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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26214 | The world has much to say about children these days and most of it is bad but if you have made Jesus Lord of your life, God has something very different to say about your children. He says they’re headed for heaven, not hell. For a blessing, not a curse. So ignore the world and trust the Word. It has the power to turn your children’s lives around! Watch the video and below find a list of scriptures with promises from God regarding your children:
1. Jeremiah 31:16-17
2. Isaiah 54:13
3. Proverbs 11:21
4. Psalm 112:1-2
5. Isaiah 49:25
6. Psalm 145:9
7. Isaiah 44:3
8. Isaiah 59:21 |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26227 | How to add new javascript and css files to T3 XML layout?
To add new CSS & JS files you have to edit the default layout of your template (default.xml) and add the following code just after the layout opening tag
<!--Extra css load for this layout-->
<!--Extra JS load for this layout -->
1- Make sure that the default.xml is your currently selected layout in the profile setings.
2- Make sure that the CSS/JS files that you added to default.xml are already exist in the CSS/JS folders.
Where are listed all other CSS files and Javascripts of the template
The first set of files to be loaded by the template are actually the Framework’s files which are located at
The second set of files to be loaded are the files in the root directory of the template
The last and the highest priority files to be loaded is the template’s theme files
Quotes about T3
Definitely T3 has shortened the time of implementing a template and restricted time devoted to CSS modification. The thing is that a good framework makes your work faster and you do not need to waste your time on doing the same things repeatedly.
[By using T3 Framework] I am focused on design instead of doing everything from beginning.
T3 makes me forget writing the whole HTML grid structure and most of the CSS part. Adding CSS and JavaScript files is very easy.
[Our clients] like the way they could move the columns around.
JA T3 Framework 2.0 Customization
For Designers, I recommended to start watching from 5:35
Override reminder
Limits reminder
1. you can create unlimited layouts with unlimited block configurations
2. you can create unlimited profiles with unlimited template settings configurations
Simplicity reminder
Comments reminder
Updating reminder
Structure & Extensions – Developer Guides for T3
JA T3 Framework 2.0 Developer Guides
We are going to explore
* Themes – explore the concept, typology, override coding
* Profiles – explore the concept, typology, override coding
* Template Administration – full usage instructions for all panels
Coming soon
T3 Framework 2.0
|
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26248 | Posted by: Pure Glory | 03/23/2014
The Glory Of The Lord
by Apostle Gabriel Cross
The glory of The Lord has risen upon you, so arise and shine for your Light has come. This is Our hour to shine, to radiate his glory, all over the world. The Lion of Light, pierces the darkness with light, encourages us by lifting us up, and encompassing us with songs of deliverance in the night. ARISE [from the depression and prostration in which circumstances have kept you–rise to a new life]! Shine (be radiant with the glory of the Lord), for your light has come, and the glory of the Lord has risen upon you! [Zech. 8:23.] (The Light or his presence comes to deliver us and bring justice to the land.)
This is our time to shine forth as beacons of light with his glory for, YOU ARE THE LIGHT OF THE WORLD! For behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and dense darkness [all] peoples, but the Lord shall arise upon you [O Jerusalem], and His glory shall be seen on you. [Isa. 60:19-22; Mal. 4:2; Rev. 21:2, 3.] And nations shall come to your light, and kings to the brightness of your rising. [Isa. 2:2, 3; Jer. 3:17.]
(Lift up your eyes round about you and see! Look up! Look up! Look with expectancy, see with clarity, and new understanding). They all gather themselves together, they come to you. Your sons shall come from afar, and your daughters shall be carried and nursed in the arms. Then you shall see and be radiant, and your heart shall thrill and tremble with joy, [at the glorious deliverance] and BE ENLARGED; because the abundant wealth of the [Dead] Sea shall be turned to you, unto you shall the nations come with their treasures. [Ps. 119:32.] A multitude of camels (heaven’s abundance, the riches of his glory is being released to you! Change of commerce, wealth of blessing and great health of blessing) [from the eastern trading tribes] shall cover you, the young camels of Midian and Ephah; all the men from Sheba [who once came to trade] shall come, bringing gold and frankincense and proclaiming the praises of the Lord. [Matt. 2:11.]
All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered to you [as the eastern pastoral tribes join the trading tribes], the rams of Nebaioth shall minister to you; they shall come up with acceptance on My altar, and My glorious house I will glorify. Who are these who fly like a cloud, and like doves to their windows? Surely the isles and distant coastlands shall wait for and expect Me; and the ships of Tarshish [shall come] first, to bring your sons from afar, their silver and gold with them, for the name of the Lord your God, for the Holy One of Israel, because He has beautified and glorified you. Foreigners shall build up your walls, and their kings shall minister to you; for in My wrath I smote you, but in My favor, pleasure, and goodwill I have had mercy, love, and pity for you. And your gates shall be open continually, they shall not be shut day or night, that men may bring to you the wealth of the nations–and their kings led in procession [your voluntary captives]. [Rev. 21:24-27.]
For the nation and kingdom that will not serve you in that day [Jerusalem] shall perish; yes, those nations shall be utterly laid waste. The glory of Lebanon shall come to you, the cypress, the plane, and the pine [trees] together, to beautify the place of My sanctuary; and I will make the place of My feet glorious. (Hallelujah, his feet, represent and bring in his reign, his rule, his steadfast power, his excellency, his compassion on us, his fire and judgment against our enemies.) The sons of those who afflicted you shall come bending low to you, and all those who despised you shall bow down at your feet, and they shall call you the City of the Lord, the Zion of the Holy One of Israel. [Rev. 3:9.]
Whereas you have been forsaken and hated, so that no man passed through you, I will make you [Jerusalem] an eternal glory, a joy from age to age. You shall suck the milk of the [Gentile] nations and shall suck the breast of kings; and you shall recognize and know that I, the Lord, am your Savior and your Redeemer, the Mighty One of Jacob. (We are nursing at the breast of kings, meaning, we the spiritual Jerusalem, siphoning wealth from other nations represented by their kings.)
Instead of bronze I will bring gold, and instead of iron I will bring silver; and instead of wood, bronze, and instead of stones, iron. [Instead of the tyranny of the present] I will appoint peace as your officers and righteousness as your taskmasters. Violence shall no more be heard in your land, nor devastation or destruction within your borders, but you shall call your walls Salvation and your gates Praise. (Living in walls of deliverance and walking through doors of praise.)
The sun shall no more be your light by day, nor for brightness shall the moon give light to you, but the Lord shall be to you an everlasting light, and your God your glory and your beauty. [Jer. 9:23, 24; Rev. 21:23.] Your sun shall no more go down, nor shall your moon withdraw itself, for the Lord shall be your everlasting light, and the days of your mourning shall be ended.
1. Praise God what a blessing! Thank you, I look forward to your posts every morning. Peace and joy to you, Diana
• Hallelujah! You’re welcome! Abundant blessings! 🙂
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26254 | Sep 052014
Synthetic biology, one of many areas of new technological development, has rapidly expanded in the past decade, integrating engineering, genetics and computer science to produce new forms of life. It goes beyond the genetic modification of existing species to the manufacture of new ones. The possibilities are far reaching. Synthetic biology could be used to produce medications or replace human organs. Or it could be used to make biological weapons and products that destroy biological diversity.
In 2012, Canadian Yearly Meeting (CYM) judged that the new field of synthetic biology warrants the attention of Friends. CYM invited Monthly Meetings across Canada to address ethical and spiritual issues of synthetic biology during 2013. Information and support to do this was offered by the Canadian Friends Service Committee (CFSC). CYM would revisit the subject in 2014. Ten monthly meetings in Canada, with the information kit provided by CFSC, formed Study Groups on synthetic biology and applied Quaker testimonies. From the responses of these study groups, CFSC produced a summary and recommendations for Canadian Yearly Meeting 2014.
Canadian Yearly Meeting approved the following recommendations from the synthetic biology report:
1. That CYM affirm the seven principles identified in Principles for the Oversight of Synthetic Biology, a document that makes many important recommendations, and continue to work with the Biotechnology Reference Group of the Canadian Council of Churches (BRG) on discerning ways to implement the seven principles:
1. Employ the Precautionary Principle;
2. Require mandatory synthetic biology-specific regulations;
3. Protect public health and worker safety;
4. Protect the environment;
6. Require corporate accountability and manufacturer liability; and
7. Protect economic and environmental justice.
3. That CYM request that Canadian Friends Service Committee (CFSC), with the help of concerned groups such as the ETC Group and the BRG, provide Canadian Quakers with an annual, easily understandable update on synthetic biology;
5. That CYM request CFSC, and encourage Monthly Meetings, to find opportunities to link with other faith and community groups, and with Indigenous peoples, to share insights and discernment about synthetic biology; and
Synthetic biology research at NASA Ames - credit Alexander Van Dijk CC-BY
Synthetic biology research at NASA Ames – credit Alexander Van Dijk CC-BY
Download the full minute on synthetic biology.
Find out more about synthetic biology. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26273 | Make happiness your priority
Change can be difficult and most of us fear the unknown so we resist anything different from our normal routine and that type of thinking can have you living in misery.
Sometimes we bark at new ideas or new way of thinking but in some incidents cases change is for the best especially when it brings you peace of mind in life make your happiness your priority you only have one life to live so enjoy it to the fullest.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26279 | The Westminster Divines on the Mediatorial Kingdom
While Christ has a Kingdom of Power over the whole world as He is divine, along with the Father and the Holy Spirit, is the Mediatorial Kingdom that has been delegated to Him as King only over the Church, or co-extensive with his Kingdom of Power over the whole world?
Before one comes down with an answer to the question, see what godly and learned men of old (who have studied the question more than us) have said on the topic. As will be seen, most of the Westminster Divines, while acknowledging that Christ as Mediator has been given power over the whole world to govern all its affairs to his glory and the good of his Church, yet He is only Head and Mediatorial King over his Church, which He rules spiritually through his Word via his ministers and ordinances, to the detriment of those in the world who resist Him (Ps. 2:8-12).
The Westminster Divines on the Extent of Christ’s Mediatorial Kingdom |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26314 | Thursday, Fourth Week of Lent
Thursday, March 26
Thursday, Fourth Week of Lent
Liturgical readings are available here.
While Moses is staying on Mount Sinai, people down below the mountain make a golden calf. God’s judgment is very severe: Let me alone, that my wrath may blaze up against them to consume them. Then I will make of you a great nation. This is an unknown aspect of God: why would God want to destroy people whom he has saved from Egypt?
Rather than wondering about God, however, we should wonder about Moses. He receives this unprecedented offer: God wants to make him into a great nation. Who ever would turn such an offer down? Moses clearly is under stress. He must be feeling heavy burden of leadership, pressure from all sides, and uncertainty regarding the future. It is under stress that characters are tested and revealed.
Moses stands the test, puts the needs of the people before his own ambitions and opportunities, and intercedes for the people, praying: Remember your servants Abraham, Isaac and Israel, and how you swore to them by your own self, saying, ‘I will make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky; and all this land that I promised, I will give your descendants as their perpetual heritage.
The hardships of life and the pressure of these days put us in spotlight. The characters are revealed. What is the leading power in my life: my selfishness, or love for God and for the neighbor? |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26315 | Quick and Easy Recipe: Tasty Mussels of the senses
Mussels of the senses. Mussel (/ˈmʌsəl/) is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated. External anatomy: The mussel's external shell is composed of two valves that protect it from predators and desiccation.
Mussels of the senses Mussels are filter feeders that are often found in cool and shallow waters. They attach themselves to solid and stable areas (usually rocks, docks, boats and other stable aquatic structures) and allow water to wash over them in order to filter feed. They'll often form in great clusters/clumps all. You can have Mussels of the senses using 10 easy ingredients and 7 easy steps. Learn how to achieve yummy food.
Ingredients of Mussels of the senses
1. It’s 10 of mussels.
2. Prepare of oil.
3. Prepare 2 of regular onions.
4. Prepare 3 cloves of garlic.
5. Prepare 1 can of tomato paste.
6. Prepare 2 of peppers (green).
7. Prepare 150 g of barrel aged feta cheese.
8. It’s of salt.
9. It’s of pepper.
10. Prepare of cinnamon.
Mussel is the common term for members of several families of freshwater and marine bivalve mollusks. Mussels are cooked through steam, which means you're going to need some liquid in the pot to get things going. Why use water when you have things This is a biggie, and one of the most important mistakes to avoid. Remember how you checked to make sure that all of the mussels were closed.
Mussels of the senses instructions
1. Clean the mussels thoroughly with water..
2. Put a little oil in a large deep frying pan, so that it covers the bottom..
3. When the oil heats, add the onion finely chopped as well as the garlic, cook a little until golden and then add the mussels..
4. Add 1/2 cup water, cover the frying pan with a lid and let the mussels cook, so that they open up. If they don't open but remain closed it means that they are not fresh and they are dangerous to eat, so take care!.
5. When you see the mussels open up, add the finely chopped pepper, let everything cook for a couple of minutes and then add the tomato paste..
6. Stir well from time to time, then add salt, pepper and cinnamon and after you leave the ingredients to cook and combine for 10 minutes take pieces of feta cheese and crumble them into the skillet..
7. Stir well and constantly, for five minutes, then remove from heat and serve!.
Careful Nostalgia & Close History: Changing Our Perception Of The Present. Recent The Rules Of The Game. This Is Not A Baseball Hat. The Precious Quality of Solitary Togetherness. Fashion Myles O'Meally Hits The Ground Running. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26347 | XML Sitemap
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26353 | So my work is looking into Automating Hyper-V Servers for Test Environments, Basically in the end we want to have a sort of Web/Form interface for selecting a server spin up. Right now it's done manually but for the first part maybe scripting some of it would be a first part.
Ideally we'd like to be able to Automate it in the sense that we are able to assign a Hyper-V name/Ip configuration/ as well as Assigning a specific Microsoft SQL Server to it (like 2008 or 2012) and various specifics.
What would be the best way to "get started" with this. I know a book exists "SQL Server 2012 with PowerShell V3 Cookbook" might be helpful, but "Cookbooks" tend to sometimes be sparse on material.
There is also "Microsoft SQL Server 2008 Administration with Windows PowerShell" but would this be applicable to SQL Server 2012?
Also what about any books for Automating or Using Powershell for Setting up Hyper-V servers?
The language can be changed, Python/Perl/etc... but Powershell is just an idea, since everything we used is Microsoft based anyways.
Also is this a common/decently-easy thing to do? or am I looking at a task that might be more overwhelming than I thought?
I would start with the technet pages for HyperV cmdlets and SQL cmdlets, if you are well versed in powershell then you can cook your own recipes, so to speak. Using HyperV and SQL does give you a powershell advantage, although I believe HyperV cmdlets are only available when you are using Windows 8/2012 RSAT.
| improve this answer | |
• So pretty much powershell is basically my only option when it comes to this (Which is ok with me)? – user57862 Mar 6 '13 at 15:47
• 1
I wouldn't say it's your only option, but in terms of what you want to do it's certainly the best option, imo of course. If you are new to powershell I recommend this book for the basics, everything as far as cmdlet reference go can be found on technet, and powershell.com has a daily mailing list that gives useful commands I reference back to from time to time. – MDMoore313 Mar 6 '13 at 15:52
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26374 | Roland Barthes
From Wikiquote
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Roland Barthes (November 12, 1915 – March 25, 1980) was a famous French philosopher.
Sourced quotes
• ”What the public wants is the image of passion, not passion itself.”[1]
Simple: People do not want passion. They want the image of passion.
1. "Le monde où l'on catche," in Mythologies (1957)
Other websites |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26382 | What Are the Advantages & Disadvantages of Being Able to Mark to Market?
Mark-to-market accounting assesses the value of your assets at their current market price. The purpose is to give an accurate picture of the financial strength of the company and its prospects for future profits. When applied to an inventory asset, it shows whether the company will make money when it sells the inventory, or lose money because the inventory has lost value in the marketplace.
When a Wall Street trading desk reports its financials, it must mark to market the securities it holds on the last day of the quarter, even if those securities will be sold the next day. Daily marking to market is used as a way to determine whether the securities pledged as collateral against loans meet the loan-to-value requirements. For customers who have margin accounts, which they use to borrow money against their owned stocks and bonds, a drop in the market will result in a margin call -- a requirement to put cash into the account to lower the loan-to-value ratio. A bank must mark to market the value of its mortgages so that if housing prices decline, the value of the collateral supporting those mortgage loans falls below the original loan-to-value ratio and the mortgages are worth less.
Mark-to-market accounting often becomes controversial during a financial crisis because it requires financial institutions to mark their securities and, in the case of banks, their loans to the market price, which is not always indicative of the true asset value. When this happens, even if it is clearly a temporary problem, the financial institution is either forced to sell off a portion of its portfolio or add money to its cash reserves. A good example of a disadvantage of mark-to-market is a pension fund's bond portfolio. If the bonds are held to maturity, the pension fund will not lose money because the bonds will pay interest and return principal at maturity. If the market value of the bonds declines, the fund will have to recognize a loss even though it intends to hold the bonds; it may look as though the pension fund does not have enough money to meet its pension payment obligations, even though the appearance is erroneous.
Proponents of mark-to-market accounting claim that it keeps financial statements realistic and allows stockholders to determine whether a company is in danger of going out of business. It keeps financial institutions from over-extending their leverage -- the amount of money they borrow against their assets. Without such restrictions, they might be tempted to misrepresent the value of their assets to disguise a failing business. On the other hand, if the market price of those assets rises, they can recognize those paper profits.
When a bank issues bonds, it promises to pay interest regularly and principal on maturity. Mark-to-market accounting can allow a bank to mark the value of its liabilities to market, as well as its assets. When the value of its liabilities decreases, technically, shareholders' equity increases. If the value of its bonds declines below issue price, under MTM the bank may appear to be making a profit on its liabilities that offsets losses on its assets -- disguising the true fragility of its financial health. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26383 | How to Configure a Linksys Phone Adapter
Companies that provide VoIP Internet telephony systems for businesses often provide or recommend the Linksys Phone Adapter model PAP2 for connecting standard telephones to their VoIP systems. You can configure a Linksys device from any Web browser. Once you connect the adapter to your network, use your phone to obtain an IP address that you type into a Web browser to access the configuration screen, then enter information from your VoIP service provider in the various fields on the configuration screen.
Make sure your router is properly connected to your ADSL or cable Internet modem according to the manufacturer's directions for each component.
Plug a touch-tone phone with a standard RSJ-11 phone jack to the "Phone 1" jack, which is the left jack on the back of the adapter.
Connect the Linksys adapter to your computer network with a standard RJ-45 Ethernet cable, by plugging one end of the cable into the large "Ethernet" port on the back panel of the adapter and the other end into any free port on your router.
Plug the round plug of the AC power source provided with the adapter into the round outlet next to the Ethernet port on the back panel of the switch. Plug the adapter into a regular electrical outlet.
Press the star key four times in a row on the phone you connected to the adapter, then dial "110#" using the phone's keypad. Wait a second for a voice message that includes the IP address.
Write down the full IP address number, which should be something like "," "" or ""
Launch a Web browser on any computer that is connected to your network. Type "http://" followed by the entire Web address that you heard in Step 5, then press "Enter." Wait a second or so for the configuration screen to appear on your computer screen.
Click "Admin Login" on the top right-hand side of the configuration screen, keeping in mind that there is no login or password to enter, and then click "Switch to Advanced View" on the purple bar closest to the configuration data on the screen.
Click the "System" tab on the ribbon directly above the configuration data on the screen.
Enter your DNS servers in the specified fields on the "System" page. Enter "" for your primary DNS and "" for your secondary DNS, or enter the values specified by your VoIP service provider in your contract or instructional literature.
Enter "" in the "Primary NTP Server" field, unless you were given another value by your VoIP service company. Click the "Save Settings" button at the bottom of the screen. Skip Steps 12 and 13 if you do not have specific values provided by your Internet telephony service provider.
Click the "SIP" tab and enter any specified values in their necessary fields as instructed by your VoIP provider. Click the "Save Settings" button.
Click the "Line 1" tab and enter the values you were given for Proxy and Register Expires.
Click the "Line 1" tab if you skipped Steps 12 and 13. Enter your full name as you want it to appear on Caller ID screens in the "Display Name" field. Enter your phone number in the "User ID" field, and enter any password you were given for your phone service in the "Password" field. Enter any other values you were given in the respective fields of the "Line 1" screen, as this is the main configuration screen. Click the "Save Settings" tab and proceed to Step 15 if you are only using one phone line with your Internet phone system.
Click the "Line 2" tab if you have a second phone number that you are using with your VoIP system. Repeat Steps 13 and 14 for your second phone number, and enter all other information given to you by your provider in the respective fields of the Line 2 screen. Click the "Save Settings" tab.
Call your cell phone with the phone you plugged into the adapter to make sure the configuration works properly. Plug another phone into the "Phone 2" jack of your switch to test the second line, or move the first phone to the second jack after you successfully verify the operation of your first line.
Check the caller ID on your cell phone and make sure it reads as you want it to, or repeat Step 14 for each phone as necessary. Check to make sure you entered the right information in the right lines, and that you have all of the configuration information you need, in the event the phone does not work at all. Contact your service provider if you need additional assistance. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26385 | When Starting a New Restaurant: Sole Proprietorship or LLC?
Based on your needs, either a limited liability company, commonly called an LLC, or a sole proprietorship can be a rewarding business structure for your restaurant. Though they have many similarities, sole proprietorship restaurants and LLCs differ. You and your restaurant are the same legal entity when you own a sole proprietorship; an LLC provides your business a separate legal entity. A little planning and a careful look at key factors can help you decide what works best for your restaurant.
Although most costs are the same whether you start your restaurant as an LLC or a sole proprietorship, there is one fee that is distinct --- your business formation expense. In most states you start a sole proprietorship by filing an assumed name certificate, also called a doing business as certificate, with your county clerk's office for under $25. Filing a certificate of formation for an LLC is done through the secretary of state's office, and most states do not charge more than $300.
Since a sole proprietorship is not a separate legal entity, if your restaurant is not able to pay its debts, your creditors can come after your personal property. Assets such as your car, home and personal savings are at risk. If your restaurant is run as an LLC, you are not personally responsible for business debt unless you sign a guarantee that says so. This means creditors can only gain access to your business savings and assets, but not your personal property. In the same way, if a patron sues your restaurant, claiming your food made him sick or he slipped and fell on your flooring or any number of things, an LLC can help protect your personal assets from risk.
Financing and Loans
When you own a sole proprietorship, financial institutions and other investors often have only your personal credit information from which to make a lending decision, since your business is not a separate legal entity. With an LLC, your business credit is more likely to be taken into consideration and can be shown as an alternative to, or in addition to, your personal credit. Your restaurant as an LLC will have its own credit rating, in the same way individuals have credit scores. This may benefit your restaurant if you want to expand it, purchase new equipment, open a second location, remodel or any number of things that will help your business grow but may take financing.
If you choose to make your restaurant a sole proprietorship, you will be required to report your business taxes with your personal income on a Schedule C form for businesses. If you are the sole member/owner of an LLC however, you can elect to be taxed as a corporation, partnership, or sole proprietor, according to the IRS website. This means that whether you choose to run your restaurant as an LLC or sole proprietorship, you can avoid double taxation, meaning your profits will only be taxed once, as a part of your personal income tax return. Other business forms such as corporations are taxed on profits as a business, and then the owners are taxed on their share of the income from the business.
IRS Audits
Since restaurants conduct multiple cash transactions per day, it is easy for owners to understate earnings. This fact, combined with your sole proprietorship status, may make your restaurant more likely to be audited by the IRS than an LLC. In 2010 the U.S. Treasury Department asked for IRS audit measures to be strengthened because of the likeliness of a sole proprietor underreporting income on her taxes. This is not to say your LLC is not subject to random audits, but the propensity to underreport is not as high. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26386 | Who Were The Prime Ministers Of Australia?
How many Australian prime ministers have we had?
Australia has had 29 prime ministers since Federation serving 35 separate terms of office (see Appendix 1).
Their periods of service range from 18.5 years (the Right Hon.
Robert Menzies who held office twice, from 1939–41 and 1949–66) to eight days (the Right Hon..
Who is Australia youngest prime minister?
Is Queen Elizabeth The Queen of Australia?
Who was the youngest president in the world?
How long can you be prime minister in Australia?
Who owns the Australian government?
Who is the youngest politician in the world?
10 youngest serving state leadersRankNameAge1Alessandro Cardelli29 years, 193 days2Artem Novikov33 years, 308 days3Sebastian Kurz34 years, 81 days4Sanna Marin35 years, 0 days6 more rows
Who is the oldest living prime minister?
There are currently six living British prime ministers including incumbent Boris Johnson. The oldest living former prime minister is John Major, born 29 March 1943 (aged 77 years, 229 days). Gordon Brown is the second-oldest, 7 years and 328 days younger than Major.
Who have been the prime ministers of Australia?
Australia’s prime ministersEdmund Barton. 1901-1903.Alfred Deakin. 1903-1904. 1905-1908. 1909-1910.Chris Watson. 1904.George Reid. 1904-1905.Andrew Fisher. 1908-1909. 1910-1913. 1914-1915.Joseph Cook. 1913-1914.William Hughes. 1915-1923.Stanley Bruce. 1923-1929.
Who has been Australia’s best prime minister?
Who was the last Labour Prime Minister Australia?
Recent examples include the 2018 removal of Malcolm Turnbull and the promotion of Scott Morrison to leader of the Liberal Party and Prime Minister, and in 2013 Kevin Rudd replacing Julia Gillard as the Labor prime minister.
Who is the longest serving prime minister in Australia?
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26405 | Washington state's new distracted driving law took effect over the weekend, and it has many concerned that some of their favorite, nay necessary, mid-drive activities—like, say, drinking a cup of coffee—may result in a $99 fine. Meant to penalize those using electronic devices in particular while driving, the law was written to include “any activity not related to driving that interferes with the safe operation of a motor vehicle,” which could include eating, drinking, applying makeup, etc.
But fear not, Washingtonians, according to USA Today you won't be penalized for drinking coffee while driving under the new distracted driving law. Unless drinking coffee was causing you to drive distracted.
Basically, you won't be pulled over simply for driving while having a cup of coffee. But if you are pulled over for driving poorly and it is clear that you were paying more attention to your coffee than your task of safely maneuvering a two-ton death machine around other two-ton death machines, then you can probably expect a ticket.
Washington State Patrol Capt. Monica Alexander gave the following example in the article (the word “cheeseburger” has been changed to “coffee” to help Sprudge readers better understand the analogy):
“We would have to articulate how that cheeseburger [coffee] caused that collision…” Alexander corrected herself, so as not to blame an innocent cheeseburger [coffee]. “Eating the cheeseburger [coffee],” she said. “The cheeseburger [coffee] didn’t do anything.”
The article notes that, like with other secondary offenses—like driving barefoot—officers factor in the “totality of circumstances” and have the discretion to not write a distracted driving ticket when it is not warranted.
It's a pretty common sense law. No, you won't get ticketed for drinking coffee while driving if it doesn't impair your ability to operate a motor vehicle. Yes, you will be ticketed (or maybe even double ticketed) if you're swerving around all willy nilly while trying to suck out that last little bit of whip cream on the top of your morning frappe. So don't do that. No one wants to die over whip cream.
Zac Cadwalader is the news editor at Sprudge Media Network.
*car image above via Stuffpoint |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26407 | I'm getting confused with the number of rows in MySQL. The total rows returned by phpMyAdmin and the count query are different.
My table structure is InnoDB.
Showing rows 0 - 24 (655537 total, Query took 0.1527 seconds.)
This is result of When browse the Table.
My count query was
SELECT count(*) FROM `table_name`
This will be return as 602030
enter image description here
When you browse using a tool, like phpmyadmin or heidiSQL, a query like this is executed:
this value is inaccurate and if you run it many times, it always gives different results.
on the contrary the query:
select count(*) from table
is actually counting the records, and gives a correct result.
As mentioned in mysql documentation https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/show-table-status.html:
Some storage engines, such as MyISAM, store the exact count. For other storage engines, such as InnoDB, this value is an approximation, and may vary from the actual value by as much as 40% to 50%. In such cases, use SELECT COUNT(*) to obtain an accurate count.
| improve this answer | |
Mysql said: by INNODb the total is just approximation of the count.
| improve this answer | |
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26408 | I am working on an applet which interfaces with a signature pad and can write the image to a file with this code:
BufferedImage sigImage = sigObj.sigImage();
int w = sigImage.getWidth(null);
int h = sigImage.getHeight(null);
int[] pixels = new int[(w * h) * 2];
sigImage.setRGB(0, 0, 0, 0, pixels, 0, 0);
FileOutputStream fos = new
JPEGImageEncoder jpeg = JPEGCodec.createJPEGEncoder(fos);
catch (java.io.IOException exception) { System.out.println("Error IO Exception."); }
The goal is to transmitted the file to the web server and ultimately put the .jpg or .bmp image in to an Oracle blob. What’s the best way to do this?
Just guessing here:
Method 1:
Have the applet write the .jpg file as a hex encoded string, move the string to a hidden form field and then submit the page where oracle can read the hidden field and convert it to a blob in pl/sql with blobVar := HEXTORAW( url('sigJpg'));
Method 2:
Have the applet do a POST and submit the file
My java skills are pretty green, so I’m not 100% sure if either of these methods are recommended. Once the file is moved to the web server, I’m pretty sure I can find a way to stuff it into the db using Oracle pl/sql. I’m not sure how to get the file to the web server.
Your method 2 is the method you should implement. Actually it is not a so huge problem. Here is a good example for you: http://www.exampledepot.com/egs/java.net/Post.html
You should write your image to stream you get from URL connection exactly as you do when you are writing it to file.
But this is not enough. You have to implement the server side. Typically you should implement servlet and override its doPost() method where you will get the content of your post. Then do what you need: open JDBC connection and write file to DB. Although I do not recommend this approach: you have nothing to do with BLOBs in DB. I think that better way is to write image to file system and store only path to it in DB.
I hope I gave you enough tips. You can find more details by 2 minutes googleing. Good luck.
| improve this answer | |
• Using the example, the image is written to the URL connection (and never touches the local filesystem). Wow, this would be nice. I do not want to use JDBC. The webpage that the applet is setting in has session/cookie info. Really it would be nice if this is also transmitted with the http POST (if it's not already).<br> Also storing the image as blob makes it easy to restrict who can see it, without the need for .access files. – Brian McGinity Oct 28 '11 at 15:33
Got it working. I found a post from 2004 where someone was doing the same thing. The only difference is I’m turning the file into a hex string before the posting. The only reason I’m doing this is because I know how to turn the hex string into a blob in Oracle.
private String byteToString(byte[] data) {
String text = new String();
text += (char) ( data[i] & 0x00FF );
return text;
private static String bytesToHexString(byte[] bytes) {
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder(bytes.length * 2);
Formatter formatter = new Formatter(sb);
for (byte b : bytes) {
formatter.format("%02x", b);
return sb.toString();
public void writeImageToServer(URL scriptURL, BufferedImage img){
try {
ByteArrayOutputStream jpegOutput = new ByteArrayOutputStream();
JPEGImageEncoder encoder = JPEGCodec.createJPEGEncoder(jpegOutput);
encoder.encode(img); // imagedata are coded here
HttpURLConnection urlConnection = (HttpURLConnection)
byte[] imageData = jpegOutput.toByteArray();
//String imageString = byteToString(imageData); // if you want a string
String imageString = bytesToHexString(imageData); // if you want hex string
String content = "img=" + URLEncoder.encode (imageString,"UTF-8");
urlConnection.setRequestProperty("Content-length", String.valueOf(content.length()));
OutputStream urlout = urlConnection.getOutputStream();
DataOutputStream printOut = new DataOutputStream(urlout);
printOut.writeBytes(content); // writing data to the serverscript
//System.err.println("Serverresponse: "+ urlConnection.getResponseMessage());
// this works in firefox
//try { getAppletContext().showDocument (new URL("javascript:msg(\""+ urlConnection.getResponseMessage() + "\")")); } catch (MalformedURLException me) { }
catch( IOException e ){ e.printStackTrace(); }
In oracle via mod_plsql:
procedure image_post_handeler ( img varchar2) is
b blob;
b := HEXTORAW( UTL_URL.UNESCAPE(url('img')) );
insert into image_table (id, b) values (id_seq.nextval, b );
To be production ready, it will have to be able to make an https connection and possibly cookies. I could get around the cookie issue if I pass a url parameter.
I may decide to hand the hex string back to the browser, put it in a hidden field within a form an then submit the form.
There may be better ways of doing this. It’s been a heck of a ride learning how to create an applet, jar the class, sign it, put .dll files all over the place. Just figuring out what java home the applets runs in was a challenge there about 6, some 32 bit and some 64 bit.
Thanks for the help. It gave me a better idea of what I needed to google. Comments very much appreciated.
| improve this answer | |
• After working with this for a bit, I found a few things: 1. The httpurlconnection can handle https connections. 2. Adding additional url parameters is the same as making a get url, so the connection string can be written like this: "f=1234&img=" + imageString 3. There is no need to encode the hex string or decode it at the db. The hex string will contain no special characters. – Brian McGinity Oct 29 '11 at 7:17
• Congrats on the solution. Make sure to mark your answer as 'accepted' so that other may learn from your success. Cheers~ – Andrew Kozak Dec 21 '11 at 17:35
Your Answer
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26410 | Noxious Behaviour
Volkswagen finds itself on the firing line for NOx emissions testing shame, but could it find its redemption in electric vehicles . . .
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26411 | Staked offers non-custodial open financial infrastructure upon which developers can build products and services.
• Staking-as-a-Service - Staked handles the infrastructure for staking securely and reliably. This includes the servers that run staking nodes, 24/7 monitoring to ensure uptime and reliable operation, and financial reporting.
• Robo-Advisor for Yield (RAY) - An Ethereum-based smart contract suite that rebalances among yield-generating opportunities to achieve the highest yield possible.
To programmatically retrieve the yields we offer, head on over to the Yields API
To begin staking, refer to the Delegations page
To dynamically provision nodes for chains like Ethereum 2.0, go to the Node Provisioning API
For easy access to reporting information, use the Reporting API
Developers can hook into the RAY smart contracts to offer the best lending rate to users.
Check out the RAY Intro to begin integrating!
We also offer a REST API for easy access to on-chain functionality, yields, and reporting. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26425 | The Bite
There stood a red-bricked house, semi-detached, with a golden sheen licking its exterior. Common but beautiful. I daren’t peel my floral netted curtains any further. Someone might have noticed me, thought something of me. They always had. I wondered though…who lived there? Were they happy? Rich? Poor? Lonely?
I tore myself away from my single-glazed windows, where through the netting, frost clawed at the glass and sat down. Only for a moment. My back creaked as I rose from the damp sofa. Bending down took several minutes, but eventually, I got low enough to turn the gas fire on. Click. Click. Pow. Crackle. Ah, warmth. I rubbed my hands together, my icy little bones sighing in relief.
The letter from my bank stood on the vacant mantle like a red siren. Off! Off! Stupid. Turn it off. My bones shivered again. The bitter chill in the air clung to my skin like fire to lumps of coal, and standing fearful, hunched over in this barren, misunderstood room, I felt like sleeping.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26426 | Brian Eno on the Role of the Artist in Times Like These
Image for post
Image for post
source: Kalpesh Lathigra for The New York Times
Lindsay Zoladz (via NY Times): What do you think is the role of an artist in times like these?
Brian Eno: Well, the question of course one always asks oneself is the role to just give it all up and do something useful with your time? [Laughs] Like campaign or become a political activist. So that is a continual question in my mind. But my response to that is to say that it’s not only the immediate future we have to think about, but also the long-term future and what we want that to be like. So I think what artists do is generally a contribution in the long-term rather than the short-term. There are short-term contributors as well, I’m not sure that I’m one of them.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26431 | 1 H3117 Now it came to pass in the days H8199 [H8802] when the judges H8199 [H8800] ruled, H7458 that there was a famine H776 in the land. H376 And a certain man H1035 H3063 of Bethlehemjudah H3212 [H8799] went H1481 [H8800] to dwell H7704 in the country H4124 of Moab, H802 he, and his wife, H8147 and his two H1121 sons.
2 H8034 And the name H376 of the man H458 was Elimelech, H8034 and the name H802 of his wife H5281 Naomi, H8034 and the name H8147 of his two H1121 sons H4248 Mahlon H3630 and Chilion, H673 Ephrathites H1035 H3063 of Bethlehemjudah. H935 [H8799] And they came H7704 into the country H4124 of Moab, and continued there.
3 H458 And Elimelech H5281 Naomi's H376 husband H4191 [H8799] died; H7604 [H8735] and she was left, H8147 and her two H1121 sons.
4 H5375 [H8799] And they took H802 for themselves wives H802 of the women H4125 of Moab; H8034 the name H259 of the one H6204 was Orpah, H8034 and the name H8145 of the other H7327 Ruth: H3427 [H8799] and they dwelt H6235 there about ten H8141 years.
6 H6965 [H8799] Then she arose H3618 with her daughters in law, H7725 [H8799] that she might return H7704 from the country H4124 of Moab: H8085 [H8804] for she had heard H7704 in the country H4124 of Moab H3068 how that the LORD H6485 [H8804] had visited H5971 his people H5414 [H8800] in giving H3899 them food.
8 H5281 And Naomi H559 [H8799] said H8147 to her two H3618 daughters in law, H3212 [H8798] Go, H7725 [H8798] return H802 each H517 to her mother's H1004 house: H3068 the LORD H6213 [H8799] deal H2617 mercifully H6213 [H8804] with you, as ye have dealt H4191 [H8801] with the dead, and with me.
9 H3068 The LORD H5414 [H8799] grant H4672 [H8798] you that ye may find H4496 rest, H802 each H1004 of you in the house H376 of her husband. H5401 [H8799] Then she kissed H5375 [H8799] them; and they lifted up H6963 their voice, H1058 [H8799] and wept.
11 H5281 And Naomi H559 [H8799] said, H7725 [H8798] Turn again, H1323 my daughters: H3212 [H8799] why will ye go H1121 with me? are there yet any more sons H4578 in my womb, H582 that they may be your husbands?
12 H7725 [H8798] Turn again, H1323 my daughters, H3212 [H8798] go H2204 [H8804] your way; for I am too old H376 to have an husband. H559 [H8804] If I should say, H3426 I have H8615 hope, H376 if I should have an husband H3915 also to night, H3205 [H8804] and should also bear H1121 sons;
13 H7663 [H8762] Would ye wait H3860 for them H1431 [H8799] till they should be grown? H5702 [H8735] would ye restrain H3860 yourselves H376 from having husbands? H1323 nay, my daughters; H4843 [H8804] for it grieveth H3966 me much H3027 for your sakes that the hand H3068 of the LORD H3318 [H8804] hast gone out against me.
14 H5375 [H8799] And they lifted up H6963 their voice, H1058 [H8799] and wept again: H6204 and Orpah H5401 [H8799] kissed H2545 her mother in law; H7327 but Ruth H1692 [H8804] clung to her.
15 H559 [H8799] And she said, H2994 Behold, thy sister in law H7725 [H8804] hath gone back H5971 to her people, H430 and to her gods: H7725 [H8798] return H310 thou after H2994 thy sister in law.
16 H7327 And Ruth H559 [H8799] said, H6293 [H8799] Entreat H5800 [H8800] me not to leave H7725 [H8800] thee, or to turn away H310 from following H3212 [H8799] thee: for where thou goest, H3212 [H8799] I will go; H3885 [H8799] and where thou lodgest, H3885 [H8799] I will lodge: H5971 thy people H5971 shall be my people, H430 and thy God H430 my God:
17 H4191 [H8799] Where thou diest, H4191 [H8799] will I die, H6912 [H8735] and there will I be buried: H3068 the LORD H6213 [H8799] do H3254 [H8686] so to me, and more H4194 also, if any thing but death H6504 [H8686] shall part thee and me.
19 H8147 So they two H3212 [H8799] went H935 [H8800] until they came H1035 to Bethlehem. H935 [H8800] And it came to pass, when they had come H1035 to Bethlehem, H5892 that all the city H1949 [H8735] was in an uproar H559 [H8799] about them, and they said, H5281 Is this Naomi?
20 H559 [H8799] And she said H7121 [H8799] to them, Call H5281 me not Naomi, H7121 [H8798] call H4755 me Mara: H7706 for the Almighty H3966 hath dealt very H4843 [H8689] bitterly with me.
21 H1980 [H8804] I went out H4392 full, H3068 and the LORD H7725 [H8689] hath brought me home again H7387 empty: H7121 [H8799] why then call H5281 ye me Naomi, H3068 seeing the LORD H6030 [H8804] hath testified H7706 against me, and the Almighty H7489 [H8689] hath afflicted me?
22 H5281 So Naomi H7725 [H8799] returned, H7327 and Ruth H4125 the Moabitess, H3618 her daughter in law, H7725 [H8804] with her, who returned H7704 from the country H4124 of Moab: H935 [H8804] and they came H1035 to Bethlehem H8462 in the beginning H8184 of barley H7105 harvest. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26438 | Knowledgebase: Non-Fulcrum Software
Futronic FinLogon
Posted by Aaron Adams on 20 February 2020 11:07 AM
Futronic's Windows Logon Software Suite
If you are unable to logon to your Windows PC with your fingerprint using Futronic's FinLogon.
If you can get to a Windows Command Prompt, we can rename a file to disable the Fingerprint capture at the Windows Logon Screen.
The DLL we need to rename is located in %SYSTEM% folder.
If Windows is 32bit, the file name is ‘ftrVistaCredentialProvider.dll’.
If Windows is 64bit, the file name is ‘ftrVistaCredentialProvider64.dll'.
From the Windows Command Prompt
1. cd c:\Windows\System32
2. rename ftrVistaCredentialProvider64.dll (Example: OLD_ftrVistaCredentialProvider64.dll)
3. restart the PC
After completing the above steps, you should be able to logon with PIN or password as usual. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26439 | Do candidates receive notifications when a new job opens up?
Unfortunately, we don't have this (yet)... but, naturally, there is a workaround.
We do have "export" capabilities from both the candidate manager / by job and the candidate manager / search pages which include the candidate's email address in the export. Simply build up a list of candidates, click export, then cut-and-paste the list of emails into your email client to send out a notification.
Please contact if you have any questions.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26479 | Drug Analysis
Research shows drug use can be extremely harmful to the human body. The damage can be extensive and affect the body both physically and psychologically. Yet, since the discovery of drugs more and more individuals find it hard to overcome the addiction. In fact, surveys conducted by the Partnership for Drug-Free Kids (2010) reflect an increase on drug use in America, with 23.5 million Americans addicted to alcohol and drugs. According to Abdadinsky, (2014), “several attempts have been made to explain why some people become dependent on chemicals while others, even those who use the same substances, do not.” This paper will analyze and evaluate the differences between alcohol, cocaine, and ecstasy; by identifying the composition, manufacture and cultivation of the drug, how it is used, and the physical and psychological effects on the human body. Furthermore, this paper will identify one theory that best explains why an individual would chose to use one or more of the chosen drugs aforementioned above.
Alcohol is a depressant and is the most common substance that causes addiction in the United States. Statistics show over 17 million people suffer from alcohol use or dependency, and several more million show patterns that will lead to addiction. The alcohol abuse affects more than seven million children in the Unites States; forcing them to fall victim of the effects of alcohol abuse in their own home. (NCADD, 2015) Ethyl alcohol is the intoxicating ingredient in many alcoholic beverages consumed by Americans today. It is produced by fermenting carbohydrates to ethyl alcohol by growing yeast cells. The main raw materials that are fermented for the production of alcohol include sugar cane, barley, corn, and flavoring. (Britannica, 2012) The Ethyl alcohol is found in beer, wine, and other spirits that are produced and sold in liquor stores, food markets, and restaurants. Anheuser Busch is a major manufacturer of beer in the U.S. The beer is brewed and fermented from malted barley grain and flavored with hops. The Barley is cultivated on a private farm in Idaho. Ethanol is a 2 carbon alcohol, the molecular formula is CH3CH2OH. (Britannica, 2012) This depressant has become a social drink, making it even more dangerous. It is known as the life of the party, has power to drowned out the memory of a bad breakup, and relax the mind. It can be consumed alone or with a group of people and is very easy to obtain. For most adults moderate alcohol consumption is not harmful. Anything over two drinks per day is considered excessive and heavy drinking and can be life threatening. Alcohol affects all body systems over an extended period of use. Consumption results in higher risks of liver cancer, ulcer disease, brain damage, chronic active hepatitis, and impairment of the immune system. Heavy consumption decreases production of all blood cells, lowering the immune system and resistance to infections, and also decreases lifetime expectancy. The negative effects are limitless and can also damage one’s emotional stability, finances, impact family and other personal relationships stripping the user of the life that he once knew.
Cocaine is a very powerful and very addicting drug that affects the brain instantaneously. The chemical formula of cocaine is C17H21NO4. (Britannica, 2012) It is derived from the coca plant and has been abused for over 100 years. Cocaine comes in two forms; hydrochloride salt which is a powder and dissolves in water. It is in this form that the user can inject the drug into their blood stream intravenously or snort it through the nasal passage. The second form of cocaine is known as freebase; in this form the user can smoke the cocaine for a more intense affect. Cocaine is a stimulant and can cause the user to feel energized, be extremely talkative, mentally alert, sensitivity to sight and sound, and causes the pupils to dilate. Among these short term effects lie the hidden long term effects which include: restlessness, paranoia, and irritability. Cocaine is extremely dangerous for the body in a physical stance causing irregular heartbeat, respiratory failure, seizures, and strokes. This drug is cultivated in Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia. The cultivation process begins weeding the bad seeds out. The farmer will plant the crop in the best part of his field where the water drains off into the river. The crop is maintained for 12 to 24 months and after maturity the leaves are removed, dried, and prepared for cocaine processing. (Rhodium, 1993)
Ecstasy is a popular hallucinogen that is known in the club world as a date rape drug. Unlike alcohol and cocaine which come from natural ingredients and plants of the earth, this drug is synthesized in a laboratory. It is a designer drug created by altering the molecular structure of the amphetamine. Ecstasy has a molecular formula of C11H15NO2 and contains caffeine, ephedrine, ketamine, and methamphetamine. (Britannica, 2012) This drug is most commonly taken orally and is often slipped unknowingly into an individual’s drink. It can also be inhaled, injected, and snorted. Once the drug has entered the body it quickly finds a passageway to the brain. It is absorbed into the bloodstream very easily and affects the liver, heart, lungs, and brain of the human body. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2014) it will take 15 minutes from the time that the drug is ingested to reach the brain. It causes short term and long term effects on the human brain. The short term effects include feeing empathy and warm feelings towards others, decreased anxiety, and mental stimulation. This is a happy drug that temporarily increases your positivity and mood and will increase sexual arousal. Ecstasy has also been known to increase paranoia, reduce pleasure, and cause intense depression. After ingesting the drug the user will experience chills, blurred vision, nausea, hallucinations, and fever.
Most individuals begin using drugs as a means to cope with a social issue or because they have witnessed a friend or family member using the substance at one time or another. This is an example of the social theory on drugs. According to Abadinsky (2014) most young people seek out drugs to cope with depression, alienation, or parental disapproval. Individuals that use alcohol tend to do it in a social setting usually with friends to enhance the mood and liven things up. It is also a relaxation tool and helps the user unwind in stressful situations, like a first date. Cocaine is another social drug that is used in secret with a small group that are seeking an escape from reality. The individuals most likely already share a bound and have experimented with other drugs before. Young people see drugs as an easy way to connect with peers and to get through the common hardships that come as a teen in a world.
These three drugs are very common in that they change the behavior of the user and increase chances of physical harm to oneself or others. The chances of death is increased while under the influence of the illegal substances. Alcohol and Cocaine offer a quick rush while ecstasy requires more time to influence the mental functions of the brain. One thing remains they are dangerous whether used in a solo setting or with a large group. The physical and psychological effects will stay with you and may impair you for a lifetime, leaving you in shambles.
Join Together Staff Writer. (2010, September 28). New Data Show Millions of Americans with Alcohol and Drug Addiction Could Benefit from Health Care R – Partnership for Drug-Free Kids. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.drugfree.org/new-data-show-millions-of-americans-with-alcohol-and-drug-addiction-could-benefit-from-health-care-r/
Alcohol & Drug Information. (2015, January 1). Retrieved April 22, 2015, from https://ncadd.org/for-the-media/alcohol-a-drug-information
Ethyl alcohol | chemical compound. (2012, January 1). Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/194354/ethyl-alcohol
Cocaine | chemical compound. (2012, January 1). Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/123441/cocaine
Ecstasy| chemical compound. (2012, January 1). Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/378657/Ecstasy
Rhodium. (1993, January 1). Coca Cultivation and Cocaine Processing: An Overview – [www.rhodium.ws]. Retrieved April 22, 2015, from https://erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemistry/coca2cocaine.html
The Neurobiology of Ecstasy (MDMA). (2014, January 1). Retrieved April 22, 2015, from http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/teaching-packets/neurobiology-ecstasy/section-i/4-what-we-know-about-ecstasy |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26486 | Ten Fun And Unique Viking Names
(The Funeral of a Viking, by Frank Dicksee (1853–1928), [Public Domain] via Creative Commons)
During the Viking Age, the adventurous warriors of Scandinavia had some of the most entertaining and innovative names and nicknames in history.
Without further ado, here are 10 Vikings with very memorable names:
• Ragnar Lodbrok (Hairy-Breeches)—He was a 9th-century Viking king from Denmark whose raids against Britain and mainland Europe became legendary.
• Ivar the Boneless—He was a son of Ragnar Lodbrok. Like his father, Ivar was also a powerful Scandinavian king. He launched another invasion of Britain to avenge his father’s death.
• Magnus Barelegs—He was the king of Norway from 1093-1103. Magnus Barelegs died while fighting in Ireland.
• Hrolf the Nose—He was the grandfather of Hrolf the Walker/ Rollo of Normandy (c. 860-932).
• Ketil Flatnose—He was a Viking who sailed to the British Isles and set himself up as a king in the Hebrides, off the west coast of Scotland.
• Harald Bluetooth—Harald Bluetooth (c. 910-987) was a powerful king of Denmark who also expanded into Norway.
• Svein Forkbeard—He was the king of Denmark from around 987-1014, after usurping power from his father, Harald Bluetooth. Svein Forkbeard invaded the British Isles and built himself a strong foothold, but died shortly after invading Britain.
• Ogmund Crow-Dance—He was a Viking officer in the army of the Norwegian king, Hakon IV (r. 1217-1263). Ogmund Crow-Dance participated in the skirmishes between Norway and Scotland, known as the Battle of Largs.
• Viga-Glum (Killer Glum)—Killer Glum was a Viking thought to have lived around 940-1003. There is a saga dedicated to him, detailing his many exploits.
• Eirik Bloodax—He was a 10th-century king of Norway. His father was Harald Finehair, the first king to unite Norway. Eirik Bloodax lost the throne of Norway to Haakon I. He then made himself king of Northumbria, but, again, he could not hold onto power.
• The Viking Age: A Reader, edited by Angus A. Somerville and R. Andrew McDonald. Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2010.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26504 | Three recordings of
The Road To Lisdoonvarna
The Road To Lisdoonvarna (reel) is also known as All The Way To Galway, All The Ways To Galway, Flash Away The Pressing Gang, Road To Listonvarna.
Cooley’s (reel) is also known as Cooleys, Joe Cooley, Joe Cooley’s, Joe Cooley’s Fancy, Joe Cooleys, Luttrell’s Pass, Put The Cake In The Dresser, Put The Cake On The Dresser, Reaping The Rye, Ríl Na Tulaí, The Tulla.
Kilkenny Road by Kilkenny Road
1. The Road To Lisdoonvarna
2. Joe Cooley’s
Live In Concert by The Bothy Band
1. Michael Gorman’s
2. Cúnla
3. All The Ways To Galway
4. Cooley’s
Urban Celtic by Urban Celtic
1. Road To Lisdoonvarna
2. Cooley’s |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26508 | Natural Marigold Flowers Diffuser
Natural Marigold Flowers Diffuser
Munio Candela
Natural Marigold Flowers Diffuser
Regular price €25,90 €0,00
Tax included.
Hand poured natural marigold folwers diffuser using only natural fragrance, oil base, glass bottle, 7 rattan reed sticks and recycable unbleached cardboard packaging.
Designer: Munio Candela
Product description:
• Fragrance: lavender
• Volume: 100 ml
• Dimensions: Ø 7cm x H 20cm
• Fragrance lasts approximately 8-10 weeks
Directions for use:
Diffusers are meant to stand up and to be left untouched. If kids are around diffusers, please keep the diffusers higher and out of reach. May cause an allergic skin reaction. Avoid eyes and skin contact. If on skin: wash with plenty of soap and water. do not swallow. Avoid releasing to the environment. Diffuser liquid is flammable, do not light and keep away from open flame. Spilled diffuser can damage furniture surfaces, always wipe clean the bottom of your bottle before setting on any surface. Do not reuse the reeds. Even with the same scent, the reeds will eventually get clogged with dust and should be replaced when replacing the diffuser.
More from this collection |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26522 | « Updates/8.52
Updates/8.54 »
Update Teasers
1. World Type Realignment and War System
2. Character World Transfer and Further Changes
Additionally, a featured article was posted explaining in depth the new pvp types.
• The War System was introduced, a way for guilds to have wars even in worlds without PvP enabled.
• PvP types were renamed and received some adjustments.
• Character World Transfers were added, allowing a player to transfer their character to a different world.
• Characters can only leave Rookgaard at level 8 or 9.
The downtime of the servers was higher than usual, from 12:00 CET until 05:00 CET (next day), while the official news first said it would be until 23:00 CET and later until 02:00 CET and 04:00 CET. Remarkable is the test server client preceding this patch was 8.56 while the actual patch is 8.53.
PvP Types Realignment
• Non-PvP is now called Optional PvP
• You can no longer block other people, players can walk through you by tapping again your direction. This also applies to summons. Special tiles like the tiles in front of depots or next to quest or level doors do not apply to this.
• When characters are stacked on the same tile, the very first character on the stack will always be on top of the stack, meaning that all attacks pointed on the tile on game window will affect this character. Area of effect attacks will affect all characters in the stack.
• Characters on position 2 or lower on the stack won't be able to attack, loot or heal others anymore
• Within the first 60 seconds after taking PvP damage from an opponent, war participants and their summons cannot be healed by other characters that are not involved in the war. The same applies to party buffs.
• Players will be unable to paralyse others unless they are in war with them.
• If these runes are used by a war participant, their known effects will only apply to his opponents but not to his own guild members or any uninvolved players. Wild growth can simply be passed by allies and uninvolved characters but, unlike magic walls, stay visible in the game window. Magic walls that were cast by a war participant collapse as soon as an own guild member or an uninvolved character walks across. Magic walls cast by an uninvolved character vanish upon contact with any other character.
• To prevent players from abusing the war system for skill trainings, any weapon and shielding skills will not advance within the scope of the war system.
• Normal PvP is now called Open PvP
• As on Optional PvP, the very first character on a square will always be on top of a stack, any character that enters the stack afterwards will be sorted below. Attacks that are pointed towards a stack of characters (triggered by a click in the game window) will effect only the character on top of the stack. Area damages, in contrast, will effect the whole stack. Furthermore, characters that are deep inside a stack will not be able to perform any kind of aggressive act any more, neither against other characters nor against any kind of creatures.
• Paralysing other characters results in a skull mark according to the rules of the skull system if you are playing on Open PvP.
• PvP-Enforced is now called Hardcore PvP
• Blessings and the amulet of loss will be available now and the experience gain for player killing will be removed.
• The same stacking changes for Open PvP will apply.
Character World Transfers
This update introduced the ability for characters to change to another world. At the time the cost was EUR 19.15.
The following restrictions apply:
• A character can only be transferred once within 6 months.
• The character must not have a red or black skull.
• Before doing a transfer, a character has give up its rented house, guild membership and marriage status.
• All items in all the city depots will be deleted. There's a special depot in Travora to transfer items to the new world.
• Its bank account, skills, spells and quest flags will be transferred together with the character.
• A character may only be transferred to worlds of the same type or to worlds with more limited PvP possibilities: from Optional PvP only to Optional PvP, from Open PvP to Open PvP or Optional PvP, and from Hardcore PvP to all game worlds.
• The character world transfer is available for both premium and free account players. In order to move to a premium game world, however, the account the character is assigned to has to be premium at the time of the transfer.
• Some game worlds might be marked as "closed". In this case, a transfer to this world is not possible at the moment.
• Characters must have a vocation, so characters on Rookgaard cannot be transferred. They have to leave for mainland first.
Additionally, there's some item restrictions:
• A total of 1000 items can be transferred. This includes items in your inventory and Travora's depot box. Stacks count as as a single item.
• Most items are limited to 1 unit per character. This includes all kinds of weapons, all kinds of armour, most equipment items as well as quest rewards and addon items. That means, a transferred character can only take along one pair of boots of haste, one magic plate armor, one Yalahari armor etc.
• Stackable items that are needed for quests are usually limited to 100 units per character, including pieces of cloth, demonic essences etc.
• General exceptions of this limitation are potions, runes, ammunition, any kinds of containers, medals, trophies, fansite items and some more. You can take along more than one of those.
• When you prepare your character for the world transfer on Travora, NPC Sharon will help you with finding out which of your items are limited and which are not.
Note: These were the conditions when the feature was introduced. To see the current state, see Character World Transfer.
New Areas and Map Changes
Graphical Changes
• Icons for people involved in a war (red, green, blue).
New Items
Name Attributes Weight Dropped By
Friendship Amulet
Friendship Amulet.gif
Missing File
• This item is not dropped by any creatures.
New NPCs
Name Job Buy/Sell Location
Captain Tiberius
Captain Tiberius.gif
Missing File
Ship Captain Travora, on his ship.
Missing File
North-east on Travora.
Missing File
Informer Travora's ship.
New Objects
Name Walkable Notes
Glowing Switch (Activated)
Glowing Switch (Activated).gif
Missing File
This is an activated Glowing Switch.
Glowing Switch
Glowing Switch.gif
Missing File
Once a player enters this tile, it turns into Glowing Switch (Activated), becomes unwalkable until a player moves or leaves the game and looks like this: Glowing Switch (Activated).gif.
See also: Safely Stored Away .
|
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26531 | Climate Primer #24: Impacts of Climate Crisis – 7. Declining Oceanic Dissolved Oxygen Content
To summarize, climate crisis is the defining issue of the century. Buildup of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (GHGs) in Earth’s atmosphere is driving global heating, while a convergence of global crises threatens to rupture key planetary boundaries. Although the human activities which drive these converging crises (for simplicity: the climate crisis) are diverse and complex, the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) breaks down the sources of anthropogenic GHG emissions into five high-level sectors. Similarly, the impacts of climate crisis – in their variety and complexity – are almost impossible for an individual to grasp, but so far, this sub-series has covered: global heating, Arctic amplification, heat waves, droughts and floods, disruption of oceanic and atmospheric patterns, and cryosphere collapse. In the absence of dramatic global climate action this decade, climate crisis will likely spiral out of control, rupturing key planetary boundaries and endangering the future of organized human life on Earth.
Today’s post will address, in a simple (so highly reductive) fashion, a complex topic – namely the reduction in dissolved oxygen content in Earth’s oceans. Ongoing ocean acidification was addressed in a previous post on planetary boundaries, and I suspect most readers will have come across the statistic that, to date, oceans have taken up ~90% of the additional heat that has been trapped within the bounds of Earth’s atmosphere since the onset of anthropogenic global heating. The oceans are getting both more acidic (though, for now, they remain mildly basic) and hotter. As the EPA (still a thing, sort of) puts it, an “inverse relationship […] exists between dissolved oxygen and temperature. As the temperature of the water increases, dissolved oxygen levels decrease.” So as the oceans warm, their oxygen content decreases. This poses some clear and, on their face, relatively obvious threats to living beings in the oceans and (on top of warming, acidification, changes in currents and major climate patterns, loss of sea ice, etc.) the stability of marine ecosystems.
In brief, here’s what AR5 includes on the matter:
Source: AR5 of the IPCC (page 62)
For readers interested in going a little deeper (pun acknowledged) on a related topic, the June issue of Nature Climate Change had a good piece on the risk that, even under an ambitious mitigation pathway, deep ocean waters are likely to warm disproportionately over the remainder of the 21st century owing to heating that is already locked in.
Postscript: At my mom’s request/suggestion, I may start including an action item/potential solution in each post. These are “Primers” are meant, not to engender despair, but to provide a foundation of knowledge for action and to reinforce the urgency of taking coordinated global climate action at scale.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26591 | It’s a question we get asked time and time again, we are sound experts after all! With so many different kinds of speakers to choose from no wonder that people struggle to choose. We are here to help you make the right choice for you.
In-ceiling/in-wall speakers: in-ceiling/in-wall speakers are a great choice for you if you are looking for a speaker that you want out of harm’s way. Something to note about these kinds of speakers is that they are more of a permanent audio solution rather than the other kinds of speakers we will be looking at because they have to be installed directly into your ceiling/wall. This can cause permanent damage if done incorrectly. Our team are experts in speaker installs so can help with this every step of the way.
Large sound systems: a large sound system can be great because large speakers can really push big quantities of air to create an undeniably dynamic sound. Speakers with large dimensions are efficient in producing a crisper lower bass, compared to their smaller counterparts. Whilst bigger can be better, it truly does depend on the amount of space you have available for your sound system. If you don’t have a lot of space available, a more compact sound system may be better.
Compact sound systems: like mentioned above, a compact sound system can be better if you don’t have a lot of space available. Whilst the sound quality may not be as good as their larger counterparts, that doesn’t mean they sound bad by any means. There are many smaller speakers that can sound incredible. Another pro to having a more compact sound system is that they are easier to move around.
Still unsure about which direction to go in with your home sound system? Get in touch with Wall of Sound and we can get the wheels turning on your dream sound system! |
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26661 | History of Ondansetron Use for AUD
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History of Ondansetron Use for AUD
Ondansetron History and Foundation for Treating AUD
The active pharmaceutical agent in AD04 is ondansetron (the active ingredient in Zofran®) which was granted FDA approval in 1991 for nausea and vomiting post-operatively and after chemotherapy or radiation treatment and is now commercially available in generic form. In studies of Zofran® conducted as part of its FDA review process, patients were given ondansetron acutely at dosages up to almost 100 times the dosage expected to be formulated in AD04 with the highest doses of Zofran® given intravenously (“i.v.”), which results in almost twice the exposure level as oral dosing.. Even at high doses given i.v. the studies found that ondansetron is well-tolerated and results in few adverse side effects at the currently marketed doses given i.v.. The formulation/ dosage of ondansetron used in our drug candidate (and expected to be used by us in our Phase 3 clinical trials) has the potential advantage that it contains a much lower concentration of ondansetron than the generic formulation/dosage that has been used in prior clinical trials, is dosed orally, and is available with use of a companion diagnostic biomarker. Ondansetron is a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. Preclinical and pharmacobehavioral studies suggest that blockade of serotonin-3 receptors will influence the dopamine reward system activated by alcohol, decreasing dopamine release and attenuating craving for alcohol (Dawes, MA et al., 2005b; Johnson, BA et al., 2002; Lovinger, DM, 1999a). Early clinical studies found that the efficacy of ondansetron is limited to certain subgroups of the alcohol-dependent population and suggested the differential effect could be predicted based on age of onset of alcoholism, an indistinct concept likely confounded by genetic, regional and ethnic differences (Johnson, BA et al., 2000; Kranzler, HR et al., 2003). Recent research suggests the variable effect may be predictable based on molecular mechanism of ondansetron action and individual subject genotype of key genes in the serotonin system (Enoch, MA et al., 2010; Johnson, BA et al., 2011; Kenna, GA et al., 2009).
Ondansetron, by blocking the 5-HT3 receptor, is known to affect dopaminergic signaling in the brain; and the scientific rational for use of a 5-HT3 antagonist in the treatment of alcohol dependence is well established (Johnson, BA, 2004). Briefly, studies suggest that: the rewarding effects of alcohol involve activation of the 5-HT3 receptors leading to release of dopamine within the mesolimbic system of the brain (McBride, WJ et al., 2004). Thus, by blocking activation of the 5-HT3 receptor, ondansetron may reduce the ethanol-stimulated release of dopamine leading to reduced feelings of pleasure or reward and consequently, reduced consumption (Carboni, E et al., 1989; Costall, B et al., 1987; Hagan, RM et al., 1990; Imperato, A and Angelucci, L, 1989; Lovinger, DM, 1999b; McBride, WJ et al., 2004; Minabe, Y et al., 1991; Rasmussen, K et al., 1991; Wozniak, KM et al., 1990; Yoshimoto, K et al., 1996). |
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26683 | Learn English with Friends
Learn English with Friends: Everything You Need to KnowLearn English with Friends
Here are four phrases from Friends Season 1 Episode 2 Scene 3:
• Be through with
• That would be
• See…
• Ball up
To be through with [something] means, to be finished using or doing something. I am through with working these late hours. I’m quitting my job.
To be through with [person] means, to want to end your relationship with that person.
• Shani is angry with Yam. I think she is through with him.
• Rachel was through with Shlomo, so she didn’t marry him.
• Shani: Do you want to date my friend Jenny?
• Yam: That would be no.
• Lior: Should I tell Cathy I want to break up with her?
• Dikla: That would be not good.
Chandler continues speaking saying, “See, I wrote a note to myself, and then I realized I didn’t need it, so I balled it upand…now I wish I was dead.
• Chandler balled up a piece of paper.
• balled up the aluminum foil that came with this sandwich.
To illustrate how to actively watch a TV show, let's look at a short clip from the popular series Friends,
you can also view on YouTube by clicking on this link.Image via NBC / Wikipedia
Step 1: Write It Down
Nothing makes the words stick in your memory like actually writing down what the characters are saying. Often times, being able to see what the characters say will help you follow the dialogue better, as well as help you memorize certain phrases for your own future use.
For beginners, try watching the episode with English subtitles (available on Netflix and YouTube), and using them as a guide when you don’t catch everything that the characters are saying. However, one of the hidden benefits of TV being available on the Internet is that you can quickly and easily rewind a given scene as many times as you’d like! Therefore, if you don’t understand something, you can listen to it again and again until you have your a-ha! moment, and everything becomes clear.
Once you’ve written down some dialogue, you’re ready to get to the meat of active listening: the analysis.
Step 2: Analyze, Analyze, Analyze
Are you ready for some active listening? Click the link above to get started! This time, I’ll write down the dialogue for you, and we’ll analyze together. You’ll discover that we can already learn a great deal from just the first ten seconds of the scene:
Ross: Come on, you guys, we’re sorry! Our subway broke down!
Chandler: That’s a lie! You went to the game — I can see Joey’s hand!
Ross: For the love of God, take it off!
In this three small lines of dialogue, we can already see two useful and common phrasal verbsbreak down and take (something) offThe phrasal verb break down is used to when machines or vehicles stop working properly — like Ross’s subway, which caused him to be late. And to take something off means to remove an article of clothing. In this case, Ross is telling Joey to take off his foam handwhich are sold at baseball games.
We also see a colloquial expression, for the love of God. This phrase is used when you are exasperated or frustrated, and you’re pleading with somebody. For example, you might say to the characters on Friends, For the love of God, speak more slowly!”
Later in the scene, Rachel suggests that they eat a dish that Monica had put into the oven earlier that day (start at 0:43 or click here):
Monica: You touch that and you’ll be sorry!
Chandler: I’d listen to her. The vein is bigger than I’ve ever seen it!
First, we can see that Monica is angry. In this scene, she’s using expressions — You’ll be sorry! — that are popular for making threats. “You’ll be sorry!” is a synonym of another common expression when threatening somebody: “You’ll regret it!”
If you’re listening closely, you’ll notice that Chandler says, “I’d listen to her”, which contains a contracted version of the modal wouldThis is an excellent example of using would to give advice. When Chandler says, “I’d listen to her,” he’s really using a second conditional construction like the following: “If I were you, I’d listen to her.” However, in spoken English, it’s not necessary to include “If I were you”.
Finally, when Chandler talks about Monica’s vein (which presumably appears due to her anger), he provides a great instance of the present perfect tense in action. By combining the present perfect (I have seen) with the adverb of time (ever), he emphasizes the fact that, in that moment, Monica’s vein is bigger than it has been at any other moment in time. Scary!
At the end of the scene, Joey tries to make amends by apologizing to Monica and Chandler (start at 2:01 or click here):
Joey: Hey listen, guyswe feel really terrible.
Chandler: He’s doing that weird eye contact thing. Don’t look at him!
Joey: C’mon, guys! We want you to know we’re very, very sorry. Right guys?
Here, Joey is making an apology, and uses some very common language to express regret: We feel terrible and We’re very sorryYou’ll often hear people say these phrases when they are apologizing for something.
Something else you’ll notice is that Joey uses the word guys to refer to all of his friends — even Monica and Rachel, who are women. English does not have an official second-person plural pronoun, so English speakers have to get creative. In many dialects of English, “guys” is used to refer to a group of people in the second person, regardless of their gender. For instance, on a Friday evening, you might ask your friends, “Hey guys, what are we doing tonight?”
I want to make one final point about pronunciation. Chandler tells Monica to not look at Joey: “Don’t look at him! Don’t look at him!” However, in spoken English, the pronunciation of at him gets shortened — Chandler omits the “h” and “i” sounds, and ends up saying something that sounds like, “Don’t look at’m!” This type of word reduction is exceedingly common in casual spoken English.
Step 3: Use the Language in Real Life
In just a two-minute clip, we’ve learned about verb tenses, modals, phrasal verbs, using 'a' & 'the'personal pronouns, adjectives & adverbs - AND making threats, expressing regret, and some popular colloquial expressions. Not bad, eh?
NOW, it’s time to reap the benefits! Now that you have your new vocabulary and grammar points written down in front of you, it’s time to use them with your English-speaking friends. If you’re giving advice to a friend, try using the modal would to tell them what you’d do if you were in their place. Try talking about the best movies that you’ve ever seenor the most interesting places that you’ve ever visited. By actually engaging with the language that you learn in TV shows, you’ll be sure to memorize it.
Actively watch an episode of TV as often as you can, and observe how quickly your English will progress! |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26776 | Fresh Breath
Buford Family Dental offers effective treatment for bad breath. If you have severe bad breath then you have something called Halitosis and it may be a symptom that you have other, more serious, oral health issues.
The natural progression that happens when you have bad breath goes something like this:
1. You notice you have bad breath, and you attempt a tooth brushing to wash and brush away the “funky” smell.
2. The tooth brushing doesn’t seem to do the trick so you gargle with some mouthwash, which gives you a zip of a minty smell that lasts for about 10 minutes, until you take a swig of your morning coffee and you wash away the minty freshness.
3. Your bad breath continues to linger and you find yourself taking a tiny step backwards when you talk to people so they won’t notice your breath.
4. Score! You found a piece of gum in your purse and you stick that in your mouth for an hour’s worth of masking whatever it is that is causing the strong smell coming from your mouth.
5. Unsuccessful methods and attempts to freshen your breath leave you disappointed and discouraged.
If none of these methods work in combatting your bad breath, then you probably have Halitosis. Halitosis is symptomatic of deeper dental issues that need to be addressed, and a piece of gum or swishing of mouthwash will not help.
Contact Buford Family Dental for a complete checkup and cleaning so we can help pinpoint the cause of your bad breath, and help you find relief from it. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26780 |
Call for prices 0800 002 9822
Guide to the Climate Change Levy for Businesses
Gas Cooker
When you receive your business energy bill, you may notice a charge called the Climate Change Levy (CCL).
Businesses may not be aware that there are ways to reduce these charges. In this guide, we explain what the CCL is and how much it costs.
What is the Climate Change Levy (CCL)?
The Climate Change Levy is an environmental tax on commercial energy use in the UK. It is an additional tax, alongside VAT, that certain businesses will pay on their energy.
Why do businesses have to pay the CCL?
The UK government introduced the Climate Change Levy as part of a wide array of legislation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, it is an energy tax rather than a carbon tax. Alongside CCLs are Climate Change Agreements (CCAs). These enable businesses to get a reduced rate by committing to improve their energy consumption.
The UK government aims to motivate companies to become more energy efficient. This will be required for the UK to meet the current 2050 targets of net-zero greenhouse gas emissions.
Which organisations have to pay CCL?
Most businesses will be required to pay the main rates of the CCL.
However, there are some exceptions to this. A business may be exempt or entitled to reduced rates if they are:
• An organisation that has a charitable status engaged in non-commercial activities
• A small business with an energy usage under 1,000 kWh of electricity or 4,397 kWh of gas in a given month
• A business that is supplied via a domestic energy contract
You will also be exempt from paying the CCL if:
• The energy won’t be used in the UK
• The energy won’t be used as a fuel
• The energy will be used to generate electricity
• The energy has been supplied from certain combined heat and power schemes
There are steps businesses can take to reduce their CCL charges. Energy-intensive businesses can commit to a Climate Change Agreement. This is a voluntary commitment to reducing energy and carbon usage.
Business can receive a reduction of up to 90% on charges for business electricity and 65% on charges for business gas.
How much will my business have to pay?
The amount that businesses will pay for the CCL is set by the government and varies each year. The rate will be the same across all business energy suppliers.
The CCL rate for the 2020 to 2021 financial year is:
• £0.00811 per kWh for electricity
• £0.00406 per kWh for gas
Like with VAT, the more energy you use, the more you will pay for the CCL.
How does my business pay the CCL?
The rate for how much you will pay is calculated based on your business’ per kilowatt-hour of energy usage; the CCL amount is set by the government each year.
Businesses must register for the CCL and those that to do so will face paying a penalty. Your energy provider will then calculate how much the CCL is for your company and apply it to your bill. They will then pay HMRC on your behalf.
You will be able to find details on how much you have paid for the CCL on your business energy bill.
Is there an allowance for business’ energy-efficient appliances?
Many businesses can apply for capital allowances when buying energy-efficient appliances. Capital allowances will reduce the tax you pay on qualifying equipment.
Items that are eligible include:
• LED or energy-efficient lighting
• Solar panels
• Energy-efficient appliances
• Electric vehicles.
Can my business reduce its CCL payments?
As the CCL is automatically added to your business energy bills, you cannot reduce your rates unless you qualify for one of the above exemptions.
However, you can reduce your CCL costs by increasing energy efficiency within your business. Your business can take steps to reduce your energy usage and your CCL rates by:
• Carrying out an energy audit
• Checking insulation at your premises
• Switching to energy-efficient LED light bulbs
• Turning off lights and appliances when not in use
• Avoiding leaving computers and laptops on standby
• Upgrading old appliance to more energy-efficient alternatives
The quickest way to save on your business energy costs is by comparing energy prices.
At Business Energy, our team of experts can help you find the cheapest energy deal that meets the needs of your business.
|
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26789 | Campaign India Team
May 02, 2016
MMGB: Gatorade's Dear Peyton
Former footballer Peyton Manning used to send handwritten 'Thank You' letters to people, which the brand is celebrating now
That's the text accompanying this video on Gatorade's YouTube channel.
We don't know much about American football, but you don't need to, to appreciate this gem.
Handswritten notes may be a rarity in today's world. But let's not let the other opportunities to say 'thank you' pass by.
Have a wonderful week ahead.
Campaign India |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26826 | Clare Walsh Design Designer, Maker, and Workshop Tutor
Hand Printed Textile Design. Designer, Maker and workshop tutor, based in the Cotswolds. Inspired by nature, I use natural leaves, flowers and herbs to create original designs and teach workshops in a range of Printed Textile techniques
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• Instagram - Grey Circle
© 2019 Clare Walsh Design Proudly created with |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26830 | What are the Effects of Climate Change?
There are a massive number of effects of climate change.
Already, millions of people are dying each year.
Each year, an increasingly higher amount of people will be affected, and climate change will hit poor countries the hardest (Source).
From The Climate Reality Project
Increase in Natural Disasters
Climate change will not solely cause an increase in the average surface temperatures across the globe, a phenomenon known as global warming.
In reality, it will cause an increase in both the number and ferocity of
From Years of Living Dangerously
Climate change will cause hurricanes to become more severe and thus cause billions of dollars in damages.
Hurricane Katrina was the deadliest and most destructive hurricane of 2005
Ten Hottest Years on Record
Even more alarming, the ten hottest years on record all occurred since 1998. The warmest of all was 2016.
In that year, hundreds of wildfires swept through Siberia and British Columbia, Canada.
It is not a coincidence that the warmest years on record have brought forth the worst hurricane seasons, wildfires and heat waves ever seen.
There are many severe effects of climate change that will impact millions of lives
Environmental Refugees
"There were about 10.8 million new displacements worldwide between January and June 2019, 7 million triggered by disasters and 3.8 million by conflict and violence" (Source).
The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre reports that there were over 42 million environmental refugees in Asia and the Pacific during 2010 and 2011 (Source).
These people immigrated because of rising sea levels, drought, storms, floods, and heat and cold waves
According to an article in the Guardian published in 2019, "We’ve already warmed the world by 1.1C, and we’re experiencing the effects: the International Federation of the Red Cross estimates there are as many as 50 million climate refugees. Once we reach 4C, most models agree it will be impossible to return to today’s abundant world" (Source).
There are now more environmental refugees than political and war refugees combined.
Unfortunately, experts predict that there could be over 1 billion refugees by 2070 (Source).
Climate change will affect many regions around the world by increasing the intensity and frequency of several natural disasters
Extreme Weather
However, the effects of climate change include a change in weather patterns, precipitation, sea level rise, and wildlife.
A combination of changes in precipitation and weather patterns will bring forth droughts in one sector and great floods in neighboring areas.
Extreme weather events have drastic consequences on human life as well as ecosystems. It will even have a substantial impact on agriculture.
From National Geographic
The intensity, frequency, and duration of these events may be increasing due to climate change.
In the United States, tornadoes cause billions of dollars in damages annually.
In passing, all the effects of climate change combined will cause hundreds of billions of dollars in damages in the upcoming decades.
Dust Storms
Dust storms, also known as sandstorms, will have tremendous consequences on agriculture.
Moreover, it will spread disease and pollution to hundreds of thousands of people around the world.
Dust storms are devastating to crops and will spread disease as well
Floods cause devastating damage and affect millions of people each year. With climate change, they are getting more destructive.
An example would be events that have unfolded in Zhejiang province, China, in June 2011.
Deadly floods have followed the worst drought in 50 years. Over half a million people evacuated. Furthermore, these floods destroyed a significant number of crops.
Sadly, over a hundred people perished due to landslides. These extreme weather events are repeating themselves across the world and are getting worst each year.
Incredible floods in Pakistan and Australia have occurred not too long ago. In the 2010 Pakistan floods, there were an estimated 43 billion dollars in damages.
By the end of it, 20 million people were affected. In Australia, several incredible floods have occurred.
In recent years, there has been a drastic increase in floods around the world
Impact on Lakes
Another of the effects of climate change is the shrinking of lakes.
A decrease in precipitation caused by climate change has caused lakes to decrease in size.
A combination of the effects of climate change and population pressures has caused Lake Chad in Africa to shrink by over 90% since 1963.
As a result, 30 million people living in the region are now competing over scarce water resources.
Even worse, although Lake Chad was once one of the largest lakes in the world, it could disappear in about 20 years.
The shrinking of lakes caused millions of people to immigrate to new locations. In many cases, children are forced to travel several kilometers on a daily basis to obtain drinking water.
Lake Chad has drastically shrunk in the last few decades, causing millions to struggle for water
Mass desertification is occurring at an increasing rate and is one of the least known effects of climate change.
Millions of square kilometers of once agricultural land have become barren. Any lakes or rivers in its path have disappeared.
There are over 100 countries, primarily in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that are currently affected by desertification.
Desertification will decrease agricultural output in entire regions, causing serious food shortages
Shortages of Food and Water
The scarcity of food and water will become commonplace in the future.
As the world population is growing, there is a higher demand for these vital resources.
However, agricultural output in many regions of the world is depleting because of drought, desertification, heat waves, wildfires, and changes in precipitation.
Also, freshwater supplies are decreasing due to the melting of glaciers, the shrinking of lakes, and water contamination.
Shortages of food and water will become more rampant due to climate change
Extinction of Species
The mass extinction of species is one of the most troubling effects of climate change.
We, humans, have the technology to help us adapt to drastic changes in weather patterns, but animals do not stand a chance.
Do not be mistaken; the climate has changed for millions of years. However, in the last few decades, it has changed at such a rate that animal life could not adapt to it.
Evolution is a process that requires millions of years, and life has a remarkable ability to adapt.
However, when it changes in mere decades as opposed to millions of years, all life on Earth is severely affected.
In fact, some experts predict that over 1 million species of plants and animals could become extinct (Source).
It is estimated that over 1 million species could go extinct by 2050
Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification is yet another effect of climate change.
The increasing PH of oceans due to carbon dioxide will affect marine life at the bottom of the food chain.
As a result, the entire food chain is being affected, and eventually, land animals that are dependent on fish will suffer as well.
In the worst-case scenario, ocean acidification may wipe out almost all ocean life.
Ocean acidification is responsible for coral bleaching which will have a significant impact on all surrounding marine life
Melting Glaciers and Polar Ice Caps
Both the melting polar ice caps and melting glaciers pose severe threats to human civilization.
The polar ice caps, as well as glaciers around the world, play an essential role in regulating temperature by not only absorbing heat but also by reflecting the sun's light (see albedo).
Moreover, glaciers play an integral role in forming the world's perennial rivers, which are responsible for agriculture that much of the world population is dependent on.
Hence, if these glaciers melt, millions of people will have to struggle for water, and wars over natural resources may occur in the far future.
Additionally, when ice in Antarctica or glaciers in Greenland melt, they will contribute to rising sea levels.
Melting glaciers pose a serious risk to human civilization as they will decrease fresh water resources and will raise sea levels
Rising Sea Levels
Rising sea levels will inundate millions of acres of agricultural land, which will just add to the declining food supply caused by desertification.
Furthermore, rising sea levels will inundate some of the most significant cities in the world, such as New York City, Shanghai, and Amsterdam. Venice will be in hot water.
Nearly 100 million people live within 1 meter (approximately 3 feet) from average sea level and thus will potentially lose their homes.
The Dymchurch Wall is periodically raised in order to keep the sea from flooding Romney Marsh
The spread of Disease and Food Poisoning
An increase in temperature will also spread malaria and dengue fever, as well as several other diseases.
Malaria alone could spread to millions of people shortly and will have devastating consequences.
Moreover, it will increase salmonella outbreaks.
As aforementioned, climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of dust storms, which will also spread disease.
The spread of disease and food poisoning is among the least known effects of climate change.
These mosquito nets offer protection from malaria-carrying mosquitoes at night
A Planetary Emergency
The effects of climate change are significant in today's society and will have a tremendous impact on human life across the world.
In the future, wars over natural resources could result in millions or even billions of casualties.
Indisputably, climate change is humanity's most significant challenge, and we cannot afford to ignore it any longer.
Please, do your part to help stop climate change.
Further Reading (Sources)
1. Climate Change
2. ›
3. Effects
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26889 | skip to content
Darwin Correspondence Project
To G. J. Romanes 4 January 1877
Jan. 4. 1877
Dear Romanes,
From what you say I will not send you a blank certificate but wait till I hear from you or see you.1 I will however bring up a blank certificate with me. If convenient, will you come & lunch on Monday at 2 Bryanston St at 1 o’clock?2 & you can bring the certificate or send it, which ever you like
Yours very sincerely | Ch. Darwin
Romanes’s letter has not been found, but see the letter from Charles and Francis Darwin to G. J. Romanes, 2 January [1877] and n. 2. The ‘Certificate of a candidate for election’ had to be filled in by Romanes and signed by CD and others supporting his election to the Royal Society of London.
The Monday following 4 January 1877 was 8 January. The Darwins stayed in London at the home of their daughter and son-in-law, Henrietta Emma and Richard Buckley Litchfield, from 6 to 15 January 1877 (CD’s ‘Journal’ (Appendix II)).
Discusses certificate proposing GJR as Fellow of Royal Society.
Letter details
Letter no.
Charles Robert Darwin
George John Romanes
Sent from
Source of text
American Philosophical Society (Mss.B.D25.504)
Physical description
Please cite as
Darwin Correspondence Project, “Letter no. 10770,” accessed on 4 December 2020, |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26913 | Joomla! My contact form send mail, which i never receive.
Posted September 17, 2014 6.5k views
My position is, mail can be sent through my contact form ( ) BUT i don’t receive it. I check “sent a copy to yourself”, tried different mail accounts; but the sender accounts also don’t receive the copy of the mail they sent to me.
• joomla have my mail by installation, it is gmail. i believe what we did is to make visitors send mail to my gmail account. because settings are like that at joomla. this settings SAYS mail sent, but i cant receive them.
when i try this settings : i get an error while trying to send mail as “smtp connection failed”.
• should i look somewhere else than my gmail account? but the sender accounts don’t receive their own mail’s copy also.
• I have installed Postfix and configured it, by looking at this tutorial:
THANKS you guys.
1 answer
You need to create /etc/postfix/virtual.db first, which can be done by running the following command:
sudo postmap /etc/postfix/virtual
Don’t forget to restart Postfix:
sudo service postfix restart
• THANKS kamaln7,
when i type
sudo postmap /etc/postfix/virtual
ıt says
postmap: fatal: open /etc/postfix/virtual: No such file or directory
What would be the problem??
Submit an Answer |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26935 | Are you interested in participating in the festival
or workshop, but don't want to submit something?
The Dunbar DIY Film Festival is happy for help in other ways.
The following are the most useful:
Skill Sharing! (are you a filmmaker, storyteller, composer, animator (or something similar!) who would like to help mentor workshop participants or be a part of general skill-sharing?
In-Kind Donations (are you a local business or maker who would like to donate food or prizes to festival participants and/or community viewers?)
Getting The Word Out (are you interested in volunteering to help spread the word in the community? Do you like flyer-ing or social media?)
If you are any of these things (or if you have another way you think you might be able to help, please send an email to DunbarDIY@gmail.com! |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26951 | Investment, Capital Expenditures, and the Process of Capital Budgeting
Uploaded by :
In sixteen pages this paper discusses the process of capital budgeting in a consideration of evaluation approaches such as initial costs, cash flow, IRR, and NPV, company benefits, responsibilities, decision making, and the effects of investment and capital expenditure budgeting upon cash flow. Nine sources are cited in the bibliography. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26959 | Skip to content ↓
01420 541194
Good is outstanding!
Jenna Good becomes a British Eventing Champion
The British Eventing Winter Championships got underway this weekend with the finals of the Jumping & Style (JAS) and Jump Training (JT) series at Hartpury College in Gloucestershire.
It was a double win for Year 11 Jenna Good who took the Championship title in both the JT100 and JT90 classes (the 100 and 90 reflect the maximum height of the fences). She rode 2 different horses, winning the 90 on her new pony, 'King' and the 100 on 'Mickey'. Jenna had done really well to get through the range of qualifying rounds and victory was even sweeter as she got agonisingly close last year, coming in as runner up. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/26971 | What is the theme of The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling (Mowgli's story)
Expert Answers
An illustration of the letter 'A' in a speech bubbles
One theme is the importance of the preservation of the species.
In The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling, the wolves do not harm the child because they know that harming a human can bring other humans upon them, endangering them. Thus, there is a certain respect for the order of every species and its place in nature--a theme that prevails throughout the book. These species must also protect themselves, and if force and domination are necessary for the preservation of a species, then that species must behave accordingly. For, always the continuation of each species is paramount.
In "The White Seal," for instance there is a tribe of seals threatened by greedy hunters who kill the seals for their skins. When Kotick discovers a inland sea that is protected by only a single entrance, he urges the seal community to migrate to this sea in order to be safe from the hunters. But, the tribe is lethargic and unwilling to go; consequently, Kotick must use force in conquering the males who have resisted. Then, he is able to save the seals from the malevolent hunters. In this episode, therefore, Kipling points to the necessary use of force for good ends, such as preserving a species.
Another theme is that among the species, man is the most dangerous. When a child enters into the community of wolves, the wolves realize that they must protect this child because he will disrupt the order of the wolves if harm comes to him. For, then, man will encroach upon his territory and slaughter them.
The real reason for this is that man killing means sooner or later, the arrival of white men on elephants, with guns and hundreds of brown men with gons and rockets and torches. Then everybody in the jungle suffers.
The use of excessive force is viewed by the animals as an evil thing.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27016 | Financial Poise
Basics of convertible debt offerings
The Basics of Convertible Debt Offerings Under Title III
How Do Convertible Note Offerings Work?
Many of the companies that sell securities via Title III crowdfunding portals, at least in the first year or two, will be early-stage startups with little or no history of profit or even positive cash flow. Without a solid track record, there wouldn’t be enough metrics on which to base a credible valuation, and it would thus be difficult to establish a fair price for shares of straight equity (stock or LLC units).
“In many cases, issuers can avoid thorny disagreements over valuation by offering hybrid securities known as convertible notes to crowdfunding investors,” says James Dowd, managing director of North Capital Private Securities. Dowd states that many Title III issuers will choose convertible debt offerings as “the best way to get the deals done.”
Starting as a Loan, No Valuation Necessary
Whether issued by a corporation or an LLC, convertible debt starts out as a loan to the company from the investor, in the form of a note. This note can be traded later for shares of stock or LLC units. Some convertible notes give investors the option to convert to equity, while others require investors to convert. Where conversion is required, typically the conversion is triggered on the occurrence of some specific future event that involves a valuation and/or transfer, such as a later round of equity financing or acquisition.
When properly structured, convertible notes give investors the best of both worlds—liquidation preferences if the company becomes insolvent, capital gain if the company grows and gets acquired. It also presents an important advantage for issuers, especially startups that are pre-revenue, which we will explain.
The ultimate objective for investors, when they buy into the deal, is to end up with equity instead of debt.
The basic mechanics of convertible debt are easy to understand, but then the variables can get complex. Let’s say you invest $1,000 in Startup City, Inc., in a crowdfunding deal whereby the issuer promises to pay you x percent interest every month and then repay your principal in three years. If, at any point before the maturity date (within three years), a group of angel investors or a VC fund invests in Startup City, you have an opportunity to convert your $1,000 note, plus accrued interest if any, into Startup City stock. So far, the concept is simple. The fact that an angel or VC wants to buy stock means they believe the company has strong growth potential.
But how many shares will you receive for your $1,000? Looking at it another way, what is the price per share at the time of conversion? That is the primary question to be answered in the convertible note, which—like a term sheet for straight equity—lists all the terms of the investment. This is where it gets complicated.
The reason it’s complicated is that when you invested, the valuation of the company was not discussed. The valuation was probably very difficult to calculate at that time, because the company did not have enough revenue or other metrics to use as a basis for the calculation. And that is the beauty of convertible debt offerings for entrepreneurs: the company can attract investors without having to propose or negotiate a valuation.
The deal you made when you invested did not specify a conversion price per share, because it was impossible at that time to forecast when another round of financing would occur, how well the company would perform in the meantime, and, thus, what price per share the later investors would agree to pay—and price is ultimately based on valuation.
The price per share that you (and other early, convertible-debt investors) pay to convert is derived from the price that later, straight-equity investors pay when they buy straight equity.
Discounts and Caps
Let’s say this later round of investment comes two years after you invested, Startup City has become profitable, and the new investors agree to pay $1 per share of preferred stock, valuing the company at $4 million. Would you be satisfied paying $1 per share for 1,000 shares? Heck no! Early investors took a much greater risk, investing when the company was not yet profitable, than later investors. You should be rewarded for taking a big risk and providing seed capital to the company when it wasn’t so attractive to angel investors—not be penalized by having to pay as much for stock as the angels who waited until the investment wasn’t as risky. This fairness issue is typically resolved in one of two ways: discounts and caps.
• Discounted Convertible Note: One way to reward early investors is by discounting the price that they must pay to convert when later investors buy stock. The convertible note states, in its list of terms, that you can convert debt to equity, in the event of a subsequent round of equity financing, at a discount that is typically 10% to 30% of what the new investors agree to pay per share. In the Startup City example, if you have a convertible note with a 20% discount, you would have an opportunity to convert to stock at 80 cents per share.
• Convertible Note with a Cap: Another way to reward early investors is to cap the hypothetical valuation, on the basis of which the stock price is calculated for early investors who convert just before the subsequent round of equity financing. In our example, if your convertible note caps the valuation at $2 million, then you would pay half the price per share as the later investors who value Startup City at $4 million. Since the company was probably worth no more than $1 million when you invested, this seems like a fair deal.
The two terms can be combined in a discounted convertible note with a cap. But these discounts and caps have to be carefully planned, because if they are too advantageous to the investor, they could backfire for the company. If the discount is too high or the cap is too low, future angel investors—and especially VC funds—would balk at investing alongside crowdfunding investors who get inordinate bargains with the exact same rights, where the difference in valuations is remarkable. Alternatively, later equity investors will want a bargain, too.
One of the keys to a successful investment in convertible debt offerings is assessing the possibility that the issuer will, if the business is successful, attract future rounds of straight-equity financing. Without that possibility, it’s just a loan.
Stats: Convertible Debt Offerings in Angel Investments
According to the 2019 ACA Angel Funders report, 44% of angel investments from the U.S. and Canada in 2018 were in the form of convertible notes, and another 1.6% opted for SAFEs (Simple Agreement for Future Equity).
[Editor’s Note: What are SAFEs? This debt-to-equity offering introduced in 2013 by accelerator YCombinator is similar to a convertible note, but it does not have a maturity date or accruing interest. SAFEs tend to be a simpler option for corporations, but they can be tricky for investors. You can learn more about the differences between these offerings from Thomson Reuters.]
In online, equity crowdfunding platforms, convertible notes, SAFEs and KISS offerings are increasingly common. Popular platform AngelList reports that in 2018, more than 25% of its convertible instrument offerings were convertible notes, with interest in SAFEs growing continuously each year. As new convertible instruments emerge, convertible debt offerings will continue to be an important discussion for startups and investors.
[Editor’s Note: To learn more about this and related topics, you may want to attend the following webinars: Crowdfunding from the Investor’s Perspective and Basic Investment Principles 101 – From Asset Allocations to Zero Coupon Bonds. This is an updated version of an article originally published on May 2, 2016.]
©All Rights Reserved. August, 2020. DailyDACTM, LLC d/b/a/ Financial PoiseTM
About David M. Freedman
Legal and financial journalist.
View all articles by David »
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27019 | Ze Frank and the poetics of Web video
• Michael Z. Newman University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Author Biography
Michael Z. Newman, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Michael Z. Newman is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. He earned a PhD from the Department of Communication Arts at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2005. His work has appeared or is forthcoming in Film Studies, Film Criticism, The Velvet Light Trap, Flow, and Cinema Journal. He is working on a book (under contract from Columbia University Press) on American independent cinema. He blogs about movies, television, and internet culture at Zigzigger: On the Audiovisual and Beyond (http://zigzigger.blogspot.com).
How to Cite
Newman, M. Z. (2008). Ze Frank and the poetics of Web video. First Monday, 13(5). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v13i5.2102 |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27050 | Article Image
IPFS News Link • Economy - Economics USA
THIS is What the Unions are all About! SHAME on THEM!!
Long time readers of DRScoundrels will remember some posts by our very good friend Kayte of sECULAR sTUPIDEST. is an extremely creative group that started out with terrific conservative bumper stickers and has expanded now into some truly outstanding videos of the various happenings around our country, politically speaking. This weekend, Kayte sent us some videos that they had put together of some union protests, and we want to share them with you. The first video was taken at a (surprise) sponsored “Save the American Dream” protest at the Georgia State Capitol. I was amazed to hear one lady (at 1.59 into the video) proclaiming,... |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27060 | Future Markets in the Marine Economy
The consumption of natural resources increases with the growth of the world population. According to current prognoses, the population will keep growing until the end of this century at least.
The oceans of the world promise to be a nearly inexhaustible resource. Within the next years and decades, management of marine resources will increase greatly.
The Future is blue
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27071 | Speaker: Todd Bohlander
This is the first session in a three-week workshop series about issues surrounding interpretive methods and biblical interpretation directed by Todd Bohlander.
Because of the workshop format of this series, it is important to use the handout while listening to the audio file.
Week One Handout: http://media.gccc.net/2014/05/20140518pm.pdf |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27078 | Go Back
Origami: first steps
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Origami: first steps
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27081 | History of Muslim Philosophy
Part 4. The Middle-Roaders
Chapter XXX
Table of Contents:
1. Metaphysics
1. Life
2. Method
3. Attack on the Philosophers
2. Mysticisim
3. Ethics
4. Influence
5. Bibliography
Al-Ghazālī occupies a position unique in the history of Muslim religious and philosophical thought by whatever standard we may judge him: breadth of learning, originality, or influence. He has been acclaimed as the Proof of Islam (hujjat al-Islam), the Ornament of Faith (zain al-din) and the Renewer of Religion (mujaddid).1 Al-Subki (d. 771/1370) went so far in his estimation of him as to claim that if there had been a prophet after Muhammad, al-Ghazālī would have been the man.2 To be sure he gathered in his own person all the significant intellectual and religious movements of his time and lived over again in the inwardness of his soul the various spiritual phases developed by Islam. He was in turn a canon-lawyer and a scholastic, a philosopher and a sceptic, a mystic and a theologian, a traditionist and a moralist. His –position as a theologian of Islam is undoubtedly the most eminent. Through a living synthesis of his creative and energetic personality, he revitalized Muslim theology and reorientated its values and attitudes. His combination of spiritualization and fundamentalism in Islam had such a marked stamp of his powerful personality that it has continued to be accepted by the community since his time. His outlook on philosophy is characterized by a remarkable originality which, however, is more critical than constructive. In his works on philosophy one is struck by a keen philosophical acumen and penetration with which he gives a clear and readable exposition of the views of the philosophers, the subtlety and analyticity with which he criticizes them, and the candour and open-mindedness with which he accepts them whenever he finds them to be true. Nothing frightened him nor fascinated him, and through an extraordinary independence of mind, he became a veritable challenge to the {581} philosophies of Aristotle and Plotinus and to their Muslim representatives before him, al-Farabi and ibn Sina. The main trends of the religious and philosophical thought of al-Ghazālī, however, come close to the temper of the modern mind. The champions of the modern movement of religious empiricism, on the one hand, and that of logical positivism, on the other, paradoxical though it may seem, would equally find comfort in his works. The teachings of this remarkable figure of Islam pertaining either to religion or philosophy, either constructive or critical, cannot, however, be fully understood without knowing the story of his life with some measure of detail, for, in his case, life and thought were one: rooted in his own personality. Whatever he thought and wrote came with the living reality of his own experience.
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ta’us Ahmad al-Tusi al-Shafi’i, generally known simply by his nisbah al-Ghazālī, 4 was born in 450/1058 at Tabaran, one of the two townships of Tus, now in ruins in the neighbourhood of modern Meshed in Khurasan.
Al-Ghazālī was not the first scholar of distinction in his family: there had been another abu Hamid al-Ghazālī (d. 435/1043), his grand-uncle, who was a theologian and jurisconsult of great repute,5 possibly a model which he might have set before him in his ambitious youth. But he was early exposed to Sufistic influences. His own father was a pious dervish who according to al-Subki would not eat anything but what he could earn with his own hands {582} and spend as much time as he could in the company of the divines. Early left as an orphan, al-Ghazālī was brought up and educated by a pious Sufi friend of his father along with his brother who later made a mark as a great mystic. While still a boy al-Ghazālī began the study of theology and canon-law, with the express desire for wealth and reputation as he himself has acknowledged 6 first in his native town under Shaikh Abmad ibn Muhammad al-Radhkhani al-Tusi and then at Jurjan under the Imam abu Nasr al-Isma’ili.
After his return from Jurjan he stayed for a while in Tas and possibly during this period studied Sufism under Ynsuf al-Nassaj and perhaps even undertook some of the Sufistic exercises. At the age of about twenty he proceeded to the Nizamiyyah Academy of Nishapur to study under abu al-Ma’ali al-Juwaini known as Imam al-Haramain, the most distinguished Ash’arite theologian of the day, only fourth from al-Ash’ari himself in an apostolic succession of the Ash’arite teachers. The curriculum of the Academy included a wide range of subjects such as theology, canon-law, philosophy, logic, dialectics, natural sciences, Sufism, etc. Imam al-Haramain allowed full freedom of thought and expression to his pupils; they were encouraged to engage in debates and discussions of all kinds. Al-Ghazālī gave early proof of great learning and also of a tendency towards philosophizing. Imam al-Haramain described him as “a plenteous ocean to be drowned” and comparing him with two other pupils of his observed: “al-Khawafi’s strong point is verification, al-Ghazālī’s is speculation, and al-Kiya’s is explanation.”7 In his debates with other students he showed great suppleness of mind and a gift for polemics. Not long afterwaidil he began to lecture to his fellow-students and to write books. But al-Ghazālī was one of those rare minds whose originality is not crushed by their learning.-He was a born critic and possessed great independence of thought. It was verily during his studentship at the Nizamiyyah Academy of Nishapur that he became impatient of dogmatic teaching and freed himself from the bondage of authority (taqlid) and even showed the signs of scepticism.
During his stay at Niahapur, he also became a disciple to the Sufi abu ‘Ali al-Fadl ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Ali al-Farmadhi al-Tusi, a pupil of al-Ghazālī’s own uncle and of the reputed al-Qushairi (d. 465/1074). From al-Farmadhi al-Ghazālī learnt more about the theory and practice of Sufism. He even practised rigorous ascetic and Sufistic exercises under his guidance but not to the desired effect. As he himself narrates, he could not attain to that stage where the mystics begin to receive pure inspiration from “high above.”8 So he did not feel quite settled down in his mind. On the one hand, he felt philosophically dissatisfied with the speculative systems of the scholastic theologians and could not accept anything on authority, on the other, the Sufistic practices {583} also failed to make any definite impression on him for he had not received any sure results. There is no doubt, however, that the increasing attraction of the Sufistic teaching, with its insistence upon a direct personal experience of God, added to al-Ghazālī’s critical dissatisfaction with dogmatic theology.
Al-Farmadhi died in 477/1084, and Imam al-Haramain in 478/1085. Al-Ghazālī was then in his twenty-eighth year, ambitious and energetic; the fame of his learning had already spread in the Islamic world. He betook himself to the Court of Nizam al-Mulk, the great vizier of the Saljnq sovereign Malikshah (r. 465/1072-485/1092) and joined his retinue of canonists and theologians. Nizam al-Mulk by his munificent patronage of scholarship, science, and arts had gathered round him a brilliant galaxy of savants and learned men. He used to hold frequent assemblies for debate and discussion and al-Ghazālī soon made his mark at these and was conspicuous for his skill in debate.
Al-Ghazali’s profound knowledge of Muslim law, theology, and philosophy so much impressed Nizam al-Mulk that he appointed him to the Chair of Theology in the Nizamiyyah Academy (established 458-60/1065-67) at Baghdad in 484/1091. He was then only thirty-four. This was most coveted of all the honours in the then Muslim world and one which had not previously been conferred on anyone at so early an age.
As a professor in the Academy, al-Ghazālī was a complete success; the excellence of his lectures, the extent of his learning, and the lucidity of his explanations attracted larger and larger classes including the chief savants of the time. Soon all Islam acclaimed his eloquence, erudition, and dialectical skill and he came to be looked upon as the greatest theologian in the Ash’arite tradition. His advice began to be sought in matters religious and political, and he came to wield influence comparable to that of the highest officials of the State. Apparently, he attained to all the glory that a scholar could by way of worldly success, but inwardly he began to undergo an intellectual and spiritual crisis.9 {584} His old doubts and scepticism began to assail him once again and he became highly critical of the very subjects that he taught. He keenly felt the hollowness of the meticulous spinning of casuistry of the canon-lawyers.10 The systems of the scholastic theologians (Mutakallimin) had no intellectual certainty, for they depended entirely on the acceptance of their initial dogmatic assumptions on authority. He denounced their over-emphasis on the doctrinal, for it led to a faulty representation of religion by reducing it to a mere mould of orthodoxy and catechism of dogmas. The disputes of the scholastics amongst themselves he considered as mere dialectical logomachies which had no real relation with religious life.11 Al-Ghazālī turned once again to the study of philosophy, this time as diligently and as comprehensively as he could,12 but found, like Kant, that it was impossible to build theology on reason alone. Reason was good so far as it went, but it could not go very far. The Ultimate, the Supreme Truth, could not be reached through it. Becoming keenly aware of the theological limitations of reason, he fell into a state of scepticism and lost his peace of mind. The hypocrisy of his orthodox teaching became unbearable and he found himself to be in a false position.
But all was not lost: he had some assurances that he could be delivered from this state of despair through the Sufi way. It was not that he now discovered that in Sufism lay the possibility for a direct encounter with reality; this fact he had been realizing over a period of years. He had made a theoretical study of Sufism and had even ventured into Sufistic exercises; only he had not advanced far enough into them. If he could consecrate himself to the Sufistic way of life through spiritual renunciation, sustained asceticism, and prolonged and deep meditation, he might have received the light he sought. But this meant in his case giving up his brilliant academic career and worldly position. He was by nature ambitious and had great desire for fame and self-glorification. On the other hand, he was the most earnest seeker after truth. Besides, he had the anxiety to reach a secure faith which was accentuated by his thought of life after death. He remained in the throes of a severe moral conflict and in a spiritual travail for about six months beginning from Rajah 488/July 1095. He collapsed physically and mentally; appetite and digestion failed and he lost his power of speech. This made it easy for him to {585} to renounce his post as a professor. He left Baghdad in Dhu al-Qa’dah 488/ November 1095, ostensibly on a pilgrimage to Mecca; actually he went into seclusion to practise the ascetic and religious discipline of the Sufis in order to secure certainty for his mind and peace for his soul. He gave away all his fortune except some “trust funds” to maintain his family and proceeded to Syria.
For two years from 488/1095 to 490/1097 he remained in strict retirement in one of the minarets of the mosque of the Umayyads in Damascus, undergoing most rigorous ascetic discipline and performing religious exercises. He moved to Jerusalem for another period of meditation in the mosque of `Umar and the Dome of the Rock. After having paid his visit to the tomb of Abraham at Hebron, he went on pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina; then followed a long period of retreat at different places in holy shrines and mosques and wandering in deserts.13 After eleven years the life of a wandering dervish and scholar came to an end and he finally returned to his native town, Tus, in 499/1105.14
Of his inner spiritual experiences in their experimental actuality, after he left Baghdad, al-Ghazālī tells us almost nothing except that there were revealed to him in his periods of solitude things innumerable and unfathomable. Apparently, these experiences culminated in his acknowledgment of the authority of the Prophet and the complete submission to the truth revealed in the Qur’an. The first public sign of his recovery to orthodoxy is perhaps al-Risalah al-Qudsiyyah, written during his retreat in Jerusalem, where in all probability he was before 492/1099, for in Sha’ban of that year Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders. This has heen inserted as Qawa’id al-`Aqa’id in the third chapter of the second book of his massive magnum opus Ihyā’ ulm al-Din (The Revivification of the Sciences of Religion) in which he began to set down what he had learnt through his long periods of self-discipline and meditation.15 During his wanderings he not only kept on writing other {586} books besides Ihyā’ but also resumed teaching from time to time. He keenly felt it incumbent upon him to crush heresy and unbelief around him and to call people back to the truth and moral power of Islam, both through writing and teaching: he virtually assumed the role of a moral and religious reformer. He began to devote himself more and more to the study of the traditions of the Prophet and make an extensive use of them for the purposes of edification and spiritual guidance.
On his return to Tus he once again gave himself to the life of retirement and contemplation, but very soon Fakhr al-Mulk, the son of his old patron, Nizam al-Mulk, who was the vizier to Sultan Sanjar, urged him to accept the chair of theology at the Maimunah Nizamiyyah College at Nishapur which he did after some hesitation in Dhu al-Qa’dah 499/August 1106. But he did not stay there long and retired once more to his home in Tns and established a madrasah at which he began to teach both theology and Tasawwuf . At the instance of the learned and the common people of Baghdad he was once again summoned by the Grand Vizier al-Said to take up teaching in the old Nizamiyyah Academy of Baghdad but al-Ghazālī chose to remain at Tus. There he lived in peace with some personal disciples having charge of his madrasah. Every moment was filled with study and devotion till his death on the 14th of Jumada II 505/the 19th of December 1111. It was a beautifully complete and round life in which the end came to the beginning.
The most important thing about al-Ghazālī’s system of thought is its method which may be described as that of the courage to know and the courage to doubt. The best expression of it is given in his famous autobiographical work, al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (The, Deliverer from Error), which he wrote some five years before his death.16 In al-Munqidh al-Ghazālī makes {587} a critical examination of the methods of the various schools of thought current in his time in a manner closely similar to that of Descartes’ (d. 1060/1650) in his Discours de la methods (1047/1637).
All kinds of knowledge, al-Ghazālī held, should be investigated and nothing should be considered dangerous or hostile. For himself he said that he had embarked on the open sea of knowledge right from his adolescence setting aside all craven caution: “I poked into every dark recess and made an assault on every problem, I plunged into every abyss. I scrutinized the creed of every sect and I fathomed the mysteries of each doctrine. All this I did that I might distinguish between the true and the false. There was not a philosopher whose system I did not acquaint myself with, nor a theologian whose doctrines I did not examine. If ever I met a Sufi, I coveted to probe into his secrets; if an ascetic, I investigated into the basis of his austerities; if one of the atheistic zindiqs, I groped into the causes of his bold atheism.”17 Such was the courage of al-Ghazālī to know. He was free from the parochialism of the dogmatic theologians of his day who would rather consign the books of the atheists and philosophers to flames than read them. But prepared though he was to listen to every creed and doctrine, he would accept none and doubt all. For one thing, he came to the conclusion that the greatest hindrance in the search for truth was the acceptance of beliefs on the authority of others and blind adherence to the heritage of the past. He remembered the traditional saying of the Prophet: “Every child is born with a sound disposition (fitrah); it is his parents who make him a Jew or a Christian or a Magian”18 and he was anxious to know what that sound disposition was before it suffered the impress of the unreasoned convictions imposed by others. Indeed, he wanted to reconstruct all his knowledge from its very foundation and was led to make the following reflections: “The search after truth being the aim which I propose to myself, I ought in the first place to ascertain what are the bases of certitude. In the second place I ought to recognize that certitude is the clear and complete knowledge of things, such knowledge as leaves no room for doubt, nor any possibility of error.”19 As one might foresee, this proposed test for certitude only led him to a series of doubts. No part of the knowledge he had acquired {588} hitherto could stand this rigorous test. He further observed, “We cannot hope to find truth except in matters which carry their evidence in themselves, i. e., in sense-perception and necessary principles of thought; we must, therefore, first of all establish these two on a firm basis.” But he doubted the evidence of sense-perception; he could see plainly as Descartes did later that they so often deceive us. No eye can perceive the movement of a shadow, still the shadow moves; a small coin would cover any star yet the geometrical computations show that a star is a world vastly larger than the earth.19a
Al-Ghazālī’s confidence in sense-perception having been shaken, he turned to the scrutiny of what he called the necessary principles, but he doubted even these. Is ten more than three? Can a thing both be and not be at the same time or be both necessary and impossible? How could he tell? His doubt with
regard to sense-perception made him very hesitant to accept the infallibility of reason. He believed in the testimony of senses till it was contradicted by the verdict of reason. Well, perhaps there is above reason another judge who if he appeared would convict reason of falsity and if such a third arbiter is not yet apparent it does not follow that he does not exist.
Al-Ghazālī then considers the possibility that life in this world is a dream by comparison with the world to come; and when a man dies, things may come to appear differently to him from what he now beholds.20 There may be an order of reality different from this spatio-temporal order which may be revealed to a level of consciousness other than the so-called normal consciousness such as that of the mystics or the prophets. Such was the movement of al-Ghazālī’s thought, which though formulated a little artificially in the Munqidh was dramatic enough to make out a case for the possibility of a form of apprehension higher than rational apprehension, that is, apprehension as the mystic’s inspiration or the prophet’s revelation.21 {589} Al-Ghazālī’s method of doubt or sceptical attitude did certainly have its historical antecedents. The Ash’arites’ system of atomism, by reducing all categories except substance (jauhar) and quality (‘ard) to mere subjectivities, virtually amounted to a form of scepticism.22 Even earlier the Mu’tazilites like al-Nazzam (d. 231/845) and abu al-Hudhail (d. 266/840) had formulated the principle of doubt as the beginning of all knowledge.23 But with al-Ghazālī this was as much a matter of an inherent trait of his intellectual disposition as a principle. One may be tempted to say that his keenly alert and sensitive mind, though, exposed from early youth to all the various intellectual and spiritual movements of the times such as scholasticism, rationalism, mysticism, etc., was not fully captured by any one single movement. Ambitious and self-confident, he had been in a way playing with the various influences rather than affected exclusively by anyone of them. His restless soul had always been trying to reach for what it had not attained. In his sincere and open search for absolute truth, he possibly remained oscillating for a long time between the moments of belief and disbelief-moments when he might have found comfort in his religious convictions with complete submission to the teachings of the Qur’an and the moments when his doubts and scepticism might have overwhelmed him, clamouring for indubitable certainty. It is certainly very difficult to map the exact chronology of the spiritual development of such a complex mind as that of al-Ghazālī’s. The usual method of working out the history of the mental development of an author on the basis of the chronological order of his works is not possible in the case of al-Ghazālī for our knowledge of his works is incomplete. both with regard to their extent and relative order, not to speak of exact dating.24 None of his works, not even {590} al-Munqidh which has often been compared with the Confessions of Augustine allows us a peep into the inward workings of his soul.25 It is merely a schematized description of his spiritual development and not an existential study of the “phenomenology” of his soul: he has simply arranged in a logical order what must necessarily have come to him in a broken and sporadic form.
Nevertheless, al-Munqidh is our most valuable source to determine al-Ghazali’s relative position with regard to the various schools of thought around him. He had been moving through them all these years, studying them very closely in his quest for certainty, and of them he now gives us a critical evaluation in a summary fashion. He divides the various “seekers” after truth into the four distinct groups: Theologians, Mystics, Authoritarians Ta’limites), and Philosophers.
His criticism of the theologians is very mild. He himself had been brought up in their tradition and was thoroughly saturated into their system. It is doubtful if he ever parted company with them completely. He did not cease to be a theologian even when he became a mystic and his criticism of the philosophers was essentially from the standpoint of a theologian. Only he was dissatisfied with the scholastic method of the theologians, for it could not bring any intellectual certainty; their doctrines, he deemed, however, to be correct. His belief in God, Prophecy, and Last Judgment were too deeply rooted in him to be shaken altogether; his scepticism with regard to them, if at all, was a temporary phase; he only very much desired a confirmation of these fundamental beliefs either on some philosophical grounds or through some sort of first-hand experience.
So far as the mystics were concerned, al-Ghazālī found himself hardly in a position to level any criticism against them except for the extravagantly pantheistic utterances or antinomian tendencies of some of the intoxicated Sufis.26 They were essentially men of feeling (arbab al-ahwal) rather than men of words (ashab al-aqwal) and he had himself early realized the importance of experiences and states rather than that of definitions and dogmas. The claims of the mystics he knew could not be challenged by one who lacked their experiences.
Al-Ghazālī held a very poor opinion of the pretensions of those whom he called the party of ta’lim or authoritative instruction also known as Ismail῾iyyah and Batiniyyah.27 Theirs was a kind of Muslim popery or Montanist movement. {591} They renounced reason and held that truth can be attained only by a submissive acceptance of the pronouncements of an infallible Imam. This doctrine indeed was a part of the propaganda of the Fatimid Caliphate (297/909-555/1160) with its centre in Cairo and, thus, had its moorings in the political chaos of the day. Al-Ghazālī’s examination of the Taclimites was certainly due to his love for thoroughness in his search for truth, but perhaps he also wanted to make clear his position with regard to an ideology having political strings behind it.
It was the fourth class of the seekers of truth, namely, the philosophers, who engaged his attention most of all and troubled his mind more than anyone else.
1. Introduction.-Al-Ghazālī’s critical examination of the method and doctrines of the philosophers is the most exciting and important phase of his intellectual inquiry. He was not at all against philosophical investigation as such. His early interest in philosophy is evidenced by the treatises that he wrote on logic such as MiÐyar al-`Ilm fi Fann al-Mantiq: “The Touchstone of Science in Logic” (quite an elaborate treatise) and Mihakk al-Nazar fi al-Mantiq: “The Touchstone of Speculation in Logic” (a smaller work). In the history of Muslim thought his is the first instance of a theologian who was thoroughly schooled in the ways of the philosophers; the doctors of Islam before him either had a dread of philosophy, considering it a dangerous study, or dabbled in it just to qualify themselves for polemics against the philosophers. But al-Ghazālī very strongly realized that to refute a system before literally inhabiting it and getting thoroughly immersed into its very depths was to act blindly. “A man,” he tells us, “cannot grasp what is defective in any of the sciences unless he has so complete a grasp of the science in question that he equals its most learned exponents in the appreciation of its fundamental principles and even goes beyond and surpasses them . . . .”28 In all intellectual honesty he refrained from saying a word against the philosophers till he had completely mastered their systems.
He applied himself so assiduously to the study of the entire sweep of Greek philosophy current in his time and attained such a firm grasp of its problems and methods29 that he produced one of the best compendia of it in Arabic entitled as Maqasid al-Falasifah (The Intentions of the Philosophers). This compendium was such a faithful exposition of Aristotelianism that when it {592} came to be known to the Christian scholastics through a Latin translation made as early as 540/ 1145 by the Spanish philosopher and translator Dominicus Gundisalvus,30 it was taken to be the work of a genuine Peripatetic. Albert the Great (d. 679/1280), Thomas Aquinas (d. 673/1274), and Roger Bacon (d. 694/1294) all repeatedly mentioned the name of the author of the “Intentions of the Philosophers” along with ibn Sina and ibn Rushd as the true representatives of Arab Aristotelianism.31 But never did Arab Aristotelianism find a more vigorous foe than al-Ghazālī. His compendium in philosophy was merely propaedeutic to his Tahāfut al-Falasifah (The Incoherence of the Philosophers)32 in which he levelled a devastating attack on the doctrine of the Muslim Peripatetics with a dialectic as subtle as any in the history of philosophy. Al-Ghazālī, for the purposes of his scrutiny, divided the philosophers into three main groups: The materialists (dahriyyun),33 the naturalists or the deists (tabi’iyyun), and the theists (ilāhiyyun). The materialists completely dispensed with the idea of God and believed that the universe has existed eternally without a creator: a self-subsisting system that operates and develops by itself, has its own laws, and can be understood by itself. The naturalists or the deists, struck by the wonders of creation and informed of a running purpose and wisdom in the scheme of things while engaged in their manifold researches into the sciences of phenomena, admitted the existence of a wise Creator or Deity, but rejected the spirituality and immortality of the human soul. They explained the soul away in naturalistic terms as an epiphenomenona {593} of the body and believed that the death of the latter led to the complete non-existence of the former. Belief in heaven, hell, resurrection, and judgment they considered as old wives’ tales or pious fictions.
Al-Ghazālī discussed the theists at length for they, according to him, held a comparatively more final position and exposed the defects of the materialists and the naturalists quite effectively, thus saving him from doing so for himself. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle he listed as theists but concentrated on Aristotle who had criticized all his predecessors and even had refuted his own teacher, excusing himself of this by saying: “Plato is dear to us. And truth is dear, too. Nay, truth is dearer than Plato.”34
As far as the transmission of Aristotle’s philosophy in Arabic was concerned, al-Ghazālī found that none of the Muslim philosophers had accomplished anything comparable to the achievements of al-Farabi and ibn Sina. These two were Aristotle’s most faithful and capable translators and commentators; the works of others were marked with disorder and confusion. Thus al-Ghazālī came finally to concentrate on that philosophical thought of his day which had emerged from the writings of these two theistic philosophers (particularly ibn Sina) and applied himself to its examination in a systematic manner. He divided the philosophical sciences into mathematics, logic, physics, politics, ethics, and metaphysics, and went into their details in order to see if there really was anything false or untenable. He was most scientific in his approach: ready to accept whatever he found to be based on the evidence of factual data or susceptible of proof by argument in conformity with the principles of reason. He had least hesitation in accepting as true much of what the philosophers taught with regard to their sciences of mathematics, logic, and physics; he even had no serious quarrel with them in the spheres of politics and ethics. The most grievous errors of the theistic philosophers, he found, consisted in their metaphysical views which, unlike mathematical and natural sciences, were not grounded in compelling reason or positive inquiry but on conjecture and fanciful speculations. Had their metaphysics been so very well grounded in sound reasoning as their mathematical sciences were, they would have agreed amongst themselves on metaphysical issues as they did on the mathematical ones. But, above all, what al-Ghazālī saw to his dismay was that the philosophies of al-Farabi and ibn Sins, at points did violence without any philosophic warrant or justification to the principles of religion as enunciated in the Qur’an. His empirical and theological spirit revolted very strongly against this. The positive facts of religion could not be sacrificed for sheer metaphysical speculations, nor could they be interpreted externally from the point of view of a preconceived system of philosophy. These had to be interpreted intrinsically and reckoned on their own grounds. The Muslim philosophers had failed to take this empirical standpoint. They had also been slow in realizing that notwithstanding a great breadth of outlook that the {594} study of Greek philosophy had brought to the Muslims, there was in the ultimate analysis quite a gulf between the inspiration of the Qur’anic teachings and the spirit of Hellenism.35 Carried away by their enthusiasm to bring a reconciliation between philosophy and religion, al-Farabi and ibn Sina, according to al-Ghazālī, had so compressed the dogmas of Islamic religion within the moulds of Aristotelian and Plotinian systems as to fall either into a morass of inconsistencies or get implicated into heretical positions.
All this al-Ghazālī brought out with most accomplished understanding and admirable skill, and with a “transcendental” dialectic as subtle as that of Kant’s in his Tahāfut al-Falasifah which indeed is the most important of all his works from the point of view of our present study. Within less than a hundred years it called forth the most stimulating rejoinder (entitled Tahāfut al-Tahāfut) from the celebrated ibn Rushd and then a rejoinder of a rejoinder from Muslih al-Din Mustafa ibn Yusuf al-Bursawi generally known as Khwajah Zadah, a Turkish theologian who died in 893/1488.36 These works, particularly the first two, taken together epitomize the essential problems arising from the impact of classical philosophy on the teachings of religion.37
2. Method and Problems of Tahāfut.-It is generally believed that al-Ghazālī wrote his Tahāfut al-Falāsifah during the period of his doubts, but in fact the work is essentially of a polemical nature and shows in him an odd combination of scepticism and ecstatic assurances. The general effect of the teaching of the philosophers, al-Ghazālī felt, was so ruinous to the religious and moral life of the masses that his well-nigh apostolic humanism revolted against it and he dedicated himself to an open warfare against the philosophers. There is no doubt about the theological inspiration and the polemical spirit of the Tahāfut but then we add most emphatically that neither of them seriously affects the great philosophical value of this work.38 The modern reader cannot fail to be struck with clear anticipations of Hume (d. 1190/1776), Schleiermacher (d. 1250/1834), Ritschl (d. 1307/1889), and others, and even of the logical positivists of our day in some of the arguments and the general motif of the Tahāfut. His general position may be briefly described to be that the truths {595} of the positive facts of religion can neither be proved nor disproved, and to do otherwise leads the philosophers to take more often than not quite nonsensical positions.
Al-Ghazālī assails the philosophers on twenty points39 (beginning with creation and ending with the last things) and endeavours to show that their dogmas of the eternity and the everlastingness of the world are false; their assertion that God is the creator of the world is dishonest for it is flagrantly inconsistent with their dogma of the eternity of the world; that they fail to prove the existence, the unity, the simplicity and the incorporeality of God or God’s knowledge either of the universals or of the particulars; that their views with regard to the souls of the celestial spheres, and the spheres’ knowledge of the particulars and the purpose of their movement are unfounded; that their theory of causation which attributes effects to the very nature of the causes is false; and that they cannot establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its immortality; and, finally, that their denial of the resurrection of the bodies in the life hereafter is philosophically unwarranted. Al-Ghazālī charges the philosophers with infidelity on three counts, viz.,
• (1) eternity of the world;
• (2) denial of God’s knowledge of the particulars, and
• (3) denial of bodily resurrection.
For the rest their views are heretical or born of religious indifference. But in all they are involved in contradictions and suffer from confusion of thought.
The problem which al-Ghazālī considers the most important is that of the eternity (qidam) of the world to which he allots the greatest space, almost a quarter of his book. This has been one of the most challenging and uncompromising problems in the conflict between religion and philosophy. The advocates of orthodoxy considered the eternality of the universe to be the most pernicious thesis of the philosophers and vehemently combated against it. Al-Ash’ari (d. 324/935) wrote a refutation of it in his Kitab al-Fusul which probably is the earliest scholastic treatise dealing with this question,40 and ibn Hazm (d. 457/1064) made the doctrine a dividing line between the orthodox and the heterodox sects. The orthodox could not possibly concede the philosophers’ claim of the eternality of the world, for with them there is nothing eternal but God; all else is created (hadith). To make anything co-eternal with God is to violate the strict principle of monotheism, for that infringes the absoluteness and infinity of God and reduces Him to the position of an artificer: a Demiurge. Virtually, the doctrine drives one to the materialists’ position that the world is an independent universe, a self-subsistent system, which develops by itself, and can be understood by itself. All this was hard to swallow for a theologian like al-Ghazālī.
The philosophers like al-Farabi and ibn Sina as Muslims did not deny that {596} God is an eternal creator of the universe, but as true Aristotelians believed that God’s activity consists merely in bringing forth in the state of actuality the virtual possibilities inherent in the prime matter which was alleged to be co-eternal with Him. This was in conformity with the Aristotelian notion of change not as a passage from non-being into being, which would make it unintelligible, but as a process by which what is merely “potential being” passes over, through “form,” into “actual being.”41 So God as an eternal creator constantly combines matter with new forms; He did not create the universe out of sheer nothingness at a definite time in the past. As a corollary they believed in the infinity of time.
Al-Ghazālī, on the other hand, in accordance with the obvious teachings of the Qur’an, firmly holds the position that the world was created by God out of absolute nothingness42 at a certain moment in the past which is at a finite interval from the present. He created not only forms but also matter and time along with them which had a definite beginning and hence is finite.
The two positions as outlined above readily remind one of Kant’s thesis and antithesis in the first antinomy43 which present an impossible problem in the sense that conditions requisite for their verification or falsification are de facto impossible. One is tempted to say that al-Ghazālī does recognize the impossibility of the problem for he clearly proclaims that he does not intend to defend his own position but only to refute that of the philosophers. This is true in general of all the other disputations in Tahāfut al-Falāsifah. The arguments of the philosophers are presented with very considerable plausibility, but the dialectical skill and philosophical acumen which al-Ghazālī employs to refute them are also overwhelming. Though the whole discussion is surcharged with a polemical spirit, yet one cannot fail to see that al-Ghazālī’s standpoint throughout remains highly scientific and logical; he does not succumb merely to verbal quibbles. He clearly says that he does not have any quarrel with the philosophers on the usages of terms.44
Al-Ghazālī’s quarrel with the philosophers is because many of their particular arguments are logically false and the various positions that they take in their system as a whole are inconsistent with one another, but, above all, because some of their basic assumptions are unfounded. These assumptions, al-Ghazālī proves most powerfully, can neither be demonstrated logically, nor are they self-evident through “intuition.” Such, for example, is the assumption that every event has a cause or that causes produce their effects necessarily. The {597} Muslim philosophers have accepted these assumptions merely in the dogmatic tradition of Aristotelian philosophy. The faulty reasonings of the philosophers or the inconsistencies in their positions are remediable but not so the uncritical acceptance of their assumptions. Al-Ghazālī for himself is not prepared to accept any part of the Aristotelian system except the first principles of logic and rules of syllogism-nothing else until and unless it has logical coerciveness about it. On the other hand, he is not prepared to reject any of the doctrines of religion until and unless it is disproved with a similar logical rigour and cogency. Nothing is “possible” in philosophy till it is logically necessary, and nothing is “impossible” in religion till it is logically self-contradictory. Apparently, this is a double-faced criterion to judge variously the truths of philosophic assumptions and those of religious assumptions, but from the point of view of philosophy of religion it is perfectly justified. Philosopher qua philosopher has to accept the facts of religion as given by religion; this is the sine qua non of any empirical philosophy of religion. Thus, in spite of the fact that al-Ghazālī’s whole polemic against the philosophers derives its inspiration from the Asst `arite theology, his method remains in its essentials purely philosophical, fulfilling in its own way some of the most important requirements of the modern and even contemporary approaches to the problems of the philosophy of religion.45
These few observations with regard to al-Ghazālī’s method in the Tahāfut were necessary before we could enter into some of the detailed arguments which he gives in the refutation of the philoapphera’ various positions.
3. Eternity of the World.-The proof of the philosophers for the eternity of the world starts with certain assumptions with regard to the notions of cause and will. These they take to be true axiomatically: (1) Every effect has a cause. (2) Cause must be the action of some external force other than the effect. (3) Cause or an act of will when executed must immediately lead to the effeet.46 For world’s coming from non-existence to existence there certainly should have been some cause; this cause could not be a physical cause for ex hypothe-si none yet existed. If this cause arose from an act of will by God at some specific time, then the divine will itself should have been determined by some other cause. This cause which led God to change His mind should certainly be outside His mind; but again this was not possible, for nothing outside Him yet existed. Thus, one is forced to conclude that either nothing ever arose from the being of God-which is not true, for the world does existor that the world must have been in existence from all eternity, as an immediate effect of His eternal will.
Al-Ghazālī declines to subscribe to any one of the assumptions as stated {598} above and shows that belief in the origination of the world from the eternal will of God at a specific moment of time as chosen by Him involves no violation of the fundamental principles of logic. The assumptions of the philosophers, that every effect has a cause and that a cause is a force external to its effect, do not have a logical coerciveness about them. It is quite legitimate to believe that God’s will does not have any cause or at least that this cause does not lie outside His will but in itself. Similarly, it is not logically necessary that the effect should follow a cause immediately, for it is not logically contradictory to hold the notion of “a delayed effect.” It is possible to think that God’s will is eternal and yet an object of that will has occurred at some period in time. Here a distinction should be made between the eternity of God’s will and the eternity of the object of His will. God, for example, can eternally will that Socrates and Plato should be born at such and such a time and that the one should be born before the other. Hence it is not logically illegitimate to affirm the orthodox belief that God eternally willed that the world should come into being at such and such a definite moment in time.
But the philosophers point out a real difficulty here. According to them, it is impossible to find out a differentiating principle for God’s eternal choice of a particular moment for the creation of the world. All moments of time are completely similar; how is it possible to choose between two completely similar things? Why, in short, was the world not created earlier or later than when it was created? One of the answers to this is that there arises no question of world’s being created earlier or later, for time yet was not; time too was created along with the creation of the world, i. e., both world and time are finite in duration. Al-Ghazālī adds further that should one assume with the philosophers that time is infinite, then at any present moment that infinite time has been brought to an end and a time that has an end is not infinite but finite. It is noteworthy that this is exactly the argument given by Kant in the thesis of his first antinomy.
Al-Ghazālī’s real standpoint, however, is that God just arbitrarily chose one particular moment rather than another for world’s coming into being. We need ask no more about this choice, for God’s will is completely undetermined. His will does not depend upon distinctions in the outside world, for it is itself the producer of all the distinctions therein. This creating of the distinctions in fact is the true significance of God’s will. God chooses a particular moment for the creation of the universe as He chooses a particular direction for the movement of the spheres of the (Ptolemaic) heaven, in some cases from east to west, in others from west to east (as described in the Aristotelian astronomy) even when the reversal of directions would have made no difference. There is no way to explain God’s choice either in one case or the other.
The difficulty posed by the philosophers arises because of their misguided attempt to understand the nature of divine will altogether in the terms of man’s will. Certainly, God’s will is not like man’s, as God’s knowledge is not like man’s knowledge. So far as God’s knowledge is concerned, the {599} philosophers avowedly admit that it differs from man’s knowledge in so many respects that in their final position it becomes indeed an inexplicable mystery. God, according to them, possesses the knowledge of all the universals without this knowledge necessitating plurality, without its being additional to His essence, and without its multiplying in proportion to the multiplicity of the objects known. Some of them assert after Aristotle that God is the knower, the knowledge, and the known, and that the three are one. Should we judge all this by what applies to man’s knowledge, it will be found to be an utter impossibility. While the philosophers admit that God’s knowledge cannot be compared with man’s knowledge, they insist upon drawing a comparison between God’s will and man’s will. This is exactly what al-Ghazālī calls the incoherence of the philosophers and, according to him, their thought-system taken as a whole reveals quite a number of such incoherences. Indeed, the philosophers’ very notion of eternal creation is self-contradictory and meaningless. Is it sense to speak of a creation of that which exists eternally? If God and the prime matter are both eternal existents, does it make sense to say that one is the cause of the other? Can the relation between two existents qua existents be regarded as a causal one?
Further, the philosophers put different constructions upon their notions of space and time. They assume time to be infinite and space to be finite, and yet consider time to be co-implicant of movement in space. Al-Ghazālī insists rightly that one who believes in the finitude of space must in consistency assume the existence of finite time, particularly when one holds the Aristotelian position that space, time, and movement in space are all related to one another.47 And if they insist that it is impossible to think of empty space, they should equally realize that it is impossible to conceive of an empty time.
These are just a few of the inconsistencies of the philosophers pointed out by al-Ghazālī in the course of his disputation with regard to the eternity of the world and they could be mentioned here only very briefly, considering the space at our disposal. One further point of criticism may, however, be added for its importance in the history of modern philosophy. Prior to its origination, the philosophers hold, the world must have either been possible (mumkin), or impossible (mumtani’), or necessary (wajib). It is impossible that it should have been impossible; for that which is impossible in itself is never brought into existence. Again, it is impossible for it to have been necessary in itself, for that which is necessary in itself is never deprived of existence. It follows then that the existence of the world must have always been possible in itself, otherwise it would never have come to be. This possibility cannot inhere in possibility itself, nor in the agent, nor in no-substratum, for the possible is that which is in the process of becoming actual. Hence the subject of possibility is some substratum which is susceptible of possibility, and this is matter. Now, this matter cannot be considered to have been originated. If it had been originated, the possibility of its existence would have preceded its {600} existence. In that case possibility would have existed in itself, but possibility existing in itself is unintelligible. Hence matter is eternal and it is only the passing over of the forms to matter which is originated.
In rebutting this highly sophisticated argument of the philosophers al-Ghazālī points out in Kantian fashion that possibility like impossibility is a purely subjective notion to which nothing need correspond in reality. If possibility requires an existent to correspond to it, so would impossibility require something to correspond to it, but avowedly there is no existing thing in concrete reality to which impossibility may be referred. Hence possibility like impossibility is merely a concept; the assumption of an existing substratum to which this concept may be related is to have a metaphysical jump from mere thought to actual existence and is to commit as we understand now an ontological fallacy.
4. Theory of Emanation.-The entire argument of the philosophers with regard to the eternity of the world is, thus, full of contradictions and unproved assumptions, but the most manifest of their inconsistencies and the sheer baselesaness of their assumptions become signally conspicuous when they come to explain the origination of the world from the being of God in the terms of the Plotinian Theory of Emanation. Plotinus considers the world to be a necessary outflow from the being of God like light from the sun48 or better as Spinoza described it later like the properties of a triangle from a triangle.49 Muslim philosophers’ subscription to this view according to al-Ghazālī is the clearest evidence that their verbal avowal of creation is a mere dissimulation and duplicity. The problem of emanation with the philosophers, however, arises because of their over-emphasis on the abstract unity and absolute perfection of God. Creation through an act of volition implies both will and knowledge, and these cannot be predicated of God as attributes apart from His essence without doing violence to His absolute unity. Further, both will and knowledge are limitations: will in particular implies a deficiency in a being who wills, for it means that he desires or wants to have that which he lacks. Hence the philosophers elaborated an ingenious theory of emanation which contrives to erect a cosmological staircase between the stable stillness of God’s unity and the changing and varied multiplicity of the world. This staircase is constituted of a finely graded series of intelligences and souls of celestial spheres, each emanating from the other in an hierarchical fashion. The view that the celestial spheres are perfect and have souls and intelligences superior to that of man had the overwhelming authority of Aristotle50 and further it was possible and even fascinating to conceive of them in terms of angels as described by the theologians.{601}
The emanationism of the Muslim philosophers in the final analysis worked under two governing principles: First, it is not thinkable that from God who is a pure unity anything could proceed except that which is itself a unity. This gave rise to the formula: from one only one can follow. Secondly, being has two aspects: it is either necessary (wājib) or possible (mumkin); it is either essence (māhīyyah) or existence (annīyyah). In the case of God alone are essence and existence identical; in all other beings essence is separate from existence. From this it follows that all things are possible by their essence, and they become necessary by the existence given to them by God.
The first emanation from the existence of the First Principle (al-mabda’ al-awwal), the Necessary Being (al-wājīb al-wujūd), i. e., God, is the first intelligence (al-῾aql al-awwal) which is numerically one. Its existence is possible in itself and necessary through the First Principle; further, it knows its own essence as well as the essence of the First Principle. From its twofold existence and two-fold knowledge springs a multiplicity of knowledge and existence. The first intelligence, in fact, has three kinds of knowledge: of the First Principle, of its own essence in so far as it is necessary, and of its possible being. One might ask: What is the source of this three-foldness in the first intelligence when the principle from which it emanates is one? The answer is: From the First Principle only one proceeds, i.e., the essence of the first intelligence by which it knows itself. Now, its knowledge of its principle is evidently necessary, although this necessity is not derived from that principle. Again, being possible in itself the first intelligence cannot owe its possibility to the First Principle but possesses it in its own self. Though only one should proceed from one, yet it is possible that the first effect may come to possess not from the First Principle but by itself certain necessary qualities which express some relation or negation of relation and give rise to plurality. Thus, from the three kinds of knowledge possessed by the first intelligence emanate three beings, but only one from each kind. As it knows its principle there proceeds from it a second intelligence; as it knows its essence there proceeds from it the first soul of the highest sphere (which is the ninth heaven); and as it knows itself as possible in itself there proceeds from it the body of that sphere. In a similar fashion from the second intelligence emanates the third intelligence, the soul of the stellar sphere and the body of that sphere. From the third intelligence emanates the fourth intelligence, the soul of the sphere of Saturn and the body of that sphere. From the fourth intelligence emanates the fifth intelligence, the soul of the sphere of Jupiter and the body of that sphere. Now there are, according to the then current Ptolemaic system, only nine celestial spheres in all including the sphere of the fixed stars all in concentric circles with earth in the centre.51 So, starting from the First Principle the emanations proceed on till the last or the tenth intelligence appears and {602} with it the last sphere of the moon and its soul. The tenth intelligence, also called the active intellect (al-῾aql al-fa῾῾āl),52 acts in our world. It produces the first matter (hayūla) which is passive and formless but which is the basis of the four elements from which all creatures arise. The composition and decomposition of the elements is the cause of generation and corruption of all bodies. But all these transformations take place under the influence of the movement of the spheres. As the active intellect is the producer of matter, so it is the dispenser of forms, dator formarum (wāhib al-şuwar). It gives to each matter its proper form and it also gives each body a soul (which in fact is its form) when that body is ready to receive it. Thus, active intellect is also the source of the existence of the human souls. But the human soul does not feel at home in its physical abode and yearns for nothing less than the First Principle Himself. Hence it starts its spiritual journey back to the original source traversing through the various stages of the intelligences of the spheres. This is a rounded though brief description of the emanationistic world-view so enthusiastically elaborated by the Muslim philosophers, by ibn Sina, for example, in both of his major works on philosophy, viz., Kitāb al-Shifā᾿ and Kitāb al-Najāt and by al-Farabi in his al-Madīnat al-Fāďilah.53
Determinism implicit in this emanationistic world-view is so opposed to the theistic voluntarism of the Ash῾arite world-view that al-Ghazālī launches the moat vehement attack against it. His strictures against this grand cosmological construction made out of so many various foreign imported ideas are the strongest and the bitterest of all others that may be found in the entire Tahāfut. All this, he inveighs, is arbitrary reasoning, idle speculation; a wild guess work; darkness piled upon darkness. If someone says he saw things of this kind in a dream, it would be inferred that he was suffering from some disease. Even an insane person could not rest satisfied with such postulates.54 In our own times, to say nothing of the scientists, F. R. Tennant who may be described as an eminent “religious positivist” holds the theory of emanation more or leas in the same estimation. 55
Al-Ghazālī’s criticism of the emanatiorustic argument consists in showing, on the one hand, that it fails to account for the multiplicity and composition in {603} the universe and, on the other, that it does not at all succeed in safeguarding the absolute unity of God. If the formula ever so glibly repeated that from one only one proceeds should be observed strictly logically, then all the beings in the world would be units, each of which would be an effect of some other unit above it, as it would be the cause of some other unit below it in a linear fashion. But in fact this is not the case. Every object, according to the philosophers themselves, is composed at least of form and matter. How does a composite thing such as a body then come into existence? Does it have only one cause? If the answer is in the affirmative, then the assertion that only one proceeds from one becomes null and void. If, on the other hand, a composite thing has a composite cause, then the same question will be repeated in the case of this cause so on and so forth till one arrives at a point where the compound necessarily meets the simple. This contact between the compound effect and the unitary cause wherever it occurs would falsify the principle that only one proceeds from one. Now, strictly speaking, all the existents in the universe are characterized by composition and only the First Principle, i. e., God, alone can be said to possess true simplicity or unity, for in Him alone there is the complete identity of essence and existence. This would lead us necessarily to the conclusion that either the principle of “only one from one” fails to account for the composition and multiplicity which is apparent in the universe or that even God does not possess a genuine unity. But the philosophers cloak the issue with their artificial subtleties and the grandiose constructions they put upon their emanationistic foundations.
What earthly and even unearthly relation is there, al-Ghazālī questions rightly, between the first intelligence’s having a possible existence and the body of the sphere of the second intelligence which is supposed to proceed from it? Neither logic nor experience can substantiate this wild supposition and as such it is no more than pure nonsense. Further, how is it possible that from two kinds of knowledge of the first intelligence, that is, knowledge of the First Principle and that of itself, should arise two kinds of existence, first, that of the second intelligence and, second, that of the soul of the highest sphere? How can the knowledge of a thing lead to the existence of a thing (as we would now put it after Kant) without committing an obvious ontological fallacy? How can the knower emanate from the knowing, al-Ghazālī rightly wonders, as does F. R. Tennant, and like him deplores that of all the people, philosophers should believe in such mythical nonsense.56
Even if the triplicity with which the philosophers characterize the first intelligence should be taken for granted (which indeed cannot be done) it fails to account for all that they want to deduce from it. The body of the highest sphere, which according to them proceeds only from one aspect of the essence of the first intelligence, is surely not unitary in nature but composite and that in three ways. {604} First, as stated above, it is composed of form and matter, as indeed all bodies are according to the philosophers’ own admission. True, form and matter always exist conjointly in all bodies, yet they are so different from each other that one cannot be the cause of the other. Hence, form and matter of the body of the highest sphere require two principles for their existence and not one. A unitary aspect of the three-fold character of the first intelligence fails to account for it.
Secondly, the body of this sphere has a definite size. Its having a definite size is something additional to the bare fact of its existence. Certainly, it could have come into existence with a different size, bigger or smaller than what it is. Hence, over and above that which necessitated the existence of the body of the sphere, there should be an additional cause to account for the adoption of this particular size.
Thirdly, in the highest heaven, there are marked out two points as its poles, which are fixed. This fact was admitted by the philosophers in accordance with the Aristotelian astronomy. Now, either all the parts of the highest sphere are similar in which case it is impossible to explain why two points should be chosen in perference to all the others as its poles; or they are different, some of them possessing properties which are not possessed by the others. Hence, we require yet another aspect in the first intelligence to be the cause for differences in the various parts of the highest sphere which differences alone would justify the choice of two points therein to be the poles.
In view of what has been stated above, it is sheer “ignorance” on the part of the philosophers to hold that the body of the highest sphere has emanated only from one aspect of the essence of first intelligence. Either the principle that only one proceeds from one is true, in which case the first intelligence which is not a mere triplicity but a whole multiplicity remains unexplained, or this principle is an empty formula signifying nothing, and, thus, making it possible that “many may proceed from one.” In the latter case the infinite variety and plurality of the world can be directly derived from the unity of God and there is no need to erect an emanationistic staircase between Him and the world.
The above principle certainly collapses when we come to the second intelligence, for it is supposed to be, in one of its aspects, the cause of the sphere of the fixed stars. These are twelve hundred or so (according to the then Greek or Arab astronomers’ reekoning)57 and are different in magnitude, shape, position, colour, and in respect of their special function in nature, etc. Each one of these factors in every single star needs a separate cause as its {605} determinant (murajjih). All this necessitates a bewildering multiplicity in the second intelligence and also indirectly presupposes the same in the first intelligence in so far as the latter is the emanative cause of the former.
Should the above arguments fail to convince the philosophers, there is another way to show that the first intelligence is more than a mere triplicity. Is the self-knowledge of the first intelligence identical with its essence or other than it? It is not possible that it should be identical, for knowledge is not the same thing as that which is known. Hence, the first intelligence is not a triplicity but a quadruplicity, to wit: its essence, its knowledge of itself, its knowledge of the First Principle, and its being a possible existent by itself. To all these four aspects there can be added yet another, namely, its being a necessary being whose necessity is derived from an external cause. All this proves that the first intelligence has five aspects and not three, as arbitrarily assumed by the philosophers. Whether the first intelligence has five aspects or three, it certainly is not of purely unitary character according to the philosophers’ own admission. This shows that there is something in the effect which is not present in the cause, i. e., the First Principle, and this is scandalous.
Not only does the formula that only one proceeds from one become shamefacedly invalid right at the outset, but further, according to al-Ghazālī, the entire emanationistic line of argument does great violence to the concept of God’s unity and, thus, nullifies the very purpose for which it is adopted. There is no reason, according to him, that the very arguments which the philosophers advance to establish the triple character of the first intelligence should not be applied to God Himself. One of the aspects of plurality in the first intelligence according to the philosophers is its being a possible existent by itself. It may be asked: Is its being possible identical with its existence or other than it? If it is identical, no plurality would arise from it. If it is other than its existence, then why should it not be possible to say that there is as much plurality in the First Principle, i. e., God Himself, for He not only has existence but is necessary in His existence ? The necessity of existence as such is other than existence itself. In truth, existence may be considered to be a generic concept divided into necessary and possible. If one specific difference is an addition to existence per se in one case, it should be considered so in the other also. If the philosophers insist that the possibility of existence is other than existence in the case of the first intelligence, through the same argument they should admit that necessity of existence is different from existence in the case of the First Principle. Similarly, al-Ghazālī asks: Is the first intelligence’s knowledge of its principle identical with its existence and with its knowledge of itself or other than the two ? If it is identical, then there will be no plurality in its nature. But if it is other than the two, then such a plurality exists also in the First Principle, for He too knows Himself as well as what is other than Himself. Thus, al-Ghazālī contends that either there can be no plurality in the first intelligence or if it is there, then it is for the same reasons in the First Principle too, and, therefore, the beings characterized by diversity and plurality {606} would directly proceed from Him. Al-Ghazālī forces this conclusion upon the philosophers through their own logic.
For himself al-Ghazālī believes that: “The First Principle is an omnipotent and willing agent; He does what He wills, and ordains as He likes, and He creates the similar and dissimilar things alike, whenever and in whatever manner He wills? The impossibility of such a belief is neither a self-evident truth, nor a matter of inferential knowledge.” 58 Al-Ghazālī frankly and rightly confesses that the problem of God’s relation with the universe in the final analysis remains ever beyond the comprehension of human understanding. The inquiry into the manner in which the world proceeded from God’s will, he urges, is “an idle and aimless venture.” The modus operandi of God’s creative activity is wholly inexplicable and this inexplicability is inevitable; indeed, if it were explicable, it would not be “creative.” Explanation in all its forms establishes some connection or similarity with what is experienced, whereas God’s creativity is an activity through which the experients and what is experienced by them come to be. How can human comprehension envisage the mode of God’s act of creation when it is itself the creature of that act?
The philosophers try to avoid the charge of plurality with regard to the First Principle so far as His knowledge is concerned by affirming that the First Principle does not know anything other than Himself and that His self-knowledge is the same thing as His essence; so the knowledge, the knower, and the object of knowledge are all one in Him. This indeed was originally the position of Aristotle according to whom God is describable as thought thinking itself. In Aristotle’s own words, ` . . . it must be itself that thought thinks, and its thinking is thinking on thinking.” 59 This view of God as reflective thought, reflective in the literal sense of turning back upon itself, has been subjected to severe criticism by al-Ghazālī. According to him, self-knowledge of a literal and direct sort is An impossibility. He argues with Plotinus that self-knowledge even in the case of God implies an epistemological subject-object dualism and, therefore, would impede the philosophers’ thesis of the absolute unity of the First Principle. Not only the Aristotelian conception of God as thought thinking thought does not absolve the philosophers from introducing plurality in the First Principle, but further lends them into many more difficulties with regard to their emanationistic world-view. Consider, for example, the relative positions of the First Principle and the first intelligence in terms of their knowledge. The First Principle which is the emanative cause of the first intelligence does not know anything other than Himself, whereas the latter knows not only its cause but further knows itself and the three {607} effects which proceed from it, viz., the second intelligence, the soul of the highest sphere, and the body of that sphere. It is a strange theory, al-Ghazālī observes, which makes the effect have the knowledge of its cause but not the cause of its effect. The necessity of a cause possessing the knowledge of its effect is more compelling than the necessity of an effect possessing the knowledge of its cause. In fact, the philosophers make the first intelligence superior to and “nobler” than the First Principle in so far as from the First Principle only one thing proceeds, while from the first intelligence three things proceed. Further, the First Principle does not know what prodeeds from Him; in fact, He does not know anything other than Himself, while the first intelligence knows itself, its cause, and its three effects. Al-Ghazālī feels so bitter at the Aristotelian conception of God as thought thinking itself that he goes to the length of saying that the philosophers by limiting God’s knowledge to the sphere of self-knowledge virtually reduce Him to the status of the dead. 60
5. God’s Knowledge of the Particulars. 61 Al-Ghazālī is very emphatic and uncompromising with regard to the all-circumscribing knowledge of God: “God knows the creeping of the black ant upon the rugged rock in a dark night, and He perceives the movement of the mote in the midst of the air.” 62 Ibn Sina also subscribes to the view that God knows everything: “Nothing, not even as much as a particle of dust in the heavens or on the earth, remains hidden from His knowledge.” 63 Yet, interestingly enough, al-Ghazālī does not hesitate to level a charge of infidelity against him on this score for, according to ibn Sina, though God knows all the particulars, He knows them only in a universal way. This means that God cannot have the perceptual knowledge of particular things but knows them by way of a universal knowledge. Ibn Sina realizes the difficulty of his position and so adds that the understanding of it needs great intellectual subtlety. The reasons that he advances to deny perceptual knowledge to God are fully recognized by al-Ghazālī. Perceptual knowledge is characterized both temporally and spatially, whereas God is above both time and space and so it is not possible to ascribe perceptual knowledge to Him. A particular event occurs at a particular moment of time and suffers change with the passage of time. Change in the object of perception implies a change in the content of perception itself which obviously leads to change in the subject of perception, i.e., in the percipient himself. But change in God is unthinkable; therefore, perception of a particular event is not {608} possible for Him. Similarly, to distinguish between one particular object and another in space is possible only through the senses and implies a special relation of a sensible thing to the percipient as being near to or far from him or in a definite position, and this is impossible where God is concerned. Hence, it is not possible for God to have perceptual knowledge of the particulars. His knowledge can only be that which rises above the particular “nows” and the particular “heres,” that is to say, is of conceptual or universal nature.
Ibn Sina’s position as briefly outlined above seems to be very well grounded in sound reasoning and is quite understandable, yet, according to al-Ghazālī, it is so pernicious to religion that it altogether demolishes the entire edifice of religious Law (hence his charge of infidelity). The theory implies that God cannot know any new state that emerges in John-He cannot know that John has becomes an infidel or a true believer, for He can know only the unbelief or the belief of man in general in a universal manner and not in specific relation to individuals. Yes, God cannot know Muhammad’s proclaiming himself a prophet at the time when he did. And the same will be true of every other prophet, for God only knows that among men there are some who claim prophecy, and that such and such are their attributes; but He cannot know a particular prophet as an individual, for that is to be known only by the senses. There certainly is a point in what al-Ghazālī says here for it is really difficult to show any relation between the temporal and the timeless, yet the above criticism of his is a little wide of the mark for it is based on a misinterpretation of ibn Sina’s position. By the statement that God does not have perceptual knowledge of the particulars, ibn Sina does not mean to say that God does not have the knowledge of the particulars or that His knowledge is restricted only to that of the universals or general concepts. Ibn Sina insists that God does have knowledge of the particulars; only this knowledge comes to Him not through sensuous perception but through intellectual perception, not from moment to moment but eternally.
Ibn Sina starts with the Aristotelian conception that God has only self-knowledge but adds emphatically that His self-knowledge necessarily implies knowledge of all the existent things in the universe in so far as He is the principal or the ultimate source of them all. There is not a single existent particular which does not proceed from Him directly or indirectly and the existence of which does not become in some way necessary through Him. The coming into existence of particular events and objects is due to the action and interaction of the various causes but ultimately all these have to be traced back to the First Cause. God, the First Cause, has the full prescience of the working of the various causes which originate from Him, and knows the effects produced by them and the time involved in their occurrence and recurrence. Thus, God knows the particular events even when they occur to a single individual under specific conditions and at particular times in so far as they are fully explicable in terms of general laws and all-pervasive causal nexus. This may be illustrated with reference to an analogous human situation. An astronomer {609} who has full understanding of the general laws governing the movements of the heavenly bodies can, through his proper calculations, describe the various phenomena such as the particular eclipses and the conjunctions of the stars. The analogy, however, though helpful, cannot be stretched to an identity, for, strictly speaking, there is nothing in our experience to compare with divine knowledge. Our knowledge is liable to error and is fragmentary, whereas God’s knowledge is infallible and all-embracing, so much so that the whole universe is known to Him in one single congruous manifestation which is not affected by time. God is immediately aware of the entire sweep of history regarded as an ordered string of specific events in an eternal now. Further, God not only knows but is also the very ground of the objects that He knows. The universe proceeds from the essence of God verily because of His knowledge of the universe: the ideal representation of the universal system is the very cause of its emanation. Had God not known the universe with all its concrete particularities, the universe would never have come into being. This indeed is a very original and quite ingenious theory with regard to God’s knowledge of the particulars. Yet it is undoubtedly of highly speculative nature and so al-Ghazālī is all out to bring quite an arsenal of criticism against it with a dialectical analyticity and rigour not incomparable to those of the logical positivists of our own day. He is not at all prepared to accept any of the assumptions of the philosophers until and unless they should either be atatable in the form of analytical propositions or be verifiable through some kind of intuitive experience. The attribution of knowledge to God as it is, but particularly that of “the other,” cannot go without jeopardizing to some extent at least His absolute unity and simplicity which otherwise are so much emphasized, rather over-emphasized by the philosophers. Above all, the theory, like any of its kind, fails to relate in any satisfactory manner the eternality of God’s knowledge with the tranaciency of human experience, which relation indeed is the very crux of religious experience. And so far as it suffers from the presuppositions of the intellectualistic-deterministic world-view of the philosophers, al-Ghazālī simply has no patience with it. For one, it suggests a block universe such as makes little allowance if any at all even for the exercise of God’s will. These are just a few general remarks to indicate the mode and the various lines of al-Ghazali’s arguments against the philosophers; they may now be substantiated and amplified by listing some of the actual points of his criticism.
The statement that God’s self-knowledge necessarily implies the knowledge of all the existent particulars in the universe cannot be logically validated, nor can it be verified on the basis of any analogous human experience. God’s self-knowledge and His knowledge of others do not have the relation of logical entailment, for it is possible to imagine the existence of the one without imagining the existence of the other at the same time. Looking to our own experience it would be wrong to claim that man’s knowledge of what is other than himself is identical with his self-knowledge and with his essence.
It may be said that God does not know other things in the first intention {610} (al-wajh al-awwal) but that He knows His essence as the principle of the universe and from this His knowledge of the universe follows in the second intention (al-wayh al-thani), i. e., by way of a logical inference. Now, the statement of the philosophers that God knows Himself directly only as the principle of the universe, according to al-Ghazali, is as much an arbitrary assumption as the earlier statement and is exposed to exactly the same kind of criticism. According to the philosophers’ own admission, it would suffice that God should know only His essence; the knowledge of His being the principle of the universe is additional to it and is not logically implicated in it. Just as it is possible for a man to know himself without knowing that he is “an effect of God” (for his being an effect is a relation to this cause), even so it is possible for God to know Himself without knowing that He is the principle or cause. The principle or cause is merely the relation that He bears to His effect, the universe. His knowledge of His relation to the universe is not by any means entailed by His knowledge of His own essence. Do not the philosophers themselves in their doctrine with regard to the attributes of God affirm the possibility only of negative or relational statements about God on the plea that negations or relations add nothing to His essence?64 The knowledge of the relation, therefore, cannot be identical with the knowledge of the essence. Hence the philosophers’ assumption that God knows His essence and thereby also knows Himself as the principle of the universe, remains unproved logically and unverified experientially. Al-Ghazālī raises many more points of criticism of a similar nature which fully bring out the “positivistic” and “analytic” thrusts in his thought. This type of criticism should have been sufficient with al-Ghazālī, for it served his purpose of refuting the philosophers quite effectively, but his religious calling and persuasion impell him to launch many more attacks on the philosophers. They do not aim so much at the complete smashing of the philosophers’ arguments as to bring out either inconsistencies in their various positions or more so the difficulties of a religious nature in accepting them.
Al-Ghazālī fully appreciates the motive of the philosophers in elaborating their theory with regard to the nature of God’s knowledge of the particulars, which is no other than that of safeguarding the immutability and the unity of God. Eliminating the factor of time or change altogether in God’s knowledge, however, has difficulties of its own which will be noted presently, but there is another aspect of the philosophers’ treatment of the problem of God’s knowledge which lands them into a morass of contradictions and annuls the very purpose for which it is belaboured, i. e., that of establishing the unity of God. Granted that God’s knowledge remains unaffected by change, for it rises above the distinction of “is,” “was” and “will,” yet how can God’s knowledge remain unaffected by the multiplicity and diversity of the objects that He knows? How can it be claimed that knowledge remains unitary even {611} when the things known are unlimited in number and are different, for knowledge has to conform to the nature of the things known? If the change in the objects of cognition necessarily presupposes change in the subject, multiplicity and difference in the former presuppose the same in the latter.
“Would that I could understand,” says al-Ghazālī, “how an intelligent person can allow himself to disbelieve the oneness of the knowledge of a thing whose states are divisible into the Past, the Present, and the Future; while he would not disbelieve the oneness of knowledge which relates to all the different Genera and Species. Verily the difference and the disparity among the diverse Genera and Species is more marked than the difference which may actually be found to exist among the states of a thing divisible in accordance with the division of time. If that difference does not necessitate multiplicity and difference, how can this do so either?”65
Though the philosophers ascribe omniscience and fore-knowledge to God, they make His knowledge a sort of mirror which passively reflects in an eternal now the details of an already finished sequence of events just as we in a particular present moment have the memory of a fixed and inalterable sequence of past events. Thus, God’s knowledge of time is restricted only to the relational aspect of time, i. e., that of the sequence of before and after or of earlier and later. There is, however, another aspect of time which typically characterizes the human experience and forms its very essence, namely, that of the ever-fleeting, ever-changing now. This is the time which is born afresh at every moment, the time in which the future is perpetually flowing through the present into the past. Now, according to the philosophers’ thesis of God’s knowledge as explained above, in God’s eternal being there can be no counterpart of the experience of this living time in which we humans move and act. God may know, for example, that my acts of religious devotion are subsequent to my religious conversion, but He cannot know now that I am acting or have acted in such and such a way. So God in His supra-temporal transcendence would remain impervious to my religious solicitations, for I am eternally doomed to the tyranny of this ever-fleeting, ever-trembling now. 66 Should this be true and should I come to realize it, I may cry in despair: “Of what use is God to me!” Such is the catastrophe to which the philosophers’ over-emphasis upon the eternality and changelessness of God’s knowledge leads through its very incumbent logic. The problem of the relation of the eternality of God to {612} the temporality of human experience is almost an impossible problem and the philosophers of all times have stumbled over it. It may be suggested, however, that God is transcendental to both time and change and yet in some mysterious way immanent in it. Viewed superficially, this seems to be an apparent logical contradiction, but, adds al-Ghazālī, the philosophers dare not point this out for they themselves have affirmed with regard to their doctrine of the eternity of the world that the world is eternal and yet at the same time subject to change.
The statement that God not only knows the universe but, further, that this knowledge is the very ground and the cause of the universe, though very significant in itself, is made by the philosophers essentially within the framework of their deterministic-emanationistic world-view and as such, according to al-Ghazālī, involves them into an embarrassing predicament. There is no sense in talking about the knowledge of an agent when his action is a “natural action” in the sense that it follows from him necessarily and is not the result of his volition. We do not say that knowledge of light possessed by the sun is the requisite condition for the emanation of light from the sun, and this in fact is the analogy which the philosophers have employed to explain the procession of the world from the being of God. Further, according to them, the universe has not been produced by God all at once but has proceeded from Him through “the intermediaries and the other consequences and the consequences of those consequences all indirectly connected with these intermediaries.” 67 Even if it should be granted that the necessary procession of something from an agent requires the knowledge by him of that which proceeds, God’s knowledge at best would be only that of the first intelligence and of nothing besides. That which proceeds from something which proceeds from God may not be necessarily known to Him. Knowledge is not necessary in the case of the indirect consequences of volitional actions; how can it be so in the case of the indirect consequences of necessary actions? Thus, the assertion of the philosophers that God’s knowledge is the very ground and cause of that which He knows loses its entire significance because of its moorings in the Plotinian scheme of emanationism.
Through a strange irony of logic the emanationistic argument of the philosophers, instead of building a staircase between God and the world, creates almost an unbridgeable gulf between the two. It certainly leads to the conclusion that God is directly related only to the first intelligence, i.e., the first item of the series of emanations between God and the world; on the other hand, the world is directly related only to the lowest end of that series. Further, the argument makes the world an independent and autonomous system, which can be understood by itself because of its insistence on an inexorable causal necessity such as pervades the entire scheme of things. This conception of a through and through causally determined universe rooted in the {613} intellectual-emanationistic metaphysics of the philosophers was so radically different from his own dynamic-occasionalistic world-view grounded in the theistic-voluntaristic metaphysics of the Ash’arite tradition that al-Ghazālī declared a complete parting of the way with them. Their world-view, al-Ghazālī made it clear, militates particularly against the fundamental Islamic doctrine of God’s providence and omnipotence, and leaves no possibility for the happening of miracles such as turning of a rod into a serpent, denaturing fire of its capacity to burn, revivification of the dead, splitting of the moon (all so clearly referred to in the Qur’an). 68 There certainly is no scope for the exercise of God’s freewill in a universe in which there is no real becoming and in which the future is already given in the present as its necessary effect. Nor, in view of the reign of the inexorable law of causal necessity in such a universe, is there any possibility for the miracles, except those which can be “naturalized” through scientific explanation.
6. Causality.-Al-Ghazālī’s desire to vindicate the truth of the religious position mentioned above led him to make a highly critical and acute analysis of the philosophers’ concept of causality. This analysis, which bears a strikingly close similarity to that of Hume’s, brings 69 out clearly the most remarkable originality and acumen of al-Ghazālī’s thought. The problem that engaged him at the outset of his inquiry with regard to the seventeenth disputation in the Tahāfut is the problem of the alleged necessity of the causal connection as maintained and insisted on by the philosophers. He challenges the validity of this necessity right as he opens the discussion. 70 “In our view,” he asserts, “the connection between what are believed to be cause and effect is not necessary.” The reason that he offers for the justification of his position is that the relation between cause and effect is not that of logical entailment. The affirmation of the one does not imply the affirmation of the other, nor does the denial of the one imply the denial of the other. Neither the existence nor the non-existence of the one is necessarily presupposed by the existence or the non-existence of the other. The relation between quenching of thirst and drinking, satiety and eating, burning and fire, or light and sunrise, etc., is not a necessary relation, for in no case does the one term logically imply the other. There is nothing logically contradictory in assuming that fire may not burn, and drinking may not quench thirst, and so on.
The alleged necessity of the causal connection is not logically warranted because through no amount of logical reasoning can we deduce the effect from {614} the cause. At best it is based on observation or experience. We observe that objects succeed one another or that similar objects are constantly conjoined. Now, this proves succession, not causation, or conjunction, not connection, The fire which is an inanimate object has no power to produce the effect of burning; “observation shows only that one is with the other and not that it is by it,” i. e., the effect happens with the cause and not through it (`indahu la bihi). 71
The notion of necessity is valid only in the case of logical relations such as identity, implication, disjunction, etc. In the sphere of mere natural relations necessity has no scope. In the order of nature, unlike the order of thought, we deal merely with the contingent and alogical entities which remain unrelated to each other except in the minds of the perceiver. Objects as such are not connected with one another; only the ideas of them get connected in our mind by association. The relation between fire and burning is not a necessary relation, for it does not belong to the realm of necessity but to that of possibility such as may happen or may not happen depending on the will of God. “It is only,” al-Ghazālī enunciates clearly, “when something possible is repeated over and over again (so as to form the Norm), that its pursuance of a uniform course in accordance with the Norm in the past is indelibly impressed upon our minds.” 72 Thus, if there is any semblance of necessity in the order of natural relations such as that of cause and effect, it is merely because the two terms which in nature remain extrinsic to each other, through constant repetition become conjoined in our consciousness. Causal necessity is just the habit of our mind: it is merely a psychological necessity and not a logical necessity. The psychological necessity differs from logical necessity in this that its denial like the latter does not involve us in a logical impossibility. Hence the miracles, such as the fire not burning the body of Abraham when he was thrown into it, are not impossible to think. Al-Ghazālī insists that the denial of miracles can be justified only when it should be proved that they are logically impossible and where such proof is not forthcoming their denial is sheer ignorance and obduracy.
It is interesting to note further that al-Ghazālī, in the course of his discussion of the principle of causality and the possibility of miracles, comes close to propounding the notion of the composite nature of a cause and also that of plurality of causes. Cause he understands to be the sum total of many contributory factors, some of which are positive while others negative, and all of which have to be considered in conjunction. Take the case of a man seeing a coloured object: he should possess sound vision, he should open his eyes, there should be no obstruction between the eyes and the object of vision, the object should be a coloured one, the atmosphere should be not dark but have sufficient light, etc. Any one condition by itself cannot be taken to be a cause and a single negative condition such as the blindness of the {615} person or the darkness of atmosphere may make the cause non-operative though logically not impossible. The relation of cause and effect is based on observation and observation as such does not rule out the possibility that the same effect might follow some cause other than the apparent one. Even where we recognize that there are many causes for the same effect, we cannot limit the number of causes just to those which we ourselves have observed. So there are many causes for the same effect 73 and a cause is a sum total of many conditions. In view of this it is not possible to negate an effect on the negation of one particular cause but on the negation of all the various causes. This latter possibility, however, is emphatically discounted by al-Ghazālī so far as we are concerned, for it presupposes a complete and exhaustive knowledge of all the causes and their conditions, which knowledge we humans can never come to possess. Moreover, causes by themselves are inert entities; will and action cannot be attributed to them. They act only through the power and agency of God. 74 The only will is the absolutely free-will of God which works unconstrained by any extraneous law or incumbency except the self-imposed law of contradiction. Thus, the things to which God’s power extends include mysterious and wonderful facts such as “elude the discernment of human sensibility.” Indeed, God’s power extends to all kinds of logical possibilities such as turning of a rod into a serpent, or the revivification of the dead. For the same reason it is not impossible for Him to bring about the resurrection of bodies in the life hereafter and all other things with regard to paradise and hell which have been mentioned in the Qur’an. 75 To deny them is both illogical and irreligious. One may add that, according to al-Ghazālī, not only all miracles are natural but also all nature is miraculous. 76 Nature, however, seems to be pervaded by a causal nexus only because as a rule God does not choose to interrupt the continuity of events by a miracle; it is possible, however, that Ile might intervene at any moment that He deems fit. Such a standpoint may make one sceptical of the phenomena of nature, but it may equally lead one to an acute mystical sense of the presence of God to all things. Scepticism of this kind and mysticism need not always be antithetical-the former may as well lead to the latter. This indeed is said to have had happened in the case of al-Ghazālī. {616}
Written by Saeed Sheikh, M. A. Professor of Philosophy, Government College, Lahor (Pakistan)
Chapter XXXI
AL-GHAZĀLĪ (Continued)
1. Introduction.-It will not be quite true to say that al-Ghazālī’s final resort to Sufi-mysticism was merely the result of his disillusionment with philosophy and dissatisfaction with scholastic theology. This is only a part of the truth; his own confessional statement to this effect in al-Munqidh seems to be rather an over-statement of the actual facts. Sufistic influences had all along been working upon his mind right from his early childhood. We need only recall that his father was a pious dervish and his guardian a Sufi devout, that in his youth he studied1 and even practised Sufism first under Yusuf al-Nassaj in Tus and then under al-Farmadhi at Nishapur and that his own brother Ahmad al-Ghazālī (d. 520/1126) made a name as a great Sufi. It is not improbable that he should have also learnt of Sufism from his teacher Imam al-Haramain, for it is reported that the Imam himself had been the pupil of the renowned Sufi abu Nu‘aim al-Isfahani (d. 430/1038). So al-Ghazālī’s eventual adoption of the Sufi way of life was in reality a continuation of these early influences and not simply the consequence of his failure to find the philosophical solution of theological problems. Further, it has to be emphasized that, in spite of his explicit official denunciation of philosophy, al-Ghazālī could never completely part company with it. His Sufi-mysticism was as much influenced by his thorough study of philosophy as by theology; in its final development it was the mysticism of a philosopher and a theologian. There is a marked note of Hellenic thought in his mystical doctrines and even the tracings of Neo-Platonism, and yet paradoxical though it may seem they remain circumscribed within the limits of orthodoxy. His is surely a sober kind of mysticism carefully eschewing all kinds of pantheistic extravagances and severely criticizing the antinomian tendencies of the intoxicated Sufis. On the one hand, he tried to make mysticism orthodox and, on the other, orthodoxy mystical. It is the mystical element in religion, he insisted, which is most vital and makes religious life a reality. Both to the philosophers {617} and the scholastic theologians he brought home the fact that the basis of all religious certainty is the first-hand living experience of God. He indeed did his best to vitalize the Law and the doctrine of Islam through this emphasis on the living religious experience, and this is evident from the very title of his magnum opus, Ihyā’ `Ulum al-Din (Revivification of the Sciences of Religion). But the mystical teaching of al-Ghazālī found in Ihyā’, meant for all to read, must be studied in conjunction with what is given in his other works dealing more specially with the Sufi doctrine such as Mishkāt al-Anwar, al-Ma’ārif al-`Aqliyyah, Mukāshafat al-Qulūb and the like. The theory developed in these works represents what may be labelled as theosophical mysticism and this cannot be properly understood without reference to al-Ghazālī’s specific views about the nature of God and the human soul. From the point of view of our present study his mystical views with regard to God and soul may be profitably compared with those of the philosophers, i. e., al-Farabi, ibn Sina, and their followers.
God.-The philosophers have particularly emphasized the absolute unity of God. No positive attributes can be ascribed to God for that leads to the subject-predicate dualism. Even existence can only be referred to Him. He is above all distinctions and above all the categories of thought. This overemphasis on unity shorn of all qualities reduces God to a mere contentless inanity. He becomes an ineffable, indescribable, impredicable something. Such is the result of the dialectic of the philosophers’ monistic reductionism. As mentioned in the preceding chapter, some (if them, following Aristotle, have described God as thought thinking thought. That which He knows comes into being emanating from the over-effulgence of His Being, but He does not positively will anything, for willing implies a need-a deficiency. He recognizes only Himself or at best His first emanent, the first intelligence, and, thus, is purely transcendent to this world of change and multiplicity.
Like the philosophers, al-Ghazālī lays stress on the unity of God: God is the sole-existent and the ultimate cause and ground of all being, the only self-subsisting reality. Yet He possesses the fullness of being, all the attributes mentioned in the Qur’an inhere in Him, only the modality of this inherence is rationally unknowable. We should, however, understand that all His attributes are spiritual. He is perfect goodness and perfect beauty: the supreme object of love.2 He is the light of lights, the eternal wisdom, the creative truth, but above all He is the eternal will.
To the philosophers God is primarily thought or intelligence, but to al-Ghazālī He is primarily a will which is the cause of creation. “The First Principle,” he says, “is an omnipotent and willing agent, He does what He wills, and ordains as He likes, and He creates the similar and dissimilar things alike, whenever and in whatever manner He wills.” 3 So Ultimate Reality is {618} essentially will. The entire choir of the heavens and the furniture of the earth are the direct work of God, produced out of sheer nothingness simply through His terrific “Be.” 4 God has created the universe through His will, sustains it through His will, and one day will let it pass away by His will. According to the philosophers, God wills the world because He thinks of it. According to al-Ghazālī, “God has cognizance of the world because He wills it and in His willing it.” 5
Like the philosophers, al-Ghazālī also emphasizes the transcendent aspect of God. He is exalted beyond the limitations of space and time, for He is the creator of space and time. He was before time and space were. But He is also immanent in this apatio-temporal order; His eternal wisdom and supreme beauty manifest themselves through the wonders and glory of His creation. His eternal will is in action throughout the universe; it is in the swing of the sun and the moon and in the alternation of day and night. Everywhere around is the touch and working of God.6 Al-Ghazālī’s God is not the Absolute of the philosophers who is bleak and cold, but a personal God, a living God. He desires intercourse with His creatures and makes it possible for them to enter into fellowship with Himself through prayer and contemplation and, above all, through the gift of mystical gnosis.
Soul.-The difference between al-Ghazālī and the philosophers with regard to the nature of the soul is not so very well marked. He only insists, like Kant, 7 that the philosophers through their rational arguments cannot give any conclusive proof for the spirituality, substantiality, unity, immortality, etc., of the human soul. His attack on the philosophers on this issue is as incisive and analytic as that of Kant but probably more violent. He actually smashes one by one all the ten arguments which he himself expounds as forcefully as they could be in favour of their thesis. 8 Like Kant again, he does not disagree with their basic position but only with their method. He even joins the philosophers in their refutation of the position of some of the scholastic theologians, who maintained that the soul is a kind of subtle body or an accident and not a substance. 9 What is more and rather strange, while determining the place of the soul in the realm of beings, al-Ghazālī talks the very language of {619} the Neo-Platonic philosophers. His cosmological triad of the divine world (`ālam al-malakūt), the celestial world (`ālam al-jabrūt), and the material, phenomenal world (`ālam al-mulk w-al-shahādah) runs closely parallel to that of Plotinus consisting of the universal mind, the universal soul, and matter. 10 Like Plotinus, he seems to vouchsafe that the human soul belongs to `ālam al-jabarūt, i.e., midway between the divine world and the material world, and so is neither purely eternal like the former nor merely temporal like the latter but partakes of them both.
Al-Ghazālī’s conception of the human soul, however, is essentially based on the teachings of the Qur’an and the Tradition. The interesting thing about this conception is that it runs parallel to his conception of God. Soul like God is a unity and like Him it is primarily and essentially a will. Further, as God is both transcendent to and immanent in the universe so is soul with reference to body. “Man is made in the image of God,” 11 is a saying of the Holy Prophet and it is twice stated in the Qur’an that “Allah breathed into man of His own spirit.” 12 The soul is a mirror illumined by the divine spark reflecting the qualities and even the essence of God. “Not only are man’s attributes,” says al-Ghazālī, “a reflection of God’s attributes but the mode of existence of man’s soul affords an insight into God’s mode of existence . . . .” Knowledge of the self is the key to the knowledge of God, for so is the oftquoted tradition: “He who knows himself knows his Lord.” “Both God and soul,” al-Ghazālī adds, “are invisible, indivisible, unconfined by space and time, and outside the categories of quantity and quality: nor can the ideas of shape, colour, or size attach to them . . . .”13
The soul of man is different from everything else in the sensuous world. There are two worlds: the world of command (amr) and the created world (khalq).14 Everything devoid of quantity and dimension belongs to the world of amr. Soul belongs to the world of amr also because it proceeds from the command of God: “Say, the spirit proceedeth at the command of my Lord”15 is God’s instruction to the Prophet. It is the world of amr that rules the created world; the command is the divine force which directs and regulates the world. Thus soul is a spiritual principle which having life in itself vitalizes the body and controls it and regulates it. Body is the instrument and vehicle of the soul. God is primarily a will and man is akin to God especially in respect of will. Volo ergo sum is the dictum on which al-Ghazālī builds his mystical {620} psychology and epistemology. The essential element of the soul is not thought which in the final analysis is based upon the bodily perceptions and the categories of thought but will which created them both for its own purposes. Man in himself has the infinite spiritual possibilities and it is through his will that he comes to realize them and thus brings himself close to the mind and will of God till God says: “O’ soul at rest! return to thy Lord, satisfied with Him, giving satisfaction unto Him. So enter among My servants and enter My garden.”16 This final encounter of the soul with God through the unfolding of its own spiritual possibilities and the realization of its inmost aspirations is attained by walking on a mystic Path, under the guidance of a Shaikh, and constitutes what is the very essence and acme of religious experience.
Religious Experience and Moral and Intellectual Values.-Whatever the essence or inner content of religious experience may be, it certainly is not a mere state of pure contemplation or knowledge as the philosophers proclaim it to be. It is a vital experience which must translate itself into good action. Religion without good works, according to al-Ghazālī, is a dead religion. The life of the true mystics is the best life and their character the purest character. “Were the intellect of the intellectuals and the learning of the learned and the scholarship of the scholars . . . brought together to improve the life and character of the mystics, they would find no way of doing so.”17 Indeed, the source from which the philosophers derive their ethical theories is the lives and teachings of these moral geniuses, i. e., the saints and the mystics. In the final analysis the mystics themselves are illumined by the light of the lamp of the prophetic revelation. But what if you were to doubt the prophethood of a prophet? So close is the relation between the inner religious life and the outer moral expression of it that you can move from one back to the other. The authenticity of a prophet can be attested by applying a moral test, that is, by making a close study of his conduct, by assessing the transformations which his creative will has wrought in human history and by evaluating the new socio-politico-legal system that he has introduced and established in a society. Of the truths of religion, we acquire not a theoretical but a moral certainty: the deed is more important than mere idea, the will is more ultimate than pure intellect.
Though the philosophers do not deny the importance of transforming truth values into moral values, ideas into deeds, so far as their theory of prophecy is concerned, yet in pursuance of the dominant Hellenic tradition they seem to hold that knowledge without consequent action has its own intrinsic value. Good deeds are preparatory to correct thinking. The ultimate perfection of the soul consists in God-like contemplation, in a state of pure knowledge which though not without joy is certainly without action. Al-Ghazālī strongly revolted against this extreme intellectualism of the {621} philosophers, yet he did not remain altogether unaffected by it. It is indeed futile to look for any lifeless consistency in his attitudes which make a happy synthesis of voluntarism, pragmatism, and idealism. He concedes, for example, that a prophet is a person endowed with extraordinary intellect which enables him to attain contact with the active intellect, the proximate source of prophetic revelation.18 Like the philosophers, he also affirms that perfection of the soul consists in knowledge, albeit intuitive knowledge; like them, he also shows predilections for knowledge for its own sake. “The ink of the scholar is better than the blood of the martyr.”19 It is certainly true so far as by knowledge we here understand knowledge of the religious sciences, but it is also in a sense true of all other sciences. Knowledge of the sciences dealing with things that God has made is regarded by al-Ghazālī as a necessary prelude to the knowledge of God Himself. The study of all branches of knowledge and taking the greatest share of most of them is a necessary part of the mystic discipline. “If the soul has not been exercised in the sciences dealing with fact and demonstration, it will acquire mental phantasms which will be mistaken by it to be truths descending upon it …. Many Sufis remain stuck for years in such figments of imagination, but they certainly would have been saved from these, had they first followed the path of scientific study and acquired by laborious learning as much of the demonstrative sciences as human power could encompass . . . .”20
It has almost become a fashion to label al-Ghazālī as an anti-intellectualist and to ascribe to him much of the backwardness of Muslim community ever since the sixth/twelfth century: its conservatism and its anti-liberalism.21 It is alleged that al-Ghazālī through his emphasis on fundamentalism and spiritualism initiated a movement in Muslim thought that killed all zest for philosophic inquiry and scientific reflection, if it did not outright create an antipathy for them. The anti-intellectualism or the anti-liberalism of the Muslim community is a highly complex sociological phenomenon and its causes shall have to be explored in a great many areas; it would be too much of an oversimplification of facts to ascribe it to a single name, however great that name may be. We have only to remember that al-Ghazālī never left philosophy altogether and that he himself was very well acquainted with the scientific knowledge of his day,22 most of which he accepted as true. The charge of the kind mentioned above may be made only with reference to some one {622} particular work but it cannot at all be justified if the whole course o£ his works is taken into consideration.
Considering, however, the number and complexity of the subjects with which his works deal, the various levels of readers for whom they were written and the fact of his own spiritual development, it is not always possible to reconcile his various views and attitudes and to defend him against all charges of inconsistency.23 One such difficulty arises when, after having considered his views about the nature of the soul and God, we come to formulate his position with regard to the relation between the two. Whether his conception of this relation makes an allowance for pantheism, is a question which has puzzled some students of al-Ghazālī.24
Pantheism.-Al-Ghazālī’s view of God as being both immanent and transcendent, his firm belief in God being a personal God who allows His creatures to enter into communion with Him, his emphasis on God’s being a creator who created the universe at a specific time through an act of volition, one and all, can hardly fit into any scheme of pantheism. The description of the mystic’s experience of God at the higher reaches of his ecstatic flights as identification (ittihad) or unification (wusūl) with God or inherence or indwelling (hulul) in Him, al-Ghazālī has expressly mentioned as false and erroneous.25 At beat the mystics can claim only a nearness to or proximity with God and no more. But it has been pointed out that in his doctrine of the soul he makes it resemble God so closely both in essence and qualities that there remains hardly any difference between the two. Al-Ghazālī is aware of this dangerous deduction and asserts most emphatically that there is one special quality (akhassu wasfihi) . which belongs to God alone and of which none else partakes and that is the quality of self-subsistence. God is self-. subsistent (qayyūm)26 while everything else exists through Him and not through its own essence. “Nay, things through their own essence have nothing {623} but non-existence, and existence comes to them only from something else, by way of a loan.” But surely there is the lurking danger of pantheism in such a statement if it is stretched to its logical limits. If the contingency of the world should be over-emphasized, it becomes nothing more than a show of shadows having no reality or actuality of its own whatsoever. All actuality is devoured by the being of God. This conclusion is confirmed by al-Ghazālī’s own approval of the pantheistic formula: la huwa illa huwa (there is no it but He) to which may be added his statement: “He is everything: He is that He is: none but He has ipseity or heity at all.”27 To this may be added that al-Ghazālī has taken a very lenient view of some of the obviously pantheistic utterances of the Sufis of extreme type such as “I am the Creative Truth;”28 “Glory be to Me! How great is My glory”; “Within this robe is naught but Allah,”29 etc. Statements of this kind clearly indicate a sense of complete self-deification. But al-Ghazālī has no word of condemnation for them except the comment that “the words of passionate lovers in the state of ecstasy should be concealed and not spoken of.” True, the statements of this kind should not be taken strictly philosophically but only as emotive expressions indicative of a deep inner experience which has many phases and aspects and a language and a logic of its own. But then al-Ghazālī seems to forget sometimes the advice he has so strongly given to those who have attained the mystic state that they should not try to speak the unspeakable and follow the poet who said:
“What I experience I shall not try to say;
Call me happy, but ask me no more.”30
written by Saeed Sheikh, M. A., Professor of Philosophy, Government College, Lahor (Pakistan)
Al-Ghazālī is the best known Muslim writer on moral subjects. But there are some critics31 who have recently made attempts to belittle the importance of his ethical theory by trying to show that it is entirely, or at least mainly, derived from the Aristotelian and Neo-Platonic doctrines and from the writings of the Muslim philosophers whose systems were Hellenic in spirit. Al-Ghazālī was, undoubtedly, a widely read scholar and was, therefore, well versed in the ethical thought of the Greeks, which did influence him. But it would be basically wrong to say that he was dependent on Greek philosophy for his {624} inspiration. He was, in fact, against the philosophers and their heretical doctrines. Throughout his writings, al-Ghazālī takes his stand upon Islamic teachings and invariably quotes from the Qur’an and the traditions in support of his views. Following the Qur’an, for example, he lays emphasis on spiritual values like gratitude (shukr), repentance (taubah), reliance (tawakkul), fear (khauf) of God, etc., which were completely unknown to the Greeks. Similarly, al-Ghazālī is thoroughly Islamic in taking the perfect human representation of the moral ideal in the Prophet of Islam (peace be on him), whom God Himself testifies to have the highest character.32 Further, we can legitimately say that the notion of the love of God as the summum bonum, leading directly to the beatific vision in the next world, has nothing like it in Greek philosophy. This is undeniably based upon the Qur’anic teachings. All these assertions will become clearer as we proceed with the detailed discussion.
Asceticism is the spirit that runs throughout al-Ghazālī ethics. He does not deal with the heroic virtues like courage, etc., in detail, and lays greater emphasis on the purification of the heart after one has severed all ties with this world, at least in spirit. He says: “The experienced guide and teacher should bring home to the disciple that he should root out anger and keep no wealth . . . otherwise if he gets the slightest hint that both wealth and selfassertion are good and necessary in a certain measure, he will get an excuse for avarice and self-assertion, and to whatever limits he goes he will imagine that he is permitted as far as that. So he ought to be told to eradicate these tendencies.”33 Again, in Minhaj al-Abidin, al-Ghazālī differentiates between two kinds of virtues: positive, i.e., good actions; and negative, i.e., the abandonment of bad ones. The negative side is better and more excellent. To elucidate this point further, he discusses the question in Ihyāwhether marriage or celibacy is better. After counting the advantages and the disadvantages of both, he ultimately tends to the conclusion that celibacy is better. One may marry, he grants, provided one is at the same time like the unmarried, i. e., lives always in the presence of God. All this has a colouring of otherworldliness.
Avoidance of the world is, however, not put forward as an end-in-itself. It has been over-emphasized by al-Ghazālī simply to counteract the tendencies to vice, luxury, and pride, which were so common in his days. The curbing or controlling of passions has been stressed merely to achieve moderation; otherwise he fully knows the psychology of human nature. He is quite aware of the social spirit of the Qur’an and of the Prophet’s teaching that there is no asceticism in Islam.34 Accordingly, al-Ghazālī does sometimes lay emphasis on our duties and obligations to other individuals and to society as a whole. Jihād has been mentioned as a necessary obligatory duty; even prayers have to be sacrificed, if need be, during a war. In the chapter on “Renunciation {625} of the World,” in the Ihyā’ he warns against its evils and holds that renunciation is a grievous sin if a man has dependants who need his support. He defends music by saying that “gaiety and sport refresh and cheer the heart and bring relief to the tired mind. . ., rest prepares a man for work, and sport and gaiety for grave and serious pursuits.”35 Further, among virtues, he includes good appearance (husn al-hai’ah) with adornment which is sensible and has no tinge of ostentation in it. Similarly, there are the virtues of self-respect, dignity, etc., which point to a man’s relation with other individuals and presuppose a social set-up.
Before discussing al-Ghazālī’s theory of ethics we may consider the problem which forms the basis of all ethical systems, viz., the problem of the freedom of the will. The fact that man can change from the state of the insinuating self (al-nafs al-ammārah) to the state of the self at peace (al-nafs at-mutma’innah) through a good deal of conscious struggle and deliberate effort necessarily suggests that he is free in his will. The Mu’tazilites had taught that the freedom of the will is an a priori certainty, that man possesses power (qudrah) over his actions and is their real author. The Ash’arites, who represented the orthodox reaction, however, held that “Man cannot create anything. God is the only creator. Nor does man’s power produce any effect on his action at all. God creates in His creature power (qudrah) and choice (ikhtiyar). He then creates in him action corresponding to the power and choice thus created. So the action of the creature is created by God as to initiative and as to production, but it is acquired by the creature. By acquisition (kasb) is meant that it corresponds to the creature’s power and choice previously created in him, without his having had the slightest effect on the action.”36 This position comes very close to the “pre-established harmony” of Leibniz. It, thus, gives us at the most only a consciousness of freedom, and not freedom in the real sense of the term.
Over this question al-Ghazālī finds himself on the horns of a dilemma. On the one hand, God is represented as the disposer of everything. He is the unmoved mover of the material world and the only efficient cause of all creation. Whatever happens in the heavens or on the earth happens according to a necessary system and a predetermined plan. Not even a leaf can move without His decree; His law is supreme everywhere. “Whomsoever God wishes to guide, He expands his breast to Islam; but whomsoever He wishes to lead astray He makes his breast tight and strait.”37 And, on the other hand, man is shown to be responsible for his actions and for deserving place either in hell or in heaven. This implies complete moral freedom. Al-Ghazālī seeks to reconcile both these tendencies on the basis of an analysis of the human mind. The heart or the soul of man, according to him, is furnished with two kinds of impressions. Either there are sensations {626} through which one gets the sensible qualities of the outside world, or there is reflection or internal sense which supplies the mind with its own operations. These impressions, which al-Ghazālī calls khwatir (Locke would call them “simple ideas” and James Ward would term them “presentations”), are, according to him, the spring and fountain-head of all activity. Whatever the heart intends, resolves, etc., must come to it as knowledge in the form of such impressions. These impressions or ideas have an inherent tendency to express themselves in overt movements. They have a motive part of their own and are capable of exciting a strong impulse or inclination (raghbah) in the first instance. This inclination must, if the action is to take place, be followed by decision or conviction (i’tiqād). (These three stages correspond pretty closely to what psychologists call respectively appetite, desire, and wish.) Conviction, in turn, is followed by resolution or the will to act (irādah). Will excites power and then the action comes.
The first two stages of this process, viz., impression and inclination, are recognized to be beyond man’s complete control; if an individual merely thinks intently of falling forward, swaying forward begins. So “the conclusion would be that, while the occurrence of a strong desire or inclination may come without man’s responsibility, his reason is free to make a decision and his will is free to accept the decision of reason as good and to implement the corresponding action. In such a case, man would be free to do what he desires, but the complete control of his desire would be beyond his power.”38 Thus, al-Ghazālī tries to reconcile the positions of the determinists and the indeterminists.
In fact, al-Ghazālī recognizes three stages of being. The lowest is the material world where the absolute necessity of God’s will is all in all. Second is the stage of the sensuous and the psychical world where a relative sort of freedom is recognized. Lastly comes God who is absolutely free. But His freedom is not like that of a man who arrives at decisions after hesitation and deliberation over different alternatives. This is impossible in the case of God. “To speak of choice between alternatives is to suggest that other than the best might be chosen and this would be inconsistent with the idea of perfection.”39
Thus, having established human freedom and responsibility and having justified his discussion of ethical questions, al-Ghazālī goes on to present before us his notion of the moral ideal and the means that are to be adopted for its realization. The path is long and difficult and needs a great deal of patience and perseverance on the part of the seeker. Slowly and steadily, by leading a virtuous life, he has to take his soul towards perfection so that it might be able to attain the knowledge of God and consequently divine love, which is the summum bonum or the Highest Good in this world. This will lead to the beatific vision in the world to come. It should, however, be remembered {627} that man cannot move a single step forward without the help of God. He is guided throughout by the gift of God (taufiq). Taufiq manifests itself in various forms:
1. Guidance from God (hidāyah) is the very condition of all virtues. It stands for the telling of the moral from the immoral, the good from the bad and the right from the wrong. Unless these distinctions are clearly seen, we cannot be supposed to do any good action or avoid evil.
2. Direction (rushd). Mere knowledge of good actions might be necessary but is not sufficient for their performance. We should also have the will to do them. This is “direction.”
3. Setting aright (tasdid). It is the power from God which makes the body obey the will in order to realize the end.
4. Confirmation (la’ad). It makes circumstances congenial for the actualization of the will.
Helped by God in this way the individual proceeds to exercise virtues which gradually raise the heart higher and higher up towards the ideal.
Before taking up this enterprise, however, the soul or the heart is to be subjected to a thorough surgical operation and cleansed of all impurities. “He will indeed be successful who purifies it and he will fail who corrupts it.”40 It is only when the heart has thus been freed of its fetters and the veils of darkness and ignorance have been rent asunder that anything positive can be attempted. Al-Ghazālī explains it by an allegory. Once the Chinese and the Greeks held a contest on the art of drawing and painting. One part of a big room was given to the Chinese and the other to the Greeks. In between was hung a curtain so that they might not see the work of each other. The Greeks decorated the wall with many rare colours, but the Chinese proceeded to brighten their side and polish it. When the curtain was raised, the beautiful art of the former was reflected on the latter’s wall in its original beauty and charm. Such is the way of the saints who strive for the purification of their heart to make it worthy of the knowledge of God Most High. But what are these impurities and what are they due to? What is that which darkens and casts gloom upon the soul of man? Al-Ghazālī’s answer is: love of the worldthe root from which all the multifarious sins and vices spring. The pious people avoid it and seek loneliness. “Be in the world as if you are a stranger or journeying upon the road.” 41 On seeing a dead goat, the Prophet of Islam (peace be on him) is reported to have said, “The world has lesser value in the eyes of God than this goat has for its owner.”
Let us now discuss briefly al-Ghazālī ‘s enumeration of the main kinds of vices that result from the love of the world, the removal of which from the heart is incumbent upon us. {628}
First, there are those vices which are connected with a particular part of the body. Hunger is one of them. It is, no doubt, a very important biological function and, thus, indispensable for the preservation of life. But when it transgresses its limits and becomes gluttony, it is the cause of immense evil and disturbance. “Eat and drink,” says God, “but be not prodigal. Verily He loves not the prodigal.” 42 Over?eating dulls the intellect and weakens the memory. It also causes too much sleep which, besides being a wastage of time, slackens the mind; the light of wisdom is dimmed and one becomes unable to differentiate good from evil. 43 Further, the glutton forgets what need and hunger arc. Gradually, he becomes oblivious of, and unsympathetic to, the poor and those who have really nothing to eat. So one should eat only as much as is barely sufficient to sustain oneself, out of what one has earned honestly. 44
The second group of vices belonging to this category are those arising out of the sex instinct. This instinct is supposed to be the most powerful in man, 45 and so are its distractions from the right path. The sex appetite must always be directed, controlled, and managed by reason and should not be allowed to run wild: adultery is a moral and social as well as religious evil. Further, says al-Ghazālī, the seeker after the ideal should not marry in the earlier stages of his search, for the wife and children may prove a hindrance. But if, in spite of wilful determination, he is not able to control himself’, he may marry and then perform all his duties as a husband.
Lastly, we come to the vices of speech, which are many. Talkativeness, using indecent words, ridiculing, abusing, cursing, etc., belong to this kind. Similarly, lying is also a heinous sin: “A painful doom is theirs because they lie.” 46 Lying, however, loses its immoral sting in special circumstances when the end in view is good. We can, for instance, legitimately make use of it as a war tactic. “War is deception itself,” 47 goes the tradition. Slandering and talebearing are also very prominent vices of speech. “Don’t backbite one another,” 48 says God. Similarly, we have been prohibited from making false promises because it is the characteristic of hypocrites (munāfiqun). 49
Next, there are vices arising out of self?assertion. When working in its proper limits, this instinct is, no doubt, natural. But the lack or excess of it makes it an evil. A person who has no self?assertion has no self?respect. He is disgracefully meek and silent and dare not make his personality felt. Excessive self?assertion, on the other hand, degenerates into vices like anger (ghadab), malice (hiqd), pride (kibr), and vanity (`ujb). Man is roused to
{629} anger when some desire of his is not fulfilled, when another person possesses the thing which, he thinks, should rightfully belong to him. When not gratified, anger often turns into malice, which consists in the desire that the desired thing should be lost to the possessor also. It is a feeling of pain at another’s good. Sometimes, however, there is no feeling of pain but simply a strong desire that one should also possess a thing like the one the other has. This is known as emulation (ghibtah) and is not undesirable. We can overcome the vices of excessive self-assertion by forbearance, mildness, forgiveness, humility, etc.
Anger, malice, and emulation are aroused when man is not in possession of the objects of his desire. Pride and vanity, on the contrary, occur when he has secured such objects. Vanity is a sense of self-admiration. The individual regards his possessions as great, has no fear of losing them, and forgets that they are merely gifts of God. If he is vain about his intellect, wisdom, and opinion, all development in knowledge ceases and all progress is congealed. A proud man, on the other hand, actively compares himself with others, is rightly or wrongly aware of some religious or worldly perfection in himself, and feels elated and raised above them. He looks down upon them and expects respect from them as a superior. Learned men, worshippers, and devotees are very much prone to this evil. The cure of pride lies in recognizing God and one’s own self. By this he would come to know that pride becomes God and greatness belongs to Him alone. Further, he should remember his humble beginnings and recognize the filthy stuff he is made of. Let him consider the origin and end of his forefathers and of the proud persons like Pharaoh and Nimrud who tried to equal God Almighty. Let him consider also that beauty, wealth, and friendship are all transitory and unreliable.
To the third category of vices belong the love of wealth (hubb al-mal) and of position (hubb al-jah), hypocrisy (riya’), and willful self-deception (ghurur). Wealth in itself, however, is not bad. It is the use of it that makes it so. Wealth can be spent on the poor and the needy to alleviate their sufferings, but can also lead directly to sins or can supply means for them. Those who love money often forget God and He, in turn, prepares and reserves for them a painful doom.50 Love of wealth may lead to avarice: the more one has, the more one desires. It can also lead to miserliness, which means not spending even where one is duty-bound to spend. The cure of all these evils is to give away all that is superfluous and keep only as much as is essential for supporting life and getting peace of mind. We must further be convinced in our hearts that wealth, like shadows, is a transitory affair and that God is sufficient for us and our children. We should hasten to spend when occasion demands, setting aside the checks and hesitations arising within.
Love of position means the desire to win and dominate the hearts of others. It is generally gained by creating in others a conviction that one possesses {630} the so-called qualities of perfection such as beauty, strength, ancestory. Real perfection, however, lies in knowledge and freedom: knowledge of God and spiritual values, and freedom from the vices and the rebellious nature of passions. Just as wealth is allowed if used as a means for some good, so may we win the admiration of those whose help is necessary to realize the ideal. But if position is sought for its own sake, it is a vice and should be eradicated. One must impress upon oneself that position is not everlasting and that death is a leveller. One should also know that a prominent person creates enemies very easily.
The lover of position generally falls into hypocrisy and tries to deceive people that he possesses something which actually he does not. An individual, for example, may pretend to be a pious man by a thin, lean, neglected body, long prayers, virtuous and humble talk, and so on. In religious matters, hypocrisy has been condemned very much by both the Qur’an and the Sunnah. This deadly disease must be cured, otherwise all the so-called virtuous actions, the inner spiritual basis being absent, will be entirely useless and unacceptable to God. One must perform all good actions, including the religious observances and acts of worship, in secret. We may perform them in the open if our sincere intention is that others may also be persuaded thereby to do the same. Love of position also gives rise to self-deception. The individual is convinced that he has something which he really does not have. Four classes of people among the believers are, according to al-Ghazālī, very likely to involve themselves in this evil. They are, for example, such religious, devotees as do not have the real sense of values. They do not realize what is more important and what is less important and, by performing the latter, they assume themselves to be exempt from the former. For instance, they take greater care in the correct pronunciation of the words of the Qur’an than in understanding their true meanings. Instead of helping a hungry neighbour, they would go on pilgrimage to Mecca. Some dress themselves poorly and meekly and think they have become saints thereby. All these persons are deceiving themselves as to the true nature of things. Similar is the case with the Sufis. Some of them learn only the terminology of the real Sufis and think they are likewise able to see God. Some are always wondering about the power and majesty of God and do nothing more. Some do actually try to cleanse the heart and perform good actions but wrongly think that they have passed most of the stages and are the true lovers of God. Again, there are some who make a distinction between Shari’ah and tarīqah and regard themselves above Shari’ah. They give up the performance of obligatory duties and religious observances. The same is the case with the learned and the rich, who are generally involved in one kind of self-delusion or another.
Thus, we end the brief and synoptic survey of al-Ghazālī’s account of the main vices of character. Now we turn to virtues, which are the redeeming qualities (al-munjiyāt) and represent the positive efforts of the seeker towards God. Al-Ghazālī has given us a detailed, interesting, and illuminating {631} discussion on this topic in the fourth quarter of his “Revivification of Religious Sciences.” The virtues that, speaking chronologically, come first are repentance, abstinence, poverty, and patience. Repentance belongs to the purgative period of life which is an indispensable prerequisite for the higher stages. It means abandoning the sins of which man is conscious and resolving never to return to them. It is a sort of spiritual conversion. “Those who repent and believe and do righteous work, for such Allah will change their evil deeds to good deeds.”51 The penitent knows that his heart has been shrouded in the mist and darkness of sins, feels contrition and shame, and abandons them for ever. Love of the world, which is the root of all vices, has, however, to be removed first; the passions have to be subjected to a strict control and the devil within has to be turned out. But, certainly, we do not give up the world for nothing. We do get something in return: “… the ascetic who renounces what is sensual and material knows that what is abandoned is of small value in relation to what is gained, just as the merchant knows that what he receives in exchange is better than what is sold, otherwise he would not sell.”52 Al-Ghazālī compares the ascetic with a person who is prevented from entering into the palace by a dog at the gate. He throws a morsel towards it and thus, by distracting its attention, enters and gets his desires from the king. The dog is like Satan, who prevents him from going towards God, and the morsel of bread is like the world by the sacrifice of which we can get something better.
This brings us to the virtue of abstinence (zuhd). Repentance is simply turning away from something, whereas abstihence includes turning away from as well as towards something better and more excellent. As a term in Sufistic literature, it signifies severing the heart’s attachment from all worldly things, purging it of the rubbish. and then adorning it with the love of God. Abstinence can, in fact, have three grades. We might be inspired and motivated by the love of God itself, by the hope of reward, or by the fear of punishment. The highest grade is the love of God which makes us sacrifice all considerations of heaven and hell for the sake of God. This is absolute abstinence (zuhd al-mutlaq). We are reminded here of the fable of a saint who was carrying in one hand a flame and in the other a glass of water with the alleged purpose of burning heaven with the one and quenching the fire of hell with the other, so that everyone acts sincerely to attain nearness to God.
The individual who renounces the world is a poor man (faqīr) in the terminology of al-Ghazālī and, in fact, of all mystics. So poverty is to be wilfully cultivated. The faqars are of various kinds: the abstinent (zahid), who is pained when wealth comes to him; the satisfied (radi), who is neither pleased at the possession of wealth nor pained at its loss, and when it comes to him he does not positively hate it; the contented (qani’), who wants to {632} get wealth but does not actively pursue this desire; the greedy (hares), who has a very strong desire to get property but is somehow or other unable to do so; the constrained (mudtar), who, being in a state of want such as starvation or nakedness, is ill at ease and in consternation. The first of these, i.e., one in the state of being a zahid, is the best. The zahid is the one who, being busy in enjoying the love of God, is indifferent to all worldly losses and gains.
All the virtues considered above-repentance, abstinence, poverty-demand an immense amount of courage and steadfastness. They are not possible to attain without unswerving passion, which is doubly more difficult to cultivate, impatience being in the very nature of man.53 It, however, does not mean toleration of things that are illegal and against religion. If a man wrongs us, we may pay him back in the same coin; if he strikes us, we can strike him too (though forgiveness is also commendable). Patience in the real sense of the term has three grades: patience in performing a religious duty, patience in avoiding actions prohibited by God, and patience over sufferings and difficulties in the arduous path towards Him. The last grade is the noblest.
Gratitude (shukr) too is a necessary virtue and also so difficult that only a few can exercise it.54 It is, according to al-Ghazālī, complementary to patience: he who eats until he is satisfied and is thankful is in the same station as he who fasts and is patient. Further, gratitude is based upon man’s knowledge that all that comes to him comes from God and upon the feeling of joy over it. If one is pleased with the gift only, without any reference to the Giver, it is no gratitude: “Gratitude is the vision of the Giver, not the gift.” Secondly, we may be pleased with the Giver over a gift because it is a sign of His pleasure. This is gratitude, no doubt, but of a low variety. The highest stage is reached when we are pleased with the Giver and determine to use His gift in order to attain greater.and greater nearness to Him. “If ye give thanks,” says God, “I shall give you more, but if ye are thankless, My punishment is dire.”55
After repentance from sin and successful renunciation of the world, the individual directs his attention towards his own self with a view to making it submissive and obedient to the will of God. The process has various steps and stages: assigning the task to the self (musharatah); watching over the self (muraqabah), taking critical account of the self (muhasabah), punishing the self (mu’āqabah), exerting the self (mujāhadah), and upbraiding the self (mu’atabah). The whole affair which results in self-mastery is so difficult that it has been called the bigger jihād (al-jihād at-akbar), while the physical fighting against the enemies of Islam is the smaller jihād (al-jihād at-asgr). We have constantly to keep a vigilant eye on our thoughts and actions and check ourselves at every step. We have to convince our hearts of the {633} omnipresence of God and His omniscience: that God knows even what lies hidden in the innermost depths of our being. Such a conviction creates in the soul an all-pervading reverence for God. Single-mindedness (ikhlas) is the fruit of the self thoroughly mastered and trained. A fashioned soul has only one motive force, and that is the desire for nearness to God; the lesser purposes are weeded out.
Single-mindedness leads to the virtue of truthfulness (sidq). Truthfulness is there in words, intentions, and actions. Truthfulness in words consists in making a statement which is unequivocal and clear and is not aimed at deceiving others. We can, however, in some cases make ambiguous and false statements if thereby we are aiming at the betterment of society. Such special cases may be war tactics, restoration of happy relations between husband and wife, amity among Muslims, and so on. Further, our intention must be rightful and true. The right direction of intention is very important because actions are judged only by intentions56 : if our intention is good and the result incidentally turns out to be bad, we are not to blame; conversely, if our intention is evil, we are culpable whatever its outcome. Lastly, truthfulness in actions lies in the fact that the inward state of a person is literally translated into outward behaviour without any tinge of hypocrisy. The highest truthfulness which is at the same time most difficult to attain is the complete realization of the various attitudes of the soul towards God, e.g., trust, hope, love, etc.57
Fear (khauf) and hope (raja’) also mark stages in moral progress. Fear may be of the wrath and the awe-inspiring attributes of God, or it may be produced in man by the consciousness of his guilt and the apprehension of divine displeasure. A nobler kind of fear is aroused by the feeling of separation from God who is the ultimate goal of all our aspirations. Hope, on the other hand, is a pleasant tendency. It consists in the expectation, after the individual has tried his best, of the divine love in the world and of the beatific vision in the hereafter. Fear is the result of knowledge-the knowledge of our infirmity as compared with the supremacy of our ideal: hope is the result of assured faith in the loving kindness of our Lord in acceding to our requests and prayers. It lies at a higher plane because it strengthens love and enables man to realize the goal.
The highest virtue, according to al-Ghazālī, is reliance (tawakkul), which is based on the knowledge of God’s oneness or unification (tauhid). Those who profess belief in unification may be classified into three groups: those, including hypocrites, who confess the unity with the tongue only; those who believe on the basis of some so-called reliable authority; and those who, on the evidence of their direct, intuitive perception, believe that God is the unmoved mover of the material world and the ultimate cause of all creation and that He alone has real or absolute existence. The last stage is the highest. It signifies “that the servant can abandon himself to God in complete trust and merge his will {634} in the divine will. The servant no longer finds his own powers and personality to be self-sufficient and has allowed God to dominate his life . . . he considers himself as a dead body moved by the divine decree and is content that the divine strength should replace his own human weakness.”58 Reliance, therefore, is the casting of the soul into self-surrender and the withdrawal of it from self-assertion.
The moral soldier who is sincerely set upon his task must also form the habit of meditation and reflection. He has to reflect on the works of God, on the alternation of day and night, on the waxing and waning of the moon, on the rise and fall of nations, and on the general management of this cosmological scheme. For that purpose seclusion away from the active hustle and bustle of society is very necessary. A heart preoccupied with worldly things has no place for the knowledge of God. The true significance of meditation is a firm conviction in the omnipresence of God, which results from the realization that He is aware of what we do under cover of darkness and of what lies buried in the innermost depths of our heart. Further, from meditation and reflection the soul is led on to contemplation, which is of three kinds:
• (i) contemplation bi al-haqq, e., the seeing of things pointing towards divine unity;
• (ii) contemplation li al-haqq; e., seeing signs of the Creator in created things; and, finally,
• (iii) the contemplation of God Himself. This form of contemplation surely and undeniably leads to His love, the final aim of all moral endeavour.
The last stage of contemplation and the love of God are not, however, the results of, but are simply occasioned by, our concentration and thinking. There is nothing like a causal necessity here. The sacred knowledge is direct and, immediate -and is due to God only. The Sufi has the impression that something has dropped upon him “as gentle rain from heaven,” a gift of God due to His grace and mercy.
The highest contemplation is the valence of love, absorption of all human attributes in the vision of God, and then annihilation in the everlastingness of God. But why in the first instance should mere contemplation lead to His love? In answer, al-Ghazālī explains at length how God is the ultimate and absolute source of all the causes because of which objects are loved. The sentiment of love is, broadly speaking, of four kinds:
1. Self-love. An egoistic tendency is ingrained in the very nature of man. Instincts and the so-called organic needs point towards that fact. Our soul, life, or the pure ego is, certainly, the dearest to us, but beyond that we also love what William James would call our material and social selves.
2. Love of a benefactor for the benefits received from him. This is also a sort of self-love, though an indirect one. We love others because they promote our own cause in one way or another. We love the physician because he looks after our health and the engineer because he beautifies our material environments and, thus, makes our lives comfortable and happy. {635}
3. Love of beauty. Beauty has almost universally been recognized as a thing of intrinsic value. It means the orderly and systematic arrangement of parts, and this is not the quality of material things only; it lies in the activities and the behaviour of man and in his ideas and concepts. Whatever is beautiful is loved by us for its own sake.
4. Love due to the harmonious interaction and secret affinity between two souls. A thief loves a thief and a noble person loves a noble friend.
Now, if love exists for all these separate causes, will not that individual be loved who holds all these in their supreme and perfect form ? Such an individual is God Himself, the possessor of the most lovable qualities. It is to Him that we owe our very existence. He is the only real benefactor and from Him all benefits are received. If we get something from a human being, it really comes from God. Had He willed otherwise, we would not have been able to get it. Thirdly, God also possesses the attributes of beauty. There is beauty in His design and in His creative behaviour. “God is beautiful and loves beauty,” 59 said the Holy Prophet. Lastly, the human soul has affinity with its divine source: God has created man after His own image. So once we know God with all these attributes and also know where we stand in relation to Him, our love for Him becomes a necessity. And then He loves us too. “Verily Allah loves the repentant and those who purify themselves.” 60
But the lover who claims to love the Most Lovable must show some signs. The first sign, according to al-Ghazālī, is that the lover has no fear of death, for it means meeting the Beloved face to face and having a direct vision of Him. This world is a hindrance and a barrier which obstructs the lover’s path. The sooner it is done away with, the better. Another mark of the true lover is that the remembrance of God ever remains fresh in his heart. Once the fire of love is kindled, it cannot be extinguished. It remains ever ablaze and the flames go on rising higher and higher. The lover, in fact, feels happy in this condition. That is why he often seeks undisturbed loneliness to brighten these flames by contemplation and onesided thought. Further, the lover sacrifices his will for that of the Beloved. His likes and dislikes, his behaviour and his ways of life are entirely directed and controlled by God. Lastly, the intensity of love for God demands that we should love all His activities. So also we should love our fellow-men for they are all His servants and creatures.
Love includes longing (shauq), for every lover pines to see the beloved when absent. The lover of God craves for the vision of God which would be the noblest grace and the highest delight held out to him. Again, love results in affability (uns), which, according to al-Ghazālī, is one of the most glorious fruits of love and signifies the feeling of pleasure and delight consequent upon God’s nearness and the perception of His beauty and perfection. Thirdly, successful love means satisfaction (ridā’). This includes the satisfaction of {636} God with men and the satisfaction of men with Him. “God is satisfied with them and they with God.”61 This is the stage of the tranquil soul (al-nafs al-mutma’innah). “O tranquil soul!” God will say, “return to thy Lord wellpleased (with Him) and well-pleasing (Him), so enter among My servants and enter into My garden.”62
Now, because love is consequent upon the knowledge and contemplation of God, the lover is the gnostic (`ārif). Gnosis (ma’rifah), however, is a gem, a precious thing which is not to be wasted: the sun which enlightens the heart of the gnostic, says al-Ghazālī, is more radiant than our physical sun; for that sun sets and may be eclipsed, but the sun of gnosis knows no eclipse nor does it set. It is an invaluable gift to be given only to those who deserve it and to be given more or less according to the degree of self-mortification to which they attain. The limited human mind is not capable of grasping the entire expanse of divine majesty. The more one knows of God, the more one loves Him. The height of contemplation is reached when plurality passes away entirely, when there is complete cessation of conscious perception of things other than the Beloved, and the individual sees God everywhere. It was in this state that one said, “I am the Truth”; and another, “Glory be to Me! How great is My majesty”; and another, “Under this robe is naught but God.” This is the state of absolute unicity and identity.
The gnostic and the lover of God in this world will see God in the next world. The Mu’tazilites had denied the beatific vision because it involved a directing of the eyes on the part of the seer and the position on the part of the seen. They said that because God is beyond space, the question of limiting Him to a particular place and direction does not arise. But al-Ghazālī meets their objection by saying that this vision, like meditation, will not have any references to the eye or any other sense-organ. It will be without their mediation. Similarly, just as the conception of God is free from the implication of spatial and temporal characteristics, so will the. vision of Him be beyond all such limitations and boundaries.
Written by Abdul Khaliq, M. A. Professor of Philosophy, Islamia College, Lahore (Pakistan)
Al-Ghazālī’s influence within Islam has been both profound and most widespread: his works have been and still are being read and studied from West Africa to Oceania more than those of any other Muslim writer, and his teaching has been accepted and made a rule of life more than that of any other theologian. It has been claimed and rightly so that “al-Ghazālī’s influence, taken singly, on the Muslim community has been perhaps greater than that of all the scholastic theologians.” {637} But we hasten to add that, like any other original thinker in the world, al-Ghazālī did not go without his share of criticism. The unprecedented attempt on his part to make orthodoxy mystical and mysticism orthodox, and both philosophical, naturally incurred suspicion and criticism from all schools of thought and all shades of opinion both before and after his death. Liberals have criticized him for his conservatism, and conservatives for his liberalism; philosophers for his orthodoxy, and the orthodox for his philosophy.
Al-Ghazālī’s. constant use of philosophical language and his mode of argument and preoccupation with Sufism led Tartushi (d. 520/1126), al-Mazari (d. 536/1141), ibn Jauzi (d. 597/1200), ibn al-Salah (d. 643/1245), ibn Taimīyyah (d. 728/1328), ibn Qayyim (d. 751/1350) and other famous theologians of the orthodox school to denounce him publicly as “one of the misguided.” Ibn Jauzi is reported to have once exclaimed: “How cheaply has al-Ghazālī traded theology for Sufism!”63 Ibn Taimiyyah, on the other hand has accused him of having traded “theology” for philosophy. Qadi abu `Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Hamdin of Cordova went so far as to issue a decree (fatwa) against al-Ghazālī’s works, with the result that all his books including the Ihyā’ 64 were burnt and destroyed throughout Spain and the possession of them was forbidden on the threat of confiscation of property or even on that of death. The destruction of his philosophical and even theological writings was also ordered in North Africa during the reign of the Marrakush Sultan ‘Ali ibn Yusuf ibn Tashifin (477/1084-537/1142), who was fanatically orthodox in his religious views. Both of these incidents, however, bear ample testimony to the fact that al-Ghazālī’s writings had gained a very wide circulation in the Muslim West even as early as that.
Amongst the philosophers, al-Ghazālī’s most renowned and bitterest critic was ibn Rushd (520/1126-595/1198). He took up a point-by-point refutation of al-Ghazālī’s arguments against the philosophers as given in the Tahāfut and named his own work Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (576/1180). Ibn Rushd’s defence of the philosophers is as subtle and vigorous as is al-Ghazālī’s attack against them. Ibn Rushd indeed handles his arguments with accomplished understanding and ingenious skill, yet, in the considered opinion of those who are competent to judge, al-Ghazālī’s arguments are in the final analysis more telling than those of his adversary.65 Ibn Rushd in the course of his discussion accuses al-Ghazālī of hypocrisy and insincerity by saying that his polemics against the philosophers was merely to win the favour of the orthodox;66 there is nothing to substantiate this charge. He also accused al-Ghazālī of {638} inconsistencies in his thought. He alleges, for example, that in the Mishkāt al-Anwār al-Ghazālī lends wholehearted support to the theory of emanation which he had so vehemently criticised in the Tahāfut.67 Al-Ghazālī’s teaching, according to him, is sometimes detrimental to religion and sometimes to philosophy and sometimes to both. It is said, on the report of ibn Taimiyyah, that ibn Rushd was so struck by the duplicity of al-Ghazālī’s thought that he would often quote the following verse with reference to him. “One day you area Yemenite when you meet a man from Yemen. But when you see someone from Ma’add you assert you are from `Adnān!”68
The charge of inconsistency against al-Ghazālī has also been made by another Muslim philosopher, namely ibn Tufail (d. 501/1185), who says that in his works meant for general readers al-Ghazālī is “bound in one place and loose in another and has denied certain things and then declared them to be true.” In spite of his pointing out certain contradictions in al-Ghazālī’s works, ibn Tufail had on the whole great admiration69 for his teaching, and the influence of it can be seen in his own greatly admired philosophical romance Hayy Bin Yaqzān.
Indeed, the amount of criticism levelled against al-Ghazālī 70 is itself the proof of his widespread influence. The number of al-Ghazālī’s followers and admirers who accepted his teaching and spread it is immensely greater than that of his critics; it is neither possible nor useful here to give a long catalogue of names. One fact, however, becomes conspicuous that it includes mostly people of two types, namely, the orthodox theologians and the Sufis, or those who were equally qualified as both. This makes it clear that the influence of al-Ghazālī within Islam expressed itself simultaneously in two different traditions, i. e., those of mysticism and orthodoxy, and, thus, along with the other forces of history went a long way in determining the permanent attitudes in the religious consciousness of the Islamic community, namely, the attitudes of spiritualization and fundamentalism.
Of all the works of al-Ghazālī it is in his Ihyā’ that he tries to maintain an equidistant poise between these two aspects of the religious consciousness. Ihyā’ indeed is still the most widely read of all the works of al-Ghazālī in all {639} sections of the community, if not in its entirety at least in the form of fragments and summaries which are available in large numbers.71 It has been so eulogized by some that they have not hesitated to call it the second Qur’an, and the theologians and traditionalists have not tired of writing voluminous commentaries on it.
But it is not within Islam only that al-Ghazālī’s influence exerted itself so strongly; it also had its impact on Western, particularly Jewish and Christian, thought, and indeed has flowed right into the most modern of our philosophical traditions. The influence of al-Ghazālī on modern European philosophy is a fascinating subject. It will be dealt with in the next volume in the chapter on “The Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West.”
So far the best sources for a bibliography on al-Ghazālī are Sayyid Murtada, Ittihaf al-Sadah, Cairo, 1311/1893, Vol. I, pp. 41-44; Carl Broekelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, Weimar, 1898, Vol. I, pp. 419-26, Supplementbände Leiden, 1937, Vol. I, pp. 744 et sqq.; and Zweite den Supplementbänden angepasate Auflage, Vol. I. Leiden, 1943, pp. 535 et sqq. A list of articles on al-Ghazālī in English and some of the European languages published in the various periodicals etc., from 1906-1955 is to be found in Index Islamicus, Cambridge, 1958, pp. 150-52. A fairly comprehensive subject-wise classification of al-Ghazālī’s works and a topic-wise though brief, bibliography can be found in the article “Al-Ghazzālī” in the Encyclopaedia of Islam. In the three sections below an attempt has been made to list: (i) those of al-Ghazālī’s works which can be arranged-in a chronological order with some measure of certainty, (ii) works the authenticity of which has been doubted by the professional students of al-Ghazālī (for both these sections, cf. note No. 24 in the preceding chapter), and (iii) books (or sections thereof) and articles most of which have been referred to in the notes but which are not included in any of the sources mentioned above.
Maqāsid al-Falāsifah, 2nd edition, Egypt, 1355/1936 (statement of the teachings of the Muslim Peripatetics); Mi’yār al-`Ilm, Cairo, 1329/1911 (an elaborate treatise on logic); Tahāfut al-Falāsifah ed. M. Bouyges, S. J., Beyrouth, 1927 (against the philosophers); Mihakk al-Nazar, Cairo (a smaller work on logic); al-Mustazhiri, Leiden, 1916 (against the Batinites); al-Iqtisad fi al-Itiqād, Cairo, 1327/1909 (on speculative theology); Ihyā’ `Ulum al-Din 15 Vols Cairo, 1356/ 1937-1357/1938 (magnum opus, a compendium of al-Ghazali’s whole system); Bidayat al-Hidayah, Cairo, 1353/1934, 47 pp. (on religious conduct; the authenticity of the closing section, pp. 40-47, doubtful); al-Hikmah fi Makhlqat Allah Cairo, 1321/1903 (on evidence of God’s wisdom in His creation); al-Maqsad al-Asna fi Asmā’ Allah al-Husna, Cairo, 1322/1904 (an exhortation to imitation of the divine qualities); al-Imlā’ `an Ishkalāt al-Ihyā’ (reply to attacks on Ihyā’ can be found on the margin of Sayyid Murtada’s Ittihaf al-Sādah, Vol. I, pp. 41-252; the definitions of the Sufi terms in the introduction are perhaps not authentic); al-Madnūn bihi `ala-Ghairi Ahlihi, Cairo, 1309/1891 (an esoteric work to be kept from those unfit {640} for it); Jawahir al-Qur’an, Egypt (an exposition of the faith of the orthodox on the basis of the Qur’an); Kitab al-Arba῾in, Cairo, 1328/1910 (a second part of the preceding work); Kimiya-i Sa῾ddat (in Persian), lithograph edition, Bombay (a summary of Ihyā’; to be distinguished from a spurious work of the same title in Arabic); al-Qistas al-Mustaqim, Cairo, 1318/1900 (a smaller work against the Batinites) ; Iljam al-`Awamm `an ῾Ilm al-Kalam, Egypt, 1309/1891 (a work on the science of dogmatics); Ayyuha al-Walad, Egypt, 1343/1924 (advice in the sphere of ascetic theology); al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, Damascus, 1358/1939 (autobiographical); Mishkat al-Anwar, Egypt, 1343/ 1924 (on mysticism : an exposition of the light verse in the Qur’an; the authenticity of the veil-section at the end is questionable; cf. note No. 24 above).
Al-Durrat al-Fakhirah Kashf `Ulum al-Akhirah, ed. Gauthier, Leipzig 1877; Risalah Ladunniyah, Cairo, 1343/1924 (English translation by Margaret Smith): Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1938, pp. 177-200, 353-74; Raudat al-Tālibin wa `Umdat al-Salikin in Farā’id al-La’āli Cairo 1343/1924, pp. 121-261; Sirr al-`Alamain wa Kashf ma fi al-Darain, Cairo, 1328/1910; Kimiya’ al-Sa’ādah (Arabic) in al-Jawahir al-Ghawāli, Cairo, 1343/1924; al-Nafkh al-Taswīyyah (referred to by Sayyid Murtala in Ittihaf); al-Madnūn al-Saghir, also known as al-Ajwibah al-Ghazālīyyah fi al-Masa’il al-Ukhrawiyyah, Cairo, 1309/1891; al-Madnun bihi ῾ala Ghairi Ahlihi, Cairo, 1309/1891; Mankhūl (refutation of the Fiqh of abu Hanifah; referred to in Kashf al-Zunun); Mi’raj al-Salikin in Farā’id al-La’āli, Cairo, 1343/1924, pp. 1-99; Mukāshafat al-Qulūb, Cairo, 1300/1882; Minhaj al-`Abidin, Cairo, 1313/1895; Mizan al-`Amal, Cairo, 1328/1910.
III. (A) Books.—S. A. Kamali, al-Ghazālī’s Tahāfut al-Falāsifah (English translation), The Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1958; W. M. Watt, The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazālī (English translation of al-Munqidh min al-Dalal and Bidayat al-Hidayah), George Allen & Unwin, London, 1953; Muhammad Hanif Nadawi, Qadim Yunani Falsāfah (Urdu translation of Maqsaid al-Falāsifah), Majlis-i Taraqqi-i Adab, Lahore, 1959; Sarguahasht-i Ghazālī (Urdu translation of al-Munqidh min al-Dalal with an Introduction), Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1959; Afkar-I Ghazālī (al-Ghazālī’s teachings with regard to knowledge and faith based on Ihyā’ with an Introduction), Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, 1956 (Urdu); M. Ahsan, Madhdq al-῾Arifin (Urdu translation of Ihyā’) 4 Vols., Matba’ah Tejkumar, Lucknow, 1955 (seventh edition); M. ῾Inayat Allah, Kimiya-I Sa῾ādat (Urdu translation), Din Muhammadi Press, Lahore, n. d. (revised edition); Sayyid ῾Abd al-Quddus Hashimi Nadawi, al-Murshid al-Amin (summary of Ihyā’ in Urdu), Urdu Manzil, Karachi, 1955; Syed Nawab Ali, Some Moral and Religious Teachings of al-Ghazālī (English translation of extracts from Parts III and IV of Ihyā᾽ with Introduction by Alban G. Widgery), Shaikh Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1946; Claud Field, The Alchemy of Happiness (English translation of some parts of Kimiya-i Sa῾ādat), Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, n. d. (reprint from the Wisdom of the East Series); W. H. T. Gairdner, Mishkat al-Anwar, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf Lahore, 1952 (new edition); Sulaiman Dunya, Tahāfut al-Falāsifah li al-Ghazālī, Cairo, 1947; al-Haqiqah fi Nazar al-Ghazālī, Dar Ihyā’ al-Kutub al-`Arabiyyah, Cairo, n. d.; A. W. Zuhuri, Makatib-i Imam Ghazālī (Letters of al-Ghazālī in Urdu), Karachi, 1949; M. Umaruddin, The Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazzālī, 4 Parts, published by the author Muslim University, Aligarh, 1949-1951; Some Fundamental Aspects of Imam Ghazzālī’s Thought, Irgkad Book Depot, Aligarh 1946; Nur al-Hasan Khan, Ghazālī ka Tasawwur-i Akhldq (Urdu translation of Dr. Zaki Mubarak’s al-Akhlaq `ind al-Ghazzālī), al-Maktabat al-`Ilmiyyah, Lahore, 1956; Shibli Nu’mani, al-Ghazālī, M. Thana Allah Khan, Lahore, 1956 (Urdu); Simon van den Bergh, Averroes’ Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (English translation with extensive notes), 2 Vols., Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1954. An Urdu {641} translation of ibn Rushd’s Tahāfut at-Tahāfut is under preparation, to be published by the Board for Advancement of Literature, Lahore.
(B) Sections of Books.-`Abd al-Salam Nadawi, Hukama’-i Islam, Azamgarh, 1953, Vol. I, pp. 386-408 (Urdu); abu al-Hasan ‘Ali, Tarikh-i Da’wat-a `Azimat, Azamgarh, 1375/1955, Part I, pp. 111-81 (Urdu); Majid Fakhry, Islamic Occasionaliam, George Allen & Unwin London 1958, chapter 2 and by index; M. M. Sharif, Muslim Thought: Its Origin and Achievements, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Lahore, 1951, pp. 75-80; F. Rahman Prophecy in Islam George Allen & Unwin, London. 1958, pp. 94-99; M. Saeed Sheikh, Studies in Muslim Philosophy (in press), Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, chapter on al-Ghazālī; D. M. Donaldson, Studies in Muslim Ethics, S. P. C. K., London 1953, chapter 6 and by index; A. J. Arberry, Sufism, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1956 (second impression), pp. 74-75, 79-83 and by index S. M. Afnan, Avicenna: His Life and Works, George Allen & Unwin London, 1958, pp. 235-41; E. I. J. Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1958, pp. 38-43 and by index; J. W. Sweetman, Islam and Christian Theology, Lutterworth Press, London, 1955, Part II, Vol. I, pp. 90-93, 262-309 and by index of authors; C. Hartshorne and W. L. Reese, Philosophers Speak of God, Chicago, 1953, pp. 106-11.
(C) Articles.-G. F. Hourani, “Al-Ghazālī and the Philosophers on the Origin of the World,” The Muslim World, 1958, Vol. XLVIII, Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 183-91, 308-14; Michael E. Marmura “Al-Ghazālī and the Argument of Time,” The Muslim World, 1959, Vol. XLIX No. 4 ; M. M. Sharif, “Muslim Philosophy and Western Thought,” Iqbal, July 1959, Vol. VIII, No. 1, pp. 7-14; M. Hanif Nadawi, “ Ghazālī ka Nazriyyah-i Ta’lil,” Thaqāfat (Urdu), Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, July 1959, Vol. VII, No. 7, pp. 11-19.
1 For al-Ghazālī’s role as a renewer of religion, cf. abu al-Hasan ‘Ali, Tarikh-i Da’wat-a `Azimat, Azamgarh, 1375/1955, Part I, pp. 111-81 (Urdu); Shibli Nu’mam, al-Ghazālī, Lahore, 1956, pp. 279-352 (Urdu). Cf. also A. W. Zuhfiri (Tr. and Comp.), Makatib-i Imam Ghazālī (Letters of Imam al-Ghazālī), Karachi, 1949 (Urdu). See al-Munqidh, English translation by W. Montgomery Watt in his Faith and Practice of al-Ghazālī, London, 1953, p. 75. All references to al-Munqidh are to this translation unless mentioned otherwise.
2 Al-Subki (Taj al-Din), Tabaqat al-Shafi’iyyah al-Kubra, Cairo, 1324/1906, Vol. IV, p. 101. See also note No. 10, below.
3 The principal sources for the life of al-Ghazālī are his autobiographical al-Munqidh, S. Murtada Ittihaf al-Sadah Cairo, 1311/1893, Vol. I (Introduction) pp. 2-53, and al-Subki, op. cit., Vol. IV, pp. 101-82. For the account of al-Ghazālī’s life in English, cf. D. B. Macdoland, “Life of al-Ghazzālī with Special Reference to His Religious Experience,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XX, 1899, pp. 71-132 (Important); M. Smith, al-Ghazālī: The Mystic, London, 1944, Part 1, pp. 9-104; W. H. T. Gairdner, An Account of Ghazālī’s Life and Works, Madras 1919; S. M. Zwemer A Moslem Seeker after God, London, 1920. An account in Urdu can be found in Shibli Nu’mani, op. cit., pp. 19-73; M. Hanif Nadawi, Afkar-i Ghazālī, Lahore, 1956, Introduction, pp. 3-113; `Abd al-Salam Nadawi, Hukamā’-i Islām, Azarngarh, 1953, pp. 386-408.
4 Known as Algazel, sometimes as Abuhamet to Medieval Europe. Some of the Western scholars even now use Algazel (e.g. Bertrand Russell, History of Western, Philosophy, London, 1946, p. 477) or its other varients al-Gazal, Algazali, Gazali, etc. Whether al-Ghazālī should be spelt with double or single “Z” has been a matter of long and strong dispute. More general practice both with the contemporary Muslim writers and the Orientalists now is to use single “Z”. Cf. Hanif Nadawi, op. cit., pp. 3-6; D. B. Macdonald, “The Name Al-Ghazzali,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1902, pp. 18-22; S. M. Zwemer, op. cit., pp. 63-65, 140-43.
5 Known thereafter as al-Ghazālī al-Kabir. He is reported to have taught canon-law (Fiqh) to al-Farmadhi, the Sufi guide of our own al-Ghazālī; cf. Macdonald, “Life of al-Ghazālī – . .”JAOS, p. 126; also al-Subki, op. cit., Vol. IIl, p. 36.
6 Cf. al-Subki, op. cit., Vol. IV, p. 102.
7 Ibid., pp. 103, 106.
8 Cf. ibn Khallikan, Wafayat al-A’yan (English trans. by de Slane), Paris, 1842-1871, Vol. 11, p. 122.
9 It may be recalled that not only theology but medicine and philosophy were also taught at Baghdad and the school of Baghdad from the first was characterized by its scientific spirit and freedom of thought. The city of Bagh-dad had more than thirty-five libraries for the use of scholars and the place attracted all sorts of people belonging to different sects and schools. A few generations back there flourished the association of the Ikhwan al-Safa; its meetings were attended by abu al-`Ala’ al-Ma’arri, said to be the arch-heretic in Islam who died (at the ago of 84) only a year before al-Ghazālī was born. Al-Qushairi the teacher of Farmadhi, yet himself a pupil of al-`Ash’ari in theology, died in 465/1074 when al-Ghazālī was a boy of seventeen, but then probably this is also the date of the death of Nasir-i Khiisrau, the Isma’ili propagandist and philosopher. `Umar Khayyam (d. c. 517/1123), the great mathematician, astronomer, and the agnostic philosopher (the Lucretius and the Voltaire of Islam in one), enjoyed with al-Ghazālī the patronage of Nizam al-Mulk. Only a year after al-Ghazālī’s appointment in the Nizamiyyah Academy, Nizam al-Mulk died (485/1092) as the first victim of the Isma’ili assassins headed by al-Hasan ibn al-Sabbah (483/1090-518/1124)-the second victim was no less than the king himself (Malikshah) only after an interval of thirty-five days.
10 He was himself a master of the canon-law and compiled works of the very highest order on it, e. g., al-Wajiz, al-Basit, al-Wasit, al-Mustaafa, etc., According to Sayyid Murtada (d. 1206/1791), al-Wajiz was commented on by later scholars for about seventy times and that had al-Ghazālī been a prophet he could have claimed this work as his miracle. Al-Ghazālī on his part considered canon-law only to be `ilm al-mu’āmalah (knowledge dealing with practical affairs of life) and not ‘ilm al-mukāshfah (gnosis of Ultimate Reality); cf. M. Hanif Nadawi, op. cit., pp. 92-111.
11 For al-Ghazali’s criticism of Kalām, cf. his Iljām al-`Awāmm `an `Ilm al-Kalām and Risālah fi al-Wa’z wa al-I’tiqād. He, however, approved of Kalām to explain and defend faith; cf. his al-Iqtisād f al-I’tiqad.
12 See note No. 29 below.
13 He is also reported to have gone to Egypt visiting Cairo and Alexandria. There is a good deal of uncertainty about the various places that he visited and the time and order of his journeyings (except the first two years of his stay in Syria). These extensive travels must have added considerably to his experience of life in general, to his first-hand contact with the cultures of many lands, and to his involvement with other religions-hence his humanism. For his understanding of Christian religion and involvement with it, cf. J. W. Sweetman, Islam and Christian Theology, London, 1955, Part II, Vol. 1, pp. 22-23, 262-309; also L. Massignon in Revue des Études islamiques, 1933.
14 The period of al-Ghazālī’s rather unduly long retreat coincides with the time when Barkiyaruq ruled as the great Saljuq. In the civil war between Barkiyaruq and his uncle Tutush, al-Ghazālī is reported to have sided with the cause of the latter. To this may be added the fact that in Syria where al-Ghazālī spent some years Tutush (r. 487/1094-488/1095) and his sons were the kings (488/1095511/1117). All this is strongly suggestive of some possible political complications. Cf. Macdonald, JAOS, pp. 71-132.
15 An analytical account of the contents of Ihyā’ can be found in D. M. Donaldson’s Studies in Muslim Ethics, London, 1953, pp. 159-65. Cf. also Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, London, 1953, Vol. V, pp. 508a, 509b. A large part of Ihyā’ has also been analysed by Miguel Asin Palacios in his Algazel, dogmatica, moral, asética, Zaragoza, 1901. Ihyā’ is divided into four parts each comprising ten books. Part III, Book ii; Part II, Book vii; Part IV, Book vi, have been translated into English by D. B. Macdonald, in his Religious Attitude and Life in Islam Chicago, 1909, Lectures vii-x; Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1901-1902, and Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. II, pp. 677-80, respectively. Translation of some of the extracts from Parts III and IV can also be found in Syed Nawab Ali’s Some Moral and Religious Teachings of al-Ghazzālī, Lahore, 1946, pp. 28-133. Hans Bauer has made a German translation of some of the “Books” of Ihyā’; cf. his Islamische Ethik (Three Parts), Halle, 1916, 1917, 1922. For a complete Urdu translation of Ihyā’, cf. M. Ahsan, Madhaq al-`Arifin, 4 Vols., Lucknow, 1955 (seventh edition).
16 Al-Munqidh min al-Dalāl as an autobiographical work is unique in the whole of Arabic literature for “the keenness and the fullness of its self-revelation.” It is the most often referred to book and has been translated and edited a number of times; C. Brockelmann in his Arabische Litteratur, Weimar, 1899, Vol. I, pp. 419-26, has given 69 items. For some of the important translations of Munqidh, cf. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden, 1913-34, Vol. 11, p. 149. For Urdu translations see Hāfiz M. Anwar ‘Ali, Lecture Imam Ghazālī, Lahore, 1311/1893, ill pp. (with Arabic text) and M. Hanif Nadawi, Sargudhasht-i Ghazali, Lahore, 1959, 188 pp. (with an Introduction, pp. 3-108).
17 Cf. al-Munqidh, pp, 20, 21.
18 Bukhari (23: 80, 93); also the Qur’an, xxx, 30; xxxv, 1. The term fitrah came to be used by the philosophers in the sense of lumen naturals.
19 Cf. al-Munqidh (English translation by Claud Field, The Confessions of al-Ghazzālī, London 1909, p. 13). This is exactly the first of the four rules mentioned by Descartes in his Discours de la méthode and the second rule of his Regulae ad Directionem Ingenii composed as early as 1038/1628; cf. E. S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (Trs.), The Philosophical Works of Descartes, Cambridge, 1911, Vol. I, pp. 3, 92, 101.
19a Haldane and Rose, op. cit., p. 101, where Descartes makes similar observations.
20 Cf. Ihyā’, Cairo, 1340/1921, Vol. IV, p. 19 where al-Ghazālī refers to a tradition: People are asleep; when they die, they awake. Cf. also Kimiya-i Sa’adat (Urdu tr. by M. `Inayat Allah), Lahore, n.d., pp. 738, 740.
21 It is, however, a serious though widespread error of interpretation to consider al-Ghazālī to be an anti-intellectualist. Macdonald’s statement in his article “al-Ghazzālī” in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that “he taught that intellect should only be used to destroy trust in itself,” is very unfortunate. So also is Iqbal’s allegation that al-Ghazālī denied dynamic character to thought and its self-transcending reference to the infinite (cf. S. M. Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, Oxford, 1934, pp. 4-6). Al-Ghazālī very definitively and explicitly brings out both these aspects of thought in his analysis of intelligence in the Mishkat al-Anwar (cf. English translation by W. H. T. Gairdner, Lahore, 1952, pp. 83-91). This section in the Mishkat is quite noteworthy in view of the general opinion that the Mishkat was written by al-Ghazālī at a time very close to the writing of al-Munqidh (probably after it) : a period in the spiritual history of al-Ghazālī during which he came to advocate the supremacy of intuition over reason as against an earlier phase say that of Ihyā’, when he ranked them as equal and made reason go parallel with intuition (e. g:, Part I, Book I, Chapter 7). True, in al-Munqidh al-Ghazālī makes a delimitation of the province of the human intellect by denying it a finality in the field of transcendental problems, yet it would not be altogether right to say that Ghazālīan epistemology is a mere intuitive critique of knowledge. Keeping other works of his in view, it may be said that his philosophy is mainly directed to the vindication that intellect and intuition must at the end supplement each other. Cf. M. Umaruddin, The Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazzālī, Aligarh, 1949, Vol. I, Part III, pp. 228-259.
22 Cf. M. Fakhry, Islamic Occasionalism, London, 1958, pp. 25-48; also D. B. Macdonald, “Continuous Re-creation and Atomism,” Isis, Vol. IX, 1927, pp. 326-44.
23 Cf. S. M. Iqbal, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia, London 1908, pp. 55, 100; also A. S. Tritton, Muslim Theology, London, 1947, pp. 84, 90.
24 For the chronological order of al-Ghazālī’s works, cf. Louis Massignon Recueil de textes, p. 93, and Introduction to Maurice Bouyges’ edition of Tahāfut al-Falasifah, Beirut 1927. An allied and quite important, though very difficult, problem for a student of al-Ghazālī is the authenticity of his works. Cf. M. Asin Palacios, La espiritualdidad Algazal, Madrid 1934, Vol. IV, pp. 385-90, and W. M. Watt, “The Authenticity of the Works Attributed to al-Ghazālī,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic, Society, 1952, pp. 24-45, along with his article “A Forgery in al-Ghazālī’s Mishkat?” in the same Journal of the year 1949, pp. 5-22. Cf. also Shibli Nu’mani, op. cit., pp. 80-84, and M. Hanif Nadawi, op. cit., pp. 54-58. A consolidated study of these references shows that there are in all thirteen works the authenticity of which is a matter of dispute besides three considerable sections of works otherwise admitted to be authentic. The “problem of authenticity” requires very careful further investigation.
25 Cf. Henrieh Frick, Ghazālī’s Selbstbiographie, ein Vergleich mit Augustins Konfessionen, Leipzig, 1919, esp. p. 80.
26 See next chapter (pp. 617-24).
27 Ismā’īlites or Bātinites were known as Ta’līmites in Khurāsan. Al-Ghazālī wrote quite a number of books against them; those mentioned in al-Munqidh (p. 52) are: (1) Al-Mustazhiri, (2) Hujjat al-Haqq, (3) Mufassil al-Khilaf, (4) Durj, (5) Qustas al-Mustaqim. The first work is the most elaborate of them all. For the doctrines of the Ta’līmites, of. Hanif Nadawi, Sargudhasht-i Ghazālī, pp. 19-54; also the article “Isma’iliya,” Encyclopedia of Islam.
28 al-Munqidh, p. 29. Cf. also preface to Maqsaid al-Falasifah.
29 Ibid. Al-Ghazālī’s statement that, in spite of his arduous duty of teaching and engagement in writing he could master all the sciences of the philosophers unaided by an instructor within the span of two years, is perhaps a story to be taken with a grain of salt.
30 The date 1506 C. E. for the Latin translation of Maqsaid al-Falasifah given in the Encyclopedia Britannica, 14th edition, Vol. II, p. 188b, is incorrect. This is the date when it was for the first time printed in Venice. Gundisalvus’ translation under the title Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabes was made in collaboration with John of Seville to whose name it is sometimes ascribed. It might have been the case that John translated it from Arabic into Castilian and Gundisalvus from Castilian into Latin; cf. G. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Baltimore, 1931, Vol. II, pp. 169-72.
31 This confusion was caused by the fact that the Latin translation of Maqsaid in circulation amongst the seventh/thirteenth-century Scholastics did not contain the short introduction in which al-Ghazālī speaks disparagingly of the philosophers’ metaphysics and makes it clear that his ultimate purpose to make an objective and dispassionate study of it is to refute it in Tahāfut at-Falasifah. It may be added that al-Ghazālī again mentions his intention to write the Tahāfut in the ending paragraph of the book. How this was overlooked by the Latin scholastics is anybody’s guess.
32 Maurice Bougyes in Introduction to his edition of Tahāfut at-Falasifah points out that the word “incoherence” does not give an exact meaning of Tahāfut and that al-Ghazālī has used it sometimes with reference to philosophers and sometimes with reference to their doctrines. He, therefore, suggests that it would be better to retain the original word Tahāfut.
33 The Dahriyyūn are those who teach the eternity of time and matter. It is, however, difficult to give a precise translation of the term; in its actual usage in Arabic philosophy, Dahriyyūn are sometimes hardly distinguishable from the Tabi’iyyun. Cf. the article “Dahriyyah,” Encyclopedia of Islam.
34 Cf. Aristotle’s Ethica Nichomachea, section 6, p. 1096 a 15.
35 Cf. M. Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, pp. 3-4. What really hinted at here is the Platonic and Neo-Platonic bias in the Hellenic thought which inculcates a dichotomy between the empirical and the transcendental-the secular and the spiritual.
36 All the three works can be found in one volume published by Matba’t al-`Alamiyyah, Egypt, 1302-1303/1884-1885: al-Ghazālī’s Tahāfut al-Falāsifah, 92 pp.; ibn Rushd’s Tahāfut al-Tahāfut, 141 pp., and Khwajah Zadah’s Tahāfut al-Falasifah, 137 pp.
37 For an analytical account of the contents of Tahāfut al-Falāsifah and Tahāfut al-Tahāfut, cf. A. F. van Mehren, “Études sur la philosophic d’Averrhoes concernant son rapport avec cello d’Avicenne et Gazzali,” Le Muséon, Vol. VIl, pp. 613-27; Vol. V111, pp. 5-20, Louvain, 1888-1889.
38 Cf. al-Ghazālī’s Tahāfut al-Falāsifah, English translation by Sabih Ahmad Kamali, The Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1958, pp. 1-3. All references to the Tahāfut are to this translation.
39 It is noteworthy that Simon van den Bergh has listed forty contradictions in Aristotle’s philosophy; see his English translation of Averroes’ Tahāfut al-Tahāfut, London 1954 Vol. II, p. 215.
40 Cf. Ibn ‘Asakir, Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari, Damascus, 1347/1928, p. 128.
41 Aristotle’s notion of potentiality fails to solve the riddle of becoming as propounded by the Eleatics and later by the Megarics. W. D. Ross says, “The conception of potentiality has often been used to cover mere barrenness of thought.” Cf. his Aristotle London, 1923 pp. 176-78. The Ash’arites like the Megarics denied the existence of potentiality. Cf. S. van den Bergh, op. cit., pp. 37-40.
42 For the thesis of creatio ex nihilo, cf. the Qur’an, ii, 117; xxx, 27; xxxv, 1.
43 Critique of Pure Reason, 2nd ed., pp. 454-61.
44 Tahāfut, p. 5. It may be noted here that the Muslim philosophers and theologians sometimes used different terminology with regard to the same subject.
45 Cf. M. Saeed Sheikh, “Philosophy of Religion: Its Meaning and Scope,” Proceedings of the Fifth Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1958, pp. 37-51.
46 Cf. G. F. Hourani, “Alghazali and the Philosophers on the Origin of the World,” The Muslim World (1958), Vol. XLVIII, No. 3, pp. 183-91.
47 Cf. W. D. Ross, op. cit., pp. 89 et sqq.
48 Plotinus uses the light metaphor, for he conceived light to be incorporeal after Posidonius of Rhodes (c. 135-50 B. C.) who is perhaps the first to propound the notion of emanation.
49 Cf. Spinoza, Ethics, Part 1, Section 17, note.
50 Cf. Aristotle, De Caelo, 285 a 29, 292 a 20, b 1.
51 The nine spheres are as follows: the first, sphere, the sphere of the fixed stars, the sphere of Saturn, the sphere of Jupiter, the sphere of Mars, the sphere of the Sun, the sphere of Venus. the sphere of Mercury, and the sphere of the Moon.
52 Some of the Muslim thinkers have referred to the Qur’an, Ixxviii, 38, in support of the notion of the active intellect, e. g., al-Baidawi in his Anwar al-Tanzil, ed. H. O. Fleischer, Leipzig, 1846-48, Vol. II, p. 383, also Ihyā’ (Urdu Tr.), Vol. III, p. 5, where al-Ghazālī refers to the Tradition that “the first thing that God created was the Intellect.”
53 Cf. Kitab al-Shifā’, “Metaphysics,” Section ix, Chapter 6; al-Najat, Cairo, 1331/1912 pp. 448 et sqq.; al-Madinat al-Fadilala, Cairo, 1368/1948 p. 19. For the Aristotelian ingredients in the theory of emanation as explained above, cf. W. D. Ross, op. cit., pp. 181 et sqq.; A. E. Taylor, Aristotle, London, 1943, pp. 98 et sqq.; and A. H. Armstrong, The Architecture of the Intelligible Universe in the Philosophy of Plotinus, Cambridge, 1940, by index.
54 Cf. Tahāfut, pp. 77, 87.
55 Cf. F. R. Tennant, Philosophical Theology, Cambridge, 1930, Vol. II, pp. 125 et sqq., 153 et sqq.
56 Ibid., p. 154.
57 In Ptolemy’s Almagest the number of stars mentioned is 1,025. This number was generally accepted by the Arab astronomers. `Abd al-Rahman ibn `Umar al-Sufi (291/903-376/986), one of the greatest Muslim astronomers, in his work Kitab al-Kawakib al-Thabitah al-Musawwar (Illustrated Book of the Fixed Stars), adds that there are many more stars than 1,025, but they are so faint that it is not possible to count them.
58 Cf. Tahāfut, p. 88, Al-Ghazālī, in support of his agnosticism with regard to the modus operandi of God’s creativity, alludes at the end to the tradition: “Think over the product of God’s creative activity: do not think over His essence.” Cf. Takhrij al-Hafz al-Iraqi appended to Ihyā’, Part IV, p. 410; also the Qur’an, xviii, 15, which is referred to by al-Ghazālī earlier, i.e., on p. 80.
59 Metaphysica, p. 1072 b 20. Cf. also De Anima, p. 424 a 18.
60 Cf. Tahāfut, p. 80.
61 Problem thirteenth of Tahāfut, pp. 153-62; cf. also other passages pertaining to God’s knowledge by index. For a clear and balanced exposition of the philosopher’s position with regard to this problem, see Maqsaid al-Falsifah (Urdu trans. by M. Hanif Nadawi, Qadim Yunani Falsafah), Lahore, 1959, pp. 168-78.
62 Cf. Ihyā’, Vol. II, Bk. ii, Section I, English trans. by D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, London, 1903, p. 302.
63 Ibn Sina says this in his Kitab al-Shifa’: “Metaphysics,” VIII, 6. It is really an allusion to a verse of the Qur’an (x, 61): “. . . and not the weight of an atom in the earth or in the heaven is hidden from thy Lord . . .”; also xxxiv, 3.
64 Ibid.; cf. also al-Najat, pp. 408 et sqq.
65 Tahāfut, p. 159. Even though al-Ghazālī is not justified in alleging that philosophers restrict God’s knowledge merely to the universals, namely, the genera, the species, and the universal accidents, yet his criticism of the philosophers on this point is not vitiated by this misunderstanding and he is quite right in pointing out the inconsistency in their position.
66 Aristotle’s conception of time is essentially intellectualistic and static, whereas al-Ghazālī’s standpoint with regard to time in keeping with his theistic occasionalism, is intuitionistic and dynamic much like Bergson’s durée. Cf. Louis Massignon, “Time in Islamic Thought” in Man and Time (Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks), London, 1958, pp. 108-14. Also M. F. Clough, Time, London, 1937.
67 Cf. Tahāfut, p. 189.
68 Miracles ascribed to the prophets Moses, Abraham, Jesus, and Muhammad respectively; cf. the Qur’an, xx, 17-23, xxviii, 31; xxi, 68, 69, xx, 124, xxxvii, 97, 98; iii, 48; v, 110; and liv, 1.
69 Cf. Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, Bk. I, Part iii. Cf. also Hanif Nadawi, Sargudhasht-i Ghazali, pp. 62-76; also article “ Ghazali ka Nazriyyah-i Ta’lil,” Thaqafat (Urdu), Institute of Islamic Culture, Lahore, July 1959, Vol. VII, No. 7, pp. 11-19.
70 The real starting point of the discussion on causality belongs to the later part of the sixteenth disputation. See Tahāfut, p. 181.
71 Tahāfut, p. 186.
72 Ibid., p. 189.
73 Cf. Mill’s doctrine of the Plurality of Causes, System of Logic, Bk. III, Chap. X, Section 2.
74 It is interesting to note that Charles Hartshorne and William L. Reese call al-Ghazālī’s conception of God as Etiolatry, i.e., cause-worshipping; cf. their compendium: Philosophers Speak of God, Chicago, 1953, pp. 106-11, esp. p. 109.
75 Cf. Qur’an, xiii, 5; xvi, 38; xvii, 49-51, 98, 99.
76 In spite of Hume’s notorious repudiation of the miraculous (Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Section, 10, Parts 1 & 2), his notion of causality through its own logic can be finally resolved to the Ghazālī an or better the Ash’arite position expressed in this statement. Cf. A. E. Taylor, “David Hume and the Miraculous,” in his Philosophical Studies, London, 1934, pp. 330-65; also F. R. Tennant, Miracle and Its Philosophical Presuppositions, Cambridge, 1925, p. 84.
1 In the Munqidh al-Ghazālī expressly mentions that he had studied the Qut al-Qulub of abu Tayib al-Makki (d. 386/996), the works of Harith al-Muhasibi (d. 243/857), and the fragments of al-Junaid (d. 298/910), al-Shibli (d. 334/945), and abu Yazid al-Bistami (d. 261/875). At the end he adds that he had read the discourses of all the leading Sufis. In al-Ghazālī’s works, indeed, there are references to be found to all the great mystics of Islam. For al-Ghazālī’s Sufistic sources, cf. Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazālī: The Mystic, London, 1944, pp. 123-32. For a comparison of Qut al-Qulub and Ihyā’ cf. Shibli Nu’mani, Al-Ghazālī, Lahore, 1956, p. 107; for the comparison of Muhasibi’s Kitab al-Wasaya and Munqidh, cf. A. J. Arberry, Sufism, London, 1950, pp. 47-50.
2 Cf. Ihyā’, Cairo, 1340/1921, Vol. IV, p. 259 et. sqq.
3 Tahāfut, p. 88; see note No. 38 in the preceding chapter.
4 Qur’an ii 117; xvi, 40.
5 T. J. de Boer, The History of Philosophy in, Islam, English trans. by E. R. Jones, London, 1933, p. 163.
6 Cf. Qur’an, iii, 189, 190; vi, 100; x 5 6; xiii, 3, 4, etc.; cf. also al-Ghazali’s al-Hikmah fi Makhlūqāt Allah, Cairo, 1321/1903.
7 Cf. M. Saeed Sheikh, “Kant’s Critique of Rational Psychology and Its Paralogisms,” Proceedings of the Sixth Pakistan Philosophical Congress, Lahore, 1959, pp. 185-93.
8 Cf. Tahāfut, pp. 200-20. For a comparison of al-Ghazālī’s and ibn Sina’s views with regard to soul, of. Sulaiman Dunya, al-Haqiqah fi Nazr al-Ghazālī, Egypt, 1367/1947, pp. 356-455.
9 Cf. article “Nafs,” Encyclopaedia of Islam, esp. sections 9 and 10; also Maqāsid al-falasifah (Urdu translation) by M. Hanif Nadawi, Lahore, 1959, pp. 323-32.
10 See Ihyā’, Cairo 1340/1921, p. 54. Cf. also D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology…, London, 1903, pp. 234, 235, and A. J. Wensinek, The Relation between al-Ghazali’s Cosmology and His Mysticism, Amsterdam, 1933.
11 See Kimiya-i Sa’ādat, Urdu trans. by M. `Inayat Ullah, Lahore, n. d., pp. 8, 36. Also cf. Qur’an, xxx, 30.
12 Qur’an, xv, 29; xxxviii, 72.
13 Kimiya-i Sa`ādat, English trans. by Claud Field, The Alchemy of Happiness, Lahore, n. d., pp. 19, 35.
14 See Kimiya-i Sa`ādat, Urdu trans., p. 10.
15 Qur’an, xvii, 85.
16 Ibid., lxxxix, 27-30.
17 Munqidh, p. 60; see note No. 1 in the preceding chapter.
18 Cf. F. Rahman, Prophecy in Islam London, 1958, p. 96.
19 Ihyā’ Urdu trans. by M. Ahsan Siddiqi, Lucknow, 1955, Vol. I, pp. 11 et sqq.
20 Cf. Mizan al-`Amal, Cairo, 1342/i923, pp. 35, 36; also Ihyā’, Part I, Book I, Section 7 on `Aql (Intellect).
21 Cf. P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, London, 1949, p. 432; Max Meyerhof, The Legacy of Islam, ed. T. Arnold and A. Guillaume, Oxford, 1931, p. 337; and Will Durant, The Age of Faith, New York, 1950, pp. 256, 257, 332.
22 He himself wrote a treatise on astronomy. Cf. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Baltimore, 1927, Vol. I, p. 753.
23 The charge of esotericism, in the narrow sense of the theory of two-fold truth, against al-Ghazālī, is, however, unfounded. Cf. W. Montgomery Watt, “A Forgery in al-Ghazālī’s Mishkat”, Journal. of Royal Asiatic Society, 1949, pp. 5-22; also article “al-Ghazzālī,” (section 3), Encyclopedia of Islam. This question is connected with the problem of the authenticity of al-Ghazālī’s works.
24 Cf. M. Iqbāl, “. . . to this day it is difficult to define with accuracy, his view of the nature of God. In him, like Borger and Solger in Germany, Sufi Pantheism and the Ash’arite dogma of personality appear to harmonize together, a reconciliation which makes it difficult to say whether he was a Pantheist, or a Personal Pantheist of the type of Lotze” (The Development of Metaphysics in Persia p. 75). Also C. R. Upper, “Al-Ghazālī’s Thought Concerning the Nature of Man and Union with God,” The Muslim World, 1952, Vol. XLII, pp. 23-32. C. R. Upper ends this article by a significant remark: “Al-Ghazālī’s occasional pantheism is indubitable, yet his orthodoxy is impeccable. How this can be is the secret between him and Allah.” For the great synthetic acumen and creativity of al-Ghazālī in having a via media between the various positions cf. S. R. Shafiq, “Some Abiding Teachings of al-Ghazālī,” The Muslim World, Vol. XLIV, No. 1, 1954, pp. 43-48.
25 Cf. Munqidh, p. 61.
26 Cf. Qur’an, ii, 255.
27 Cf. Mishkat al-Anwar, English translation by W. H. T. Gairdner, Lahore, p. 62.
28 Saying of al-Hallaj (executed 309/922). Cf. R. A. Nicholson, The Idea of Personality in Sufism, Cambridge, 1923, p. 32.
29 Sayings ascribed to abu Yazid al-Bistami, who is probably the first of the intoxicated Sufis.
30 Munqidh, p. 61.
31 Margaret Smith, Dr. Zaki Mubārak, and others.
32 Qur’an, lxviii, 4.
33 Al-Ghazālī Ihyā’ `Ulum al-Dīn Part III p. 50.
34 Hadith: Ahmad b. Hanbal, Vol. IV, p. 226.
35 Al-Ghazālī, Ihyā’, Part II, Chap. on Music.
36 D. B. Macdonald, Development of Muslim Theology, p. 192.
37 Qur’an, vi, 125.
38 Donaldson, Studies in Muslim Ethics, p. 156.
39 W. R. Sorley, Moral Values and the Idea of God, p. 446.
40 Qur’an, XC, 9‑10.
41 Ibn Hajr, Bulugh al‑Maram, “Bab al‑Zuhd w‑al‑Wara’.”
42 Qur’an, VII, 31.
43 Al‑Ghazālī, Ihya’, Part III, p. 72.
44 Ibid., p. 66.
45 Ibid., p. 85.
46 Qur’an, II, 10.
47 Jami’ Tirmidhi, Matba’ah Mujtaha’i, p. 201
48 Qur’an, XLIX, 12.
49 Al‑Mishkāt al‑Masābih, “Bab al‑Kaba’ir wa `Alamat al‑Nifaq.”
50 Qur’an, ix, 34.
51 Ibid., xxv, 70.
52 Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazālī: The Mystic, pp. 167-68.
53 Qur’an, lxx, 19.
54 Ibid., xxxiv, 13.
55 Ibid., xiv, 7.
56 The opening hadith in al-Sahih al-Bukhāri.
57 Al-Ghazālī, Ihyā’, Part IV, pp. 334-35.
58 Margaret Smith, op. cit., pp. 167-68.
59 Al-Mishkat al-Masabih “Bab al-Ghadab w-al-Kibr.”
60 Qur’an, ii, 222.
61 Ibid., xcviii, 8.
62 Ibid., lxxxix, 27-30.
63 Cf. Jamal al-Din ibn al-Jauzi, al-Namūs fi Talbis Iblis, Cairo, 1340/1921, p. 377.
64 For the theologians’ various objections to Ihyā’ and an answer to them, see M. Hanif Nadawi, Afkar-i Ghazālī, Lahore, 1956, pp. 61-73.
65 Cf., e.g., Majid Fakhry, Islamic Occasionalism, London, 1958, pp. 103 et sqq.
66 Cf. also ibn Rushd, al-Kashf `an Manahij al-Adillah, Cairo, 1319/1901, pp. 57, et sq.
67 Cf. Mishkat al-Anwar, English translation by W. H. T. Gairdner, Lahore, pp. 17-21.
68 Quoted by F. Rahman, op. cit., London, 1958, p. 112. It is significant to note that S. van den Bergh concludes in his introduction to Averroes’ Tahāfut al-Tahāfut that resemblances between Ghazālī and Averroes seem sometimes greater than their differences pp xxxv, xxxvi.
69 Cf. ibn Tufail, Hayy Bin Yaqzān (Urdu trans. by Zafar Ahmad Siddiqi), Aligarh, 1955, pp. 26-30.
70 For a modern criticism of al-Ghazālī cf. M. Zaki `Abd al-Salim Mubarak, al-Akhlaq `ind al-Ghazzālī, Cairo, 1924 (Urdu trans. by Nur al-Hasan khan, Lahore, 1956). Very recently F. Rahman in his short treatment of al-Ghazālī’s views on prophecy in the above-cited work has made a very strong charge of inconsistency against him.
71 With the exception of al-Ghazālī’s own Kimiya-i Sa’adat (in Persian) the first of such summaries was written by al-Ghazālī’s own brother, Ahmad al-Ghazālī (d. 520/1126), under the title Lubab al-Ihyā’. A list of these may be found in Sayyid Murtada’s Ittihaf al-Sādah, Cairo, 1311/1893, p. 41. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27091 | Jump to: navigation, search
Organise your files
188 bytes added, 19:57, 21 August 2008
The problems: clarified a few details
** Only base + 7 in ISO 9660 level 1.
* Records covering several family names, like weddings and census records?
** Just In a directory with the coupletwo surnames alphabetically, separated by double underscore. ie: ''Lithgow__Schmidt/''s family names.
** No idea
* Single letter directory names, how do we stop them changing case?
** No idea
* Indicating unsure dates?
** ca = circa/ approximately, ie: ''--1810ca--'' or ''--1810-_09ca--** before = before, , ie: ''--1810before--'' or ''-_-ca1810-09before--
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27127 | TY - JOUR A2 - Stringaro, Annarita AU - Othman, Hemn AU - Rahman, Heshu AU - Mohan, Syam AU - Aziz, Sadat AU - Marif, Hardi AU - Ford, Dianne AU - Abdulsamad, Nozlena AU - Amin, Kawa AU - Abdullah, Rasedee PY - 2020 DA - 2020/08/19 TI - Antileukemic Effect of Palladium Nanoparticles Mediated by White Tea (Camellia sinensis) Extract In Vitro and in WEHI-3B-Induced Leukemia In Vivo SP - 8764096 VL - 2020 AB - This study investigated the in vivo antileukemic activity of palladium nanoparticles (Pd@W.tea-NPs) mediated by white tea extract in a murine model. The cell viability effect of Pd@W.tea-NPs, “blank” Pd nanoparticles, and white tea extract alone was determined in murine leukemia WEHI-3B cells and normal mouse fibroblasts (3T3 cells). Apoptotic and cell cycle arrest effects of Pd@W.tea-NPs in WEHI-3B cells were evaluated. The effects of Pd@W.tea-NPs administered orally to leukemic mice at 50 and 100 mg/kg daily over 28 days were evaluated. Pd@W.tea-NPs reduced the viability of WHEI-3B cells with IC50 7.55 μg/ml at 72 h. Blank Pd nanoparticles and white tea extract alone had smaller effects on WHEI-3B viability and on normal fibroblasts. Pd@W.tea-NPs increased the proportion of Annexin V-positive WHEI-3B cells and induced G2/M cell cycle arrest. Leukemic cells in the spleen were reduced by Pd@W.tea-NPs with an increase in Bax/Bcl-2 and cytochrome-C protein and mRNA levels indicating the activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. These effects replicated the effects of ATRA and were not observed using blank Pd nanoparticles. Pd@W.tea-NPs afford therapeutic efficacy against leukemia likely to pivot on activation of the mitochondrial pathway of apoptotic signaling and hence appear attractive potential candidates for development as a novel anticancer agent. SN - 1741-427X UR - https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8764096 DO - 10.1155/2020/8764096 JF - Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine PB - Hindawi KW - ER - |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27152 | GFM Chatswood
Office Address
Suite 12
Level 10
"Leura" Building
809 Pacific Highway
New South Wales 2067
Postal Address:
PO Box 5665
Chatswood West
New South Wales 1515
Contact Details
Phone: +61 2 9413 2600
Fax: +61 2 9419 8872
Goldrick Farrell Mullan traces its history back to 1988 when Vin Goldrick established the firm in Parramatta’s CBD. The firm was then known as Goldrick & Associates. The firm name was changed to Goldrick Farrell Mullan in 1991 after David Farrell and Barry Mullan became Partners. The firm expanded quickly and the Head Office was transferred to Sydney's CBD. Branch offices were subsequently opened in Canberra, Newcastle, Killara, Mosman, Chatswood, North Turramurra and Hornsby.
After further consolidation the Killara office was merged into the Chatswood office and the North Turramurra office was merged into the Hornsby office. The firm opened a new Gosford office on 30 March 2020 and now provides legal services from the Sydney CBD, up the North Shore to the Central Coast of NSW.
Member 2019/2020
Fellow of the ANZ College of Notaries
Head office DX 11615 Sydney Downtown
Suite 1203 Email:
370 Pitt Street Telephone: +61 2 9267 7311
Sydney NSW 2000 Facsimile: + 61 2 9267 7008
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27163 | Hackathon Challenge
From iDigBio
Revision as of 23:30, 10 January 2013 by Dpaul (Talk | contribs)
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The 2013 AOCR Challenge
The Challenge
One of the most significant areas of interest for improving the utilization of OCR output is parsing. Digitization and data curation of biodiversity museum collections specimens can be sped up if the output from OCR can be parsed faster and more accurately and packaged into semantically meaningful units for insertion into a database.
The Specific Task
Given a set of images, parse existing OCR output or repeat the OCR with the software of choice and then parse the new OCR output attempting to successfully populate as many of the selected Darwin Core (and other) data elements as possible.
• Parsers should produce at least CSV format output where the column headers are Darwin core (http://rs.tdwg.org/dwc/terms/) elements with some extended element names.
• The full set of valid categories is defined in a definition document in the parsing directory of the A-OCR virtual machine.
• All of this information needs to be classified on the label so that it can be imported to a database and shared with others over the Internet. The input to the parsing process is OCR text.
• For the hackathon there will be at least 600 examples of OCR text, in 3 groups of 200, that have been previously properly classified/parsed by humans.
• This parsed text may be used for training some learning algorithms.
• This set will also be used for evaluation of performance of parsing algorithms. *Overfitting is a potential problem so at the time of the hackathon we may provide additional testing records for evaluation.
There are several potential types of input to the parsing algorithms.
• The most basic form of input is OCR text in UTF-8 format from multiple engines.
• There may optionally be OCR with exact spatial information about the location of characters on the original image.
• This will allow some algorithms to exploit spatial information to identify elements. This format is, however, not a main focus for this hackathon.
• Also, those wishing to pursue other goals such as image segmentation, finding specific elements, or improving usability & user interfaces to the OCR and parsing tools are encouraged to do so and report back to the group at the hackathon.
Back to the Hackathon Wiki |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27173 | in ,
How To Choose The Right Oil For Making Your DIY Soap?
Choosing oil recipes to play an important part in the soap making process just like getting all other ingredients. All oils have various qualities for creating final soaps.
For creating a perfect soap bar, it should be made balancing all the oils for making that perfect soap. Some of the amazing soap making oils are listed as under:
1. Sweet almond oil
This almond oil is light-absorbing into the skin properly. It is a moisturizing oil making stable lather and its use in the soap is just 5% to 10% in the making process. Almond oil is best used for making lotions and massage bars. Bath oils are made using salt and even sugar in it.
2. Babassu Oil
This oil comes from the Babassu palm making the oil very acidic and combined with coconut oil. It has high amounts of myristic and lauric acid giving it a fluffy texture.
It starts melting at body temperature making it good for making kinds of butter, balms, and all such things leaving oil directly to the skin.
3. Tallow beef
Beef tallow gives a hard substance creating white soap bars providing creamy and stable moisturizing lather. This oil is one of the main fats used for making oils. Tallow makes a wonderful combination of perfectly balanced soap. There are a richness and creaminess in the form and using 40% is essential for making soap bars.
4. Shea Oils
Shea oils or butter is used extremely in all luxurious soap bars useful in soap making recipes. Shea butter, when used at liquid temperature, is needed for melting for soaps, massage bars, creams, and lotions. Shea oil is moisturizing and if you want to go ahead with shea oil, it is one of the best options.
5. Lard
Lard is super hard making creamy and low lather which is very moisturizing. It is one of the commonly used fats. It can be used in combination with coconut and olive oils for well balancing of soaps. Make sure that the lard is made from high quality. It is needed in 30%-40% needed in making soaps.
6. Coconut oil
Coconut oil is primarily in the making of any soaps. It has a melting point of 76% and all the versions provide bubbly lather for moisturization purposes. It also helps in making of white soap bar. Using 30% of the same is beneficial for the making of soaps. Coconut oil also has super cleansing points that help in removing excess oil from the skin.
7. Apricot Kennel Oil
Apricot Kennel is lighter than olive oil making it best for fatty acid makeup. It is nicely absorbent to the skin and is somewhat used as a luxury oil for the skin.
But it is needed in 5%-10% in the making of soaps. Kennel oil is great for using as massage bars, bath oils, and bombs.
These are some of the best natural oils used in the preparation of soaps. All soaps have different qualities. Stick to the ones that are suitable for your skin and have a great bath!
What do you think?
Written by Infeagle
Leave a Reply
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27185 | Community Web Version Now Available
Is it a correct sentence? Is swotting correctly used in this sentence? So I had nothing to do but sit for two or three hours swotting Physics, Chemistry and Maths.
Jan 22, 2016 7:32 AM
Answers · 1
Yes, that makes sense, at least in British English. If you have tests or exams in these subjects coming up, and you've been working hard with your head bent over your books, memorising lots of facts, then 'swotting' is right. It's quite an informal word.
January 22, 2016
Language Skills
Azeri, English, Russian, Turkish
Learning Language |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27223 | Configure GoatCounter with Caddy 2
A goat in a forest
Photo credit: Léonie Lejon (Unsplash license)
Edit: The article was updated. Thanks to the replies from Martin Tournoij and Kellen Scarlett.
Web analytics applications
I had been using Google Analytics for a while. It's easy to setup. Just add a script and is ready to go. Then I checked out the open source alternatives. Matomo was originally based on Piwik, but Piwik Pro went commercial only and is not open source anymore. Matomo is open source and is written in PHP.
I …
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27236 | Perfect Vegan Oreo Brownies #vegan #oreo
Recipe for delicious vegan oreo brownies - moist, chocolatey and so moreish! Dairy and egg free, can also be made gluten free if desired.
The Vegan Oreo Brownies were so yummy and didn’t stick around for long!
You’ll Need:
• 250 g Plain flour
• 350 g Caster sugar
• 90 g Cocoa powder
• 1 tsp Baking powder
• 1 tsp Salt
• 1 tsp Vanilla extract
• 250 ml Almond milk
• 2 Flax eggs see instructions
• 250 ml Vegetable oil
• 154 g Oreos broken up
• 65 g 70% Dark chocolate
1. Pre-heat your oven to 180C/160C Fan/350F/Gas Mark 4, and grease and line a 12" x 9" traybake tin
2. To make the flax eggs: 2 tbsp linseeds, ideally ground up in a food processor or spice grinder, soaked in 4 tbsp water for at least 10 minutes in the fridge.
3. In a bowl mix together the plain flour, caster sugar, cocoa powder, baking powder and salt
4. In another bowl whisk together the almond milk, flax eggs, vegetable oil and vanilla extract, then add it to the dry ingredients and mix together
5. Pour the batter into the lined baking tray, then add the broken oreo pieces all over the top
7. Once cool, melt the dark chocolate and drizzle it all over the brownies, cut into squares then serve. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27248 | Play Live Radio
Next Up:
Available On Air Stations
PESCA: Shelby Fero.
SHELBY FERO: All rappers will have to craft their own chains using alchemy.
PESCA: Peter Grosz.
PETER GROSZ: Frustrated with healthcare costs, doctors will just give up and announce that leeches can now suck bile out of your T-zone and smoking a glass of raw eggs will bring balance to your humors.
FERO: Very specific.
KURTIS: ...If any of that happens, panel, we're going to ask you about it on WAIT WAIT ...DON'T TELL ME.
PESCA: Thank you, Bill Kurtis. Thanks also to Tom Bodett, Peter Grosz and Shelby Fero. And thanks to all of you for listening. I'm Mike Pesca of the of the podcast The Gist, and we will see you next week. This is NPR. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27258 | Heaven on Earth
Heaven on Earth
Blog entry by Lars Muhl from 18 December 2012
In Aramaic, the Kingdom of Heaven is called Malkootha d Shm-aya = An exalted, heavenly, eternal state. This phrase contains the Aramaic root word SHM. SHM is that spark of life, that heavenly sound and light, that heavenly identity, the very essence of life, which Yeshua, in another passage, says can never be extinguished and should not be hidden under a bushel. SHM is also that Word that John tells us was in the beginning and through which all was created. SHM is therefore that something, that original essence, that essential substance, which runs through all life.
Isn’t it wonderful that precisely that principle, SHM, which is a prerequisite for every form of life, is hidden within that Aramaic expression for the Kingdom of Heaven (Malkootha d Shm-aya,) that, as Yeshua in fact says, is to be found within us.
We are encouraged, therefore, to let SHM, the power of life and our heavenly identity, find expression through us. It’s not enough to pretend or merely say that we are heavenly, it must also find expression through our actions and in everything we do in this Earthly reality.
It is NOT a coincidence that we find ourselves on this earthly plane. There is so much to do here. So much to be transformed, so many hearts to be opened, so many, that need help. And if it isn’t us in this part of the world, where there is so much material excess, that should develop their spiritual side, and be the ones who spread this excess to all, who should it be?
For many, spirituality is just another form of escapism. If one can’t cope with the world, one can always flee for refuge to the world of the angels etc. The problem is, that when one loses contact with reality, it is suddenly a long way down when the bottom falls out of the rose-tinted cloud. It may mean that one irretrievably breaks one’s wings whilst also losing one’s halo and harp in the fall.
In such a fall only humor can save one, because, as Yeshua says, it’s only the redeemed that can’t be saved.
We must never forget, that WE are THE ANGELS’ HANDS on this earth. It is in US the angel energies plant their good intentions, and it is through US that these should be translated into action.
It is, therefore, our responsibility, that the Earth remains a good place to be. It is our responsibility to help all of those who, for various reasons have difficulty getting through the day and along their path. It is our responsibility to spread the glad tidings, that we are ALL in the same boat, that WE ARE BROTHERS AND SISTERS, and it, therefore, doesn’t make any sense to desire power over others or to get rich at others’ expense.
We are not put on the Earth in order to rule or to be slaves, but to develop our highest qualities, to expand our consciousness, to give, to help, to sing and love. We are here to transform every type of destructive thought and behavior.
When one fails to do that, one finds oneself, according to the Aramaic language, in Hell. For, just as Heaven is a state, in which we are focused and balanced and present in the here and now, Hell is merely a state that indicates that we are unfocused, unbalanced, not ourselves and therefore unable to accomplish what we have been put onto this Earth to do.
During the process we have to face the dark without losing ourselves in it. Only by knowing it, can we transform it. It is the dark that needs light, and only a pure heart is able to see clearly in the dark.
It has been written: Everything eventually comes on its appointed day – and that day has come at last. It is now, that a totally new, collective, multi-universal consciousness is unfolding itself and is accessible. And we are all invited. Listen to your own intuition!
Sit down for a moment and relax all of your muscles. Relax your shoulders. Take a deep breath and let yourself go in a great, deep, earthly sigh. Breathe in, right down into your stomach. Notice how your stomach expands on the in breath, and how it relaxes when you breathe out. Imagine, that God or the divine principle is to be found at one end of your breath, while you, naturally, are to be found at the other end, and experience now how you, with each breath, are connected to the creative power.
Your breath is a bridge to God.
It is as easy as that. Practice this conscious breathing as often as possible, but preferably in silence, and notice how SHM in your innermost heart chambers quietly opens up and unfolds itself like a flower.
You are a divine and indispensable being, which is here to make a difference. Use that possibility NOW, even if that means that you have to break norms and habits. From today, nothing will be as before.
In Taxo Luma – The tale of an Avatar, and in my other books, you can read much more about all of this. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27266 | Domain transfers without the fuss
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So your domain transfer is complete and your domain is happily inside your LCN account, but what about your next renewal? Well, this is when we can save you some money when you renew for multiple years.
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Frequently asked questions about our domain transfer
• What is a domain transfer?
A domain name transfer is the process of changing the designated registrar of a domain name. For example, moving a domain to LCN, from a different registrar.
The domain name itself stays unchanged, as does details like the registered owner, registered address and other domain information. A common reason for moving a domain between registrars is to consolidate domain names with a registrar company you like. Perhaps you like the customer service or features a particular registrar (such as LCN) can provide.
• How to transfer a domain
There are two different domain transfer processes: one for UK extensions, and another for all other domains (COM, NET, ORG, etc).
How to transfer a UK domain
1. Login and add your domain name on the transfers page
2. Click the + button to submit the domain transfer
3. Ask your current registrar to update the IPS tag to LCN
4. Your domain transfer should complete within 48 hours
How to transfer a .COM, .NET, or .ORG
1. Ask your current registrar to unlock your domain
2. Make a note of the Auth code you receive
3. Login and add your domain name on the transfers page
4. Click the + button to submit the domain transfer
5. Submit the Auth code you were given previously
6. Your domain transfer should complete within 7 days
Please see our support guide for an in-depth walkthrough for both processes. If you have any questions along the way, don’t hesitate to contact us.
• How long does it take transfer a domain?
Again, it depends on the extension. Generally speaking a domain transfer should take no more than a week. .uk domains usually only takes a couple of days – unfortunately there’s no way to speed this up. For more information about transferring a domain to us, check out our domain transfers support guide.
• What about downtime? Will you change DNS on the domain?
When you transfer a domain to us, we don’t change any of the DNS details on the domain– so if your site is online when you begin the move, it should stay online after the transfer is complete. We appreciate that nameservers and DNS can be confusing, so don’t hesitate to drop us a line and we can answer any questions you might have.
• How do I unlock my domain and what’s an Authorisation / EPP code?
Your current domain name provider will need to unlock your domain name before it can be moved to us. This can usually be done from your provider’s control panel but in some cases you’ll need to contact them directly.
They’ll give you a string of characters called an EPP code, also known as an auth code. Keep a note of it, as it needs to be entered at LCN when you initiate the domain transfer service at our end.
.uk domains work a little differently – they have an IPS tag instead of an EPP code. To learn more about IPS tags and how you can transfer .uk domains to LCN, check out our next FAQ.
We also have guides on transferring your domain names from other providers…
• What’s an IPS tag?
.uk domains don’t have EPP codes because the domain transfer process is slightly different. To move your .uk domains you’ll need to change the IPS tag on your domain – again this can be done via your current domain providers control panel, or by getting in touch with their support team.
To move to LCN you’ll need to change the IPS tag to “LCN”. That’s all there is to it for .uk domains.
• What about SEO rankings?
Your place in the search engine results pages will not change as a result of a domain transfer. There are many factors that make up Google’s search ranking algorithm but who your domain registrar is not thought to be one of them.
If you want to learn more check out our beginners guide to SEO.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27296 | Smoke Streams Lyrics
Lyrics to Smoke Streams Lyricsmania staff is working hard for you to add Smoke Streams lyrics as soon as they'll be released by Paradigm, check back soon!
In case you have the lyrics to Smoke Streams and want to send them to us, fill out the following form:
Artist: Paradigm lyrics
Album: Sublimation
Title: Smoke Streams
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27320 | Tuesday, December 12, 2006
Not much to report and Mary Poppins
This week has been amazingly lazy and unproductive.
Although we were miles apart last night, apparently both Jason and I watched the Disney classic "Mary Poppins" on ABC Family.
I was struck by the similarities in reference to magic that one could see in "Mary Poppins" (which has some odd bits surely intended for the adults), and the portrayal of magic in much of Neil Gaiman's work. Specifically in his work that includes his anthropomorphization of Death. Even more telling was Gaiman's introduction of Death in the cult Sandman comics, wherein Death immediately quotes "Mary Poppins", extoling the virtues of the movie to her brother, Dream.
Gaiman's definition of magic, as a realm just touching our world, but one which we rarely notice, was prevalent in his Sandman series, as well as his limited series "Books of Magic", and the two "Death" limited series. Is Mad Hettie the pigeon woman? Is it that unlikely that a character line Burt or Mary Poppins, or Uncle Albert might have appeared somewhere in the Sandman series?
I had not seen "Mary Poppins" in years, and may not have seen it in its entirety since my parents took me to the theater for a screening circa 1980. As a child, I think, you expect magic in movies, but I was impressed as an adult viewer at the handling of wonderment through the eyes of the Banks children. Other things seemed far more interesting, including the odd melancholy of Burt and Mary's relationship, as well as the creator's clever separation between the magic and mundane in such an acute fashion.
Nor did I note the source of Mrs. Banks' distraction as a mother was her involvement in the women's suffrage movement (which took far nastier turns in the UK than in the US). There's probably some insidious message there about the addle-headed suffragist not able to pay attention to her own children, but that's a discussion for another time.
Kids today have Harry Potter, who is a far more relatable character than the "practically perfect" Mary Poppins, and probably even more so than Michael and Jane, two perfectly behaved English children (children without video games, cell phones, or an X-TREME, in-your-face attitude). For my dollar (or tuppance), what is made even more mysterious than Hogwart's dungeons and catacombs are the odd comments made by Burt regarding the world we catch mostly only glimpses of, and a history of Mary Poppins which, properly, never reveals itself.
That's the trick of magic, though, I think. Keep them guessing how it's done, and always leave them wanting more.
Gaiman, you owe us one. But you'd hidden it in plain sight all along.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27404 | The Ascension Workshop
This workshop is strongly focused on the process of integrating more and more Divine Light into the physical structure. Ascension codes are activated to assist people in the process of growing towards being able to move out of this 3rd dimensional reality retaining the physical vehicle. This is the meaning of Ascension.
Course duration: 2 days |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27417 | Alce Nero Olive Verdi bella Di Cerignola (350g)
Product Description
They are only harvested when perfectly ripe. Once harvested, the olives are meticulously checked, to maintain a high quality standard. Bella di Cerignola, is an olive cultivar from Italy. Cerignola olives are very large, mild in flavor, and may be served either green or cured red or black |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27425 | 16 July 2018
10 things I learnt from reading 'The Vagina Monologues'
10 things I learnt from reading The Vagina Monologues - www.nourishmeblog.co.uk
I don't use 'life changing' to describe a book very often, but I've got to use it now. The Vagina Monologues is a short play by Eve Ensler, and the edition I have has an absolutely incredible Foreword by Gloria Steinem. This was a quick, but heavy read, and although I would recommend it to anybody, I'll give the recommendation with a massive trigger warning for sexual assault.
10 things I learnt from reading The Vagina Monologues - www.nourishmeblog.co.uk
I learnt so much from this short book, and had so many ideas reinforced that it's been hard to whittle it down to just ten things, but here they are:
1.) The word vagina doesn't get used enough. We need to reclaim it. Vagina's not a dirty word, it's a medical term just like penis. There's nothing wrong with saying the word vagina and we need to stop shying around it. Vagina vagina vagina.
2.) We're not really taught much about our vaginas at all. Sex ed at school is all about DON'T GET PREGNANT AND HERE'S HOW NOT TO. There's no info on how to take care of your vagina (please stop using FemFresh), or what's good/bad for it, different infections you can get, etc. Again, we need to stop shying around vaginas and what they're all about.
3.) A LOT of women still don't orgasm. Whether that's through sex or their own handiwork (ya get me), it's something that is still frowned upon to talk about, and because of that a lot of women just never really discover how to. Can you imagine a vast amount of men never having had a cheeky wank? Nope.
4.) We've also totally got to reclaim the word cunt. It's seen as the worst swear word, the one they'll still bleep out on TV even if everything else is there, and the one that's one step too far. But why? Honestly I'm still baffled because there's no real reason, other than the fact that it's the only proper swearword for a vagina. So let's put it back in the league with other words because god forbid we make reference to a bodily part that isn't on a man.
5.) Birth is a time of strength. I'm not a mother, and I haven't reached the stage where close friends or family members of a similar age to me are becoming mothers, so I'm pretty distanced from the whole thing. But wow, women are powerhouses. Our bodies completely alter themselves to grow a human and push it out of a tiny, powerful hole. The vagina is life-giving and life-affirming and life-creating and it turns out that women are the strong ones after all.
6.) 1 in 3 women will be victims of sexual assault in their lives. This is not a women's problem, this is an everyone problem. This isn't something that's happening to women in third world countries. It's something happening to young girls, toddlers, children, by people they trust (uncles, fathers, step-fathers, teachers, family friends) in their homes, and in their beds. It's an everyone problem because people need to understand that girls are not possessions, and a vagina isn't something you can claim and violate and move on from.
7.) Your hair is not a political landscape. This angers me so much. Call it what you want: your lady garden, your bush, whatever. The point is it's yours. It's scratchy and uncomfortable to shave your vagina, and I'm not even going to contemplate the thought of waxing. Society has deemed that the way forward is to have clean-shaven pre-pubescent pube-free vaginas. It all links back to this idea of innocence and virginity and (disturbingly) that links back to a childlike image. If you want to shave your pubes then go for it, but do it because you really want to, not because you've been told that no one will fuck you or want you or respect you if you're not hair free. And for those people that want hairless women: why? Honestly, what are the actual benefits? Are they cleaner? No. Hair is hair, and it's not something that needs to be policed or given an agenda.
8.) Periods are not dirty and they are not something to be ashamed of. Periods are a chance to reconnect with yourself, and respect the power that your body has. Yes, they suck, but they're also a sign of health and vitality and just a bodily function that occurs. People of all sexes need to change their opinions around periods. They're not dirty, they're not taboo and they're not something that you can bully someone over.
9.) The vagina, historically, is a symbol of power. I had absolutely no idea that this was true before I started reading TVM. It's largely glossed over in Western cultures, but the vagina, and symbols of it, have been worshipped as holding greater power than their male counterparts. There was a whole section on this in the Foreword that I could talk about for hours, but it basically just had me completely wowed.
10.) The vagina is a place of violence, and that's the v-word I hope we can one day talk about less. There's so much that is harsh and unnecessary, but a part of life: tampons have no lubricant and have to be forced in dry, any kind of OB/GYN implement is cold and harsh and honestly sometimes they look terrifying. There's no attempt to make things nicer, or gentler, or more vagina-friendly. And then there's sexual violence: rape is still a common feature of modern wars that gets overlooked. What about the refugees that are being abused? Or women that don't luck out when their homes are being destroyed? What about the women who have to choose between rape or a worse punishment? Why aren't we talking about this? Violence against the vagina is normalised, and everything about our habits and conversations, and actions needs to be changed. And please can a speculum not be made of fucking cold steel?
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27432 | Choosing a Great Domain Name
Your domain name is a brand identity that will represent your business for years to come. Domain names are unique — no other person or business on the internet has the same domain name. As time goes on, all the “good” domain names are getting bought up, and you have to wonder if eventually there will be none left. That’s not likely, but It’s worth spending some time to come up with an imaginative domain name that serves your business well now, and long into the future.
Are You a Dot Com?
Every domain name consists of a primary and a secondary domain separated by a period (or “dot.”) As in “” What is the right primary domain for you?
If you are a business, then consider getting a “.com” domain name. Dot-Com is for commerce, or commercial businesses online. It is the most recognizable primary domain, but there are many others, and you are not limited to being a “.com” if you want a domain name with more personality. If your organization is a not-for-profit, then .org is for you. (It’s short for “organization.”) If you are building a networking business of some kind, then possibly .net is the way to go. These three .com, .org and .net primary domains are in common usage, but there are many more you can choose from.
There are many primary domains besides .com, .org, and .net. Here are just a few..
Visit Wikipedia to see the entire top-level domains list.
Your Domain Name Is Your Brand
Domain names are the “real estate” of the internet. Your domain name is a valuable asset of your business, worth managing with expert care. Over time, your domain name becomes your online brand with the potential to be as well-known as many other everyday products and services in our culture.
Your domain name is not just a name. It is a destination.
From the beginning we’ve believed that hosting sites with your own unique domain name builds long-lasting brand awareness and marketing strength for your business. Your domain name email address promotes your web site with every message you send. Wouldn’t you rather advertise your own domain name, instead of Yahoo, AOL, Gmail, Hotmail or any of the many other “free” email providers out there? By using a professional domain name email address based on your own domain name, you create “brand awareness” for your own unique domain name and web site.
Start Today!
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27445 | The Creator of Mesh Food-Grade Silicone Rubber Material
Baby Pillows - Should I Give My Child A Pillow?
by：OPeREAL 2019-09-11
As adults, it is perfectly normal for us to use pillows when we sleep.
In fact, sleeping without a pillow can be very painful, making our neck stiff when we wake up, or even making us unable to sleep in the first place.
Therefore, it is not surprising for many parents whether their children will also be more comfortable if they give them a pillow.
However, the answer to this question depends on the age of your child and where they sleep. . . . . . .
Pillows are definitely not recommended if your child is under two years old.
Children under this age usually do not need the support of the head, and more importantly, they are always likely to suffocate on the pillow.
Also, if your child is still small but has started climbing, crawling, or walking, then the pillow can be used as an aid for climbing out of the crib.
As a result, most studies have shown that pillows should not normally be considered and no longer sleep in a crib until the baby is at least two years old, but have developed to a toddler bed.
Even though your kids are a little older, they don\'t always need to use pillows.
If they don\'t have a pillow to sleep well, there may not be a need to introduce the pillow.
If you decide to give your child a pillow, make sure it\'s a real \"Baby Sleep Pillow\" instead of the one you already have at home.
The pillow should be relatively firm so that the child does not sink into it while sleeping and does not suffocate or suffocate.
It should also be smaller than a normal adult pillow, probably near the size of the travel pillow, which is easy to clean when these minor accidents happen to your child.
If your child has any allergies, you can also buy a baby pillow that is not allergic
If you are still not sure if it is appropriate to introduce a baby pillow in your child\'s bed, you may consider talking to your doctor to hear from him or her, or just wait until your child really wants a pillow or struggles to sleep on a flat bed.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27512 | Discussion Question 2: Plutonogen
Is is possible to synthesize the element plutonogen? If not, what is the most “powerful element ever” not yet listed on the periodic table?
I have provided a chart that will hopefully help clarify last week’s question.
Too Much Information
11 thoughts on “Discussion Question 2: Plutonogen
1. I think this is probably a question best answered by bear. But if there’s one thing Sapphire and Steel has taught us it’s that the transuranics are unstable.
Of course you probably know that the “strong force” that binds the protons and neutrons in nuclei together competes with the “weak force” which causes them to tend to break apart. In lighter elements the strong force prevails and in heavier ones (especially those heaver than iron IIRC) the weak force starts to become more of an issue.
At really high atomic weights weak force makes atoms inherently unstable. A bunch of very high atomic weights have been “synthesized”, but I sometimes wonder how long the thing has to stay together before you can really consider it to be “synthasized”.
In some of his sci-fi books Poul Anderson (I believe it was) put forward the idea that there’s another plateau of stability for elements with atomic weights beyond those we can currently find or synthasize. In his stories (again IIRC) certain stellar processes (possibly supernovas) in the past produced these substances in rare and much sought after exploitable quantities.
All fiction as far as I know though.
2. As for the pie chart though:
A red herring or some sort of logic puzzle?
Normally a pie chart represents totality, with each slice of the pie representing a portion of the whole. Taking synergy into account the whole can be greater than the sum of it’s parts, but a whole that’s greater than the sum of it’s parts, and greater than it’s self? Beyond my meager mathmatical and reasoning skills.
3. You might be right about it being a question for Timmy.
The Poul Anderson stuff you mention is along the lines of what I was thinking. I like you don’t know too much about it. I think Bob Lazar claimed that alien tech could synthesize element 115. Though to be honest… I don’t know if the aliens synthesized or not… or that it even matters. Lazar says 115 is out there.
Pie Chart – I just threw that up cause I thought it was funny. It was just a stock graph. I didn’t even change the name of Section 4. So yeah – a red herring.
4. I have a couple comments:
Element 115 has been synthesized, I think only a couple years ago. I guess that blows Bob Lazar out of the water…
Dragon is essentially correct about the strong force, not that I’ve ever studied it. Look here for a quick explanation. Make sure to look at the graph. The binding energy/nucleon curve peaks at iron (and other isotopes with the same number of nucleons), meaning you can get energy out of fusion if you use things lighter than iron. You can get energy out of fission of you use things heavier than iron. That’s why I do research on fusion of hydrogen, while nuclear power plants use uranium, etc.
An interesting point about fusion and stars. Stars typically start out as all hydrogen, which is fused into helium, etc. The star climbs up the periodic table until it hits iron, which is not fused because that would take energy instead of producing energy. That’s when stars quick working (when it gets to hard to fuse it’s fuel).
Last point. Looking at the above mention chart, one can see that the curve is steeper for elements lighter than iron than it is for elements heavier than iron. In fission, an atom is split, giving you 2 smaller atoms. The difference between where you started on the curve (uranium) and where you end up (many locations, all heavier than iron) is the amount of energy out of the process. The same goes for fusion. For fusion, the proposed (simplest) reaction is deuterium and tritium (2 isotopes of hydrogen) into helium. The yield for fusion is much larger since the curve is so much steeper for hydrogen and helium. For a given mass of fuel, fusion gives you more energy (and remember, there is about 100 times more deuterium atoms in a given mass of fuel than there is in the same mass of uranium). Never mind that fusion needs more readily available elements than fission. Elements with lower atomic numbers are much more abundant than those with large atomic numbers.
There’s some more semi-understandable reading on fusion at wikipedia.
5. Djwebb – I think you are right about the aggregated diamond nanorods; they are more powerful – if for no other reason than they sound more powerful. I don’t think it would be too far of a stretch to say they sound mighty. Speaking of split infinitives, don’t aggregated diamond nanorods power the Enterprise?
6. ARgg! No!
Loki, like your namesake you’re just trying to get our goat aren’t you? frickin’ scandanavian goat thieves
It’s common knowledge that the Enterprise is powered by matter-antimatter annilation, mediated by the substance “dilithium”.
What dilithium consists of isn’t made very clear in the TV show, although I think one of the books suggests it’s like some mundane element but extending into other dimensions.
Those aggregated diamond nanorods might come in handy for a bean stalk style space elevator though.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27514 | Do you really want to dig deep into your personality type and how it works? If you’re tired of worn-out, lite-quality data then you’re in the right place. We’re learning about each of the 16 Myers-Briggs® personality types in-depth by breaking down their cognitive function stacks and seeing 8 unique ways that they experience the world.
We’ve already explored the four primary functions of each personality type. You can find out more about these in the following links:
The Dominant Function of Every Myers-Briggs® Personality Type
The Auxiliary Function of Every Myers-Briggs® Personality Type
The Tertiary Function of Every Myers-Briggs® Personality Type
The Inferior Function of Every Myers-Briggs® Personality Type
What Is the Opposing Role?
The opposing role lies in the opposite direction of the dominant function of your personality type. If you’re an ENFP, for example, your dominant function is Extraverted Intuition (Ne). As a result, your Opposing Role would be Introverted Intuition (Ni). Where your dominant function is the leader of the four valued functions in your psyche, the opposing role is the leader of the unvalued/shadow functions. Mark Hunziker, author of “Depth Typology,” states that the Opposing Role “feels like “Other,” rather than part of “Me,” and its behaviors are usually uncouth or unacceptable.”
When your ego feels threatened or you feel frustrated, your Opposing Role can show up as a defender from real or imagined threats. However, unlike the dominant function, which shows up in a mature and heroic way, the Opposing Role is more oppositional, paranoid, or passive-aggressive. This function can feel dull, banal, or lifeless to us.
When you’re using your Opposing Role function you can seem one-dimensional and disinterested. You might behave like you’re completing a chore that has to be done, but you’d rather not do it – and certainly not with precision.
We also are at risk of projecting our Opposing Role onto other individuals. Because we experience the function as frustrating, distracting, and oppositional, we may perceive others using this function in the same light.
For example, an INTJ with Opposing Role Extraverted Intuition might argue with an ENFP, feeling like they are being oppositional with their alternative suggestions and insights. They may think things like, “Why is she fighting with me on my insights?” “Why isn’t she treating me with respect?” “Why is she making things so difficult?” “What’s her hidden agenda?”
You can dig deeper into the shadow functions in this article: An Introduction to the Shadow Functions
The Opposing Role of Every Myers-Briggs® Personality Type
The ENFP and ENTP – Oppositional Introverted Intuition (Ni)
Introverted Intuition is focused primarily on foreseeing implications, effects, and transformations. Ni-dominant types (INJs) are gifted at predicting how things will evolve over time. They are primarily focused on the ripple-effects of everything happening around them.
As an ENP personality type, you are focused on generating multiple alternatives through Extraverted Intuition and extrapolating on those alternatives and ideas. You’re more fascinated with creating options than narrowing them down. When you’re with someone who is taking all your ideas and alternatives and sifting through them, you can feel like they are being oppositional or condescending. “Why are you throwing out that idea?! That’s a good one!” you might think. As you increasingly multiply new ideas and possibilities, and they increasingly zone in on one, you might get annoyed that they won’t just enjoy the new ideas you’re creating. As a result, you might occasionally see INJs as oppositional, patronizing, or limited in their thinking.
Simultaneously, you might also experience Introverted Intuition in a destabilizing way. You might lock onto a vision of something not working out the way you want. If you pick an idea to build your life around, you can become stubborn about how you imagine it will unfold. When people are arguing with you, you can easily sense how all their ideas and arguments could be meaningless or futile in the end.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, ask yourself, “Am I anticipating the long-term effects of something?” “Do I feel like this person is cutting out options that I want to explore?” “Am I imagining an implication that the other person doesn’t see?”
Introverted Intuition isn’t always negative. It can show up in a positive way in your life. You may easily sense how things might unfold or you might get sudden, “aha” insights about future trends and patterns. In the end, the Opposing Role serves to keep your dominant function from getting inflated. It also serves to protect your ego in stressful situations.
Read These Next:
24 Signs That You’re an ENFP, the “Visionary” Personality Type
ENTP Personality Profile
The INFJ and INTJ – Oppositional Extraverted Intuition (Ne)
Extraverted Intuition explores connections and relationships between things that are happening in the outside world. It is also focused on extrapolating new possibilities, seeing things in new ways, and generating alternatives and multiple options. Ne-dominant types (ENPs) are gifted at brainstorming, picking up on seemingly random relationships, and innovating.
As an INJ personality type, you are focused on zero-ing in on one singular, underlying purpose or meaning behind things. You want to understand the “dance of the universe” and predict how things will play out. As a result, multiplying options, and traveling down multiple paths of possibility can seem pointless to you. You don’t want to be distracted from your singular vision. While you’re good at exploring different angles and perspectives, you want to stay the course towards your main vision. Therefore, when you’re dealing with an ENP who keeps suggesting alternative angles, different ideas, and new possibilities, you can feel like they’re being distractible, oppositional, and needlessly difficult. You might think to yourself, “Why are they changing the subject?” “Why does this other rabbit trail matter?” “Why are they opposing my vision?”
Simultaneously, you might experience Extraverted Intuition in a destabilizing way. You might, without trying, suddenly envision outlandish, bizarre possibilities in your mind. For example, if you’re driving your car you might suddenly imagine driving off a cliff with your family in the backseat. If you’re on a first date, your mind might suddenly picture numerous embarrassing things you could do. “What would happen if I coated my face with this vegetable soup?” “What would happen if I told him my worst secret?” “I could pull my shirt off right in the middle of this room and what would happen?” Although you’d never actually follow through on these ideas, they seem to play before your mind’s eye without effort.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you might want to ask yourself, “Am I assuming they’re not seeing another side to this?” “Am I extrapolating alternatives that nobody else is seeing?” “Do I feel like someone’s steering me away from my main vision?”
Extraverted Intuition isn’t always negative for you. You can often perceive multiple interpretations of something, generate new possibilities, and see abstract connections between things. This function helps to keep your dominant function from becoming too inflated or stubborn. It can also help you to broaden your perspective.
Read These Next:
24 Signs That You’re an INTJ, the “Strategist” Personality Type
The ESTP and the ESFP – Opposing Role Introverted Sensation (Si)
Introverted Sensation reviews and recalls past experiences and applies any learned lessons to the current moment. It digs deeply into information and data and reflects on impressions that that data provides. Si-dominant types (ISJs) enjoy having a routine, a sense of stability, and repeating experiences and rituals that they’ve come to love throughout life. They crave a physically comfortable, calm life.
As an ESP personality type, you are drawn to new and novel experiences. You enjoy staying in the present moment, grasping opportunities as they arise, and being spontaneous. A planned-out, routine life can make you feel bored, irritable, and trapped. When you spend time with ISJs, you might find them to be restrictive, condescending, or oppositional. You might think to yourself, “Why are they limiting my options?” “Why are they going into so much detail about this?” “Why do they keep dredging up the past?”
Simultaneously, you might experience Introverted Sensation in a destabilizing way. You might inadvertently find yourself recalling past mistakes or traumas and assuming the same situations will repeat themselves. You might get so fixated on the nitty-gritty details of a project that you don’t make progress because you can never make every detail perfect.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you might want to ask yourself, “Am I getting too stuck on little details?” “Am I assuming a past experience will repeat itself?” “Am I not letting go of a past mistake that I or someone else made?” “Am I making assumptions about this person based on a previous experience?”
Introverted Sensation isn’t always negative for you. You might be able to provide good historical context to a situation by recalling details or lessons from the past. You might have a knack for noticing details and discrepancies that other types don’t.
Read These Next:
24 Signs That You’re an ESTP Personality Type
What It Means to be an ESFP Personality Type
The ISFJ and the ISTJ – Opposing Role Extraverted Sensation (Se)
Extraverted Sensation is skilled at noticing everything that’s happening in the present moments. It’s attuned to opportunities, experiences, and spur-of-the-moment enjoyments. It can accurately assess what’s happening without getting lost in reflections. Se-dominant personality types (ESPs) have a knack for staying in the present, responding to surprise information or tasks, and maneuvering the physical world around them.
As an ISJ personality type, you crave a predictable, stable lifestyle. You enjoy knowing what to expect and what’s about to happen. You enjoy post-processing positive experiences because they can seem very overpowering in the present. After an experience, you can immerse yourself in the reflection of that experience and enjoy the details of it more.
Because you like familiarity and consistency, you can feel like ESPs are reckless, overly-impulsive, or distractible. You may feel like they’re being needlessly oppositional, patronizing, or snarky. Instead of accepting your tried-and-true way of doing things, they offer new ways. Instead of sticking to a routine, they change things up every day. Instead of prioritizing comfort and physical well-being, they test their limits and task risks. You might wonder to yourself, “Why are they disregarding my experiences?” “Why are they chasing excitement instead of being content with where they are?” “Why are they so heedless of stability?”
Simultaneously, you might experience Extraverted Sensation in a destabilizing way. There are times that you might randomly do impulsive, physical things or become stubborn about the “facts of reality” or what’s relevant in the moment. You can focus on the present and be spontaneous, but it doesn’t feel as enjoyable or rich as re-experiencing something you know and love. It might feel strange, uncomfortable, or scary.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you might want to ask yourself, “Am I getting caught up in the present?” “Am I being too impulsive?” “Am I too over-stimulated by what’s happening around me?” “Am I pushing myself too far physically?”
Extraverted Sensation isn’t always negative for you. You can experience it in positive ways, letting loose and enjoying a fun opportunity that is all new. You might also have detailed, accurate awareness of what’s happening around you at times. Se can help you to quickly see what’s relevant in a situation.
Read These Next:
24 Signs That You’re an ISTJ Personality Type
24 Signs That You’re an ISFJ Personality Type
The ESFJ and the ENFJ – Opposing Role Introverted Feeling (Fi)
Introverted feeling focuses on alignment with one’s inner values and feelings. It asses one’s own emotional state and tries to discern what those states mean. Living in harmony with one’s ethical code , desires, and emotional needs is of the highest priority to the Introverted Feeling type (IFP).
As an EFJ personality type, you are constantly scanning the emotional wavelengths of the people around you. You quickly pick up on people’s emotional and physical needs and try to make sure those are taken care of. When you go to a new place, you probably notice without trying what the expectations and social customs are. It’s important to you to ensure the harmony of the group you are in and to create an atmosphere where people can do (and feel) their best.
Because your feeling is directed outwardly, introverted feeling can seem mysterious and confusing to you. You like to openly share your values and discuss your feelings, while IFPs are more contained about theirs. You will adapt your plans and demeanor for the overall well-being of the group, whereas IFPs are more individualistic. It may feel to you like Introverted Feeling types are being needlessly oppositional, troublesome, and self-absorbed because you experience Fi in an oppositional way. You might find yourself asking things like, “Why aren’t they thinking of other people’s feelings?” “Why aren’t they telling me how they feel?” “Why aren’t they getting aligned with the group so we can achieve this goal?” It can feel like tailoring everything to one’s own individual needs will cause too much trouble for everyone else.
You might also experience Introverted Feeling in a destabilizing way. You might persistently berate yourself over your perceived ethical failings or failing to follow your own desires. You might be able to quickly perceive when people are not living up to their values and feel tempted to call them out on it. You might get annoyed at your tendency to care for others, feeling like you’re abandoning the inner emotional needs of your Introverted Feeling side.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you might want to ask yourself, “Are my ethics being trampled on in some way?” “Am I living according to my conscience?” “Am I getting enough time for my own needs and desires?” “Am I dealing with someone who is demanding space for their individualized priorities?”
Introverted Feeling isn’t always negative for you. There will be times when you experience it in positive ways, standing up for what you believe is right and prioritizing the activities that align with your personal desires and values.
Read These Next:
24 Signs That You’re an ENFJ Personality Type
24 Signs That You’re an ESFJ Personality Type
The ESTJ and the ENTJ – Opposing Role Introverted Thinking (Ti)
Introverted Thinking categorizes and sorts information into fine-tuned inner libraries. It evaluates and analyzes data deeply, looking for key principles, underlying frameworks, and inconsistencies. Introverted Thinking personality types (TPs) value clarity and precision with words and are more focused on getting the right answer than a quick answer.
As an ETJ personality type, you value efficiency, practicality, and order. You have a knack for systematizing and creating procedures so that complex tasks can be simplified and completed quickly. You quickly notice when something is slowing things down or someone is lacking direction. You value empirical thinking and measurable facts. Because Introverted Thinking is so intensive and inward in its focus, it can feel slow and inefficient to you. Digging into technicalities and minutiae of detail about a logical principle feels like it’s distracting from your overall plans. You might feel like ITPs are being too slow to come to a decision or are making things needlessly difficult. You might feel like you want them to hurry up and move forward instead of analyzing so much. Questions might pop into your head when you’re with an ITP, like, “Why are they slowing us down?” “Why can’t they see that the answer is clear?” “Are they testing me?” “Why don’t they respect my plans?”
Introverted Thinking can also be destabilizing to you at times. You might find yourself inwardly criticizing your plans or rules, seeing minute inconsistencies or loopholes. You might also find yourself after a busy day critiquing arguments you made or getting stuck in analysis paralysis over minute details of something.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you might want to ask yourself, “Do I feel like a logical principle is being violated?” “Do I feel like this person is taking too long to come to a decision because they’re analyzing too much?” “Am I unable to inwardly categorize what’s happening in a logical way?” “Am I getting stuck on fine-tuned accuracy over efficiency?”
Introverted Thinking isn’t always negative for you. You can tap into this function fairly well at times, but it doesn’t feel invigorating or useful to you. You’re probably very adept at seeing which logical principles are best in a given situation. You’re also probably quick to spot fine-detailed inaccuracies or logical fallacies that diminish the power of someone’s argument.
Read These Next:
10 Things You’ll Relate to if You’re an ENTJ
24 Signs That You’re an ESTJ Personality Type
The ISFP and the INFP – Opposing Role Extraverted Feeling (Fe)
Extraverted Feeling is focused primarily on connecting with and considering other people and the external environment. Extraverted Feeling types (FJs) try to get everyone on the same page so that people can move in a unified direction. They will often put their own individualized concerns on the backburner to focus on the needs of the group.
As an IFP personality type, you consider yourself empathetic and considerate, but more important than connecting outwardly is connecting inwardly. You want to live in alignment with your core desires, priorities, and values. If that makes you a misfit or disconnected from the group then so be it. When you’re dealing with FJ personality types you might feel like they are working too hard to please everyone, bending for others too much, or distracting from people’s personal values in the name of “harmony” too much. You might ask yourself things like, “Why can’t they make space for people’s individual values? We don’t all have to agree!” “Why are they undermining me?” “Do they have a hidden agenda?”
You might also experience Extraverted Feeling in a destabilizing way at times. You might find yourself inwardly bombarded by the agreed-upon group standards of the environment you are in. You might feel overwhelmed by other people’s emotions and values. You might become stubborn about how others affect you, trying to set up boundaries to protect you from their demands or needs.
When you find yourself being stubborn or oppositional, you could ask yourself these questions, “Do I feel pressured to conform to group values?” “Do I want others to conform to group values?” “Am I feeling emotionally overwhelmed by other people’s feelings?” “Am I tired of accommodating others?”
Extraverted Feeling isn’t always negative for you. You can tap into this function fairly easily at times, but it doesn’t feel as rich or reviving as Introverted Feeling. You may easily tune into other people’s needs or sense their emotional experiences. You can also quickly pick up on group expectations, but whether you choose to adhere to them depends on how they align with your inner values.
Further Reading for Understanding Your Type:
24 Signs That You’re an INFP Personality Type
24 Signs That You’re an ISFP Personality Type
The ISTP and the INTP – Opposing Role Extraverted Thinking (Te)
Extraverted Thinking organizes and structures the environment for efficiency and progress. It focuses on empirical facts to move forward and is conscious of time, deadlines, and order. Extraverted Thinking types (TJs) like to move at a methodical and rapid pace towards their goals, so they rely on rules or general guidelines to keep their pace as quickly as possible.
As an ITP, you are deeply analytical. You enjoy evaluating data and categorizing it inside your mind, creating a mental map of how things work. Rather than getting a cassette tape player and immediately using it by following the basic steps, you might feel tempted to take the whole thing apart and understand how it works, re-build it, and try it again. You like understanding how things work more than the quick steps you need to follow to use them. Because of this, you can have difficulties with TJ personality types because they are more focused on implementation than understanding. You might feel pressured by them to do less analysis than you’d like to. When you’re with them, you might find yourself thinking things like, “Why are they rushing me?” “Why are they over-simplifying this?” “Why are they opposing me?” “Why are they making things so difficult?”
You might also experience Extraverted Thinking in a destabilizing way at times. For example, you might randomly get stubborn about how things are organized and insist on a very systematic approach to how a procedure should be done. You might get annoyed at the general lack of structure and order around you but feel like it’s a waste of time to try to fix it. You might become oppositional or stubborn with people who you feel are trying to enforce their rules on you.
When you find yourself being stubborn or defiant, you might ask yourself, “Am I feeling rushed?” “Do I feel like things are being run inefficiently?” “Do I feel like someone’s trying to force me into their sequence or system?” “Am I not getting enough time to analyze the situation to my satisfaction?”
Extraverted Thinking isn’t always a negative function for you. You can tap into this side of yourself fairly easily, but it doesn’t provide the same satisfaction or interest as Introverted Thinking does. You may easily pick up on structures, rules, and empirical truths, but you tend to focus on your individual principles and precise understanding instead. You may also be very decisive when the situation calls for it, putting your analysis on the backburner to focus on efficiency because it’s situationally logical.
Further Reading for Understanding Your Type:
The ISTP Personality Profile
24 Signs That You’re an INTP Personality Type
What Are Your Thoughts?
Do you have any insights or input related to this topic? Share your thoughts with other readers in the comments!
Discover how you become oppositional or stubborn, as well as clashes you might have with other types, in this in-depth article. #Personality #MBTI #INFP #INFJ
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27597 | Jul 8, 2016
White Picket Fence Wreath
A few weeks ago, I picked up some fabric samples from a local furniture store. The store had advertised on Facebook that they were giving away the fabric sample books because the company discontinued those fabrics. Once I picked them up, I was trying to figure out what I'd do with them. Well, I came up with one project. I decided to used the fabric on a wreath. My idea was the create a wreath with a white picket fence, grass, trees, a dog, a birdhouse, clouds/sky, and flowers. I used the fabric to create rosettes to form the trees, the sky, and the flowers in the "grass" (I used floral moss for the grass).
some of my supplies
I hot glued the moss onto the straw wreath.
I was going to affix these wooden clouds to the wreath, but I decided to use them as the backing for the tree tops. I created rosettes to create the green tree tops.
I had two different kinds of fabrics. These were the textured shades of green.
These are the faux silks in green.
The silky tree trunk.
The textured tree trunk.
I made three burgundy rosettes for flowers.
This is a tree. I painted the birdhouse red, white, and blue.
I used both faux silks and textured fabrics in different shades of blue to create the sky.
My daughter loves bumblebees, so I had to add one to the wreath.
I wrote Welcome on the chalkboard and glued on the birds in the nest.
This is one of my favorite wreaths, and my mother says it's a spring wreath, but I consider it my everyday wreath for when it's not a holiday season. For me, this wreath with its white picket fence represents the American Dream to own a home with a white picket fence (and a loyal dog).
1. I'm going to have to try this so cool love it pinning and sharing
1. Thanks so much!! It was such a fun wreath to make!
2. Monroe this is absolutely adorable. And you created this from scraps. Talk about great imagination!!
1. Thanks Mary! It's on of my favorite creations. |
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Top 10 Mysteries in Slavic lands, Scientists Still Can’t Solve Them
Slavic lands are and have always been a interesting part of the world
Photo: Wikimedia montage
8385 (CC0), Pixabay
The world is built on numerous mysteries, legends, and myths, and the human mind was always intrigued by those. It is the mind itself that probably created things that weren’t really there, and searched for evidences or hidden meanings between some events, trying to discover something extraordinary.
As we are all here interested in anything that has to do with Slavs, check out the top 10 list of the mysteries in Slavic lands, and may you mind be both creative and rational.
Tunguska event
While today we wouldn’t find explosions too mysterious (unfortunately), back in 1908 the explosion took place above Siberian forests, that was as powerful as 1000 atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima. Luckily, with no radiation part. Officially, there were no human fatalities linked to this event.
The victims were mostly trees, and probably wildlife, because in these remote area humans weren’t frequent visitors. There were attempts to explain what caused the explosion, but for now, there is no scientifically proven answer.
Dyatlov Pass incident
No matter how much the snow reminds us of Christmas, New Year, presents… after this story the single thought of the snow can make you freeze in bed. The incident, in which nine ski hikers lost their lives under unexplained circumstances (there is plenty of explanations, but none of them is officially confirmed) on the Ural mountain, is named after the group’s leader, Igor Dyatlov. This group of young people was found frozen, their bodies almost naked, and few of them had fractures of chest and skull. While avalanche seemed to be the source of their misfortune, the fact that there were no signs of avalanche on the place where they were found remains.
Rtanj mountain
This mountain didn’t take any life, or at least, not officially, but was rather considered for a life saver back in 2012, when the Mayan calendar announced doomsday. Those were probably the best days for hotels in the area. But, what is it that dragged people here? It is the pyramidal shape of the mountain, that raised suspicion that Rtanj isn’t a mountain at all, but an ancient pyramid, or even a spaceship.
Crooked forest
It’s good that some mysteries are simply mysterious, but not necessarily scary. Crooked forest in Poland consist around 100 pines that are bent to the North. It is not clear if this happened by the hand of the men, or by some natural phenomena. There are other trees, all around the world, that are bent in a similar way, but those were individual cases.
The “Russian Stonehenge” was built around 4000 years ago. Even though there are theories how the city was built, it is still surprising that its architects managed to achieve such high precision which allowed them to track about 18 astronomical events. Scholars say that Arkaim was supposed to reproduce the model of the universe. The locals claim to have seen strange lights in the sky, and felt both positive and negative energies in the near area.
If you haven’t heard about Zrnov fortress, it’s because nobody really talks about it anymore. The medieval fortress on the top of Avala mountain, near Belgrade, was a stronghold that was destroyed in 1934 by the order of king Alexandar I Karadjordjevic. When asked why he ordered the destruction of such important cultural monument of his people, the king simply said that he thought it was made by the Ottomans. This sounds like a quite naive answer, leading to many conspiracy theories, among which is the one with freemasons and search for the Holy Grail. After all, the monument built on the very place where the fortress stood before, has a strangely pyramidal shape.
Book of Veles
The “book” that is actually the set of wooden planks, on which is written the ancient history and religion of Slavs. The book was discovered in 1919, in Ukraine, and was gone in 1941. Most scholars consider this piece for a forgery, because the language in which the text is written appear to be artificial, made by a writer who wasn’t very skilled in ancient Slavic languages, because most of the text can be relatively easy read by modern people. What remains as a fact is that most of ancient Slavic totems are destroyed during the Christianization of Slavs.
Underwater circles in Croatia
The Adriatic sea is beautiful and romantic, you can find anything: from beach parties to ancient towers. Now you have yet another thing to discover: strange underwater circles! It is indeed a mystery, after all, we all know that mysterious circles are supposed to show up in corn fields. Just kidding, of course. It is amazing that 28 perfectly round shapes were discovered only after routine mapping of the depths. All circles are about 300 meters from each other, all of the same size. Is it possible that some extraterrestrial tourists came for vacation?
Codex Gigas
The largest extant medieval illuminated manuscript in the world, also known as “Devil’s Bible” was created in the early 13the century in the Benedictine monastery of Podlazice in Bohemia. It is now held in the National Library of Sweden in Stockholm, but what we can find mysterious is: why isn’t it in the Czech Republic? Why it’s no longer on display for the general public? Who wrote it? The book passed from Czech to Sweden during the Thirty Year’s War, and somehow stayed there. It’s probably no longer on display, because of conditions of storing it needs. And who wrote it? According to the legend, it was written by a monk who had a help from a Devil in order to complete a book in one night.
Holes in Siberia
Losing the land under our feet can be troubling, but is absolutely terrifying when you see a hole that looks as if it was made by giant earthworms. Many of such holes started appearing in Siberia during 2014, for an unknown reason. Some scientists suggest that the phenomena are caused by the explosion of great amounts of methane bellow the surface. The Some others, however, aren’t so convinced, as nobody didn’t really see the explosion, or the collapse of the ground.
What do you think?
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27634 |
When Good Advice is Ignored: The Role of Adviser Remuneration
Last registered on June 28, 2017
Trial Information
General Information
When Good Advice is Ignored: The Role of Adviser Remuneration
Initial registration date
April 27, 2017
Last updated
June 28, 2017 9:54 AM EDT
Primary Investigator
University of Warwick
Other Primary Investigator(s)
PI Affiliation
University of Oxford
Additional Trial Information
In development
Start date
End date
Secondary IDs
If a decision-maker receives good advice they should probably take it. The remuneration of the advisor, when that remuneration does not relate in any way to the probability that the advice is good should not matter. However, it may be the case that people do indeed ignore good advice because of advisor remuneration. Through a series of experiments, we wish to explore the behavioral factors that may lie behind such deviations from rationality.
External Link(s)
Registration Citation
Ronayne, David and Daniel Sgroi. 2017. "When Good Advice is Ignored: The Role of Adviser Remuneration ." AEA RCT Registry. June 28. https://doi.org/10.1257/rct.2022-3.0.
Former Citation
Ronayne, David, Daniel Sgroi and Daniel Sgroi. 2017. "When Good Advice is Ignored: The Role of Adviser Remuneration ." AEA RCT Registry. June 28. http://www.socialscienceregistry.org/trials/2022/history/19017.
Experimental Details
Subjects undertake two tasks and are then offered the opportunity to replace their own decisions with those suggested by an advisor.
Intervention Start Date
Intervention End Date
Primary Outcomes
Primary Outcomes (end points)
(good) advice followed or not; subject envy; stubbornness (in general and relating to the sunk-cost fallacy); whether the nature of the task matters (luck or ability-based) in determining if advice is followed; demographics
Primary Outcomes (explanation)
Whether good advice is followed is determined in the experiment: advice is good if following it increases expected payoff. Remuneration is determined by treatment (low or high, can be affected by the subject or cannot). We can also measure the role of the task itself (whether luck or ability-based) by looking at behaviour by the same individuals across tasks. Subject envy is a measure of envy drawn from the psychology literature. Stubbornness associated with the sunk-cost fallacy is measured using scenarios derived from the relevant social science literature converted to a Likert scale. Stubbornness is measured using a series of questions taken from the existing literature and again converted to a Likert scale.
Secondary Outcomes
Secondary Outcomes (end points)
Secondary Outcomes (explanation)
Experimental Design
Experimental Design
MTurk study involving a series of tasks and demographic/psychometric measures.
Experimental Design Details
WAVE 1 In wave 1, subjects are recruited using MTurk. They are asked to complete 2 tasks. In one they must guess the result of 10 coin tosses. In the second they are asked to complete a 10-questions Raven visual IQ test. We record their performance in the 2 tasks enabling us to allocate some of them as "advisors" for wave 2. We collect data on their experiences (for instance, on the perceived difficulty of the tasks). We record the distribution of answers so we can choose the advisors to be better than the bulk of other subjects in wave 2. WAVE 2 In wave 2, subjects (different subjects, but again recruited through MTurk) take the 2 tasks (which are exactly the same as in wave 1). This time, after taking the tasks, they are offered the chance to switch their own answers for those of an "advisor" determined from wave 1. They are told that they can win a bonus if one of their answers (selected at random) proves to be correct. When making this choice, they are also told: (1) their own success rate; (2) the advisor's success rate; and (3) how the advisor was remunerated. Next the subjects are split into 3 treatments: (A) In one treatment the advisor receives a bonus payment of the same level as the subjects. (B) In another they received a larger bonus. Subjects are told that the advisor saw the same instructions as they did, hence the advisor did not know the size of the bonus before completing the tasks and so would not have influenced the advisor's behavior more than it did their own. (C) A third involves a bonus that is only awarded if the subject explicitly follows the advice, allowing the subject to directly influence the remuneration of the advisor. All subjects then complete a demographic survey and a psychological test designed to elicit an index of envy (using the Dispositional Envy Scale - Smith, R. H., Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., & Kim, S. H., 1999) and similar tests of stubbornness, both generally and in relation to the sunk-cost fallacy, drawn from various sources in social science.
Randomization Method
The randomization is undertaken by Qualtrics (the software we are using to run the MTurk study).
Randomization Unit
Individual level only
Was the treatment clustered?
Experiment Characteristics
Sample size: planned number of clusters
No clustering
Sample size: planned number of observations
Wave 1: approx 75 MTurk users Wave 2: approx 1,500 MTurk users
Sample size (or number of clusters) by treatment arms
approx 500 per condition for Wave 2.
Measure: The absolute difference in two proportions p & q. Sample size per condition: 500 Power: 80% Significance Level: 5% The minimum detectable effect size that is detectable regardless of the absolute values of p & q is: 0.0882 i.e., 8.82 percentage points (found where p=0.4559 and q=0.5441 i.e., where (p+q)/2=0.5). For different p & q values, smaller effect sizes can be detectable e.g., in an extreme example with p=0.0001 and q=0.0158, the difference of 0.0157 is detectable with sample sizes of 500 in each condition. Note that lower effect sizes are detectable in the case that the empirical values of p & q are such that (p+q)/2< or >1/2.
IRB Name
Centre for Experimental Social Sciences (CESS), University of Oxford
IRB Approval Date
IRB Approval Number
IRB Name
Department’s Research Ethics Committee (DREC), University of Oxford
IRB Approval Date
IRB Approval Number
Post Trial Information
Study Withdrawal
Is the intervention completed?
Is data collection complete?
Data Publication
Data Publication
Is public data available?
Program Files
Program Files
Reports, Papers & Other Materials
Relevant Paper(s) |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27638 | Welcome to WikiGeist, Your Online Source For Ghostly Answers
Q: Help! I think I might be a ghost!
A: You are not a ghost.
Q: But I can't get anyone to respond to me, and no one seems to notice I'm here! Are you sure I'm not a ghost?
A: No one notices you because you are grating and unlovable. You have convinced yourself you are a ghost as a coping mechanism so you do not have to address your massive character flaws. By inventing a supernatural cause for your inability to socialize and befriend others like a well-adjusted human, you can pretend that you are fine the way you are. In addition to this, ghosts do not use the internet due to Electrostatic Etheromyalgia, which will be discussed later. This page is useless to you. On the off chance a ghost is looking over your shoulder from a safe distance, it is for them.
Q. Wait, this is impossible. I can't be a ghost because ghosts aren't real.
A: Please state your objection in the form of a question. This is an FAQ.
Q: How did I become a ghost?
A: Ghosts are created when your human consciousness is unwilling or unable to pass to the Other Side, and instead manifests as various phenomena in the Physical World. The cause for this is as variable as it is personal. It may be that you wished to witness the birth of a child, or were waiting for a lover, or were killed in a state of disbelief and confusion, or you did not empty your Gmail inbox. You might even be too stupid to realize you are dead, much like Bruce Willis in The Sixth Sense.
Q: The Other Side? You mean Heaven or Hell?
A: There is an answer to your question that is both satisfactory and enlightening. It is also totally irrelevant because you are stuck here forever. Enjoy watching your friends and family discover the answer to life's greatest mystery while you figure out how to write on foggy mirrors.
Q: Speaking of which, what are my powers?
A: Different apparitions have different powers, based on their classification. 75% of ghosts can do some minor tricks that could be accurately described as ' Mildly Spooky'. The other 25% have Very Scary Powers and pay for it by being constantly in torment.
You are in the 75% of Mildly Spooky ghosts because you are reading a webpage over the shoulder of a person that no one else likes.
Q: Is there any way to communicate with the living?
A: Probably, but I doubt they want to hear from you.
Q: What about those ghost hunter TV shows? Can I get into one of those?
A: Much like real life, the chances of you appearing on TV are virtually nonexistent. When those shows actually do film a ghost, it is always one of the 25% of ghosts with special powers because they make for good TV. Listening to your sob story about how you got hit by a drunk Lacrosse player on a moped and were knocked out before falling face-first into a 4" deep puddle where you proceeded to drown is not good TV.
Q: This sucks. How do I get to be one of the 25% of super powerful ghosts?
A: You cannot. Those ghosts got to where they are by their acts in life.
For instance, Poltergeists were obscenely aggravating narcissists in their life and continue to insist that everything be about them in death. The fact that they cannot get what they want only makes them angrier and that is why they break things. They are also responsible for over half the comments on YouTube videos. The Manananggal of the Philippines, which has the hideous torso of a woman and bat wings and can detach her torso and likes to feed on pregnant women with its proboscis, originates in tanning bed accidents. La Llorana, the weeping woman of Latin America, did not drown her children as folklore says but rather was a helicopter parent that fell overboard during whitewater rafting. Japanese onryo are perfectionists who were very unsatisfied with how untidy their deaths were and come back to bug everyone about it.
Q: And Banshees?
A: Screamo vocalists.
Q: Can I have sex with other ghosts or even people, like Dan Aykroyd in Ghostbusters?
A: Not unless you died having sex. Then you will have ghost sex for eternity. It is not the good kind. As for Dan Aykroyd he is a completely unique entity who exists in every universe and dimension possible and is able to copulate with all life forms. It is theorized that he may also exist outside the time-space continuum and be responsible for seeding life across all time and space. If so he is the first person to be his own grandfather.
Q: Wasn't that Tom Arnold?
A: If you are so smart why are you reading an FAQ page?
Q: Is it possible for me to be destroyed?
A: No, but scientists predict that the universe will eventually succumb to heat death so that may work in your favor.
Q: Is there anything that can hurt me?
A: Not with pain like you experienced in life. Yours will now be a completely cognitive form of torment. For instance, running water attracts ghost energy. If you died outside you may be drawn to a river which would be a peaceful place. If you died inside you can easily get stuck in the U-bend of a toilet.
Electronics in the modern age often utilize WiFi and Bluetooth technology which interferes with your spiritual cohesion and causes the intense phantom pain known as Electrostatic Etheromyalgia. This effect is why every electronics outlets feel soulless and void. Apple Store employees are very much similar to ghosts in that they are hollow mimicries of beings with substance and life, with the exception that ghosts are souls without bodies and Apple Store employees are bodies without souls.
You should also be aware that humans are not the only kinds of ghosts out there. There are ghost ships, ghost planes, ghost cars, ghost towns, ghost limbs, ghost dogs, ghost lions, ghost worms, ghost magazines (all back issues of Teen Vogue), ghost sharks, and ghost dinosaurs. There is a very real food chain full of ghosts that may eat you in a ceaseless vain quest to sate their hunger. If this happens you will pass through the ghost's digestive tract without harm and be excreted. Because you did not satisfy the hunger of whatever ate you, your devourer may be very upset and attempt to consume you again. This process can last for millennia.
Q: Is there anything at all redeeming or pleasant about my experience as a ghost?
A: You have plenty of time to figure out how people make balloon animals.
Q: Hold on, who is writing this? How do you know so much about ghosts?
A: ...
Q: Dan Aykroyd?
A: Dammit.
– Andrew "Anthym" Wolf (@TheRealAnthym)
More Front Page News
This Week on Something Awful...
• Pardon Our Dust
Pardon Our Dust
Copyright ©2020 Jeffrey "of" YOSPOS & Something Awful |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27643 | I was walking down the street the other day
A sight came before my eyes
It was a little hippie boy
I must have been twice his size
His appearance typefied his strange breed
Gaudy clothes, long stringy hair hanging down
I'd seen perhaps a thousand
In my early trips to town
As he walked on beside me on down the block
I noticed no unpleasing smell
He might have been on the weed or even LSD
But if he was I couldn't tell
So we walked together that way through this neighborhood
Finally he turned around to me and he
He said "friend you know we're a million miles apart
But you know something?
We can enjoy the sunshine and the weather
So why don't we put our differences aside
And just talk to each other?
You see this box beneath my arm?
To you it's plain, it has no charm
But to someone dearest to my heart
This box has played a tragic part
This little one can't tell you himself
About his life and how he died
But if anyone else could speak for him,
I guess I'm qualified
He was with his family and friends and he didn't really care
You might have been one of those who saw
The struggle there on your television screen
The tragic thing is so much else happened
That no one else could have seen
A stranger handed this boy a dollar
To do a simple chore
To carry a package to a nearby hotel
And when he returned he'd get two more
But when he came back he sort of lost his way walking through the crowd
One of them things you ask yourself,
How the Lord allowed
But when he was found he was like he is now,
Dreaming sweet and still
And in his little hand was a crumpled dollar bill
Now you can take that dollar
Get four cents on it, compound it quarterly at any downtown bank
So they can back some hot new tank or atom bomb
Now could you help us sing this song, please
There will be peace in the valley for him now we pray
I will think of the little hippie boy that way
Copyright: Universal Music Publishing Group
The Flying Burrito Brothers - Hippie Boy (HQ)
Flying Burrito Brothers - Hippie Boy
The Flying Burrito Bros - The Gilded Palace Of Sin (1969)
The Flying Burrito Bros.-"Wheels" from "Guilded Palace of Sin"
Hippie boy
The Flying Burrito Bros.-"Juanita" from "Guilded Palace of Sin"
Download SoundHound |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27644 | From SourceWatch
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On SourceWatch, anyone who makes changes to the site is an editor. There are three types of editors:
Types of editors
Managing editors
The Center for Media and Democracy works with editors and sysops to oversee SourceWatch. You can reach these editors via editors AT
Sysops are trusted editors who have been given special administrative privileges on SourceWatch due to their technological expertise.
Citizen editors
Citizen editors are citizens who register with SourceWatch and are approved to edit an article. Due to spamming and efforts by PR reps and others to whitewash articles, the SourceWatch editor approval process is under review and there is a queuing process for securing editor credentials that cannot be expedited. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27660 |
Accessing the room settings as administrator of an organization
In various cases it may be possible that the settings and rights of members of a room have to be changed, but there is no access to them - for example, if a user with the necessary rights is on leave. In this case, it is possible for the administrator of the organization to access and adjust the settings of the room, even if he/ she is not contained in a room.
How can an administrator of the organization access the room settings without being included in the room?
You can access the room settings via the settings of the organization, which can be opened by clicking on the own profile image in the lower left corner and clicking on "Organization Settings". Then the "Statistics" tab has to be selected. The options "Encrypted Rooms" and "Unencrypted Rooms" are located in the table at the bottom. By clicking on these options, a list of the created rooms is opened.
Besides to the listed rooms, the button "Settings" can be clicked, which opens the settings of the selected room.
Within the room settings, users can now be edited or rights changed. However, it's not possible to add new users to a room.
Was this article helpful? |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27663 | The micro-bag is the latest questionable celebrity trend
Kylie Jenner is the latest celeb to rock the accessory
Stars Insider
21/10/20 | StarsInsider
FASHION Accessories
The tiny handbag trend began to emerge as early as 2017, but it's becoming more and more extreme! Kendall Jenner, Rihanna, and Beyoncé have all been seen toting bags that could barely hold a lipstick. It really hit the spotlight at the 2019 AMAs, when Lizzo may have broken a world record with her tiny accessory: a bag so small she could dangle it on one of her ornate finger nails. Not the most practical choice, but perhaps it's easier to have a micro-bag when your personal assistant follows behind carrying your phone, tampons, and Kleenex.
In this gallery, let's take a look at the micro-bag's finest moments, and decide if it's fabulous or ludicrous! Click through to get started.
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27664 | Contribute Try STAT+ Today
Every time we look at the sun — or a camera flash goes off right in our eyes — we end up seeing spots.
But what are those spots, exactly, and why do we see them?
It all starts with the cornea, the transparent tissue through which light first enters the eye. The light makes its way to the back of the eye, where tiny, light-sensitive cells known as photoreceptors translate it into images the brain can understand. But when that light is too bright, those photoreceptors are forced to scramble behind the scenes to process the excess.
In the new episode of “Boddities,” I take a look inside the eye to get to the bottom of bright spots.
Watch other “Boddities” episodes:
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global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27679 | Firefox and noscript a much safer way to surf the web
Discussion in 'Technical' started by sec_monkey, Apr 30, 2014.
1. sec_monkey
sec_monkey SM Security Administrator
Last edited: May 1, 2014
Brokor, duane, Mountainman and 2 others like this.
2. Motomom34
Motomom34 Monkey+++
Thank you!
3. duane
duane Monkey+++
Thank you again, will have to take time later to read and try to absorb, happy now to just be a dumb satisfied user.
sec_monkey likes this.
4. chelloveck
chelloveck Diabolus Causidicus
5. Cruisin Sloth
Cruisin Sloth Special & Slow
Thanks also
Had an add on that I could toggle cookies by a button & no 3rd ones
Also , the facebook tracker stopper , plus any other you think , confusser is get back up to speed again
Last edited: Jun 9, 2019
oldman11 and sec_monkey like this.
6. aardbewoner
Yes its good people can see how much crap most websites want to load of 3th party scripts.
Do remember that your browser is giving much info to ! OS and Browser and more machine info!
sec_monkey likes this.
7. Merkun
Merkun furious dreamer
I'm having reasonable success with Ghostery. Works similar to NoScript which I've used in the past. (Somehow, NS got lost in an Ff upgrade, still dunno what happened.)
8. sec_monkey
sec_monkey SM Security Administrator
@Merkun an expired cert broke all addons.
upgrade to the latest firefox 67 plus plus then see if NoScript comes back or try to re-install NoScript
Merkun likes this.
9. Merkun
Merkun furious dreamer
67.0.1 on board.
sec_monkey likes this.
10. sec_monkey
sec_monkey SM Security Administrator
if it did not come back by itself try to re-install or remove/re-install.
Merkun likes this.
11. ralfy
ralfy Monkey+
Also, I disabled telemetry in Firefox:
[Tip] Disable Telemetry and Data Collection in Mozilla Firefox Web Browser - AskVG
I used uBlock Origin together with NoScript:
uBlock Origin – Get this Extension for Firefox (en-US)
Cookie AutoDelete – Get this Extension for Firefox (en-US)
Decentraleyes – Get this Extension for Firefox (en-US)
TunnelBear Blocker:
TunnelBear Blocker – Get this Extension for Firefox (en-US)
and HTTPS Everywhere:
HTTPS Everywhere – Get this Extension for Firefox (en-US)
I also selected additional filter lists for uBlock Origin from FilterLists:
FilterLists | Subscriptions for uBlock Origin, Adblock Plus, AdGuard, ...
including those used for Nano Defender and Adguard.
I also installed Waterfox to run legacy addons like DownThemAll and Flashgot:
Browse the web YOUR way
I might move to the Waterfox that uses the the latest Firefox version once it is completed.
I also installed Tor Browser if I need to access particular websites:
The Tor Project | Privacy & Freedom Online
or use a VPN.
Finally, I installed Iridium:
which is based on the same code as Chrome but with privacy and other issues removed.
survivalmonkey SSL seal warrant canary |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27712 | Vacation Time or PTO?
Image by Melissa Ling. © The Balance 2019
Many companies have done away with sick leave, vacation days, and personal days as employee benefits and have replaced all of them with a PTO plan. The acronym means "paid time off" or "personal time off" and, while many employees welcome the change, it can lead to costly mistakes for a company if it is not implemented well.
Counting PTO Days
An employee's PTO is a number of hours in a virtual bank from which employees can make withdrawals. Employers credit additional hours to each employee's bank over time, usually with every pay period.
Most American employers who use the more traditional system offer most of their workers 10 paid holidays, two weeks of paid vacation, two personal days, and eight sick leave days per year. Under a PTO plan, the employees would instead be credited with 30 days paid time off per year.
The calculation method depends on the pay schedule. With a bi-weekly pay schedule (that is, 26 paydays a year), employees are credited 1.3 days of PTO every two weeks. With a semi-monthly pay schedule is used (that is, payday is the first and 15th of each month), employees accrue 1.25 days PTO on each of 24 pay periods.
Most Employees Prefer It
A PTO plan makes your company more attractive to prospective employees by increasing the number of days they can take off from work and still get paid if they are generally in good health. Since most employees will never use all their sick days, they can take the difference as extra vacation time. There is no cost to the company and employees are happier.
It Can Be Bad for Business
A PTO can cause problems for a business if its employees feel free to call in at the last minute and use up some PTO time. This can be managed by requiring prior approval for any use of PTO.
But employers must understand that employees who never used their full allotment of sick leave will surely use all of their PTO every year.
It's called planned sick leave.
Saving Up Sick Leave
One of the most common problems is caused by sick employees who don't want to waste their PTO on mere illnesses. There's a tendency to horde paid time off as vacation time. When employees get sick, they stagger into work anyway to avoid using up paid time off. This makes other workers ill and productivity drops as more and more of the workforce gets sick.
Manage the Issue
To effectively manage a PTO program you should:
• Make sure it suits the company culture. A PTO plan works best for a company with a high degree of flexibility.
• Establish clear guidelines in advance. If you require employees to request PTO in advance except for emergencies, define emergency and enforce it. If there are calendar dates when the company can ill afford many absences, tell employees that up front.
• Manage the people, not just the PTO. If employees come into work sick, send them home. You have an obligation to protect the rest of your employees. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27724 | Thutmose III
(redirected from Tuthmosis III)
Also found in: Encyclopedia.
Related to Tuthmosis III: Hatshepsut, Ramses II, Tutankhamun
Thut·mo·se III
(tho͞ot-mō′sə) Died 1452 bc.
King of Egypt (1504-1452) who conquered Syria and much of the Euphrates Valley and brought great wealth to Egypt.
Thutmose III
(Biography) died c. 1450 bc, king of Egypt of the 18th dynasty, who completed the conquest of Syria and dominated the Middle East. He was also a patron of the arts and a famous athlete
Thut•mo•se III
(θutˈmoʊ sə, -ˈmoʊs)
also Thut•mo•sis III
(-ˈmoʊ sɪs)
fl. c1475 B.C., Egyptian ruler.
Mentioned in ?
References in periodicals archive ?
Don't miss the Obelisk of Theodosius - the oldest monument in Istanbul, commissioned by Egyptian Pharaoh Tuthmosis III and the bronze, spiral Serpentine Column, made from soldiers' melted shields in 479BC to symbolise the Greek victory against the Persians.
Before this discovery, the only proof was represented in Tuthmosis III, where there is a visible part in the statue that depicts King Ramses II accompanied by God Sobek and God Horus, the main gods of the Temple of Kom Ombo.
This is the era of Set I, Ramses II, and Tuthmosis III, the greatest military pharaohs in Egyptian history.
Examples of the award of particular interest are examined beginning with Rekhmire, who was vizier under both Tuthmosis III and his son Amenhotep II.
A son was born, Tuthmosis III, but Hatshepsut was not the mother.
Royal-Athena Galleries carries another example of an ancient Egyptian work in the form of a limestone bust of Tuthmosis III, dated to the 18th dynasty.
King Tuthmosis III ruled Egypt between 1504 and 1450 BCE and brought seeds and different breeds of animals and birds from the region around what is now Lebanon, whose achievements is recorded at Karnak Temple in Upper Egypt.
While some kings were revered - such as Tuthmosis III who expanded Egypt's empire to its largest extent - others were poked fun at in comical stories.
Among the places and structures shown are the Avenue of Sphinxes, the tomb of Tuthmosis III, the Valley of the Queens, the Nile south of Luxor, Nubia Museum, and the monastery of St.
The main offender was Tuthmosis III, who removed his stepmother's name from dozens of walls and pillars.
This obelisk was originally erected in Heliopolis by Tuthmosis III, around 1450 BC. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27730 | Is the Supreme Court ready to take the political shackles off big businesses and labor unions? It sure looks like it.
The court this week heard a challenge to the Federal Election Commission's 2008 ruling that prohibited the showing of "Hillary: The Movie" on cable television during Clinton's presidential primary campaign. The FEC said the movie was essentially a campaign ad - one financed by corporations in a manner prohibited by campaign finance law.
Would striking down campaign finance laws be a boon to free speech? Or would it allow corporations and unions to elbow regular citizens to the electoral sidelines? Joel Mathis and Ben Boychuk, the RedBlueAmerica columnists, jump into the fray.
Ben Boychuk
"You must always second-guess Congress when the First Amendment is in play," Ted Olson told the Supreme Court on Sept. 9. Yes, Congress passed campaign finance reform laws in 2002, 1979, 1976, 1974, 1971, 1947, 1943, 1939, 1925, and half a dozen occasions before that, each creating a more intricate web of restrictions and regulations on election campaign spending.
The Supreme Court has said repeatedly that Congress may, in fact, abridge freedom of speech if there is "a compelling state interest" and "a narrowly tailored remedy." But there is no justification for McCain-Feingold's restrictions. The rules have become so complicated and far-reaching that the government in March actually suggested that under current law it could ban other media, including books. That way madness - and tyranny - lies.
Eliminating the corrupting influence of money from politics has been the stated goal of campaign finance reforms for at least a century. The reforms Congress passed in the wake of the Watergate scandal and again with the McCain-Feingold law of 2002 have, of course, done no such thing. Instead, campaign finance reform has empowered bureaucrats, courts and political incumbents.
The cure for campaign finance reform is fewer rules, not more. There should be little or no restriction on money in politics. There should be no limits on what a candidate can raise and spend. Political parties, corporations, unions ... let them all in. The only exception should be for foreign contributions.
Transparency and instant Internet disclosure make most of the old objections and warnings about quid pro quo corruption irrelevant. If a political candidate receives the financial aid of large corporations, and public knows about it, then the question of undue influence falls to the voters to resolve. As it should be.
The Supreme Court should second guess Congress and reaffirm the First Amendment.
Joel Mathis
Imagine the following scenario: You're in a coffee shop, talking politics with a friend. The conversation is heated at times, but at least you both have a chance to make your point. Now a third guy walks in and sits next to your table - with a megaphone. He proceeds to drown out your conversation with a steady torrent of high-volume babble that makes it impossible for you to communicate with your friend.
In this scenario, everybody is technically exercising free speech. But megaphone man has rendered you and your friend mute. That's exactly what will happen if the Supreme Court strikes down restrictions on campaign contributions by corporations and labor unions: Giant institutions will rule the political discourse even more than they do now. The little guy will be drowned out.
All branches of government have long recognized that such inequity distorts and undermines democracy. For a century now, Congress has passed laws to regulate such contributions. Presidents have signed those bills. The Supreme Court has upheld the laws. Each has recognized the ability of big corporations - and their big money - to overwhelm political debate in this country.
"Because of the numerous advantages that the corporate form confers, a corporation's ability to pay for electoral advocacy has 'little or no correlation to the public's support for the corporation's political ideas,' " the government said in its brief to the Supreme Court, citing the court's own previous rulings.
Furthermore, a vote to strike down the regulations would make a mockery of conservative complaints of "judicial activism." The court would be disregarding its own precedent and the wishes of the American people expressed through their elected representatives. And for what? So the guy with the megaphone can make sure you're never heard again.
|
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27775 | Skip to main content
ANNOVA Systems to showcase enhancements to OpenMedia newsroom computer system
At IBC2011, ANNOVA Systems will feature the latest enhancements of its OpenMedia advanced newsroom system.
Among the new features available in OpenMedia 3.8 is Show Profiler, which provides an overview of upcoming shows. For example, users can view their news bulletins for 6 p.m., 7 p.m. and 8 p.m. together on one screen to check if everything is running smoothly. The Show Profiler also provides a means to perform cross-channel comparisons for a specific slot in time.
The new Shot Planning module brings the Sony XDCAM directly into the OpenMedia news workflow. The Shot Planning module allows a continuous planning workflow for productions, where metadata relevant to the story can be matched directly with a Sony XDCAM available to the camera team.
Annova Systems also will feature its Journalist Editorial Portal, which makes all news production information available on one dashboard.
See ANNOVA Systems at IBC2011 Stand 3.A31. |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27788 | Financial Modeling Summer 2020
General Remarks
The course will be offered online via Moodle.
Familiarity with basic concepts from financial economics (discounting, risk and return, option pricing) is important. The course is structured such that bachelor students can acquire such a knowledge by parallel attendance of the lecture Finanzierung. The courses Asset Pricing plus Financial Mathematics I would provide the necessary background for master students.
If you are an Excel novice watch one of our introduction videos for Excel in English or German (will be available via Moodle). Most students in the course will have some basic Excel literacy. If you struggle with the preparation tasks that we wil ask you to solve, it is likely that you benefit from investing some more time into getting more familiar with Excel.
Please see "General Remarks" to the left.
Dates and Room
Online, in lockstep with the usual semester dates:
Mondays 14.15-15.45 |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27790 | Skip to content Skip to sidebar Skip to footer
Looking for a transformative way to deliver the curriculum in a blended classroom?
As stated on the Hyperdoc website:
Check out these examples created by our own WECDSB staff:
Kelly Campbell-Dries, English Teacher at Assumption High School shared her "highlight" HyperDoc designed to teach students to write a CER essay (Claim, Evidence, Reasoning). Kelly shares the document using the "Make A Copy" feature in Google Classroom allowing each student to work directly their Hyperdoc.
Kelly introduced the Hyperdoc using this video:
If you have something to say, please leave a message in the comments :) |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27838 | Battle of Globe Tavern
From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia
Battle of Globe Tavern
Part of the American Civil War
Globe Tavern, near Petersburg, Va - NARA - 526157.tif
A photograph of Globe Tavern by Mathew Brady taken between 1860 and 1865.
DateAugust 18, 1864 (1864-08-18) – August 21, 1864 (1864-08-21)
Result Union victory
Commanders and leaders
Gouverneur K. Warren A. P. Hill
P.G.T. Beauregard
20,000[1] 14–15,000[2]
Casualties and losses
251 killed
1,148 wounded
2,897 missing/captured [3]
211 killed
990 wounded
419 missing/captured[3]
General Warren's headquarters at Globe Tavern.
Globe Tavern
As the siege of Petersburg began to take hold, Union Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant continued to look for ways to sever the railroad links supplying the city of Petersburg, Virginia, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's army, and the Confederate capital of Richmond. One of these critical supply lines was the Petersburg Railroad, also called the Petersburg and Weldon Railroad, which led south to Weldon, North Carolina, and connected to the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad which led to the Confederacy's only remaining major port, Wilmington, North Carolina. In the Battle of Jerusalem Plank Road, June 21–23, the II Corps was able to destroy a short segment of the Petersburg Railroad before being driven off by the Third Corps of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia.[4]
Grant remarked to his staff, "The President has more nerve than any of his advisors."[6]
Opposing forces[edit]
Siege of Petersburg, capture of the Weldon Railroad, August 18–19
Map of Globe Tavern Battlefield core and study areas by the American Battlefield Protection Program.
Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, message to headquarters, August 21[11]
National Park Service marker at Fort Wadsworth
Union casualties at Globe Tavern were 4,296 (251 killed, 1,148 wounded, 2,897 missing/captured), Confederate 1,620 (211 killed, 990 wounded, 419 missing/captured).[3] The Confederates lost a key section of the Petersburg Railroad and were forced to carry supplies by wagon 30 miles (48 km) from the railroad at Stony Creek up the Boydton Plank Road into Petersburg. The Union army gained its first victory during the Siege of Petersburg and achieved a major objective. Grant severed the Weldon and extended his siege lines to Globe Tavern, but this was not yet a critical problem for the Confederates. A member of Lee's staff wrote, "Whilst we are inconvenienced, no material harm is done us."[12]
Wanting to complete his army's control over the railroad, Grant recalled the II Corps from its failed attempt at Deep Bottom to destroy the Petersburg Railroad further south, an action that resulted in the Second Battle of Ream's Station on August 25. 1864.[13]
1. ^ Heidler, p. 850.
2. ^ Kennedy, p. 357, cites 14,000, Heidler, p. 850, 15,000 engaged.
3. ^ a b c Bonekemper, p. 316. The author presents casualty figures from a wide variety of sources and provides his best estimate. Kennedy, p. 360, and Salmon, p. 426, estimate 4,455 Union, 1,600 Confederate. Horn, p. 140, estimates 4,279 Union, about 2,300 Confederates. Eicher cites Union losses as 926 killed and wounded, 2,810 missing or captured.
4. ^ Trudeau, pp. 160–64; Salmon, p. 424.
5. ^ Eicher, p. 724; Trudeau, p. 158; Salmon, p. 424.
6. ^ a b Trudeau, p. 159.
7. ^ Davis, p. 101; Salmon, p. 424.
8. ^ Trudeau, pp. 162–63; Salmon, p. 424.
9. ^ Salmon, p. 424; Trudeau, pp. 164–68; Davis, pp. 101–03.
10. ^ Trudeau, pp. 164–73; Salmon, p. 425; Davis, pp. 103–04; Eicher, p. 725.
11. ^ a b Trudeau, p. 173.
12. ^ Davis, p. 104.
13. ^ Eicher, pp. 725–26; Salmon, pp. 426–28; Davis, pp. 104–10.
• Bonekemper, Edward H., III. A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2004. ISBN 0-89526-062-X.
• Heidler, David S., and Jeanne T. Heidler. "Globe Tavern, Virginia." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
• Horn, John. The Petersburg Campaign: June 1864 – April 1865. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1999. ISBN 978-1-58097-024-2.
• Trudeau, Noah Andre. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia, June 1864 – April 1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8071-1861-3.
• National Park Service battle description
• CWSAC Report Update
Further reading[edit]
• Horn, John. The Petersburg Campaign: The Destruction of the Weldon Railroad: Deep Bottom, Globe Tavern, and Reams Station, August 14–25, 1864. Lynchburg, VA: H. E. Howard, Inc., 1991. ISBN 978-1-56190-010-7.
External links[edit]
Coordinates: 37°10′29″N 77°25′13″W / 37.1747°N 77.4203°W / 37.1747; -77.4203 |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27859 | CW (Christel) van Eck MSc
CW (Christel) van Eck MSc
In 2017, I was granted funding from NWO Research Talent to conduct research on climate change blogs. I am very interested in climate change communications, climate psychology, polarization, and new media. My current research on climate change blogs focuses on all these different themes.
Currently, I am conducting research that focuses on:
• Journalistic norms of climate change bloggers;
• Discourses in climate change blogs;
• Framing strategies of users in comment sections;
• The effect of climate change blogs on audiences. Specifically, I am focusing on climate change risk perceptions and the socio-psychological factors that explain variations in these perceptions. In addition, I investigate echo chamber effects amongst blog audiences.
• Differences in emotional language in the climate change blogo- and twittersphere.
Do you want to have a chat about my research or something else, please drop a line at |
global_05_local_5_shard_00002591_processed.jsonl/27870 | Sign of Island Meaning in Chinese Palmistry
Island - A Negative Sign in Palmistry
An island on your palm means the hollow and isle-shaped mark on the main lines. In palmistry, island is a sign of obstruction and destruction which vary with the location. Islands are generally found on the main lines on palm and indicate the bad luck.
Island on Life Line
Fig 1
An island on the Life Line is adverse to health, especially in the middle of the Life Line, which is the worst sign of illness despite the good physical condition. If the island is big and located at the part which presents old age, it indicates the life risk. (Fig 1)
Island on Head Line
An island on the head line represents you are distracted and suffer a memory frustration. The larger the island is, the more serious your metal crisis is. The locations of the island convey different meanings:
● For an island below the Mount of Jupiter (located below the forefinger), it means you were born with a poor nutrition. Also, you couldn’t concentrate when doing things. (Fig 3)
● An island below the Mount of Saturn (located below the middle finger) means you are easy to get a headache and suffer from depression. Also, you are with a bad stomach and often suffer from a loss of appetite. (Fig 4)
● An island below the Mount of Apollo which is located below the ring finger shows you usually are weak-eyed. (Fig 5)
● An island below the base of the little finger means you may suffer a nervous breakdown. In addition, it’s an omen of cerebropathy during the late year. (Fig 6)
● Two islands mean you may suffer encephalasthenia or a memory decline. You usually lack of common sense, stubborn, not considerate and like to be self-centered. (Fig 7)
Fig 3
Fig 4
Fig 5
Fig 6
Fig 7
Island on Heart Line
Fig 2
The island on heart line indicates problems with marriage or eyes. With this island, you are easy to love a person who is not suitable to you or whom you should not fall in love with.
If the island appears under the ring finger, it signifies problems with eyes such as short sightedness or weak sight. (Fig 2)
Island on Fate Line
Fig 9
Fig 8
If there are islands on your fate line, it indicates blocks in career. The bigger the island is, the more serious the troubles are.
● An island on the join point of the fate line and head line indicates financial losses or failure of career caused by your wrong decisions. (Fig 8)
● An island on the join point of the fate line and heart line indicates difficulties in career interrupted by your emotions. (Fig 9)
Fig 12
Fig 11
Fig 10
● An island at the end of the fate line shows you couldn’t realize your lofty aspirations during your life, thus be passive and disappointed during the old age. (Fig 10)
● An island on the beginning of a shallow fate line indicates you were born unusually. You are an illegitimate child or orphan. (Fig 11)
● An island located in the middle of the palm on the fate line indicates setbacks in career and a fluctuated destiny after your middle age. (Fig 12)
Island on Sun Line
Fig 13
If there are islands on your sun line, it indicates troubles in reputation and losses in wealth. You are inclined to be impatient when find it’s hard to achieve success.
● If an island appears on the intersection point of the sun line and heart line, it indicates you may lose your high position in society because you are lust crazed for women. (Fig 13)
Island on Marriage Line
Fig 16
Fig 15
Fig 14
Island on marriage line indicates psychological incompatibility with your partner or family conflict. You couldn’t enjoy a happy marriage and may separate with your partner in life.
● An island in the middle indicates twists and turns in love. (Fig 15)
● If the island appears at the end of the line, it indicated obstacles after marriage. (Fig 16)
● Many islands indicate unfavorable love relationship and marriage.
Island on Health Line
Fig 17
You are easy to suffer from insomnia and have excessive dreams if there is any island on the health line. It also hints you that you may suffer diseases of the liver and gall; have a poor kidney function or respiratory system. If the island is large, it’s an indication of mammary gland hyperplasia disease for female. Better go to see a doctor. (Fig 17)
Near the Junction of Health Line and Head Line
If the island is near the junction of Health Line and Head Line and the Health Line is in crimson, it means you often catch a cold and you are sophisticated and prone to cerebral diseases.
Related Reading:
→ Auspicious Signs and Symbols in Palmistry
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