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Some sources define egalitarianism as the point of view that equality reflects the natural state of humanity.
========,2,Forms.
Some specifically focused egalitarian concerns include Communism, legal egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender egalitarianism, racial equality, equality of outcome, and Christian egalitarianism.
Common forms of egalitarianism include political and philosophical.
========,3,Legal egalitarianism.
========,4,Equality of person.
The English Bill of Rights of 1689 and the United States Constitution use only the term "person" in operative language involving fundamental rights and responsibilities, except for one reference to "men" in the English Bill of Rights regarding men on trial for treason and one counting device in the measurement of proportional Congressional representation in the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution.
The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, as the rest of the Constitution, in its operative language uses the term "person", stating, for example, that "... nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
========,4,Equality of men.
The motto "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" was used during the French Revolution and is still used as an official motto of the French government.
The 1789 Rights of Man and of the Citizen French Constitution is framed also with this basis in equal rights of men, but not of women.
This was satirized by Olympe de Gouges during this time with her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen.
The Declaration of Independence of the United States is an example of an assertion of equality of men, but not of women, under natural rights , with its language "all men are created equal."
This assertion may be nullified by the use of "Men" as a proper noun, in the sense of "mankind".
John Locke is sometimes considered the founder of this form.
Some of the framers of the United States Constitution, most notably John Dickinson, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence in part because of this use of "rights of man" rather than "rights of person".
Many state constitutions in the US also use "rights of man" language rather than "rights of person."
"See, e.g.
", the Kentucky State Constitution.
========,3,Social egalitarianism.
At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years.
Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are socialism, communism, social anarchism, libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism, one-nation conservatism and progressivism, some of which propound economic egalitarianism.
Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals and in the general populations of many countries.
Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question.
A position of opposition to egalitarianism is "antiegalitarianism".
========,4,Economic egalitarianism.
An early example of equality-of-outcome economic egalitarianism is Xu Xing, a scholar of the Chinese philosophy of Agriculturalism, who supported the fixing of prices, in which all similar goods and services, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.
Social ownership of means of production is sometimes considered to be a form of "economic egalitarianism", in socialism for example, because in an economy characterized by social ownership, the surplus product generated by industry would accrue to the population as a whole as opposed to a class of private owners, thereby granting each individual increased autonomy and greater equality in their relationships with one another.
Although the economist Karl Marx is sometimes mistaken to be an egalitarian, Marx eschewed normative theorizing on moral principles altogether.
Marx did, however, have a theory of the evolution of moral principles in relation to specific economic systems.
The American economist John Roemer has put forth a new perspective of equality and its relationship to socialism.
Roemer attempts to reformulate Marxist analysis to accommodate normative principles of distributive justice, shifting the argument for socialism away from purely technical and materialist reasons to one of distributive justice.
Roemer argues that, according to the principle of distributive justice, the traditional definition of socialism based on the principle that individual compensation be proportional to the value of the labour one expends in production is inadequate.
Roemer concludes that egalitarians must reject socialism as it is classically defined in order for equality to be realized.
========,3,Religious and spiritual egalitarianism.
Sikhism The Sikh faith was founded upon egalitarian principles, reaffirming the notion of equality, not only based upon race but also between the genders.
This equality led to denunciation of sati - the practice of widows sacrificing themselves on the funeral pyres of deceased husbands; albeit being very rare at the time, but occurred due to the wives of warriors preferring to commit self-immolation than becoming the bounty of war for the marauding Jihadists that were waging wars in India and Afghanistan during the early Ghazni wars.
Whilst the scriptural injunction is often ascribed as providing women in the Sikh faith equal rights to practice their faith and be regarded as created equal in the eyes of God.
Whilst the noble premise to strive for egalitarianism, many Sikhs still practice strong tribal casteism, with greater rigidity than the hindu archetype from which the practice was inherited.
Despite the rhetoric of equality, scholars have "found contradictions in the Sikh rhetoric of equality and widespread discrimination against Sikh's of low castes".
Furthermore, despite many Sikh scholars decreeing the egalitarian tenets of Sikhism, denouncing sexism, female infanticide, dowry, sati or the condemning of widows to a life of solitude and isolation; the reality is these practices have remained prevalent, whilst they have long fallen out of favour with the other ethnocultural religious groups in the Indian continent, like Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains.
========,4,In Christianity.
The Christian egalitarian view holds that the Bible teaches the fundamental equality of women and men of all racial and ethnic mixes, all economic classes, and all age groups, but within the teachings and example of Jesus Christ, God, and the overarching principles of scripture.
Within the wide range of Christianity, there are dissenting views to this from opposing groups, some of which are Complementarians and Patriarchalists.
There are also those who may say that, whilst the Bible encourages equality, it also encourages law and order and social structure (for example, parents having authority over their children, and the view that wife should submit to her husband).
These ideas are considered by some to be contrary to the ideals of egalitarianism.
At its foundation, holds that "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" – defining all as equal in the sight of God.
Similarly, says, "Here there is no Gentile or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all", defining all as equal in the sight of God in relationship to faith in Jesus Christ.
Various Christian groups have attempted to hold to this view and develop Christian oriented communities.
In Acts, chapter 4, members of the early Christian community sell their possessions, give the proceeds to a common fund overseen by the disciples, then take 'according to their need'.
One of the most notable of present-day communities are the Hutterite groups of Europe and North America, living in agricultural and collective communities.
========,4,Judaism.
Judaism is not a universalist religion and teaches that Jews (defined as either the biological descendants of Jacob "Israel", the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham or someone who converted) have a specific covenant with God, as a chosen people (Deutoronomy 7:6 "chosen as God's treasured people"), to serve as an example of God's light to the rest of the world.
The oral Torah and Rabbinic literature codified in the Babylonian Talmud makes key distinctions in religious and legal contexts between Jews and the gentiles (literally, "the nations").
However Judaism teaches that all people are the creations of God and are commanded in the seven universal moral laws known as the Seven Laws of Noah.
In this aspect Judaism is Universalist in its divine message but not in its religious obligations.
In Reform and Conservative Judaism, egalitarian refers to nullification of religious gender separations.
Synagogues that identify as egalitarian allow mixed seating (i.e., no mechitza) and allow women to lead services with men in attendance, as well as read publicly from the Torah.
========,4,Islam.
The Islamic stance on equality is to some extent similar to that of Christianity (another universalist religion), and stresses that all humans are equal in the eyes of God, regardless of gender, class and race.
The Quran states, "O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another.
Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you.
Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted.".
Louise Marlow's "Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought" compares the egalitarianism of early Islam to current practice.
========,3,Military egalitarianism.
Military egalitarianism has been noted since ancient times, such as with Shakespeare's St. Crispin's Day Speech.
This occurs in spite of the distinctions military forces attempt to make between officers and enlisted men.
For example, former Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. said that United States Air Force culture included an egalitarianism bred from officers as warriors who work with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or onboard crew of their aircraft.
========,2,Reception.
Many criticize egalitarianism for its failure to take into account natural differences between people and its idealized, authoritarian imposing of "equality" on unequal people.
Alexander Berkman suggests:
The cultural theory of risk holds egalitarianism as defined by (1) a negative attitude towards rules and principles, and (2) a positive attitude towards group decision-making, with fatalism termed as its opposite.
The theory distinguishes between hierarchists, who are positive towards both rules and groups, and egalitarianists, who are positive towards groups but negative towards rules.
This is by definition a form of "anarchist equality" as referred to by Berkman.
The fabric of an "egalitarianist society" is thus held together by cooperation and implicit peer pressure rather than by explicit rules and punishment.
However, Thompson et al.
theorise that any society consisting of only one perspective, be it egalitarianist, hierarchist, individualist, fatalist or autonomist, will be inherently unstable: the claim is that an interplay between all these perspectives are required if each perspective is to be fulfilling.
For instance, although an individualist according to Cultural Theory is aversive towards both principles and groups, individualism is not fulfilling if individual brilliance cannot be recognised by groups, or if individual brilliance cannot be made permanent in the form of principles.
Accordingly, egalitarianists have no power except through their presence, unless they (by definition, reluctantly) embrace principles which enable them to cooperate with fatalists and hierarchists.
They will also have no individual sense of direction in the absence of a group.
This could be mitigated by following individuals outside their group: autonomists or individualists.
========,3,Marxism.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that a revolution would bring about a socialist society which would then eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".
However, Marxism rejected egalitarianism in the sense of greater equality between classes, clearly distinguishing it from the socialist notion of the abolition of classes based on the division between workers and owners of productive property.
Marx's view of classlessness was not the subordination of society to a universal interest (such as a universal notion of "equality"), but was about the creation of the conditions that would enable individuals to pursue their true interests and desires.
Thus, Marx's notion of communist society is radically individualistic.
Marx was a proponent of two principles, the first applied to socialism and the second to an advanced communist society: "To each according to his contribution" and "from each according to their ability; to each according to their needs".
Although Marx's position is often confused or conflated with "distributive egalitarianism", in which only the goods and services resulting from production are distributed according to a notional equality, in reality Marx eschewed the entire concept of equality as abstract and bourgeois in nature, preferring to focus on more concrete principles such as opposition to exploitation on materialist grounds and economic logic.
========,1,preface.
An expert witness, in England, Wales and the United States, is a person whose opinion by virtue of education, training, certification, skills or experience, is accepted by the judge as an expert.
The judge may consider the witness's specialized (scientific, technical or other) opinion about evidence or about facts before the court within the expert's area of expertise, referred to as an "expert opinion".
Expert witnesses may also deliver "expert evidence" within the area of their expertise.
Their testimony may be rebutted by testimony from other experts or by other evidence or facts.
In Scots Law, "Davie v Magistrates of Edinburgh" (1953) provides authority that where a witness has particular knowledge or skills in an area being examined by the court, and has been called to court in order to elaborate on that area for the benefit of the court, that witness may give evidence of his/her opinion on that area.
========,2,Role of expert witnesses.
Typically, experts are relied on for opinions on severity of injury, degree of sanity, cause of failure in a machine or other device, loss of earnings and associated benefits, care costs, and the like.
In an intellectual property case an expert may be shown two music scores, book texts, or circuit boards and asked to ascertain their degree of similarity.
In the majority of cases, the expert's personal relation to the defendant is considered and irrelevant.
The tribunal itself, or the judge, can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain fact or action, in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging.
The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data.