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id_4300 | Nobody knows what life forms may exist outside our own planet. The search for extra-terrestrial life in the universe took a step nearer to fruition with the discovery in June of what are believed to be traces of water on the surface of Mars. Life on our planet requires water and its presence on Mars may point towards the existence of past life on the planet. The Phoenix Mars Lander robot landed on the plains of Mars on May 25th 2008, searching for signs that the Martian environment might once have been habitable to life. When it dug a ditch in the planets surface, photos revealed small patches of bright material. Four days later those patches had disappeared, causing scientists to speculate that they were water ice that had previously been buried and which vaporised when exposed to the air. Scientists insisted that if the patches had been salt, they wouldn't have disappeared and if they had been solid carbon dioxide, then they wouldn't have vaporised. | The Phoenix Mars Lander has provided proof that life once existed on Mars. | n |
id_4301 | Non-PC. Political correctness has eroded our freedom of speech. In the UK, political correctness came to the fore in the 1980s when it sought to protect minority groups from offensive language, attitudes and discrimination as well as banish stereotypes. In recent times it has influenced language, ideas and behaviour to the extent that only one viewpoint can be tolerated, ie that of the politically correct majority, and as such has seriously undermined our freedom of expression. The government has pandered to the PC brigade, who more often than not fail to consult the minority groups they claim to support. The NHS has not escaped the culture of political correctness. Equality and diversity are the latest NHS buzzwords. Anti-discrimination laws have been in place since the 1970s and they were updated in 2003, so much of the new material covers old ground. Furthermore, the PC brigade has failed to understand that the best way to prevent discrimination is to stop looking for it at every turn. For example, why should NHS employees and patients be asked to tick boxes that request information about sexuality or ethnic origin? Highlighting differences is a form of discrimination in itself. The pervasiveness and absurdity of political correctness was highlighted recently when the NHS suspended a nurse for offering to pray for an elderly patient. In this case, the NHS discriminated against the nurse on the basis of her religious beliefs whilst at the same time claiming to respect equality and diversity. Clearly the PC brigade within the NHS believes that spiritual needs are at odds with its equality and diversity policy; hospital chaplains beware. The only PC the NHS should concern itself with is patient care. The NHS should not waste resources pandering to political correctness when all that is required is a little more common sense. | The author believes that equality and diversity within the NHS are largely within the scope of anti-discrimination laws. | e |
id_4302 | Non-PC. Political correctness has eroded our freedom of speech. In the UK, political correctness came to the fore in the 1980s when it sought to protect minority groups from offensive language, attitudes and discrimination as well as banish stereotypes. In recent times it has influenced language, ideas and behaviour to the extent that only one viewpoint can be tolerated, ie that of the politically correct majority, and as such has seriously undermined our freedom of expression. The government has pandered to the PC brigade, who more often than not fail to consult the minority groups they claim to support. The NHS has not escaped the culture of political correctness. Equality and diversity are the latest NHS buzzwords. Anti-discrimination laws have been in place since the 1970s and they were updated in 2003, so much of the new material covers old ground. Furthermore, the PC brigade has failed to understand that the best way to prevent discrimination is to stop looking for it at every turn. For example, why should NHS employees and patients be asked to tick boxes that request information about sexuality or ethnic origin? Highlighting differences is a form of discrimination in itself. The pervasiveness and absurdity of political correctness was highlighted recently when the NHS suspended a nurse for offering to pray for an elderly patient. In this case, the NHS discriminated against the nurse on the basis of her religious beliefs whilst at the same time claiming to respect equality and diversity. Clearly the PC brigade within the NHS believes that spiritual needs are at odds with its equality and diversity policy; hospital chaplains beware. The only PC the NHS should concern itself with is patient care. The NHS should not waste resources pandering to political correctness when all that is required is a little more common sense. | NHS patients must declare their sexuality by ticking a box. | c |
id_4303 | Non-PC. Political correctness has eroded our freedom of speech. In the UK, political correctness came to the fore in the 1980s when it sought to protect minority groups from offensive language, attitudes and discrimination as well as banish stereotypes. In recent times it has influenced language, ideas and behaviour to the extent that only one viewpoint can be tolerated, ie that of the politically correct majority, and as such has seriously undermined our freedom of expression. The government has pandered to the PC brigade, who more often than not fail to consult the minority groups they claim to support. The NHS has not escaped the culture of political correctness. Equality and diversity are the latest NHS buzzwords. Anti-discrimination laws have been in place since the 1970s and they were updated in 2003, so much of the new material covers old ground. Furthermore, the PC brigade has failed to understand that the best way to prevent discrimination is to stop looking for it at every turn. For example, why should NHS employees and patients be asked to tick boxes that request information about sexuality or ethnic origin? Highlighting differences is a form of discrimination in itself. The pervasiveness and absurdity of political correctness was highlighted recently when the NHS suspended a nurse for offering to pray for an elderly patient. In this case, the NHS discriminated against the nurse on the basis of her religious beliefs whilst at the same time claiming to respect equality and diversity. Clearly the PC brigade within the NHS believes that spiritual needs are at odds with its equality and diversity policy; hospital chaplains beware. The only PC the NHS should concern itself with is patient care. The NHS should not waste resources pandering to political correctness when all that is required is a little more common sense. | The nurse was suspended for breaching the NHS equality and diversity policy. | c |
id_4304 | Non-PC. Political correctness has eroded our freedom of speech. In the UK, political correctness came to the fore in the 1980s when it sought to protect minority groups from offensive language, attitudes and discrimination as well as banish stereotypes. In recent times it has influenced language, ideas and behaviour to the extent that only one viewpoint can be tolerated, ie that of the politically correct majority, and as such has seriously undermined our freedom of expression. The government has pandered to the PC brigade, who more often than not fail to consult the minority groups they claim to support. The NHS has not escaped the culture of political correctness. Equality and diversity are the latest NHS buzzwords. Anti-discrimination laws have been in place since the 1970s and they were updated in 2003, so much of the new material covers old ground. Furthermore, the PC brigade has failed to understand that the best way to prevent discrimination is to stop looking for it at every turn. For example, why should NHS employees and patients be asked to tick boxes that request information about sexuality or ethnic origin? Highlighting differences is a form of discrimination in itself. The pervasiveness and absurdity of political correctness was highlighted recently when the NHS suspended a nurse for offering to pray for an elderly patient. In this case, the NHS discriminated against the nurse on the basis of her religious beliefs whilst at the same time claiming to respect equality and diversity. Clearly the PC brigade within the NHS believes that spiritual needs are at odds with its equality and diversity policy; hospital chaplains beware. The only PC the NHS should concern itself with is patient care. The NHS should not waste resources pandering to political correctness when all that is required is a little more common sense. | The author believes that political correctness is contrary to freedom of thought. | c |
id_4305 | Nowhere is the influence of sex more plainly manifested than in the formulation of religious conceptions and creeds. With the rise of male power and dominion, and the corresponding repression of the natural female instincts, the principles that originally constituted the God-idea gradually gave place to a Deity better suited to the peculiar bias that had been given to themale organism. An anthropomorphic God, like that of the Jews, whose chief attributes are power and virile, could have had its origin only under a system of masculine rule. Religion is especially liable to reflect the vagaries and weaknesses of human nature; and, as the forms and habits of thought connected with worship take a firmer hold on the mental constitution than do those belonging to any other department of human experience. Religious conceptions should be subjected to frequent and careful examination in order to perceive, if possible, the extent to which we are holding on to ideas which are unsuited to existing conditions. In an age when every branch of inquiry is being subjected to reasonable criticism, it would seem that the origin and growth of religion should be investigated from beneath the surface and that all the facts bearing upon it should be brought forward as a contribution to our fund of general information. As well might we hope to gain a complete knowledge of human history by studying only the present aspect of society, as to expect to reach reasonable conclusions respecting the prevailing God-idea by investigating the various creeds and dogmas of existing faiths. | Masculine rule has always occurred. | e |
id_4306 | Nowhere is the influence of sex more plainly manifested than in the formulation of religious conceptions and creeds. With the rise of male power and dominion, and the corresponding repression of the natural female instincts, the principles that originally constituted the God-idea gradually gave place to a Deity better suited to the peculiar bias that had been given to themale organism. An anthropomorphic God, like that of the Jews, whose chief attributes are power and virile, could have had its origin only under a system of masculine rule. Religion is especially liable to reflect the vagaries and weaknesses of human nature; and, as the forms and habits of thought connected with worship take a firmer hold on the mental constitution than do those belonging to any other department of human experience. Religious conceptions should be subjected to frequent and careful examination in order to perceive, if possible, the extent to which we are holding on to ideas which are unsuited to existing conditions. In an age when every branch of inquiry is being subjected to reasonable criticism, it would seem that the origin and growth of religion should be investigated from beneath the surface and that all the facts bearing upon it should be brought forward as a contribution to our fund of general information. As well might we hope to gain a complete knowledge of human history by studying only the present aspect of society, as to expect to reach reasonable conclusions respecting the prevailing God-idea by investigating the various creeds and dogmas of existing faiths. | The author is religious. | n |
id_4307 | Nuclear fission (in nuclear physics, simply fission) is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei (fission products) and usually some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a form of elemental transmutation. The by-products include free neutrons, photons (usually gamma rays), and other nuclear fragments such as beta particles and alpha particles. Fission of heavy elements can release substantial amounts of useful energy both as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the fragments. Nuclear fission is used to produce energy for nuclear power and to drive explosion of nuclear weapons. Fission is useful as a power source because some materials, called nuclear fuels, both generate neutrons as part of the fission process and also undergo triggered fission when impacted by a free neutron. Nuclear fuels can be part of a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate (in a nuclear reactor) or a very rapid uncontrolled rate (in a nuclear weapon). | Nuclear fusion is thought to be safer than fission. | n |
id_4308 | Nuclear fission (in nuclear physics, simply fission) is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei (fission products) and usually some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a form of elemental transmutation. The by-products include free neutrons, photons (usually gamma rays), and other nuclear fragments such as beta particles and alpha particles. Fission of heavy elements can release substantial amounts of useful energy both as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the fragments. Nuclear fission is used to produce energy for nuclear power and to drive explosion of nuclear weapons. Fission is useful as a power source because some materials, called nuclear fuels, both generate neutrons as part of the fission process and also undergo triggered fission when impacted by a free neutron. Nuclear fuels can be part of a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate (in a nuclear reactor) or a very rapid uncontrolled rate (in a nuclear weapon). | Fission converts one element into another. | e |
id_4309 | Nuclear fission (in nuclear physics, simply fission) is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei (fission products) and usually some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a form of elemental transmutation. The by-products include free neutrons, photons (usually gamma rays), and other nuclear fragments such as beta particles and alpha particles. Fission of heavy elements can release substantial amounts of useful energy both as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the fragments. Nuclear fission is used to produce energy for nuclear power and to drive explosion of nuclear weapons. Fission is useful as a power source because some materials, called nuclear fuels, both generate neutrons as part of the fission process and also undergo triggered fission when impacted by a free neutron. Nuclear fuels can be part of a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate (in a nuclear reactor) or a very rapid uncontrolled rate (in a nuclear weapon). | Fission is dangerous because it causes a chain reaction. | n |
id_4310 | Nuclear fission (in nuclear physics, simply fission) is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei (fission products) and usually some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a form of elemental transmutation. The by-products include free neutrons, photons (usually gamma rays), and other nuclear fragments such as beta particles and alpha particles. Fission of heavy elements can release substantial amounts of useful energy both as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the fragments. Nuclear fission is used to produce energy for nuclear power and to drive explosion of nuclear weapons. Fission is useful as a power source because some materials, called nuclear fuels, both generate neutrons as part of the fission process and also undergo triggered fission when impacted by a free neutron. Nuclear fuels can be part of a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate (in a nuclear reactor) or a very rapid uncontrolled rate (in a nuclear weapon). | Alpha particles can be by-products of nuclear fission. | e |
id_4311 | Nuclear fission (in nuclear physics, simply fission) is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei (fission products) and usually some by-product particles. Hence, fission is a form of elemental transmutation. The by-products include free neutrons, photons (usually gamma rays), and other nuclear fragments such as beta particles and alpha particles. Fission of heavy elements can release substantial amounts of useful energy both as gamma rays and as kinetic energy of the fragments. Nuclear fission is used to produce energy for nuclear power and to drive explosion of nuclear weapons. Fission is useful as a power source because some materials, called nuclear fuels, both generate neutrons as part of the fission process and also undergo triggered fission when impacted by a free neutron. Nuclear fuels can be part of a self-sustaining chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate (in a nuclear reactor) or a very rapid uncontrolled rate (in a nuclear weapon). | Fission takes place in both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. | e |
id_4312 | Nuclear power is carbon free and new nuclear power plants do produce less radioactive waste than the older ones but the problem still exists, so building new nuclear power stations would address the long-term environmental problem of carbon emissions but only by exacerbating another problem. Critics complain of the visual intrusion caused by the renewable power stations, but appropriate planning can limit this and it is reversible. Nuclear powers electricity is expensive when compared with carbon- producing gas or coal plants. Renewable energy sources when compared with nuclear are relatively cheap and have the potential to become cheaper. | Renewable power is carbon free. | n |
id_4313 | Nuclear power is carbon free and new nuclear power plants do produce less radioactive waste than the older ones but the problem still exists, so building new nuclear power stations would address the long-term environmental problem of carbon emissions but only by exacerbating another problem. Critics complain of the visual intrusion caused by the renewable power stations, but appropriate planning can limit this and it is reversible. Nuclear powers electricity is expensive when compared with carbon- producing gas or coal plants. Renewable energy sources when compared with nuclear are relatively cheap and have the potential to become cheaper. | Alternatives to nuclear that are carbon-free power sources have problems of their own. | e |
id_4314 | Nuclear power is carbon free and new nuclear power plants do produce less radioactive waste than the older ones but the problem still exists, so building new nuclear power stations would address the long-term environmental problem of carbon emissions but only by exacerbating another problem. Critics complain of the visual intrusion caused by the renewable power stations, but appropriate planning can limit this and it is reversible. Nuclear powers electricity is expensive when compared with carbon- producing gas or coal plants. Renewable energy sources when compared with nuclear are relatively cheap and have the potential to become cheaper. | A very good environmental case for nuclear power could be made if the problem of radioactive waste could be solved. | e |
id_4315 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | When assessing the number of eggs in their nest, coots take into account those of other birds. | e |
id_4316 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Researchers have experimented by altering quantities of nectar or fruit available to certain wild animals. | n |
id_4317 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | The experiment with chicks suggests that some numerical ability exists in newborn animals. | e |
id_4318 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | The research involving young chicks took place over two separate days. | n |
id_4319 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Jurgen Tautz trained the insects in his experiment to recognize the shapes of individual numbers. | c |
id_4320 | Numeracy : Can Animals Tell Numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease providing the ratio is big enough but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannons team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students performance ends up looking just like a monkeys. Its practically identical, she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Ullers team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively joins the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. Any study thats claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fishes, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the other was empty. To test the bees numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees mathematical prowess they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its brothers. Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid and add any in the nest laid by an intruder before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardized procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Primates are better at identifying the larger of two numbers if one is much bigger than the other. | e |
id_4321 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Primates are better at identifying the larger of two numbers if one is much bigger than the other. | e |
id_4322 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | When assessing the number of eggs in their nest, coots take into account those of other birds. | e |
id_4323 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Researchers have experimented by altering quantities of nectar or fruit available to certain wild animals. | n |
id_4324 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | The experiment with chicks suggests that some numerical ability exists in newborn animals. | e |
id_4325 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | The research involving young chicks took place over two separate days. | n |
id_4326 | Numeracy: can animals tell numbers? Prime among basic numerical faculties is the ability to distinguish between a larger and a smaller number, says psychologist Elizabeth Brannon. Humans can do this with ease - providing the ratio is big enough - but do other animals share this ability? In one experiment, rhesus monkeys and university students examined two sets of geometrical objects that appeared briefly on a computer monitor. They had to decide which set contained more objects. Both groups performed successfully but, importantly, Brannon's team found that monkeys, like humans, make more errors when two sets of objects are close in number. The students' performance ends up looking just like a monkey's. It's practically identical, 'she says. Humans and monkeys are mammals, in the animal family known as primates. These are not the only animals whose numerical capacities rely on ratio, however. The same seems to apply to some amphibians. Psychologist Claudia Uller's team tempted salamanders with two sets of fruit flies held in clear tubes. In a series of trials, the researchers noted which tube the salamanders scampered towards, reasoning that if they had a capacity to recognise number, they would head for the larger number. The salamanders successfully discriminated between tubes containing 8 and 16 flies respectively, but not between 3 and 4, 4 and 6, or 8 and 12. So it seems that for the salamanders to discriminate between two numbers, the larger must be at least twice as big as the smaller. However, they could differentiate between 2 and 3 flies just as well as between 1 and 2 flies, suggesting they recognise small numbers in a different way from larger numbers. Further support for this theory comes from studies of mosquitofish, which instinctively join the biggest shoal they can. A team at the University of Padova found that while mosquitofish can tell the difference between a group containing 3 shoal-mates and a group containing 4, they did not show a preference between groups of 4 and 5. The team also found that mosquitofish can discriminate between numbers up to 16, but only if the ratio between the fish in each shoal was greater than 2:1. This indicates that the fish, like salamanders, possess both the approximate and precise number systems found in more intelligent animals such as infant humans and other primates. While these findings are highly suggestive, some critics argue that the animals might be relying on other factors to complete the tasks, without considering the number itself. 'Any study that's claiming an animal is capable of representing number should also be controlling for other factors, ' says Brannon. Experiments have confirmed that primates can indeed perform numerical feats without extra clues, but what about the more primitive animals? To consider this possibility, the mosquitofish tests were repeated, this time using varying geometrical shapes in place of fish. The team arranged these shapes so that they had the same overall surface area and luminance even though they contained a different number of objects. Across hundreds of trials on 14 different fish, the team found they consistently discriminated 2 objects from 3. The team is now testing whether mosquitofish can also distinguish 3 geometric objects from 4. Even more primitive organisms may share this ability. Entomologist Jurgen Tautz sent a group of bees down a corridor, at the end of which lay two chambers - one which contained sugar water, which they like, while the otherwas empty. To test the bees' numeracy, the team marked each chamber with a different number of geometrical shapes - between 2 and 6. The bees quickly learned to match the number of shapes with the correct chamber. Like the salamanders and fish, there was a limit to the bees' mathematical prowess - they could differentiate up to 4 shapes, but failed with 5 or 6 shapes. These studies still do not show whether animals learn to count through training, or whether they are born with the skills already intact. If the latter is true, it would suggest there was a strong evolutionary advantage to a mathematical mind. Proof that this may be the case has emerged from an experiment testing the mathematical ability of three-and four-day-old chicks. Like mosquitofish, chicks prefer to be around as many of their siblings as possible, so they will always head towards a larger number of their kin. If chicks spend their first few days surrounded by certain objects, they become attached to these objects as if they were family. Researchers placed each chick in the middle of a platform and showed it two groups of balls of paper. Next, they hid the two piles behind screens, changed the quantities and revealed them to the chick. This forced the chick to perform simple computations to decide which side now contained the biggest number of its "brothers' 7 . Without any prior coaching, the chicks scuttled to the larger quantity at a rate well above chance. They were doing some very simple arithmetic, claim the researchers. H. Why these skills evolved is not hard to imagine, since it would help almost any animal forage for food. Animals on the prowl for sustenance must constantly decide which tree has the most fruit, or which patch of flowers will contain the most nectar. There are also other, less obvious, advantages of numeracy. In one compelling example, researchers in America found that female coots appear to calculate how many eggs they have laid - and add any in the nest laid by an intruder - before making any decisions about adding to them. Exactly how ancient these skills are is difficult to determine, however. Only by studying the numerical abilities of more and more creatures using standardised procedures can we hope to understand the basic preconditions for the evolution of number. | Jurgen Tautz trained the insects in his experiment to recognise the shapes of individual numbers. | c |
id_4327 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | The Tsimshian language contains both older and newer systems of counting. | e |
id_4328 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | Early peoples found it easier to count by using their fingers rather than a group of pebbles. | n |
id_4329 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | For the earliest tribes, the concept of sufficiency was more important than the concept of quantity. | e |
id_4330 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | In general, people in seventh-century Europe had poor counting ability. | e |
id_4331 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | The word thousand has Anglo-Saxon origins. | n |
id_4332 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | Indigenous Tasmanians used only four terms to indicate numbers of objects. | c |
id_4333 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | Some peoples with simple number systems used body language to prevent misunderstanding of expressions of number. | e |
id_4334 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | All cultures have been able to express large numbers clearly. | c |
id_4335 | Numeration One of the first great intellectual feats of a young child is learning how to talk, closely followed by learning how to count. From earliest childhood we are so bound up with our system of numeration that it is a feat of imagination to consider the problems faced by early humans who had not yet developed this facility. Careful consideration of our system of numeration leads to the conviction that, rather than being a facility that comes naturally to a person, it is one of the great and remarkable achievements of the human race. It is impossible to learn the sequence of events that led to our developing the concept of number. Even the earliest of tribes had a system of numeration that, if not advanced, was sufficient for the tasks that they had to perform. Our ancestors had little use for actual numbers; instead their considerations would have been more of the kind Is this enough? rather than How many? when they were engaged in food gathering, for example. However, when early humans first began to reflect on the nature of things around them, they discovered that they needed an idea of number simply to keep their thoughts in order. As they began to settle, grow plants and herd animals, the need for a sophisticated number system became paramount. It will never be known how and when this numeration ability developed, but it is certain that numeration was well developed by the time humans had formed even semi-permanent settlements. Evidence of early stages of arithmetic and numeration can be readily found. The indigenous peoples of Tasmania were only able to count one, two, many; those of South Africa counted one, two, two and one, two twos, two twos and one, and so on. But in real situations the number and words are often accompanied by gestures to help resolve any confusion. For example, when using the one, two, many type of system, the word many would mean, Look at my hands and see how many fingers I am showing you. This basic approach is limited in the range of numbers that it can express, but this range will generally suffice when dealing with the simpler aspects of human existence. The lack of ability of some cultures to deal with large numbers is not really surprising. European languages, when traced back to their earlier version, are very poor in number words and expressions. The ancient Gothic word for ten, tachund, is used to express the number 100 as tachund tachund. By the seventh century, the word teon had become interchangeable with the tachund or hund of the Anglo-Saxon language, and so 100 was denoted as hund teontig, or ten times ten. The average person in the seventh century in Europe was not as familiar with numbers as we are today. In fact, to qualify as a witness in a court of law a man had to be able to count to nine! Perhaps the most fundamental step in developing a sense of number is not the ability to count, but rather to see that a number is really an abstract idea instead of a simple attachment to a group of particular objects. It must have been within the grasp of the earliest humans to conceive that four birds are distinct from two birds; however, it is not an elementary step to associate the number 4, as connected with four birds, to the number 4, as connected with four rocks. Associating a number as one of the qualities of a specific object is a great hindrance to the development of a true number sense. When the number 4 can be registered in the mind as a specific word, independent of the object being referenced, the individual is ready to take the first step toward the development of a notational system for numbers and, from there, to arithmetic. Traces of the very first stages in the development of numeration can be seen in several living languages today. The numeration system of the Tsimshian language in British Columbia contains seven distinct sets of words for numbers according to the class of the item being counted: for counting flat objects and animals, for round objects and time, for people, for long objects and trees, for canoes, for measures, and for counting when no particular object is being numerated. It seems that the last is a later development while the first six groups show the relics of an older system. This diversity of number names can also be found in some widely used languages such as Japanese. Intermixed with the development of a number sense is the development of an ability to count. Counting is not directly related to the formation of a number concept because it is possible to count by matching the items being counted against a group of pebbles, grains of corn, or the counters fingers. These aids would have been indispensable to very early people who would have found the process impossible without some form of mechanical aid. Such aids, while different, are still used even by the most educated in todays society due to their convenience. All counting ultimately involves reference to something other than the things being counted. At first it may have been grains or pebbles but now it is a memorised sequence of words that happen to be the names of the numbers. | In the Tsimshian language, the number for long objects and canoes is expressed with the same word. | c |
id_4336 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | The post-Revolution government did not want women to read or write in any language. | c |
id_4337 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | Nushu is now being openly taught | e |
id_4338 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | Women could be punished with the death penalty for using Nushu. | n |
id_4339 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | The customary way of learning Nushu has died out | e |
id_4340 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | There is a lot of money to be made out of public interest in Nushu. | n |
id_4341 | Nushu A Secret Language It is sometimes said that men and women communicate in different languages. For hundreds of years in the Jiangyong County of Hunan Province, China, this was quite literally the case. Sometime between 400 and 1,000 years ago, women defied the patriarchal norms of the time that forbade them to read or write and conceived of Nu shu literally, womens language a secretive script and language of their own. Through building informal networks of sworn sisters who committed themselves to teaching the language only to other women, and by using it artistically in ways that could be passed off as artwork (such as writing characters on a decorative fan), Nushu was able to grow and spread without attracting too much suspicion. Nushu has many orthographical distinctions from the standard Chinese script. Whereas standard Chinese has large, bold strokes that look as if they might have been shaped with a thick permanent marker pen, Nushu characters are thin, slanted and have a slightly scratchy appearance that bears more similarity to calligraphy. Whereas standard Chinese is logographic, with characters that represent words and meanings, Nushu is completely phonetic each character represents a sound; the meaning must be acquired from the context of what is being said. Users of Nushu developed coded meanings for various words and phrases, but it is likely that only a tiny fraction of these will ever be known. Many secrets of Nushu have gone to the grave. Nushu was developed as a way to allow women to communicate with one another in confidence. To some extent, this demand came from a desire for privacy, and Nushu allowed women a forum for personal written communication in a society that was dominated by a male-orientated social culture. There was also a practical element to the rise of Nushu, however: until the mid 20th century, women were rarely encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script. Nushu provided a practical and easy-to-learn alternative. Women who were separated from their families and friends by marriage could, therefore, send letters to each other. Unlike traditional correspondence, however, Nushu characters were painted or embroidered onto everyday items like fans, pillowcases, and handkerchiefs and embodied in artwork in order to avoid making men suspicious. After the Chinese Revolution, more women were encouraged to become literate in the standard Chinese script, and much of the need for a special form of womens communication was dampened. When the Red Guard discovered the script in the 1960s, they thought it to be a code used for espionage. Upon learning that it was a secret womens language, they were suspicious and fearful. Numerous letters, weavings, embroideries, and other artefacts were destroyed, and women were forbidden to practise Nushu customs. As a consequence, the generational chains of linguistic transmission were broken up, and the language ceased being passed down through sworn sisters. There is no longer anyone alive who has learnt Nushu in this traditional manner; Yang Huanyi, the last proficient user of the language, died on September 20, 2004, in her late 90s. In recent years, however, popular and scholarly interest in Nushu has blossomed. The Ford Foundation granted US$209,000 to build a Nushu Museum that houses artefacts such as audio recordings, manuscripts, and articles, some of which date back over 100 years. The investment from Hong Kong SAR is also being used to build infrastructure at potential tourist sites in Hunan, and some schools in the area have begun instruction in the language. Incidentally, the use of Nushu is also a theme in Lisa Sees historical novel. Snow Flower and the Secret Fan, which has since been adapted for film. | At first, the Red Guard thought Nushu might be a tool for spies. | e |
id_4342 | Nutmeg - a valuable spice. The nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, is a large evergreen tree native to Southeast Asia. Until the late 18th century, it only grew in one place in the world: a small group of islands in the Banda Sea, part of the Moluccas - or Spice Islands - in northeastern Indonesia. The tree is thickly branched with dense foliage of tough, dark green oval leaves, and produces small, yellow, bell-shaped flowers and pale yellow pear-shaped fruits. The fruit is encased in a fleshy husk. When the fruit is ripe, this husk splits into two halves along a ridge running the length of the fruit. Inside is a purple-brown shiny seed, 2-3 cm long by about 2cm across, surrounded by a lacy red or crimson covering called an 'aril'. These are the sources of the two spices nutmeg and mace, the former being produced from the dried seed and the latter from the aril. Nutmeg was a highly prized and costly ingredient in European cuisine in the Middle Ages, and was used as a flavouring, medicinal, and preservative agent. Throughout this period, the Arabs were the exclusive importers of the spice to Europe. They sold nutmeg fbr high prices to merchants based in Venice, but they never revealed the exact location of the source of this extremely valuable commodity. The Arab-Venetian dominance of the trade finally ended in 1512, when the Portuguese reached the Banda Islands and began exploiting its precious resources. Always in danger of competition from neighbouring Spain, the Portuguese began subcontracting their spice distribution to Dutch traders. Profits began to flow into the Netherlands, and the Dutch commercial fleet swiftly grew into one of the largest in the world. The Dutch quietly gained control of most of the shipping and trading of spices in Northern Europe. Then, in 1580, Portugal fell under Spanish rule, and by the end of the 16th century the Dutch found emselves locked out of the market. As prices for pepper, nutmeg, and other spices soared across Europe, they decided to fight back. In 1602, Dutch merchants founded the VOC, a trading corporation better known as the Dutch East India Company. By 1617, the VOC was the richest commercial operation in the world. The company had 50,000 employees worldwide, with a private army of 30,000 men and a fleet of 200 ships. At the same time, thousands of people across Europe were dying of the plague, a highly contagious and deadly disease. Doctors were desperate fbr a way to stop the spread of this disease, and they decided nutmeg held the cure. Everybody wanted nutmeg, and many were willing to spare no expense to have it. Nutmeg bought fbr a few pennies in Indonesia could be sold fbr 68,000 times its original cost on the streets of London. The only problem was the short supply. And thafs where the Dutch found their opportunity. The Banda Islands were ruled by local sultans who insisted on maintaining a neutral trading policy towards foreign powers. This allowed them to avoid the presence of Portuguese or Spanish troops on their soil, but it also left them unprotected from other invaders. In 1621, the Dutch arrived and took over. Once securely in control of the Bandas, the Dutch went to work protecting their new investment. They concentrated all nutmeg production into a few easily guarded areas, uprooting and destroying any trees outside the plantation zones. Anyone caught growing a nutmeg seedling or carrying seeds without the proper authority was severely punished. In addition, all exported nutmeg was covered with lime to make sure there was no chance a fertile seed which could be grown elsewhere would leave the islands. There was only one obstacle to Dutch domination. One of the Banda Islands, a sliver of land called Run, only 3 km long by less than 1 km wide, was under the control of the British. After decades of fighting for control of this tiny island, the Dutch and British arrived at a compromise settlement, the Treaty of Breda, in 1667. Intent on securing their hold over every nutmeg-producing island, the Dutch offered a trade: the British would give them the island of Run, they would in tur*n give Britain a distant and much less valuable island in North America. The British agreed. That other island was Manhattan, which is how New Amsterdam became New "York. The Dutch now had a monopoly over the nutmeg trade which would last for another century. Then, in 1770, a Frenchman named Pierre Poivre successfully smuggled nutmeg plants to safety in Mauritius, an island off the coast of Africa. Some of these were later exported to the Caribbean where they thrived, especially on the island of Grenada. Next, in 1778, a volcanic eruption in the Banda region caused a tsunami that wiped out half the nutmeg groves. Finally, in 1809, the British returned to Indonesia and seized the Banda Islands by force. They returned the islands to the Dutch in 1817, but not before transplanting hundreds of nutmeg seedlings to plantations in several locations across southern Asia. The Dutch nutmeg monopoly was over. Today, nutmeg is grown in Indonesia, the Caribbean, India, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka, and world nutmeg production is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes per year. | The VOC was the world's first major trading company. | n |
id_4343 | Nutmeg - a valuable spice. The nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, is a large evergreen tree native to Southeast Asia. Until the late 18th century, it only grew in one place in the world: a small group of islands in the Banda Sea, part of the Moluccas - or Spice Islands - in northeastern Indonesia. The tree is thickly branched with dense foliage of tough, dark green oval leaves, and produces small, yellow, bell-shaped flowers and pale yellow pear-shaped fruits. The fruit is encased in a fleshy husk. When the fruit is ripe, this husk splits into two halves along a ridge running the length of the fruit. Inside is a purple-brown shiny seed, 2-3 cm long by about 2cm across, surrounded by a lacy red or crimson covering called an 'aril'. These are the sources of the two spices nutmeg and mace, the former being produced from the dried seed and the latter from the aril. Nutmeg was a highly prized and costly ingredient in European cuisine in the Middle Ages, and was used as a flavouring, medicinal, and preservative agent. Throughout this period, the Arabs were the exclusive importers of the spice to Europe. They sold nutmeg fbr high prices to merchants based in Venice, but they never revealed the exact location of the source of this extremely valuable commodity. The Arab-Venetian dominance of the trade finally ended in 1512, when the Portuguese reached the Banda Islands and began exploiting its precious resources. Always in danger of competition from neighbouring Spain, the Portuguese began subcontracting their spice distribution to Dutch traders. Profits began to flow into the Netherlands, and the Dutch commercial fleet swiftly grew into one of the largest in the world. The Dutch quietly gained control of most of the shipping and trading of spices in Northern Europe. Then, in 1580, Portugal fell under Spanish rule, and by the end of the 16th century the Dutch found emselves locked out of the market. As prices for pepper, nutmeg, and other spices soared across Europe, they decided to fight back. In 1602, Dutch merchants founded the VOC, a trading corporation better known as the Dutch East India Company. By 1617, the VOC was the richest commercial operation in the world. The company had 50,000 employees worldwide, with a private army of 30,000 men and a fleet of 200 ships. At the same time, thousands of people across Europe were dying of the plague, a highly contagious and deadly disease. Doctors were desperate fbr a way to stop the spread of this disease, and they decided nutmeg held the cure. Everybody wanted nutmeg, and many were willing to spare no expense to have it. Nutmeg bought fbr a few pennies in Indonesia could be sold fbr 68,000 times its original cost on the streets of London. The only problem was the short supply. And thafs where the Dutch found their opportunity. The Banda Islands were ruled by local sultans who insisted on maintaining a neutral trading policy towards foreign powers. This allowed them to avoid the presence of Portuguese or Spanish troops on their soil, but it also left them unprotected from other invaders. In 1621, the Dutch arrived and took over. Once securely in control of the Bandas, the Dutch went to work protecting their new investment. They concentrated all nutmeg production into a few easily guarded areas, uprooting and destroying any trees outside the plantation zones. Anyone caught growing a nutmeg seedling or carrying seeds without the proper authority was severely punished. In addition, all exported nutmeg was covered with lime to make sure there was no chance a fertile seed which could be grown elsewhere would leave the islands. There was only one obstacle to Dutch domination. One of the Banda Islands, a sliver of land called Run, only 3 km long by less than 1 km wide, was under the control of the British. After decades of fighting for control of this tiny island, the Dutch and British arrived at a compromise settlement, the Treaty of Breda, in 1667. Intent on securing their hold over every nutmeg-producing island, the Dutch offered a trade: the British would give them the island of Run, they would in tur*n give Britain a distant and much less valuable island in North America. The British agreed. That other island was Manhattan, which is how New Amsterdam became New "York. The Dutch now had a monopoly over the nutmeg trade which would last for another century. Then, in 1770, a Frenchman named Pierre Poivre successfully smuggled nutmeg plants to safety in Mauritius, an island off the coast of Africa. Some of these were later exported to the Caribbean where they thrived, especially on the island of Grenada. Next, in 1778, a volcanic eruption in the Banda region caused a tsunami that wiped out half the nutmeg groves. Finally, in 1809, the British returned to Indonesia and seized the Banda Islands by force. They returned the islands to the Dutch in 1817, but not before transplanting hundreds of nutmeg seedlings to plantations in several locations across southern Asia. The Dutch nutmeg monopoly was over. Today, nutmeg is grown in Indonesia, the Caribbean, India, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka, and world nutmeg production is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes per year. | In the Middle Ages, most Europeans knew where nutmeg was grown. | c |
id_4344 | Nutmeg - a valuable spice. The nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, is a large evergreen tree native to Southeast Asia. Until the late 18th century, it only grew in one place in the world: a small group of islands in the Banda Sea, part of the Moluccas - or Spice Islands - in northeastern Indonesia. The tree is thickly branched with dense foliage of tough, dark green oval leaves, and produces small, yellow, bell-shaped flowers and pale yellow pear-shaped fruits. The fruit is encased in a fleshy husk. When the fruit is ripe, this husk splits into two halves along a ridge running the length of the fruit. Inside is a purple-brown shiny seed, 2-3 cm long by about 2cm across, surrounded by a lacy red or crimson covering called an 'aril'. These are the sources of the two spices nutmeg and mace, the former being produced from the dried seed and the latter from the aril. Nutmeg was a highly prized and costly ingredient in European cuisine in the Middle Ages, and was used as a flavouring, medicinal, and preservative agent. Throughout this period, the Arabs were the exclusive importers of the spice to Europe. They sold nutmeg fbr high prices to merchants based in Venice, but they never revealed the exact location of the source of this extremely valuable commodity. The Arab-Venetian dominance of the trade finally ended in 1512, when the Portuguese reached the Banda Islands and began exploiting its precious resources. Always in danger of competition from neighbouring Spain, the Portuguese began subcontracting their spice distribution to Dutch traders. Profits began to flow into the Netherlands, and the Dutch commercial fleet swiftly grew into one of the largest in the world. The Dutch quietly gained control of most of the shipping and trading of spices in Northern Europe. Then, in 1580, Portugal fell under Spanish rule, and by the end of the 16th century the Dutch found emselves locked out of the market. As prices for pepper, nutmeg, and other spices soared across Europe, they decided to fight back. In 1602, Dutch merchants founded the VOC, a trading corporation better known as the Dutch East India Company. By 1617, the VOC was the richest commercial operation in the world. The company had 50,000 employees worldwide, with a private army of 30,000 men and a fleet of 200 ships. At the same time, thousands of people across Europe were dying of the plague, a highly contagious and deadly disease. Doctors were desperate fbr a way to stop the spread of this disease, and they decided nutmeg held the cure. Everybody wanted nutmeg, and many were willing to spare no expense to have it. Nutmeg bought fbr a few pennies in Indonesia could be sold fbr 68,000 times its original cost on the streets of London. The only problem was the short supply. And thafs where the Dutch found their opportunity. The Banda Islands were ruled by local sultans who insisted on maintaining a neutral trading policy towards foreign powers. This allowed them to avoid the presence of Portuguese or Spanish troops on their soil, but it also left them unprotected from other invaders. In 1621, the Dutch arrived and took over. Once securely in control of the Bandas, the Dutch went to work protecting their new investment. They concentrated all nutmeg production into a few easily guarded areas, uprooting and destroying any trees outside the plantation zones. Anyone caught growing a nutmeg seedling or carrying seeds without the proper authority was severely punished. In addition, all exported nutmeg was covered with lime to make sure there was no chance a fertile seed which could be grown elsewhere would leave the islands. There was only one obstacle to Dutch domination. One of the Banda Islands, a sliver of land called Run, only 3 km long by less than 1 km wide, was under the control of the British. After decades of fighting for control of this tiny island, the Dutch and British arrived at a compromise settlement, the Treaty of Breda, in 1667. Intent on securing their hold over every nutmeg-producing island, the Dutch offered a trade: the British would give them the island of Run, they would in tur*n give Britain a distant and much less valuable island in North America. The British agreed. That other island was Manhattan, which is how New Amsterdam became New "York. The Dutch now had a monopoly over the nutmeg trade which would last for another century. Then, in 1770, a Frenchman named Pierre Poivre successfully smuggled nutmeg plants to safety in Mauritius, an island off the coast of Africa. Some of these were later exported to the Caribbean where they thrived, especially on the island of Grenada. Next, in 1778, a volcanic eruption in the Banda region caused a tsunami that wiped out half the nutmeg groves. Finally, in 1809, the British returned to Indonesia and seized the Banda Islands by force. They returned the islands to the Dutch in 1817, but not before transplanting hundreds of nutmeg seedlings to plantations in several locations across southern Asia. The Dutch nutmeg monopoly was over. Today, nutmeg is grown in Indonesia, the Caribbean, India, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka, and world nutmeg production is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes per year. | Following the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch had control of all the islands where nutmeg grew. | e |
id_4345 | Oat cereal has more fiber than corn cereal but less fiber than bran cereal. Corn cereal has more fiber than rice cereal but less fiber than wheat cereal. | Of the three kinds of cereal, rice cereal has the least amount of fiber. | e |
id_4346 | Of three part-time employees, Mary Potter works longer hours than Fred Ruby, although Betty Simpson works longer hours than Mary Potter. | Betty Simpson Betty Simpson | e |
id_4347 | Off-shoring has been adopted by banks and other financial organisations in the West since the 1980s, but it is only in recent years that it has become popular in other industry sectors as its financial benefits over more local outsourcing have become recognised. Evidence indicates that off-shore workers have a lower incidence of failure and cost less to employ than workers based locally. Off-shore workers need less financial rewards and become more competent than local workers in a shorter space of time. | In the West, off-shoring was the main method used for banking organisations out-sourcing their work in the 1980s. | n |
id_4348 | Off-shoring has been adopted by banks and other financial organisations in the West since the 1980s, but it is only in recent years that it has become popular in other industry sectors as its financial benefits over more local outsourcing have become recognised. Evidence indicates that off-shore workers have a lower incidence of failure and cost less to employ than workers based locally. Off-shore workers need less financial rewards and become more competent than local workers in a shorter space of time. | Off-shoring has only been adopted in recent years. | c |
id_4349 | Off-shoring has been adopted by banks and other financial organisations in the West since the 1989s, but it is only in recent years that it has become popular in other industry sectors as its financial benefits over more local outsourcing have become recognised. Evidence indicates that off-shore workers have a lower incidence of failure and cost less to employ than workers based locally. Off-shore workers need less financial rewards and become more competent than local workers in a shorter space of time. | Off-shoring has only been adopted in recent years. | c |
id_4350 | Off-shoring has been adopted by banks and other financial organisations in the West since the 1989s, but it is only in recent years that it has become popular in other industry sectors as its financial benefits over more local outsourcing have become recognised. Evidence indicates that off-shore workers have a lower incidence of failure and cost less to employ than workers based locally. Off-shore workers need less financial rewards and become more competent than local workers in a shorter space of time. | In the west, off-shoring was the main method used for banking organisations out-sourcing their work in the 1989s. | n |
id_4351 | Offenders posing as representatives of the local gas and electricity board had successfully targetted an | area of the town over the past week, by conning their way into peoples homes and stealing items once inside. A victim yesterday described their offender as a male aged approximately in his early forties, with dark hair and a moustache, wearing dark overalls. Another victim believed they'd seen a suspect driving a small dark blue van. The following facts are known: Akram owns a blue Peugeot van. Officers saw unemployed Clark in the area four days ago, when another two deceptions were reported. He was wearing overalls, but was clean-shaven that day. Barton, aged 45, a rogue odd job man was seen cleaning windows in the same area over the past week. Both Akram and Barton have moustaches. Akram, aged 39, used to work for the local gas board. Barton is currently using a maroon Ford Escort Estate. It was parked up in the area two days ago, with a clipboard left on the dashboard. | Akram is clearly responsible for these offences. | c |
id_4352 | Offenders posing as representatives of the local gas and electricity board had successfully targetted an | area of the town over the past week, by conning their way into peoples homes and stealing items once inside. A victim yesterday described their offender as a male aged approximately in his early forties, with dark hair and a moustache, wearing dark overalls. Another victim believed they'd seen a suspect driving a small dark blue van. The following facts are known: Akram owns a blue Peugeot van. Officers saw unemployed Clark in the area four days ago, when another two deceptions were reported. He was wearing overalls, but was clean-shaven that day. Barton, aged 45, a rogue odd job man was seen cleaning windows in the same area over the past week. Both Akram and Barton have moustaches. Akram, aged 39, used to work for the local gas board. Barton is currently using a maroon Ford Escort Estate. It was parked up in the area two days ago, with a clipboard left on the dashboard. | Clark could fit the description given by the victim. | e |
id_4353 | Offenders posing as representatives of the local gas and electricity board had successfully targetted an | area of the town over the past week, by conning their way into peoples homes and stealing items once inside. A victim yesterday described their offender as a male aged approximately in his early forties, with dark hair and a moustache, wearing dark overalls. Another victim believed they'd seen a suspect driving a small dark blue van. The following facts are known: Akram owns a blue Peugeot van. Officers saw unemployed Clark in the area four days ago, when another two deceptions were reported. He was wearing overalls, but was clean-shaven that day. Barton, aged 45, a rogue odd job man was seen cleaning windows in the same area over the past week. Both Akram and Barton have moustaches. Akram, aged 39, used to work for the local gas board. Barton is currently using a maroon Ford Escort Estate. It was parked up in the area two days ago, with a clipboard left on the dashboard. | Akram and Barton were working together in the area over the past week. | n |
id_4354 | Offenders posing as representatives of the local gas and electricity board had successfully targetted an | area of the town over the past week, by conning their way into peoples homes and stealing items once inside. A victim yesterday described their offender as a male aged approximately in his early forties, with dark hair and a moustache, wearing dark overalls. Another victim believed they'd seen a suspect driving a small dark blue van. The following facts are known: Akram owns a blue Peugeot van. Officers saw unemployed Clark in the area four days ago, when another two deceptions were reported. He was wearing overalls, but was clean-shaven that day. Barton, aged 45, a rogue odd job man was seen cleaning windows in the same area over the past week. Both Akram and Barton have moustaches. Akram, aged 39, used to work for the local gas board. Barton is currently using a maroon Ford Escort Estate. It was parked up in the area two days ago, with a clipboard left on the dashboard. | The offender used a clipboard during each offence. | n |
id_4355 | Offenders posing as representatives of the local gas and electricity board had successfully targetted an | area of the town over the past week, by conning their way into peoples homes and stealing items once inside. A victim yesterday described their offender as a male aged approximately in his early forties, with dark hair and a moustache, wearing dark overalls. Another victim believed they'd seen a suspect driving a small dark blue van. The following facts are known: Akram owns a blue Peugeot van. Officers saw unemployed Clark in the area four days ago, when another two deceptions were reported. He was wearing overalls, but was clean-shaven that day. Barton, aged 45, a rogue odd job man was seen cleaning windows in the same area over the past week. Both Akram and Barton have moustaches. Akram, aged 39, used to work for the local gas board. Barton is currently using a maroon Ford Escort Estate. It was parked up in the area two days ago, with a clipboard left on the dashboard. | Akram cannot be a suspect, because of his age. | c |
id_4356 | Officelink, an office equipment superstore, has grown by leaps and bounds since it opened in 1996. This success has been attributed to a combination of low prices, comprehensive stock and its location in the middle of a large and thriving business park. Until recently, the stock control procedures failed to keep up with the increase in business, and customers frequently complained that staff could not find requested stock items. Management attempted to overcome this problem by authorising the purchase of the latest stock control computer software. This software now keeps track of client credit accounts and logs all purchases according to specific stock codes. It will also automatically re-order stock once supplies fall below the pre-defined levels, which can now afford to be lower than ever. | In the past, stock control was done manually. | n |
id_4357 | Officelink, an office equipment superstore, has grown by leaps and bounds since it opened in 1996. This success has been attributed to a combination of low prices, comprehensive stock and its location in the middle of a large and thriving business park. Until recently, the stock control procedures failed to keep up with the increase in business, and customers frequently complained that staff could not find requested stock items. Management attempted to overcome this problem by authorising the purchase of the latest stock control computer software. This software now keeps track of client credit accounts and logs all purchases according to specific stock codes. It will also automatically re-order stock once supplies fall below the pre-defined levels, which can now afford to be lower than ever. | Officelink will have to increase prices to cover the cost of the new stock control computer system. | n |
id_4358 | Official statistics from countries around the European Union suggest that Britain has the second-highest living standard within the EU. Research suggests that a major reason for this is the service provided by the NHS. The European research body, Eurostat, compared the figures for Britain both with the services supplied by the NHS and without such services. It found that without the aid of the NHS, Britain moved down to 10th in the scale for its standard of living. In the recent report Bulgaria was found to be the worst-off country in the EU, with Norway and Sweden as the richest. Denmark was found to be the most expensive to live in within the EU. These figures represent a dramatic change since the last survey carried out in 2007. At the time of the 2007 survey, Ireland was found to be one of the richest countries with its standard of living 48% above the average, beating even Sweden. However, this is no longer the case. | Eurostat is backed by the European Commission. | n |
id_4359 | Official statistics from countries around the European Union suggest that Britain has the second-highest living standard within the EU. Research suggests that a major reason for this is the service provided by the NHS. The European research body, Eurostat, compared the figures for Britain both with the services supplied by the NHS and without such services. It found that without the aid of the NHS, Britain moved down to 10th in the scale for its standard of living. In the recent report Bulgaria was found to be the worst-off country in the EU, with Norway and Sweden as the richest. Denmark was found to be the most expensive to live in within the EU. These figures represent a dramatic change since the last survey carried out in 2007. At the time of the 2007 survey, Ireland was found to be one of the richest countries with its standard of living 48% above the average, beating even Sweden. However, this is no longer the case. | The richest countries are Sweden and Norway. | e |
id_4360 | Official statistics from countries around the European Union suggest that Britain has the second-highest living standard within the EU. Research suggests that a major reason for this is the service provided by the NHS. The European research body, Eurostat, compared the figures for Britain both with the services supplied by the NHS and without such services. It found that without the aid of the NHS, Britain moved down to 10th in the scale for its standard of living. In the recent report Bulgaria was found to be the worst-off country in the EU, with Norway and Sweden as the richest. Denmark was found to be the most expensive to live in within the EU. These figures represent a dramatic change since the last survey carried out in 2007. At the time of the 2007 survey, Ireland was found to be one of the richest countries with its standard of living 48% above the average, beating even Sweden. However, this is no longer the case. | The richest countries are Denmark and Norway. | c |
id_4361 | Official statistics from countries around the European Union suggest that Britain has the second-highest living standard within the EU. Research suggests that a major reason for this is the service provided by the NHS. The European research body, Eurostat, compared the figures for Britain both with the services supplied by the NHS and without such services. It found that without the aid of the NHS, Britain moved down to 10th in the scale for its standard of living. In the recent report Bulgaria was found to be the worst-off country in the EU, with Norway and Sweden as the richest. Denmark was found to be the most expensive to live in within the EU. These figures represent a dramatic change since the last survey carried out in 2007. At the time of the 2007 survey, Ireland was found to be one of the richest countries with its standard of living 48% above the average, beating even Sweden. However, this is no longer the case. | Denmark is one of the richest countries in the EU | c |
id_4362 | Official statistics suggest that only a third of drivers tax is spent on the roads. In 2010, figures suggest revealed that drivers spent twenty eight billion pounds in fuel taxes, yet, in the same year, only five billion was spent on local roads and a further four billion on national highways. In addition to fuel taxes, excise tax has almost doubled since 1988. Speaking on this subject, the president of the AA stated that the poorest motorists are often the most affected by tax hikes. | Nine billion pounds tax, in total, was spent on local roads and national highways in 2010 | e |
id_4363 | Oil price instability justifies greater efforts to develop substitute fuels. But this should be a part of a two-pronged strategy, the other prong being to make existing fuels go further. Regrettably, however, the effort is still not there. Heat loss in homes and factories represents a substantial and avoidable waste. In transport, petrol is used relatively efficiently but it could be used to go even further still. | Not enough is being done to make better use of fuels. | e |
id_4364 | Oil price instability justifies greater efforts to develop substitute fuels. But this should be a part of a two-pronged strategy, the other prong being to make existing fuels go further. Regrettably, however, the effort is still not there. Heat loss in homes and factories represents a substantial and avoidable waste. In transport, petrol is used relatively efficiently but it could be used to go even further still. | The opportunity to make existing fuels go further exists mainly in the domestic sector. | c |
id_4365 | Oil price instability justifies greater efforts to develop substitute fuels. But this should be a part of a two-pronged strategy, the other prong being to make existing fuels go further. Regrettably, however, the effort is still not there. Heat loss in homes and factories represents a substantial and avoidable waste. In transport, petrol is used relatively efficiently but it could be used to go even further still. | Oil price instability will lead to greater efforts to use existing fuel sources more efficiently. | n |
id_4366 | Oil prices have been at record levels and are currently at around $45 a barrel. In the most efficient oilfields it costs only 80 to 90 cents to extract a barrel. Most producing countries want greater oil price stability and fear for the effect on their economies and on world demand when, as in recent years, oil prices have fluctuated between $20 and $50 a barrel. In response, some producers are expanding production capacity in order that they can respond more flexibly to demand and rising prices with greater production. Exploration and research into extraction techniques have been commissioned to investigate ways in which production can be expanded. This exploration and research brought unexpected results. Oil analysts have concluded that there is much more oil in the world than current estimates assume and that new techniques make it possible to extract much more of the known reserves economically than previously thought. | New extraction techniques allow oil to be extracted at a price of between 80 and 90 cents a barrel. | c |
id_4367 | Oil prices have been at record levels and are currently at around $45 a barrel. In the most efficient oilfields it costs only 80 to 90 cents to extract a barrel. Most producing countries want greater oil price stability and fear for the effect on their economies and on world demand when, as in recent years, oil prices have fluctuated between $20 and $50 a barrel. In response, some producers are expanding production capacity in order that they can respond more flexibly to demand and rising prices with greater production. Exploration and research into extraction techniques have been commissioned to investigate ways in which production can be expanded. This exploration and research brought unexpected results. Oil analysts have concluded that there is much more oil in the world than current estimates assume and that new techniques make it possible to extract much more of the known reserves economically than previously thought. | It is reasonable to assume that greater capacity at times of high demand will help stabilize prices. | e |
id_4368 | Oil prices have been at record levels and are currently at around $45 a barrel. In the most efficient oilfields it costs only 80 to 90 cents to extract a barrel. Most producing countries want greater oil price stability and fear for the effect on their economies and on world demand when, as in recent years, oil prices have fluctuated between $20 and $50 a barrel. In response, some producers are expanding production capacity in order that they can respond more flexibly to demand and rising prices with greater production. Exploration and research into extraction techniques have been commissioned to investigate ways in which production can be expanded. This exploration and research brought unexpected results. Oil analysts have concluded that there is much more oil in the world than current estimates assume and that new techniques make it possible to extract much more of the known reserves economically than previously thought. | The passage states that the recent exploration has found new reserves. | c |
id_4369 | Oil prices have been at record levels and are currently at around $45 a barrel. In the most efficient oilfields it costs only 80 to 90 cents to extract a barrel. Most producing countries want greater oil price stability and fear for the effect on their economies and on world demand when, as in recent years, oil prices have fluctuated between $20 and $50 a barrel. In response, some producers are expanding production capacity in order that they can respond more flexibly to demand and rising prices with greater production. Exploration and research into extraction techniques have been commissioned to investigate ways in which production can be expanded. This exploration and research brought unexpected results. Oil analysts have concluded that there is much more oil in the world than current estimates assume and that new techniques make it possible to extract much more of the known reserves economically than previously thought. | It would be reasonable to infer from the passage that oil analysts were impressed by the findings of the exploration and research. | e |
id_4370 | Oil prices have been at record levels and are currently at around $45 a barrel. In the most efficient oilfields it costs only 80 to 90 cents to extract a barrel. Most producing countries want greater oil price stability and fear for the effect on their economies and on world demand when, as in recent years, oil prices have fluctuated between $20 and $50 a barrel. In response, some producers are expanding production capacity in order that they can respond more flexibly to demand and rising prices with greater production. Exploration and research into extraction techniques have been commissioned to investigate ways in which production can be expanded. This exploration and research brought unexpected results. Oil analysts have concluded that there is much more oil in the world than current estimates assume and that new techniques make it possible to extract much more of the known reserves economically than previously thought. | The record price for crude oil is $50 a barrel. | n |
id_4371 | Oil sands are most commonly found in Venezuelas Orinoco Basin and Alberta, Canada. Modern technology has made the extraction of crude bitumen, or unconventional oil, from these oil sands much easier. The crude oil that is extracted from traditional oil wells is a free-flowing mixture of hydrocarbons, whereas oil sands yield a highly viscous form of petroleum. Increasing world demand for oil and higher petrol prices have made the economic viability of extracting oil sands approach that of conventional oil. Oil sands have been described as one of the dirtiest sources of fuel. Compared to conventional oil, four times the amount of greenhouse gases are generated from the extraction of bitumen from oil sands. Additionally there is an impact on the local environment. Tailing ponds of toxic waste are created whenever the tar sands are washed with water. Proponents of oil sands development point to the land that has already been reclaimed following oil sands development. Also, that there will be considerably less surface impact once technology innovations have allowed oil sand reserves to be drilled rather than mined. | It is almost as expensive to extract conventional oil as oil sands. | e |
id_4372 | Oil sands are most commonly found in Venezuelas Orinoco Basin and Alberta, Canada. Modern technology has made the extraction of crude bitumen, or unconventional oil, from these oil sands much easier. The crude oil that is extracted from traditional oil wells is a free-flowing mixture of hydrocarbons, whereas oil sands yield a highly viscous form of petroleum. Increasing world demand for oil and higher petrol prices have made the economic viability of extracting oil sands approach that of conventional oil. Oil sands have been described as one of the dirtiest sources of fuel. Compared to conventional oil, four times the amount of greenhouse gases are generated from the extraction of bitumen from oil sands. Additionally there is an impact on the local environment. Tailing ponds of toxic waste are created whenever the tar sands are washed with water. Proponents of oil sands development point to the land that has already been reclaimed following oil sands development. Also, that there will be considerably less surface impact once technology innovations have allowed oil sand reserves to be drilled rather than mined. | Extracting bitumen from conventional oil generates four times the level of greenhouse gases than extracting from oil sands. | c |
id_4373 | Oil sands are most commonly found in Venezuelas Orinoco Basin and Alberta, Canada. Modern technology has made the extraction of crude bitumen, or unconventional oil, from these oil sands much easier. The crude oil that is extracted from traditional oil wells is a free-flowing mixture of hydrocarbons, whereas oil sands yield a highly viscous form of petroleum. Increasing world demand for oil and higher petrol prices have made the economic viability of extracting oil sands approach that of conventional oil. Oil sands have been described as one of the dirtiest sources of fuel. Compared to conventional oil, four times the amount of greenhouse gases are generated from the extraction of bitumen from oil sands. Additionally there is an impact on the local environment. Tailing ponds of toxic waste are created whenever the tar sands are washed with water. Proponents of oil sands development point to the land that has already been reclaimed following oil sands development. Also, that there will be considerably less surface impact once technology innovations have allowed oil sand reserves to be drilled rather than mined. | Oil sands offer a clean solution for meeting future energy needs. | c |
id_4374 | Oil sands are most commonly found in Venezuelas Orinoco Basin and Alberta, Canada. Modern technology has made the extraction of crude bitumen, or unconventional oil, from these oil sands much easier. The crude oil that is extracted from traditional oil wells is a free-flowing mixture of hydrocarbons, whereas oil sands yield a highly viscous form of petroleum. Increasing world demand for oil and higher petrol prices have made the economic viability of extracting oil sands approach that of conventional oil. Oil sands have been described as one of the dirtiest sources of fuel. Compared to conventional oil, four times the amount of greenhouse gases are generated from the extraction of bitumen from oil sands. Additionally there is an impact on the local environment. Tailing ponds of toxic waste are created whenever the tar sands are washed with water. Proponents of oil sands development point to the land that has already been reclaimed following oil sands development. Also, that there will be considerably less surface impact once technology innovations have allowed oil sand reserves to be drilled rather than mined. | Bitumen is a highly viscous form of petroleum that needs to be heated to flow. | n |
id_4375 | Oil sands are most commonly found in Venezuelas Orinoco Basin and Alberta, Canada. Modern technology has made the extraction of crude bitumen, or unconventional oil, from these oil sands much easier. The crude oil that is extracted from traditional oil wells is a free-flowing mixture of hydrocarbons, whereas oil sands yield a highly viscous form of petroleum. Increasing world demand for oil and higher petrol prices have made the economic viability of extracting oil sands approach that of conventional oil. Oil sands have been described as one of the dirtiest sources of fuel. Compared to conventional oil, four times the amount of greenhouse gases are generated from the extraction of bitumen from oil sands. Additionally there is an impact on the local environment. Tailing ponds of toxic waste are created whenever the tar sands are washed with water. Proponents of oil sands development point to the land that has already been reclaimed following oil sands development. Also, that there will be considerably less surface impact once technology innovations have allowed oil sand reserves to be drilled rather than mined. | Oil sands are only found in Alberta and the Orinoco Basin. | c |
id_4376 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Chicks are sensitive to imprinting for up to 48 hours after hatching. | e |
id_4377 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Imprinting stops young birds from getting separated from their mother. | e |
id_4378 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Cormorants imprinted on fishermen are difficult to train. | c |
id_4379 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Imprinting in birds is temporary. | c |
id_4380 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Puppies can only imprint on other dogs and humans. | n |
id_4381 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water, catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Imprinting stops young birds from getting separated from their mother. | e |
id_4382 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water, catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Cormorants imprinted on fishermen are difficult to train. | c |
id_4383 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water, catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Imprinting in birds is temporary. | c |
id_4384 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water, catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Puppies can only imprint on other dogs and humans. | n |
id_4385 | Old dogs and new tricks The first days of an animals life play a major part in shaping its future. Cormorant birds are used in China and Japan to catch fish in a traditional method of river fishing that dates back thousands of years. A cormorant dives under the water, catches a fish, and then clings to a bamboo pole that the fisherman swings into the boat. It is easy to train a cormorant to behave like this because the bird has been imprinted on the fisherman instead of its natural mother. The fisherman imprints the cormorant on himself by appearing to the chick when it hatches out of the egg. The young bird mistakes the fisherman for the mother bird and bonds with him, responding to his voice and, later, swimming alongside his boat. This follow response is natures way of preventing young birds from straying from their mother. The process of imprinting lasts for a period of up to two days after hatching. After this sensitive period the effect of the imprinting remains unchanged for the lifetime of the bird and cannot be reversed. Dogs, cats, sheep, horses and other animals go through a process of imprinting similar to birds. In the case of dogs, the sensitive period lasts for up to 12 weeks. During this time the puppy can imprint on both its natural mother and on humans. Puppies are born blind and deaf, and naturally stay close to their mothers so they do not need an immediate follow response. The sensitive period lasts from the second week to the fourteenth week of life. It is critical that a dog is socialized with other dogs, family pets and with people within this time frame. If the basic social behaviour is not imprinted in a puppy by the fourteenth week it will lead to behavioural problems later in life that are difficult to change. A puppy should be left with its natural mother and the litter for several weeks before being socialized with people. If a puppy is taken away from its natural mother too early and handled by people then it sees humans as its natural companions and dogs as complete strangers. Dogs that have only been socialized with people are likely to be aggressive towards another persons dog or even attack it. Conversely, a dog that has been kept with the mother and litter for too long will not regard humans as companions and is more likely to be aggressive towards people and bite them. Dogs that have not been adequately socialized with both dogs and people can be difficult to control and will not respond to training. Negative experiences with humans during the imprinting stage can have lasting effects on a dog. It is a cliche, but bad behaviour in a dog is usually the fault of its owner. A rescue dog that was neglected and abused by its owner is likely to remain nervous and fearful of humans. It is possible for a dog to overcome behavioural problems that originate from imprinting but it requires a lot of training and may not be completely successful. Negative behaviours are often reinforced inadvertently when a dog receives more attention for behaving badly than for behaving well. In obedience training, the dog is taught to respond to basic commands such as sit, stay, down and release. In one training technique, the owner shouts a command for example, sit and if the dog acts accordingly it is rewarded with its favourite toy and is verbally praised. The dog associates the action of sitting with praise from its owner and learns to comply. Punishment and negative experiences are best avoided to ensure a confident, happy and obedient dog. Even an old dog can be taught new tricks, or at least new behaviours, with training every day. Not all dog behaviour can be explained by imprinting and training. Generations of breeding in captivity has domesticated dogs so that they can live in peoples homes as pets, or as working animals. Dogs have been selectively bred to have their natural abilities enhanced or suppressed to suit the needs of man. For example, Border Collies and Belgian Shepherd dogs are pure-bred to herd sheep and protect them, more so when a dog has been imprinted on the flock. Spaniels and Retrievers are used as gun dogs to retrieve game birds for hunters. Scent hounds like the Beagle and the Fox Hound are used for their extra keen sense of smell when sniffing and tracking prey like rabbits and foxes. Some dogs, like Pit Bull Terriers, have been deliberately bred for fighting and can make dangerous pets. It is worth remembering that all dogs have been domesticated from wolves, so any dog has the potential to bite the hand that feeds it, no matter how well it has been socialized and trained. | Chicks are sensitive to imprinting for up to 48 hours after hatching. | e |
id_4386 | Ollie Jones and Ben Wilson, both aged 10, were reported missing at 20.00 after they failed to return home from a cycle ride to some nearby woods. The police have set up a search party for the two missing boys. The following facts are known: The woods are very dense and over 10 hectares in area. The two boys were admitted to a local hospital at 17.00. Ollie lived with his stepmother. Ben was an only child living with his father. Ben had a new 10-gear racing bike. The wood has several ponds and swampy areas. The older students picked on Ollie at school. Ben saw an educational psychologist at school each week. | Ben had no brothers or sisters. | e |
id_4387 | Ollie Jones and Ben Wilson, both aged 10, were reported missing at 20.00 after they failed to return home from a cycle ride to some nearby woods. The police have set up a search party for the two missing boys. The following facts are known: The woods are very dense and over 10 hectares in area. The two boys were admitted to a local hospital at 17.00. Ollie lived with his stepmother. Ben was an only child living with his father. Ben had a new 10-gear racing bike. The wood has several ponds and swampy areas. The older students picked on Ollie at school. Ben saw an educational psychologist at school each week. | Ben had no problems at school or at home. | c |
id_4388 | Ollie Jones and Ben Wilson, both aged 10, were reported missing at 20.00 after they failed to return home from a cycle ride to some nearby woods. The police have set up a search party for the two missing boys. The following facts are known: The woods are very dense and over 10 hectares in area. The two boys were admitted to a local hospital at 17.00. Ollie lived with his stepmother. Ben was an only child living with his father. Ben had a new 10-gear racing bike. The wood has several ponds and swampy areas. The older students picked on Ollie at school. Ben saw an educational psychologist at school each week. | The older students had picked on Ollie in the woods. | n |
id_4389 | Ollie Jones and Ben Wilson, both aged 10, were reported missing at 20.00 after they failed to return home from a cycle ride to some nearby woods. The police have set up a search party for the two missing boys. The following facts are known: The woods are very dense and over 10 hectares in area. The two boys were admitted to a local hospital at 17.00. Ollie lived with his stepmother. Ben was an only child living with his father. Ben had a new 10-gear racing bike. The wood has several ponds and swampy areas. The older students picked on Ollie at school. Ben saw an educational psychologist at school each week. | The two boys had a cycle accident and were taken to hospital. | n |
id_4390 | Ollie Jones and Ben Wilson, both aged 10, were reported missing at 20.00 after they failed to return home from a cycle ride to some nearby woods. The police have set up a search party for the two missing boys. The following facts are known: The woods are very dense and over 10 hectares in area. The two boys were admitted to a local hospital at 17.00. Ollie lived with his stepmother. Ben was an only child living with his father. Ben had a new 10-gear racing bike. The wood has several ponds and swampy areas. The older students picked on Ollie at school. Ben saw an educational psychologist at school each week. | The two boys could have run away from home. | e |
id_4391 | On 17th February 2013, at the annual Sports Conference conference, Government has been accused of "turning its back on school sport" and undermining the Olympic legacy six months after the Games. Shadow Sports Minister Clive Efford MP told the BBC: "What has gone on in school sport is absolutely disastrous. Education Secretary Michael Gove is expected to announce a new strategy for school sport later this month. Efford continues: We need a long-term strategy blueprint to get sport into our schools. If we don't, we're storing up a huge problem for ourselves, for the economy and for the NHS. Doing nothing isn't an option. Despite record investment in elite and community sport, the Government has made some cuts in schools sports. Ministers say they are spending 1bn on youth sport over the next five years through Sport England. But the government has abolished ring-fenced funding for the national School Sport Partnerships (SSPs) and ended recommendation for two hours of PE in schools each week. The SSP network enabled well-equipped 'hub' secondary schools to lend PE teachers to those that needed them, especially primary schools. | Michael Gove has some control over sports in schools. | e |
id_4392 | On 17th February 2013, at the annual Sports Conference conference, Government has been accused of "turning its back on school sport" and undermining the Olympic legacy six months after the Games. Shadow Sports Minister Clive Efford MP told the BBC: "What has gone on in school sport is absolutely disastrous. Education Secretary Michael Gove is expected to announce a new strategy for school sport later this month. Efford continues: We need a long-term strategy blueprint to get sport into our schools. If we don't, we're storing up a huge problem for ourselves, for the economy and for the NHS. Doing nothing isn't an option. Despite record investment in elite and community sport, the Government has made some cuts in schools sports. Ministers say they are spending 1bn on youth sport over the next five years through Sport England. But the government has abolished ring-fenced funding for the national School Sport Partnerships (SSPs) and ended recommendation for two hours of PE in schools each week. The SSP network enabled well-equipped 'hub' secondary schools to lend PE teachers to those that needed them, especially primary schools. | The Olympic Games began in August 2012. | n |
id_4393 | On 17th February 2013, at the annual Sports Conference conference, Government has been accused of "turning its back on school sport" and undermining the Olympic legacy six months after the Games. Shadow Sports Minister Clive Efford MP told the BBC: "What has gone on in school sport is absolutely disastrous. Education Secretary Michael Gove is expected to announce a new strategy for school sport later this month. Efford continues: We need a long-term strategy blueprint to get sport into our schools. If we don't, we're storing up a huge problem for ourselves, for the economy and for the NHS. Doing nothing isn't an option. Despite record investment in elite and community sport, the Government has made some cuts in schools sports. Ministers say they are spending 1bn on youth sport over the next five years through Sport England. But the government has abolished ring-fenced funding for the national School Sport Partnerships (SSPs) and ended recommendation for two hours of PE in schools each week. The SSP network enabled well-equipped 'hub' secondary schools to lend PE teachers to those that needed them, especially primary schools. | Two hours of PE are no longer done at any UK schools | n |
id_4394 | On 1st July 2007 the smoke-free law was introduced in England with the aim of protecting employees in their places of work, and the general public in enclosed public places, from the effects of secondhand smoking. These law changes mean that all public transport and work vehicles used by more than one person must be smoke-free, no-smoking signs must be displayed in all smoke-free premises and vehicles, and staff smoking rooms are no longer allowed; staff who want to smoke must go outside. Local councils in England have the responsibility of enforcing the law but it is the legal responsibility of the managers of smoke-free premises and vehicles to make sure people don't smoke. Individuals can be fined or prosecuted for breaking the law and employers can be fined if they do not display the no- smoking signs or if they allow smoking to continue on their premises. | The smoke-free law had the publics welfare in mind. | e |
id_4395 | On 1st July 2007 the smoke-free law was introduced in England with the aim of protecting employees in their places of work, and the general public in enclosed public places, from the effects of secondhand smoking. These law changes mean that all public transport and work vehicles used by more than one person must be smoke-free, no-smoking signs must be displayed in all smoke-free premises and vehicles, and staff smoking rooms are no longer allowed; staff who want to smoke must go outside. Local councils in England have the responsibility of enforcing the law but it is the legal responsibility of the managers of smoke-free premises and vehicles to make sure people don't smoke. Individuals can be fined or prosecuted for breaking the law and employers can be fined if they do not display the no- smoking signs or if they allow smoking to continue on their premises. | It is no longer legal for smoking rooms to be provided for employees inside buildings. | e |
id_4396 | On 1st July 2007 the smoke-free law was introduced in England with the aim of protecting employees in their places of work, and the general public in enclosed public places, from the effects of secondhand smoking. These law changes mean that all public transport and work vehicles used by more than one person must be smoke-free, no-smoking signs must be displayed in all smoke-free premises and vehicles, and staff smoking rooms are no longer allowed; staff who want to smoke must go outside. Local councils in England have the responsibility of enforcing the law but it is the legal responsibility of the managers of smoke-free premises and vehicles to make sure people don't smoke. Individuals can be fined or prosecuted for breaking the law and employers can be fined if they do not display the no- smoking signs or if they allow smoking to continue on their premises. | Second hand smoking can cause lung cancer and other respiratory diseases. | n |
id_4397 | On January 4, 1998, the city of Mitchelville recorded its lowest temperature since 1896. The temperature in Mitchelville on January 4 was 5 degrees Fahrenheit. Two days earlier, two inches of snow fell on the city, and this, too, was an 102-year-old record. | Temperatures were not recorded in Mitchelville prior to 1896. | n |
id_4398 | On January 4, 1998, the city of Mitchelville recorded its lowest temperature since 1896. The temperature in Mitchelville on January 4 was 5 degrees Fahrenheit. Two days earlier, two inches of snow fell on the city, and this, too, was an 102-year-old record. | Mitchelville has mild winters and mild summers. | n |
id_4399 | On January 4, 1998, the city of Mitchelville recorded its lowest temperature since 1896. The temperature in Mitchelville on January 4 was 5 degrees Fahrenheit. Two days earlier, two inches of snow fell on the city, and this, too, was an 102-year-old record. | Deep snow in Mitchelville is extremely rare. | e |
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