pivotably mount the rotary lever and an insertion path used to movably mount the slide lever forward and backward along a direction intersecting a connecting direction of the housing with the mating housing. The rotary lever and the slide lever have different displacement modes. Therefore, the two housings can be connected efficiently by selecting a suitable lever operation. Further, production costs can be reduced because both levers are mountable on the same housing. The rotary lever preferably is rotatably mountable in directions symmetrical with respect to the shaft. The slide lever preferably is mountable in symmetric postures from the opposite ends of the insertion path. Thus, four operation modes of the lever are available for selection. The rotary lever and/or the slide lever preferably have engaging portions that can engage locks on the housing. Thus, the rotary lever and/or the slide lever can be locked temporarily at initial positions where an entrance of the cam groove substantially faces the follower pin. The locks preferably are used commonly for the respective engaging portions of the rotary lever and the slide lever. Additionally, the locks preferably are arranged symmetrically with respect to the shaft. The connector further may comprises a wire cover that is mountable on the rear surface of the housing for accommodating wires drawn out from the housing and guiding the wires in a specified direction. The wire cover preferably is mountable in one of the symmetric positions. The wire draw-out direction can be selected by selecting the mounting direction of the wire cover. The shaft for the rotary lever preferably is used as a locking means for locking the slide lever at an end position. Thus, the construction can be even simpler. The slide lever comprises one or more guide grooves into which the shafts are fit during movement of the slide lever towards its end position. Leading ends of the guide grooves preferably are formed into slanted guiding surfaces. The slanted guiding surfaces guide the shafts into the guide grooves as the slide lever is moved towards its end position. The invention also relates to a connector assembly comprising the above-described connector and a mating connector connectable therewith. These and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent upon reading of the following detailed description of preferred embodiments and accompanying drawings. It should be understood that even though embodiments are separately described, single features thereof may be combined to additional embodiments. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front view of a male housing according to one embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a vertical section of the male housing. FIG. 3 is a plan view partly in section showing a state before a wire cover and a rotary lever are mounted on a female housing. FIG. 4 is a plan view partly in section showing a state before the male and female housings are connected in the case of using a rotary lever. FIG. 5 is a front view of the female housing showing a state where the rotary lever is mounted at an initial position. FIG. 6 is a plan view partly in section showing an initial stage of the connection of the male and female housings. FIG. 7 is a front view of the female housing at the initial stage of the connection of the male and female housings. FIG. 8 is a plan view partly in section showing a state where the connection of the male and female housings is completed. FIG. 9 is a plan view partly in section showing a case where the wire cover and the rotary lever are mounted in their symmetrically inverted postures. FIG. 10 is a front view of the female housing showing the case the wire cover and the rotary lever mounted in symmetrically inverted postures. FIG. 11 is a plan view partly in section showing an operation of mounting a slide lever into the female housing. FIG. 12 is a plan view partly in section showing a state before the male and female housings are connected in the case of using the slide lever. FIG. 13 is a front view of the female housing showing a state where the slide lever is mounted at an initial position. FIG. 14 is a rear view of the female housing showing the state where the slide lever is mounted at an initial position. FIG. 15 is a plan view partly in section showing an initial stage of the connection of the male and female housings. FIG. 16 is a front view of the female housing at the initial stage of the connection of the male and female housings. FIG. 17 is a plan view partly in section showing a state where the connection of the male and female housings is completed. FIG. 18 is a rear view of the female housing showing the state where the connection of the male and female housings is completed. FIG. 19 is a plan view partly in section showing a case where the slide lever is mounted in its symmetrically inverted posture. FIG. 20 is a front view of the female housing showing the case where the slide lever is mounted in its symmetrically inverted posture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS A connector assembly according to the invention is illustrated in FIGS. 1 to 20. The assembly includes male and female housings 10 and 20 that are connectable along a connecting direction CD. In the following description, ends of the two housings 10, 20 to be connected with each other are referred as the front. The male housing 10 is made e.g. of a synthetic resin and includes a small receptacle 12 projecting unitarily from a wall of an apparatus 11, as shown in FIGS. 1, 2 and 4. The small receptacle 12 is wide in front view. Four large male terminals 13L project in a grid arrangement from a left area of the back surface of the small receptacle 12, and small male terminals 13S project at each of upper, middle and lower stages in a remaining area of the back surface of the small receptacle 12. Ribs 14 also project in the receptacle 12. Two follower pins 15 project symmetrically in widthwise and longitudinal middle positions of the upper and lower surfaces of the small receptacle 12. Unlocking ribs 16 are formed symmetrically at left and right sides of each follower pin 15 and extend from the front to the rear. Each unlocking rib 16 has a slanted front surface 16A that slopes down towards the front. One rib 18 is formed on the left side surface of the small receptacle 12 and two ribs 18 are provided on the right side surface of the small receptacle 12 when viewed from the front. The unequal number of ribs 18 on the respective sides prevents an upside-down connection of the male and female housings 10 and 20. The female housing 20 is made e.g. of a synthetic resin and includes a flat tower 21 that fits into the small receptacle 12 of the male housing 10. A large receptacle 22 is formed around the tower 21 and fits on the small receptacle 12, as shown in FIG. 5. Four larger cavities 23L are formed in a grid arrangement in a right area of the tower 21 when viewed from the front and face the large terminals 13L of the male housing 10. Small cavities 23S are formed at each of upper, middle and lower stages in a remaining area. Although not shown in detail, large female terminals are secured to ends of thick wires and are inserted into the large cavities 23L. Similarly, small female terminals are secured to ends of thin wires and are inserted into the small cavities 23S. Fitting grooves 24 are formed in the front surface of the tower 21 for receiving the ribs 14 of the male housing 10 and for preventing the forcible connection. Fitting grooves 25 are formed in the left and right inner surfaces of the larger receptacle 22 for receiving the ribs 18 of the male housing 10 and for preventing the upside-down connection. A wire cover 30 is mountable on the rear side of the female housing 20. The wire cover 30 is made e.g. of a synthetic resin and is in the form of a box having openings in the front surface and in the left surface in FIG. 3. These two openings communicate with each other. An inclined or rounded escaping surface 31 is formed at a corner of the cover 30. The cover 30 has an open end 32 and two resilient locking legs 33A project from the bottom edges of the opposite side plates to face each other at the open end 32. A resilient locking leg 33B projects from the lateral bottom edge of the end plate at a side of the closed end surface. Upper and lower protrusions 26 are formed at opposite left and right ends of the upper and lower outer surfaces of the rear end of the female housing 20. Further, at least one protrusion (not shown) is formed on each of the left and right shorter surfaces. The wire cover 30 is mountable to cover the rear surface of the female housing 20, and is selectively mountable in a posture where the open end 32 faces to the left side (see FIG. 4) and in a posture where it faces to the right side (see FIG. 9) by engaging the resilient locking legs 33a with a pair of the protrusions 26 arranged either at the left or right side and engaging the resilient locking leg 33B with one protrusion at the opposite side. Accordingly, the wires drawn out through the rear of the female housing 20 are bundled and bent sideways substantially at right angles. The wires then are guided substantially to the left or right through the open end surface 32. A wide rectangular front flange 35A is formed around the opening edge of the large receptacle 22 of the female housing 20, and a similarly configured rear flange 35B is formed around the back edge. Covers 36 bridge the projecting edges of the front flange 35A and the rear flange 35B and are spaced from the upper and lower surfaces of the large receptacle 22. Thus, insertion paths 38 are defined between the covers 36 and the upper and lower surfaces of the large receptacle 22. The insertion paths 38 are open in the left and right surfaces of the female housing 20, but are closed in the front and rear of the female housing 20. Insertion grooves 40 are formed in the widthwise centers of the front edges of the upper and lower surfaces of the large receptacle 22 and the front flange 35A, as shown in FIG. 3. The insertion grooves 40 receive the follower pins 15 of the mating male housing 10 and the unlocking ribs 16 at the opposite sides of the follower pins 15. As shown in FIG. 6, a front portion of each insertion groove 40 is wider than the spacing between the two unlocking ribs 16. However, a portion of each insertion groove 40 slightly behind a middle position along depth direction is narrowed to a width that substantially equals the spacing between the two unlocking ribs 16. Thus, the insertion grooves 40 each have a stepped configuration, and a closed back end. A rounded lock 41 is defined at the step of each insertion groove 40. Entrances 43 are formed at substantially widthwise middle portions of the upper and lower parts of the rear flange 35B, and are wider than the insertion grooves 40. Accommodation spaces 44 are defined inside the entrances 43 for accommodating drives 51 of the rotary lever 50. Shafts 45 project from the inner surfaces of the covers 36 at positions near the entrances 43 in the accommodation spaces 44. The rotary lever 50 is made e.g. of a synthetic resin and has two substantially round drives 51. A coupling arm 52 projects from the outer periphery of each drive 51 and an operable portion 53 extends between the coupling arms 52, as shown in FIG. 3. Thus, the rotary lever 50 is substantially gate-shaped. A shaft hole 54 is formed substantially in the center of each drive 51 The drives 51 can be inserted through the entrances 43 and into the accommodation spaces 44 to hold the female housing 20 between the drives 51 and to engage the shaft holes 54 onto the shafts 45 that project in the accommodation space 44. The rotary lever 50 then is supported for rotation about the shafts 45 between an initial position LIP (see FIG. 4) and an end position LEP (see FIG. 8). Cam grooves 55 are formed in the inwardly facing surfaces of the drives 51 of the rotary lever 50 and are engageable with the follower pins 15 of the male housing 10. Each cam groove 55 is curved around the shaft hole 54, and an entrance 55A of the cam groove 55 opens in the peripheral edge of the drive 51. The entrances 55A of the cam grooves 55 face forward and can receive the follower pins 15 when the rotary lever 50 is at the initial position LIP. A locking piece 57 is provided on each drive 51 for temporarily locking the rotary lever 50 at the initial position LIP. The locking pieces 57 are substantially diametrically opposite the closed end of the cam groove 55. The leading ends of the locking pieces 57 are rounded to conform to the shape of the locking steps 41. The leading ends of the locking pieces 57 normally project more in than the inner surfaces of the drives 51. However, the locking pieces 57 are resiliently deformable and the leading ends can deflect outward. The locking pieces 57 engage the corresponding locking steps 41 when the rotary lever 50 is at the initial position LIP, as shown in FIG. 4, to prevent rotation of the rotary lever 50 towards the end position LEP. Further, the locking pieces 57 are at positions on entrance paths for the unlocking ribs 16 on the mating male housing 10. The rotary lever 50 can be rotated towards the end position LEP. However, the operable portion 53 contacts the upper surface of the wire cover 30 near the open end surface 32, as shown in FIG. 8, to limit the range of rotation. The operable portion 53 has a resiliently deformable lock 58 and a lock projection 34 is formed on the upper surface of the wire cover 30 near the open end surface 32. The lock 58 engages the lock projection 34 to hold the rotary lever 50 at the end position LEP. The slide lever 60 is made unitarily e.g. of a synthetic resin and has two slidable plates 61 joined by an operable portion 62, as shown in FIGS. 11 and 13. Thus, the slide lever 60 is substantially gate-shaped. The slide lever 60 is mountable through either the left or right end surface by inserting both slidable plates 61 into the respective upper and lower insertion paths 38 of the female housing 20. Cam grooves 63 are formed in the facing inner surfaces of the slidable plates 61. Each cam groove 63 extends from the front of the slidable plate 61 to a longitudinal intermediate position, and inclines towards the rear edge (upper edge in FIG. 11) at two inclinations. An entrance 63A of each cam groove 63 extends substantially at a right angle to the front edge of the slidable plate 61. A guide groove 65 is formed at the back edge of the outer surface of each slidable plate 61 for slidably accommodating the projecting end of the shaft 45 for the rotary lever 50. The guide groove 65 extends from a position slightly receded from the leading end to the longitudinal center. Slanted guiding surfaces 66 are formed at the leading ends of the guide grooves 65, as shown in FIG. 14. The shafts 45 move onto the guiding surfaces 66 and then fit into the guide grooves 65 when the slidable plates 61 are inserted into the insertion paths 38. The slider 60 is assembled to move between an initial position SIP (see FIG. 12) and an end position SEP (see FIG. 17) by inserting the slider 60 more deeply into the female housing 20 while sliding the shafts 45 along the guide grooves 65. The shafts 45 contact front ends 65A of the guide grooves 65 at the initial position SIP, as shown in FIG. 12, to prevent movement in withdrawing direction. At this initial position SIP, the entrances 63A of the cam grooves 63 face forward substantially in the widthwise centers of the insertion grooves 40 for receiving the follower pins 15. A locking piece 67 faces forward along a moving direction at the leading end of each slidable plate 61 and at a side of the guiding surface 66. The locking piece 67 temporarily locks the slide lever 60 to prevent movement from the initial position SIP towards the end position SEP. Leading ends of the locking pieces 67 are rounded to conform to the locking steps 41 in the insertion grooves 40, and are resiliently deformable inward and outward relative to the plate surfaces. The locking pieces 67 normally project more inward than the inner surfaces of the slidable plates 61. The locking pieces 67 engage the corresponding locking steps 41 when the slide lever 60 is at the initial position SIP to prevent the slide lever 60 from being pushed toward the end position SEP. The locking pieces 67 are located on the entrance paths for the unlocking ribs 16 on the mating male housing 10 at this time (see FIG. 15). The operable portion 62 contacts the left end surface of the female housing 20 when the slide lever 60 is pushed to the end position SEP. Simultaneously the rear ends 65B of the guide grooves 65 contact the shafts 45 to prevent the slide lever 60 from being pushed any further as shown in FIG. 17. Short triangular lock projections 68 are formed in the guide grooves 65 slightly before the rear ends 65B, as shown in FIG. 18, for locking the shafts 45 at the rear ends 65B of the guide grooves 65. Holding grips 69 are formed at the base ends of the slidable plates 61 so that the slide lever 60 can be gripped from opposite sides and pulled back from the end position. Thus, the shafts 45 move over the lock projections 68. Windows 47 are formed at the opposite left and right ends of the covers 36 for exposing the grips 69 to the outside. To use the rotary lever 50, the wire cover 30 is mounted on the rear surface of the female housing 20. The wire cover 30 is mounted with the open end surface 32 faced to left, as shown in FIG. 4, if the wires are to be guided out to the left. The rotary lever 50 then is mounted. The rotary lever 50 is accommodated in the accommodation spaces 44 and is supported by the shafts 45 so that the operable portion 53 faces to the right and is at the side of the escaping surface 31 of the wire cover 30. Thus, the rotary lever 50 is at the initial position LIP where the operable portion 53 contacts the rear surface of the female housing 20 at the right side. At this initial position LIP, the entrances 55A of the cam grooves 55 face forward in substantially centers of the insertion grooves 40. Further, the locking pieces 57 engage the right locking steps 41 to lock the rotary lever 50 temporarily. Thus, the rotary lever 50 will not rotate inadvertently from the initial position LIP towards the end position LEP. The female housing 20 can be connected with the mating male housing 10 in the connecting direction CD, as shown by an arrow in FIG. 4. The follower pins 15 of the male housing 10 enter the cam grooves 55 through the entrances 55A, as the connection progresses. Simultaneously, the unlocking ribs 16 enter the insertion grooves 40, as shown in FIG. 6, and the slanted surfaces 16A lift the locking pieces 57 towards the outer sides so that the right unlocking ribs 16 slip under the locking pieces 57. As a result, the locking pieces 57 move above the locking steps 41 to permit the rotary lever 50 to rotate. The rotary lever 50 is rotated in counterclockwise direction of FIG. 6 by moving the operable portion 53. Thus, the follower pins 15 move towards the back ends the cam grooves 55 and a cam action between the follower pins 15 and the cam grooves 55 pulls the female housing 20 towards the male housing 10. The follower pins 15 reach the closed ends of the cam grooves 55 when the rotary lever 50 is rotated to the end position LEP, as shown in FIG. 8, and the two housings 10, 20 are connected properly. At this time, the lock piece 58 of the operable portion 53 engages the lock projection 34 of the wire cover 30 to prevent the rotary lever 50 from returning. Thus, the two housings 10, 20 are locked in their connected state. Accordingly, the connection of the female and male connector housings 20, 10 is performed or assisted by rotating the rotary lever 50. The two housings 10, 20 may have to be separated for maintenance or other reason. Thus, the rotary lever 50 is urged back towards the initial position LIP. Initial forces on the rotary lever 50 cause the locking piece 58 to deform and disengage from the lock projection 34. The follower pins 15 then move in the cam grooves 55 and a cam action is exhibited to separate the two housings 10, 20 with a small operation force. It may be necessary to guide the wires to right. Thus, the wire cover 30 is mounted so that the open end surface 32 faces right. The rotary lever 50 then is supported on the shafts 45 at the initial position LIP where the operable portion 53 faces to left as shown in FIGS. 9 and 10. At this time, the left locking steps 41 lock the rotary lever 50 temporarily at the initial position LIP. The housings 10, 20 are connected and separated along the connecting direction CD with small operation forces due the lever or cam action with the follower pins 15 engaged in the cam grooves 55. However, the rotary lever 50 is rotated in the opposite direction. The female housing also can use the slide lever 60. More particularly, the slide lever 60 is inserted into the insertion paths 38 of the female housing 20 from the right, as shown in FIG. 11, and is held at the initial position SIP, as shown in FIG. 12. At this initial position SIP, the entrances 63A of the cam grooves 63 face forward substantially in the centers of the insertion grooves 40. Further, the locking pieces 67 engage the left locking steps 41 to lock the slide lever 60 temporarily at the initial position SIP so that the slide lever 60 is not pushed inadvertently towards the end position SEP. The female housing 20 can be connected with the mating male housing 10, as shown by an arrow in FIG. 12. The follower pins 15 of the male housing 10 enter the cam grooves 63 through the entrances 63A as the connection progresses. Simultaneously, the unlocking ribs 16 enter the insertion grooves 40, as shown in FIG. 15. The slanted surfaces 16A lift the locking pieces 67 toward the outer sides so that the left unlocking ribs 16 slip under the locking pieces 67 to bring the locking pieces 67 above the locking steps 41. Thus, the slide lever 60 can be pushed. The slide lever 60 can be pushed to the left side of FIG. 15 and towards the end position SEP by placing a hand on the operable portion 62. As a result, the follower pins 15 move towards the back ends of the cam grooves 63 and a cam action between the follower pins 15 and the cam grooves 63 pulls the female housing 20 towards the male housing 10. The follower pins 15 reach the closed ends of the cam grooves 63 when the slide lever 60 is pushed to the end position SEP, as shown in FIGS. 17 and 18. Thus, the two housings 10, 20 are connected properly. At this time, the shafts 45 move over the lock projections 68 and are locked at the rear ends 65B of the guide grooves 65. Accordingly, the slide lever 60 is locked at the end position SEP and the two housings 10, 20 are locked in their properly connected state. The housings 10, 20 may have to be separated for maintenance or other reason. Thus, the grips 69 projecting through the windows 47 in the state of FIG. 17 are held and the slide lever 60 is moved to the right and towards the initial position SIP. The shafts 45 move over the lock projections 68 and the follower pins 15 move in the cam grooves 55 to generate a cam action. Thus, the housings 10, 20 can be separated with a small operation force. It may be necessary to insert and withdraw the slide lever 60 into and from the female housing 20 at left side when viewed from front because of an operation space. Thus, the slide lever 60 is inserted into the insertion paths 38 of the female housing 20 from left side and is held at the initial position SIP, as shown in FIGS. 19 and 20. Accordingly, the right locking steps 41 are used to lock the slide lever 60 temporarily at the initial position SIP. The housings 10, 20 are connected and separated with low forces by the cam action from the cam grooves 63 and the follower pins 15. However, the moving directions of the slide lever 60 is opposite from the above case. As described above, the rotary lever 50 and the slide lever 60 have different modes of displacements, but are selectively mountable on the same female housing 20. Additionally, both levers 50, 60 are mountable in transversely symmetric postures. Thus, four operation modes of levers can be selected. Therefore, the housings 10, 20 can be connected efficiently by selecting an optimal lever or cam operation mode if the operation space for the lever is restricted or the wire draw-out direction is specified. Further, both levers 50, 60 can be mounted on the same housing 20 to reduce production costs. The locking steps 41 are used for locking both the rotary lever 50 and the slide lever 60 at their initial positions in both transversely symmetric postures. Thus, the construction of the female housing 20 can be simpler. The shafts 45 to support the rotary lever 50 restrict the movable range of the slide lever 60 and locking the slide lever 60 at the end position. Thus, the construction of the female housing 20 can be even simpler. The invention is not limited to the above described and illustrated embodiment. For example, the following embodiments are also embraced by the technical scope of the present invention as defined by the claims. Beside the following embodiments, various changes can be made without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention as defined by the claims. Even in the case of using the slide lever, the wire cover may be mounted on the rear surface of the female housing to guide the wires out in a specified direction. In such a case, if the slide lever is mounted from the side opposite from the open end surface of the wire cover, it can be easily moved forward and backward. Depending on the shape of the connector, the follower pins are provided on the female housing and the rotary lever or slide lever formed with the cam grooves may be provided on the male housing. The present invention is not limited to application to connectors integral to apparatuses, and also applicable to wire-to-wire connectors. The slider 60 performs a substantially linear movement. However, the invention is also applicable to any other slider having a non-linear movement path (e.g. bent, arcuate, inclined path, etc.). | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>1. Field of the Invention The invention relates to a lever-type connector. 2. Description of the Related Art Large multi-contact connectors often use levers to assist in the development of the necessary connecting force. Lever-type connectors generally use either a rotary lever, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,241,540 or a slide lever, as shown in U.S. Pat. No. 6,113,407. A rotary lever connector has first and second housings and a lever supported rotatably on the first housing. The lever has cam groove that engages a cam follower pin on the second housing. The rotary lever is rotated to connect or separate the housings. A slide lever connector has first and second housings and a slide lever mounted on the first housing for sliding movement along a direction intersecting the connecting direction of two housings. The slide lever has a cam groove that engages a follower pin on the second housing. The slide lever is moved forward and backward to connect and separate the housings. The operation space for the lever of a lever-type connector often is restricted. Accordingly, lever-type connectors that have rotary and slide operating modes would be convenient because they could be used in accordance with operation spaces. However, this design has required a rotary lever, a slide lever and two kinds of housings in view of mounting constructions for the levers. Thus, there has been a demand for further improvements. The present invention was developed in view of the above situation, and an object thereof is to improve versatility of a connector. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates to a connector with a housing that is connectable with a mating housing. The connector further includes at least one movable member formed with at least one cam groove. The movable member is mountable on the housing and is engageable with at least one follower pin on the mating housing. The two housings are connectable with and separable from each other by displacing the follower pin along the cam groove as the movable member is displaced. The movable member comprises a rotary lever and a slide lever each formed with the cam groove. The housing includes a shaft used to pivotably mount the rotary lever and an insertion path used to movably mount the slide lever forward and backward along a direction intersecting a connecting direction of the housing with the mating housing. The rotary lever and the slide lever have different displacement modes. Therefore, the two housings can be connected efficiently by selecting a suitable lever operation. Further, production costs can be reduced because both levers are mountable on the same housing. The rotary lever preferably is rotatably mountable in directions symmetrical with respect to the shaft. The slide lever preferably is mountable in symmetric postures from the opposite ends of the insertion path. Thus, four operation modes of the lever are available for selection. The rotary lever and/or the slide lever preferably have engaging portions that can engage locks on the housing. Thus, the rotary lever and/or the slide lever can be locked temporarily at initial positions where an entrance of the cam groove substantially faces the follower pin. The locks preferably are used commonly for the respective engaging portions of the rotary lever and the slide lever. Additionally, the locks preferably are arranged symmetrically with respect to the shaft. The connector further may comprises a wire cover that is mountable on the rear surface of the housing for accommodating wires drawn out from the housing and guiding the wires in a specified direction. The wire cover preferably is mountable in one of the symmetric positions. The wire draw-out direction can be selected by selecting the mounting direction of the wire cover. The shaft for the rotary lever preferably is used as a locking means for locking the slide lever at an end position. Thus, the construction can be even simpler. The slide lever comprises one or more guide grooves into which the shafts are fit during movement of the slide lever towards its end position. Leading ends of the guide grooves preferably are formed into slanted guiding surfaces. The slanted guiding surfaces guide the shafts into the guide grooves as the slide lever is moved towards its end position. The invention also relates to a connector assembly comprising the above-described connector and a mating connector connectable therewith. These and other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent upon reading of the following detailed description of preferred embodiments and accompanying drawings. It should be understood that even though embodiments are separately described, single features thereof may be combined to additional embodiments. | 20050114 | 20060620 | 20060209 | 87329.0 | H01R1362 | 0 | GUSHI, ROSS N | CONNECTOR HAVING A MOVABLE MEMBER AND CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H01R | 2,005 |
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