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Many of Hilary's writings were lost to time.
In the fifth century, Pope Dioscorus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, rejected certain Christological dogmas promulgated by the Council of Chalcedon, and as a result, the Oriental Orthodox churches split from the rest; however they continued the episcopal tradition, and today in fact there is dialog between the various orthodox churches over whether the schism was due to real differences or simply translation failures.
Also during the fifth century, the Western Roman Empire declined and was overrun by German and Frankish peoples.
Although the city of Rome was in ruins, distant from the seat of secular power, and constantly harassed by invaders, the Roman Patriarchate remained the center of the Western or Latin Church.
Claiming the ancient primacy of Peter and the title of "Apostolic See", it remained the last court of episcopal appeal in serious matters for the whole Church, East and West.
However, the center of the civilized Roman world had shifted definitively to Constantinople, or New Rome, the capital of the Greek speaking Empire.
Along with this shift, the effective administration of the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire also shifted.
This practical eminence of Constantinople in the East is evident, first at the First Council of Constantinople 381, and then ecumenically at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Beginning with John the Faster (John IV, 582-595), the Bishop of Constantinople adopted as a formal title for himself the by then customary honorific Ecumenical Patriarch ("pre-eminent father for the civilized world") over the strong objections of Rome, a title based on the political prestige of Constantinople and its economic and cultural centrality in the Empire.
In the following years, Rome's appeals to the East were based on the unique authority of the Apostolic See and the primacy of Peter, over the powers of councils as defended by the East (councils, for example, had endorsed that lofty title which Rome contested).
The sometimes subtle differences between Eastern and Western conceptions of authority and its exercise produced a gradually widening rift between the Churches which continued with some occasional relief throughout the following centuries until the final rupture of the Great Schism (marked by two dates: 16 July 1054 and the Council of Florence in 1439).
========,2,Roman Catholic Church.
The Roman Catholic Church has an episcopate, with the Pope, who is the Bishop of Rome, at the top.
The Roman Catholic Church considers that juridical oversight over the Church is not a power that derives from human beings, but strictly from the authority of Christ, which was given to his twelve apostles.
The See of Rome, as the unbroken line of apostolic authority descending from St. Peter (the "prince and head of the apostles"), is a visible sign and instrument of communion among the college of bishops and therefore also of the local churches around the world.
In communion with the worldwide college of bishops, the Pope has all legitimate juridical and teaching authority over the whole Church.
This authority given by Christ to St. Peter and the apostles is transmitted from one generation to the next by the power of the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands from the Apostles to the bishops, in unbroken succession.
========,2,Eastern Orthodox Church.
The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the Orthodox Church.
In Eastern Orthodoxy, all autocephalous primates are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and so forth, in a model called "conciliar hierarchy".
This is based in part on the vision in the book of Revelation of the 24 elders gathered around the throne of Christ, who are believed to represent the 12 patriarchs of Israel and the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ.
There is no single Patriarch with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope in Rome.
However, the Patriarch of Constantinople (which today is actually Istanbul) is seen as the "primus inter pares", the "first among equals" of the autocephalous churches of Eastern Orthodoxy.
========,2,Oriental Orthodox churches.
The Oriental Orthodox Churches affirm the ideas of apostolic succession and episcopal government.
Within each national Church, the bishops form a holy synod to which even the Patriarch is subject.
The Syriac Orthodox Church traces its apostolic succession to St. Peter and recognises Antioch as the original See of St. Peter.
The Armenian Apostolic Church traces its lineage to the Apostle Bartholomew.
The Indian Orthodox Church traces its lineage to the Apostle Thomas.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church received its lines of succession through the Coptic Orthodox Church in the fifth century.
Both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox Churches each recognise their own Pope of Alexandria (Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and All Africa, and Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria respectively), both of whom trace their apostolic succession back to the Mark the Evangelist.
There are official ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach.
Already, the two recognize each other's baptisms, chrismations, and marriages, making intermarriage much easier.
========,2,Church of the East.
Historically, the Church of the East has traced its episcopal succession to St. Thomas the Apostle.
Currently the bishops of the Assyrian Church of the East continue to maintain its apostolic succession.
========,2,Anglican Communion.
Anglicanism is the most prominent of the Reformation traditions to lay claim to the historic episcopate through apostolic succession in terms comparable to the various Roman Catholic and Orthodox Communions.
Anglicans assert unbroken episcopal succession in and through the Church of England back to St. Augustine of Canterbury and to the first century Roman province of Britannia.
While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times.
The legislation of Henry VIII effectively establishing the independence from Rome of the Church of England, did not alter its constitutional or pastoral structures.
Royal supremacy was exercised through the extant legal structures of the church, whose leaders were bishops.
Episcopacy was thus seen as a given of the Reformed "Ecclesia Anglicana", and a foundation in the institution's appeal to ancient and apostolic legitimacy.
What did change was that bishops were now seen to be ministers of the Crown for the spiritual government of its subjects.
The influence of Richard Hooker was crucial to an evolution in this understanding in which bishops came to be seen in their more traditional role as ones who delegate to the presbyterate inherited powers, act as pastors to presbyters, and holding a particular teaching office with respect to the wider church.
Anglican opinion has differed as to the way in which episcopal government is "de jure divino" (by the Divine Right of Kings).
On the one hand, the seventeenth century divine, John Cosin, held that episcopal authority is "jure divino", but that it stemmed from "apostolic practice and the customs of the Church...[not] absolute precept that either Christ or His Apostles gave about it" (a view maintained also by Hooker).
In contrast, Lancelot Andrewes and others held that episcopal government is derived from Christ via the apostles.
Regardless, both parties viewed the episcopacy as bearing the apostolic function of oversight, which both includes, and derives from the power of ordination, and is normative for the governance of the church.
The practice of apostolic succession both ensures the legitimacy of the church's mission and establishes the unity, communion, and continuity of the local church with the universal church.
This formulation, in turn, laid the groundwork for an independent view of the church as a "sacred society" distinct from civil society, which was so crucial for the development of local churches as non-established entities outside England, and gave direct rise to the Catholic Revival and disestablishmentarianism within England.
Functionally, Anglican episcopal authority is expressed synodically, although individual provinces may accord their primate with more or less authority to act independently.
Called variously "synods," "councils," or "conventions," they meet under episcopal chairmanship.
In many jurisdictions, conciliar resolutions that have been passed require episcopal assent and/or consent to take force.
Seen in this way, Anglicans often speak of "the bishop-in-synod" as the force and authority of episcopal governance.
Such conciliar authority extends to the standard areas of doctrine, discipline, and worship, but in these regards is limited by Anglicanism's tradition of the limits of authority.
Those limits are expressed in Article XXI of the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, ratified in 1571 (significantly, just as the Council of Trent was drawing to a close), which held that "General Councils...may err, and sometimes have erred...wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of holy Scripture."
Hence, Anglican jurisdictions have traditionally been conservative in their approach to either innovative doctrinal development or in encompassing actions of the church as doctrinal (see lex orandi, lex credendi).
Anglican synodical government, though varied in expression, is characteristically representative.
Provinces of the Anglican Communion, their ecclesiastical provinces and dioceses are governed by councils consisting not only of bishops, but also representatives of the presbyterate and laity.
The spread of increasingly democratic forms of representative governance has its origin in the formation of the first General Conventions of the American Episcopal Church in the 1780s, which established a "House of Bishops" and a "House of Deputies".
In many jurisdictions, there is also a third, clerical House.
Resolutions may be voted on jointly or by each House, in the latter case requiring passage in all Houses to be adopted by the particular council.
There is no international juridical authority in Anglicanism, although the tradition's common experience of episcopacy, symbolised by the historical link with the See of Canterbury, along with a common and complex liturgical tradition, has provided a measure of unity.
This has been reinforced by the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, which first met in 1867.
These conferences, though they propose and pass resolutions, are strictly consultative, and the intent of the resolutions are to provide guideposts for Anglican jurisdictions—not direction.
The Conferences also express the function of the episcopate to demonstrate the ecumenical and Catholic nature of the church.
The Scottish Episcopal Church traces its history back to the origins of Christianity in Scotland, and during the 16th century Scottish Reformation became a distinct church from the presbyterian Church of Scotland which rejected episcopal government.
The Scottish Episcopal Church was formally incorporated in 1712, and it more recently became part of the Anglican Communion.
Churches that are members of the Anglican Communion are episcopal churches in polity, and some are named "Episcopal".
However, some churches that self-identify as Anglican do not belong to the Anglican Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican.
The Roman Catholic Church, the Old Catholic Churches (in full communion with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the Eastern Orthodox churches are recognized, and also their bishops, by Anglicans.
========,2,American Methodist churches.
As an offshoot of Anglicanism, Methodist churches often use episcopal polity for historical as well as practical reasons, albeit to limited use.
Methodists often use the term "connexionalism" or "connexional polity" in addition to "episcopal".
Nevertheless, the powers of the Methodist episcopacy can be relatively strong and wide-reaching compared to traditional conceptions of episcopal polity.
For example, in the United Methodist Church, bishops are elected for life, can serve up to two terms in a specific conference (three if special permission is given), are responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches, perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the worldwide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings.
United Methodist bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences, being moved to a new "Episcopal Area" after 8 (or 12) years, until their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrenium following their sixty-sixth birthday.
British Methodism holds that all ordained ministers are equal in terms of spirituality.
However, for practical management lines are drawn into President of Conference, Chair of District, Superintendent Minister, Minister.
However, all are ministers.
========,2,Episcopal government in other denominations.
The Reformed Church of Hungary, and the Lutheran churches in continental Europe may sometimes be called "episcopal".
In these latter cases, the form of government is not radically different from the presbyterian form, except that their councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other Reformed churches.
As mentioned, the Lutheran Church in Sweden and Finland are exceptions, claiming apostolic succession in a pattern somewhat like the Anglican churches.
Otherwise, forms of polity are not mandated in the Lutheran churches, as it is not regarded as having doctrinal significance.
Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons, has tended to adopt Erastian theories of episcopal authority (by which church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular government).
In the United States, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt a form of government more comparable to congregationalism.
A small minority of Episcopal Baptists exists.
Although it never uses the term, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is episcopal, rather than presbyterian or congregational, in the sense that it has a strict hierarchy of leadership from the local bishop/branch president up to a single prophet/president, believed to be personally authorized and guided by Jesus Christ.
Local congregations (branches, wards, and stakes) have "de jure" boundaries by which members are allocated, and membership records are centralized.
This system developed gradually from a more presbyterian polity (Joseph Smith's original title in 1830 was "First Elder") for pragmatic and doctrinal reasons, reaching a full episcopacy during the Nauvoo period (1839–1846).
========,1,preface.
Epicurus ( or ; , "ally, comrade"; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who founded the school of philosophy called Epicureanism.
Only a few fragments and letters of Epicurus's 300 written works remain.
Much of what is known about Epicurean philosophy derives from later followers and commentators.
For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life, characterized by "ataraxia"—peace and freedom from fear—and "aponia"—the absence of pain—and by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends.
He taught that pleasure and pain are measures of what is good and evil; death is the end of both body and soul and therefore should not be feared; the gods neither reward nor punish humans; the universe is infinite and eternal; and events in the world are ultimately based on the motions and interactions of atoms moving in empty space.
========,2,Biography.
His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, both Athenian-born, and his father a citizen, had emigrated to the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos about ten years before Epicurus's birth in February 341 BC.