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In her sonnets, the preceding lead-in-line, to the couplet ending of each, could be thought of as a title for the couplet, as is shown in Sonnet VIII of the sequence.
During the early 20th century, the rhymed epigram couplet form developed into a fixed verse image form, with an integral title as the third line.
Adelaide Crapsey codified the couplet form into a two line rhymed verse of ten syllables per line with her image couplet poem "On Seeing Weather-Beaten Trees" first published in 1915.
By the 1930s, the five-line cinquain verse form became widely known in the poetry of the Scottish poet William Soutar.
These were originally labelled epigrams but later identified as image cinquains in the style of Adelaide Crapsey.
J. V. Cunningham was also a noted writer of epigrams, (a medium suited to a 'short-breathed' person).
========,2,Non-poetic.
Occasionally, simple and witty statements, though not poetic per se, may also be considered epigrams.
Oscar Wilde's witticisms such as "I can resist everything except temptation" are considered epigrams.
Wilde's statement, "the only thing worse than being talked about is not being talked about" is another example.
This shows the epigram's tendency towards paradox.
Dorothy Parker's one-liners can be considered epigrams, as can Macdonald Carey's statement, "like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives".
Friedrich Nietzsche considered that, "a witticism is an epigram on the death of a feeling," in Human, All Too Human.
Wit or sarcasm help distinguish epigrams from aphorisms and adages, which may lack them.
Epigrams are sometimes particularly pointed or much-quoted quotations taken from longer works.
========,1,preface.
Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (c. 1040 – 1099), better known as El Cid, or simply Rodrigo, was a Castilian nobleman and military leader in medieval Spain.
The Moors called him El Cid, which meant "the Lord" (probably from the original Arabic al-Sayyid, السیِّد), and the Christians, El Campeador, which stood for "Outstanding Warrior."
He was born in Vivar, a town near the city of Burgos.
After his death, he became Castile's celebrated national hero and the protagonist of the most significant medieval Spanish epic poem, "El Cantar de Mio Cid".
Born a member of the minor nobility, El Cid was brought up at the court of King Ferdinand the Great and served Ferdinand's son, Sancho II of León and Castile.
He rose to become the commander and royal standard-bearer ("armiger regis") of Castile upon Sancho's ascension in 1065.
Rodrigo went on to lead the Castilian military campaigns against Sancho's brothers, Alfonso VI of León and García II of Galicia, as well as in the Muslim kingdoms in Al-Andalus.
He became renowned for his military prowess in these campaigns, which helped expand Castilian territory at the expense of the Muslims and Sancho's brothers' kingdoms.
When conspirators murdered Sancho in 1072, Rodrigo found himself in a tight spot.
Since Sancho was childless, the throne passed to his brother Alfonso, the same whom El Cid had helped remove from power.
Although Rodrigo continued to serve the Castilian sovereign, he lost his ranking in the new court which treated him at arm's length and suspiciously.
Finally, in 1081, he was ordered into exile.
El Cid found work fighting for the Muslim rulers of Zaragoza, whom he defended from their traditional enemies, Aragon and Barcelona.
While in exile, he regained his reputation as a strategist and formidable military leader.
He repeatedly turned out victorious in battle against the Muslim rulers of Lérida and their Christian allies, as well as against a large Christian army under King Sancho Ramírez of Aragon.
In 1086, an expeditionary army of North African Almoravids inflicted a severe defeat to Castile, compelling Alfonso to overcome the resentments he harbored against El Cid.
The terms for the return to the Christian service must have been attractive enough since Rodrigo soon found himself fighting for his former Lord.
Over the next several years, however, El Cid set his sights on the kingdom-city of Valencia, operating more or less independently of Alfonso while politically supporting the Banu Hud and other Muslim dynasties opposed to the Almoravids.
He gradually increased his control over Valencia; the Islamic ruler, al-Qadir, became his tributary in 1092.
When the Almoravids instigated an uprising that resulted in the death of al-Qadir, El Cid responded by laying siege to the city.
Valencia finally fell in 1094, and El Cid established an independent principality on the Mediterranean coast of Spain.
He ruled over a pluralistic society with the popular support of Christians and Muslims alike.
El Cid's final years were spent fighting the Almoravid Berbers.
He inflicted upon them their first major defeat in 1094, on the plains of Caurte, outside Valencia, and continued resisting them until his death.
Although Rodrigo remained undefeated in Valencia, his only son, and heir, Diego Rodríguez died fighting against the Almoravids in the service of Alfonso in 1097.
After El Cid's death in 1099, his wife, Jimena Díaz, succeeded him as ruler of Valencia, but she was eventually forced to surrender the principality to the Almoravids in 1102.
To this day, El Cid remains a Spanish popular folk-hero and national icon.
Numerous plays, films, folktales, songs, and even video games continue to memorialize the traditions of allegiance that his allegories typify.
========,2,Title.
The name "El Cid" () is a modern Spanish denomination composed by the article "el" meaning "the" and "Cid" which comes from the Old Castilian loan word "Çid" from the dialectal Arabic word سيد "sîdi" or sayyid, which means "Lord" or "Master".
The Mozarabs or the Arabs that served in his ranks may have addressed him in this way, which the Christians may have transliterated and adopted.
Historians, however, have not yet found contemporary records referring to Rodrigo as "Cid."
Arab sources use instead "Rudriq", "Ludriq al-Kanbiyatur" or "al-Qanbiyatur" ("Rodrigo el Campeador").
The cognomen "Campeador" derives from Latin "campi doctor," which means "battlefield master".
He probably gained it during the campaigns of King Sancho II of Castile against his brothers King Alfonso VI of León and King García II of Galicia.
While his contemporaries left no historical sources that would have addressed him as "Cid", they left plenty of Christian and Arab records, some even signed documents with his autograph, addressing him as "Campeador", which prove that he used the Christian cognomen himself.
The whole combination "Cid Campeador" is first documented ca.
1195 in the Navarro-Aragonese "Linage de Rodric Díaz" included in the "Liber Regum" under the formula "mio Cid el Campeador".
========,2,Life and career.
========,3,Origins.
El Cid was born Rodrigo Díaz circa AD 1043 in Vivar, also known as Castillona de Bivar, a small town about six miles north of Burgos, the capital of Castile.
His father, Diego Laínez, was a courtier, bureaucrat, and cavalryman who had fought in several battles.
Despite the fact that El Cid's mother's family was aristocratic, in later years the peasants would consider him one of their own.
However, his relatives were not major court officials; documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Lain, confirmed only five documents of Ferdinand I's; his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Alvarez, certified only two of Sancho II's; and El Cid's father confirmed only one.
========,3,Service under Sancho II.
As a young man in 1057, Rodrigo fought against the Moorish stronghold of Zaragoza, making its emir al-Muqtadir a vassal of Sancho.
In the spring of 1063, Rodrigo fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, Ramiro I of Aragon, was laying siege to the Moorish town of Cinca, which was in Zaragozan lands.
Al-Muqtadir, accompanied by Castilian troops including El Cid, fought against the Aragonese.
The party slayed Ramiro I, setting the Aragonese army on the run, and emerged victorious.
One legend has said that during the conflict, El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, thereby receiving the honorific title Campeador.
When Ferdinand died, Sancho continued to enlarge his territory, conquering both Christian strongholds and the Moorish cities of Zamora and Badajoz.
When Sancho learned that Alfonso was planning on overthrowing him in order to gain his territory, Sancho sent Cid to bring Alfonso back so that Sancho could speak to him.
========,3,Service under Alfonso VI.
Sancho was assassinated in 1072, possibly as the result of a pact between his brother Alfonso and his sister Urraca.
Since Sancho died unmarried and childless, all of his power passed to his brother Alfonso who, almost immediately, returned from exile in Toledo and took his seat as king of Castile and León.
He was, however, deeply suspected of having been involved in Sancho's murder.
According to the epic of El Cid, the Castilian nobility led by El Cid and a dozen "oath-helpers" forced Alfonso to swear publicly on holy relics multiple times in front of Santa Gadea (Saint Agatha) Church in Burgos that he did not participate in the plot to kill his brother.
This is widely reported as truth, but contemporary documents on the lives of both Rodrigo Diaz and Alfonso VI of Castile and León do not mention any such event.
Rodrigo's position as "armiger regis" was taken away and given to Rodrigo's enemy, Count García Ordóñez.
In 1079, Rodrigo was sent by Alfonso VI to Seville to the court of al-Mutamid to collect the "parias" owed by that "taifa" to León–Castile.
While he was there Granada, assisted by other Castilian knights, attacked Seville, and Rodrigo and his forces repulsed the Christian and Grenadine attackers at the Battle of Cabra, in the (probably mistaken) belief that he was defending the king's tributary.
Count García Ordóñez and the other Castilian leaders were taken captive and held for three days before being released.
========,3,Exile.
In the Battle of Cabra (1079), El Cid rallied his troops and turned the battle into a rout of Emir Abdullah of Granada and his ally García Ordóñez.
However, El Cid's unauthorized expedition into Granada greatly angered Alfonso, and May 8, 1080, was the last time El Cid confirmed a document in King Alfonso's court.
This is the generally given reason for El Cid's exile, although several others are plausible and may have been contributing factors: jealous nobles turning Alfonso against El Cid, Alfonso's own animosity towards El Cid and an accusation of pocketing some of the tribute from Seville.
At first he went to Barcelona, where Ramon Berenguer II (1076–1082) and Berenguer Ramon II (1076–1097) refused his offer of service.
========,2,Moorish service.
The exile was not the end of El Cid, either physically or as an important figure.
After being rejected by Ramon Berenguer II, El Cid journeyed to the Taifa of Zaragoza where he received a warmer welcome.
In 1081, El Cid went on to offer his services to the Moorish king of the northeast Al-Andalus city of Zaragoza, Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud, and served both him and his successor, Al-Mustain II.
He was given the title "El Cid" ("The Master") and served as a leading figure in a diverse Moorish force consisting of Muladis, Berbers, Arabs and Malians.
According to Moorish accounts:
Andalusian Knights found El Cid their foe ill, thirsty and exiled from the court of Alfonso, he was presented before the elderly Yusuf al-Mu'taman ibn Hud and accepted command of the forces of the Taifa of Zaragoza as their Master.
In his "History of Medieval Spain" (Cornell University Press, 1975), Joseph F. O'Callaghan writes:
That kingdom was divided between al-Mutamin (1081–1085) who ruled Zaragoza proper, and his brother al-Mundhir, who ruled Lérida and Tortosa.
El Cid entered al-Mutamin's service and successfully defended Zaragoza against the assaults of al-Mundhir, Sancho I of Aragón, and Ramon Berenguer II, whom he held captive briefly in 1082.
In 1084, The Army of the Taifa of Zaragoza under El Cid defeated the Aragonese at the Battle of Morella near Tortosa, but in autumn the Castilians started a loose siege of Toledo and later the next year the Christians captured Salamanca, a stronghold of the Taifa of Toledo.
In 1086, the Almoravid invasion of the Iberian Peninsula through and around Gibraltar began.
The Almoravids, Berber residents of present-day North Africa, led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, were asked to help defend the divided Moors from Alfonso.
El Cid commanded a large Moorish force during the Battle of Sagrajas, which took place in 1086, near the Taifa of Badajoz.
The Almoravid and Andalusian Taifas, including the armies of Badajoz, Málaga, Granada, Tortosa and Seville, defeated a combined army of León, Aragón and Castile.
In 1087, Raymond of Burgundy and his Christian allies attempted to weaken the Taifa of Zaragoza's northernmost stronghold by initiating the Siege of Tudela and Alfonso captured Aledo, Murcia blocking the route between the Taifas in eastern and western Iberia.
========,2,Recall from exile.