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id_1800 | Construction companies have to deal with a mountain of energy efficiency legislation as governments try to move to a low-carbon future. Buildings account for 45% of all UK greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide and methane, so the drive for new energy efficient building stock is understandable. However it is important to remember that an estimated 70% of existing buildings will still be in use by 2080, so the focus on new-build is perhaps misguided. Some people claim that the low-hanging fruit is to be found by spending time and effort up-rating the efficiency of existing building stock. Whilst policy makers are aware of the huge potential of reducing carbon emissions by writing legislation on existing buildings, they admit that this would involve more heavy-handed intervention and public resistance than if they levelled their sights on the construction of new buildings. All new building construction requires approval from authorities and regulating bodies, so this naturally lends itself to an expansion of rules on energy and carbon emissions. As with most things, the issue comes down to cost and political convenience. | Buildings cause 45% of all the carbon emissions in the UK. | n |
id_1801 | Construction companies have to deal with a mountain of energy efficiency legislation as governments try to move to a low-carbon future. Buildings account for 45% of all UK greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide and methane, so the drive for new energy efficient building stock is understandable. However it is important to remember that an estimated 70% of existing buildings will still be in use by 2080, so the focus on new-build is perhaps misguided. Some people claim that the low-hanging fruit is to be found by spending time and effort up-rating the efficiency of existing building stock. Whilst policy makers are aware of the huge potential of reducing carbon emissions by writing legislation on existing buildings, they admit that this would involve more heavy-handed intervention and public resistance than if they levelled their sights on the construction of new buildings. All new building construction requires approval from authorities and regulating bodies, so this naturally lends itself to an expansion of rules on energy and carbon emissions. As with most things, the issue comes down to cost and political convenience. | The construction of some new buildings is exempt from legislation. | c |
id_1802 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | Legal advice and forms can be bought from certain shops. | e |
id_1803 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | The procedure for making a legal claim is easier in Scotland. | n |
id_1804 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | The customer contributes to the cost of having faulty shoes tested. | e |
id_1805 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | Shops prefer to give a credit note rather than change shoes. | n |
id_1806 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | You can ask any shoe shop to send shoes to the Footwear Testing Centre. | c |
id_1807 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | The factory is responsible for replacing unwanted shoes. | c |
id_1808 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | If you return unwanted shoes straightaway, with a receipt, the shop will probably give you a refund. | e |
id_1809 | Consumer advice on buying shoes If you have a problem with shoes youve recently bought follow this four-step plan. Step 1 Go back to the shop with proof of purchase. If you return faulty shoes at once, you have a right to insist on a refund. It is also likely that you will get one if you change your mind about the shoes and take them back immediately. But if you delay or youve had some use out of the shoes, the shop may not give you all your money back. It depends on the state of the shoes and how long youve had them. If you are offered a credit note, you dont have to accept it. If you accept it you will usually not be able to exchange it for cash later on. So, you may be left with an unwanted credit note, if you cannot find any other shoes you want from the shop. The shop may want to send the shoes back to head office for inspection. This is fair and could help to sort things out But dont be put off by the shop which claims that its the manufacturers responsibility. This isnt true. Its the shops legal duty to put things right. Step 2 If you dont seem to be getting anywhere, you can get help. Free advice is available from a Citizens Advice Bureau (get the address from your telephone book), or from a local Trading Standards Department. Again, consult the telephone directory under County, Regional or Borough Council. All these departments have people who can advise you about faulty goods and what to do with them. Step 3 Most shops are covered by the Footwear Code of Practice. If the shop you are dealing with is covered, you can ask for the shoes to be sent to the Footwear Testing Centre for an independent opinion. The shop has to agree with whatever the resulting report says. There is a charge of 21. You pay 7 and the shop pays the rest (including postage). Step 4 As a last resort you can take your case to court. This is not as difficult as it sounds. The small claims procedure for amounts up to 1000 (750 in Scotland) is a cheap, easy and informal way of taking legal action. The relevant forms are available from your nearest County Court or, in Scotland, the Sheriff Court. You can get advice and leaflets from the Citizens Advice Bureau. Alternatively, some bookshops sell advice packs which contain the relevant forms. | You are advised to accept a credit note if you are offered one. | c |
id_1810 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Industry in the Arctic has increased over the last 20 years. | n |
id_1811 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Arctic conditions mean that the break down of pollutants is much accelerated | c |
id_1812 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Pollution absorbed by arctic algae can eventually affect humans. | e |
id_1813 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | The AEPS has set up scientific stations in the Arctic to monitor pollution. | n |
id_1814 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Arctic pollution can sometimes resemble US urban pollution. | e |
id_1815 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Evidence that this smog has only occurred in the 20th Century has been found in the ice on the polar ice cap. | e |
id_1816 | Contaminating the Arctic Our perception of the Arctic region is that its distance from industrial centers keeps it pristine and clear from the impact of pollution. However, through a process known as transboundary pollution, the Arctic is the recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands of miles away. Large quantities of pollutants pour into our atmosphere, as well as our lakes, rivers, and oceans on a daily basis. In the last 20 years, scientists have detected an increasing variety of toxic contaminants in the North, including pesticides from agriculture, chemicals and heavy metals from industry, and even radioactive fall-out from Chernobyl. These are substances that have invaded ecosystems virtually worldwide, but they are especially worrisome in the Arctic. Originally, Arctic contamination was largely blamed on chemical leaks, and these leaks were thought to be small and localized. The consensus now is that pollutants from around the world are being carried north by rivers, ocean currents, and atmospheric circulation. Due to extreme conditions in the Arctic, including reduced sunlight, extensive ice cover and cold temperatures, contaminants break down much more slowly than in warmer climates. Contaminants can also become highly concentrated due to their significantly lengthened life span in the Arctic. Problems of spring run-off into coastal waters during the growth period of marine life are of critical concern. Spring algae blooms easily, absorbing the concentrated contaminants released by spring melting. These algae are in turn eaten by zooplankton and a wide variety of marine life. The accumulation of these contaminants increases with each step of the food chain or web and can potentially affect northerners who eat marine mammals near the top of the food chain. Pollutants respect no borders; transboundary pollution is the movement of contaminants across political borders, whether by air, rivers, or ocean currents. The eight circumpolar nations, led by the Finnish Initiative of 1989, established the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) in which participants have agreed to develop an Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP). AMAP establishes an international scientific network to monitor the current condition of the Arctic with respect to specific contaminants. This monitoring program is extremely important because it will give a scientific basis for understanding the scope of the problem. In the 1950s, pilots traveling on weather reconnaissance flights in the Canadian high Arctic reported seeing bands of haze in the springtime in the Arctic region. It was during this time that the term Arctic haze was first used, referring to this smog of unknown origin. But it was not until 1972, that Dr. Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska first put forth ideas of the nature and long-range origin of Arctic haze. The idea that the source was long range was very difficult for many to support. Each winter, cold, dense air settles over the Arctic. In the darkness, the Arctic seems to become more and more polluted by a buildup of mid-latitude emissions from fossil fuel combustion, smelting and other industrial processes. By late winter, the Arctic is covered by a layer of this haze the size of the continent of Africa. When the spring light arrives in the Arctic, there is a smog-like haze, which makes the region, at times, looks like pollution over such cities as Los Angeles. This polluted air is a well-known and well-characterized feature of the late winter Arctic environment. In the North American Arctic, episodes of brown or black snow have been traced to continental storm tracks that deliver gaseous and particulate-associated contaminants from Asian deserts and agricultural areas. It is now known that the contaminants originate largely from Europe and Asia. Arctic haze has been studied most extensively in Point Barrow, Alaska, across the Canadian Arctic and in Svalbard (Norway). Evidence from ice cores drilled from the ice sheet of Greenland indicates that these haze particles were not always present in the Arctic, but began to appear only in the last century. The Arctic haze particles appear to be similar to smog particles observed in industrial areas farther south, consisting mostly of sulfates mixed with particles of carbon. It is believed the particles are formed when gaseous sulfur dioxide produced by burning sulfur-bearing coal is irradiated by sunlight and oxidized to sulfate, a process catalyzed by trace elements in the air. These sulfate particles or droplets of sulfuric acid quickly capture the carbon particles, which are also floating in the air. Pure sulfate particles or droplets are colourless, so it is believed the darkness of the haze is caused by the mixed-in carbon particles. The impact of the haze on Arctic ecosystems, as well as the global environment, has not been adequately researched. The pollutants have only been studied in their aerosol form over the Arctic. However, little is known about what eventually happens to them. It is known that they are removed somehow. There is a good degree of likelihood that the contaminants end up in the ocean, likely into the North Atlantic, the Norwegian Sea and possibly the Bering Sea all three very important fisheries. Currently, the major issue among researchers is to understand the impact of Arctic haze on global climate change. The contaminants absorb sunlight and, in turn, heat up the atmosphere. The global impact of this is currently unknown but the implications are quite powerful. | Research has shown that aerosol arctic pollutants remain the air indefinitely. | c |
id_1817 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic fi eld amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | There is a physical magnet in the voice coil | e |
id_1818 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic fi eld amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | The small circular hole creates a robust magnetic fi eld outside the poles of a magnet | c |
id_1819 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic fi eld amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | A pole is situated at the hub of the magnetic fi eld this is also known as the Yoke | c |
id_1820 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic fi eld amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | Voice coil wires come in various geometrical shapes, such as circular in a two dimensional figure with five sides and five equal angles, or they can be a four sided plane figure with four right angles | c |
id_1821 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic field amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | There is a physical magnet in the voice coil | e |
id_1822 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic field amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | A pole is situated at the hub of the magnetic field this is also known as the Yoke | c |
id_1823 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic field amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | The small circular hole creates a robust magnetic field outside the poles of a magnet | c |
id_1824 | Copper is usually used for the voice coil, however other metallic elements such as aluminium can also be utilised. The voice coil wire can be circular, rectangular or even hexagonal. A range of various voice coil wires are used in order to give different volume coverage, within a magnetic gap. The voice coil is positioned coaxially inside the gap. This gap is in actual fact a small circular hole, within the magnetic structure in order for the voice coil to be able to move back and fourth. This gap creates a powerful magnetic field amid the poles of a permanent magnet, whereby the outside of the gap acts as a singular pole, and the centre post serves as the other. The centre post and the back plate are known as the Yoke. | Voice coil wires come in various geometrical shapes, such as circular in a two dimensional figure with five sides and five equal angles, or they can be a four sided plane figure with four right angles | c |
id_1825 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | Insects may imitate butterflies wing patterns as well. | e |
id_1826 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | All butterflies colours of the wing reflect the sense of warning to other predators. | c |
id_1827 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | Beccaloni agreed with the flight height hypothesis and decide to reassure its validity. | c |
id_1828 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | Beecaloni has more detailed records on the location of butterfly collection than others. | e |
id_1829 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | Jatun Sacha has the riches diversity of breeds in the world. | n |
id_1830 | Copy Your Neighbour Theres no animal that symbolizes rainforest diversity quite as spectacularly as the tropical butterfly. Anyone lucky enough to see these creatures flitting between patches of sunlight cannot fail to be impressed by the variety of their patterns. But why do they display such colourful exuberance? Until recently, this was almost as pertinent a question as it had been when the 19th-century naturalists, armed only with butterfly nets and insatiable curiosity, battled through the rainforests. These early explorers soon realized that although some of the butterflies bright colours are there to attract a mate, others are warning signals. They send out a message to any predators: Keep off, were predicting poisonous. And because wearing certain patterns affords protection, other species copy them. Biologists use the term mimicry rings for these clusters of impostors and their evolutionary idol. But heres the conundrum. Classical mimicry theory says that only a single ring should be found in any one area, explains George Beccaloni of the Natural History Museum, London. The idea is that in each locality there should be just the one pattern that best protects its wearers. Predators would quickly learn to avoid it and eventually, all mimetic species in a region should converge upon it. The fact that this is patently not the case has been one of the major problems in mimicry research, says Beccaloni. In pursuit of a solution to the mystery of mimetic exuberance, Beccaloni set off for one of the mega centers for butterfly diversity, the point where the western edge of the Amazon basin meets the foothills of the Andes in Ecuador. Its exceptionally rich, but comparatively well collected, so I pretty much knew what was there, says Beccaloni. The trick was to work out how all the butterflies were organized and how this related to mimicry. Working at the Jatun Sacha Biological Research Station on the banks of the Rio Napo, Beccaloni focused his attention on a group of butterflies called ithomiines. These distant relatives of Britains Camberwell Beauty are abundant throughout Central and South America and the Caribbean. They are famous for their bright colours, toxic bodies, and complex mimetic relationships. They can comprise up to 85 percent of the individuals in a mimicry ring and their patterns are mimicked not just by butterflies, but by other insects as diverse as damselflies and true bugs, says Philip DeVries of the Milwaukee Public Museums Center for Biodiversity Studies. Even though all ithomiines are poisonous, it is in their interest to evolve to look like one another because predators that learn to avoid one species will also avoid others that resemble it. This is known as Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry rings may also contain insects that are not toxic but gain protection by looking like a model species that is: an adaptation called Batesian mimicry. So strong is an experienced predators avoidance response that even quite inept resemblance gives some protection. Often there will be a whole series of species that mimic, with varying degrees of verisimilitude, a focal or model species, says John Turner from the University of Leeds. The results of these deceptions are some of the most exquisite examples of evolution known to science. In addition to colour, many mimic copy behaviours and even the flight pattern of their model species. But why are there so many different mimicry rings? One idea is that species flying at the same height in the forest canopy evolve to look like one another. It had been suggested since the 1970s that mimicry complexes were stratified by flight height, says DeVries. The idea is that wing color patterns are camouflaged against the different patterns of light and shadow at each level in the canopy, providing a first line of defense, against predators. But the light patterns and wing patterns dont match very well, he says. And observations show that the insects do not shift in height as the day progresses and the light patterns change. Worse still, according to DeVries, this theory doesnt explain why the model species is flying at that particular height in the first place. When I first went out to Ecuador, I didnt believe the flight height hypothesis and set out to test it, says Beccaloni. A few weeks with the collecting net convinced me otherwise. They really flew that way. What he didnt accept, however, was the explanation about light patterns. I thought, if this idea really is true, and I can work out why it could help explain why there are so many different warning patterns in any one place. Then we might finally understand how they could evolve in such a complex way. The job was complicated by the sheer diversity of species involved at Jatun Sacha. Not only were there 56 ithomiine butterfly species divided among eight mimicry rings, there were also 69 other insect species, including 34 day-flying moths and a damselfly, all in a 200-hectare study area. Like many entomologists before him, Beccaloni used a large bag-like net to capture his prey. This allowed him to sample the 2.5 meters immediately above the forest floor. Unlike many previous workers, he kept very precise notes on exactly where he caught his specimens. The attention to detail paid off. Beccaloni found that the mimicry rings were flying at two quite separate altitudes. Their use of the forest was quite distinctive, he recalls. For example, most members of the clear-winged mimicry ring would fly close to the forest floor, while the majority of the 12 species in the tiger-winged ring fly high up. Each mimicry ring had its own characteristic flight height. However, this being practice rather than theory, things were a bit fuzzy. Theyd spend the majority of their time flying at a certain height. But theyd also spend a smaller proportion of their time flying at other heights, Beccaloni admits. Species werent stacked rigidly like passenger jets waiting to land, but they did appear to have preferred airspace in the forest. So far, so good, but he still hadnt explained what causes the various groups of ithomiines and their chromatic consorts to fly in formations at these particular heights. Then Beccaloni had a bright idea. I started looking at the distribution of ithomiine larval food plants within the canopy, he says. For each one, Id record the height to which the host plant grew and the height above the ground at which the eggs or larvae were found. Once I got them back to the field stations lab, it was just a matter of keeping them alive until they pupated and then hatched into adults which I could identify. | Flying the Altitude of a butterfly is determined by their food. | n |
id_1831 | Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The ceils are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugals Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the worlds largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, its necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summers day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when its too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | The only way to remove the bark from cork oak trees is by hand. | e |
id_1832 | Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The ceils are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugals Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the worlds largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, its necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summers day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when its too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | The cork oak has the thickest bark of any living tree. | n |
id_1833 | Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The ceils are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugals Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the worlds largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, its necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summers day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when its too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Scientists have developed a synthetic cork with the same cellular structure as natural cork. | c |
id_1834 | Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The ceils are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugals Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the worlds largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, its necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summers day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when its too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Individual cork oak trees must be left for 25 years between the first and second harvest. | c |
id_1835 | Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The ceils are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugals Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the worlds largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, its necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summers day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when its too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Cork bark should be stripped in dry atmospheric conditions. | e |
id_1836 | Cork is used in a variety of products, the most familiar of which is a wine stopper-or cork! The material's natural compressibility and near-impermeability make it ideal for this purpose, and natural cork is used for about 60% of wine stoppers today. Wine can become tainted during the process of bottling, ageing, storage and transport, and although other factors cause tainting, the stopper is usually held responsible. This association in the mind of the consumer is so strong that a bottle found on opening to have undesirable smells and tastes is usually said to have become 'corked'. The use of alternative wine closures has grown in an attempt to prevent cork taint. For example, the synthetic cork, designed to look and function like a natural cork, avoids the risk as it is made from a resin that does not contain trichloroanisole. However, alternative closures themselves bring their own disadvantages. Wine experts have noted that a synthetic cork can impart its own slight chemical flavour to wine, replacing one type of cork taint with another. Screw-top bottles provide an alternative free of the risk of cork taint, but present an entirely new problem: consumers associate a screw-top bottle with poor quality wine, regardless of its price, vintage or reputation. | Wine in screw-top bottles is of poor quality. | n |
id_1837 | Cork is used in a variety of products, the most familiar of which is a wine stopper-or cork! The material's natural compressibility and near-impermeability make it ideal for this purpose, and natural cork is used for about 60% of wine stoppers today. Wine can become tainted during the process of bottling, ageing, storage and transport, and although other factors cause tainting, the stopper is usually held responsible. This association in the mind of the consumer is so strong that a bottle found on opening to have undesirable smells and tastes is usually said to have become 'corked'. The use of alternative wine closures has grown in an attempt to prevent cork taint. For example, the synthetic cork, designed to look and function like a natural cork, avoids the risk as it is made from a resin that does not contain trichloroanisole. However, alternative closures themselves bring their own disadvantages. Wine experts have noted that a synthetic cork can impart its own slight chemical flavour to wine, replacing one type of cork taint with another. Screw-top bottles provide an alternative free of the risk of cork taint, but present an entirely new problem: consumers associate a screw-top bottle with poor quality wine, regardless of its price, vintage or reputation. | Synthetic cork eliminates cork taint completely. | c |
id_1838 | Cork is used in a variety of products, the most familiar of which is a wine stopper-or cork! The material's natural compressibility and near-impermeability make it ideal for this purpose, and natural cork is used for about 60% of wine stoppers today. Wine can become tainted during the process of bottling, ageing, storage and transport, and although other factors cause tainting, the stopper is usually held responsible. This association in the mind of the consumer is so strong that a bottle found on opening to have undesirable smells and tastes is usually said to have become 'corked'. The use of alternative wine closures has grown in an attempt to prevent cork taint. For example, the synthetic cork, designed to look and function like a natural cork, avoids the risk as it is made from a resin that does not contain trichloroanisole. However, alternative closures themselves bring their own disadvantages. Wine experts have noted that a synthetic cork can impart its own slight chemical flavour to wine, replacing one type of cork taint with another. Screw-top bottles provide an alternative free of the risk of cork taint, but present an entirely new problem: consumers associate a screw-top bottle with poor quality wine, regardless of its price, vintage or reputation. | Most wine is bottled with natural cork. | e |
id_1839 | Cork is used in a variety of products, the most familiar of which is a wine stopper-or cork! The material's natural compressibility and near-impermeability make it ideal for this purpose, and natural cork is used for about 60% of wine stoppers today. Wine can become tainted during the process of bottling, ageing, storage and transport, and although other factors cause tainting, the stopper is usually held responsible. This association in the mind of the consumer is so strong that a bottle found on opening to have undesirable smells and tastes is usually said to have become 'corked'. The use of alternative wine closures has grown in an attempt to prevent cork taint. For example, the synthetic cork, designed to look and function like a natural cork, avoids the risk as it is made from a resin that does not contain trichloroanisole. However, alternative closures themselves bring their own disadvantages. Wine experts have noted that a synthetic cork can impart its own slight chemical flavour to wine, replacing one type of cork taint with another. Screw-top bottles provide an alternative free of the risk of cork taint, but present an entirely new problem: consumers associate a screw-top bottle with poor quality wine, regardless of its price, vintage or reputation. | Vintage is most important when choosing a bottle of wine. | n |
id_1840 | Cork. Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal's Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the world's largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, it's necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summer's day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it's too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | The cork oak has the thickest bark of any living tree. | n |
id_1841 | Cork. Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal's Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the world's largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, it's necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summer's day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it's too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Cork bark should be stripped in dry atmospheric conditions. | e |
id_1842 | Cork. Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal's Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the world's largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, it's necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summer's day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it's too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Individual cork oak trees must be left for 25 years between the first and second harvest. | c |
id_1843 | Cork. Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal's Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the world's largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, it's necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summer's day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it's too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | Scientists have developed a synthetic cork with the same cellular structure as natural cork. | c |
id_1844 | Cork. Cork - the thick bark of the cork oak tree (Quercus suber) - is a remarkable material. It is tough, elastic, buoyant, and fire-resistant, and suitable for a wide range of purposes. It has also been used for millennia: the ancient Egyptians sealed their sarcophagi (stone coffins) with cork, while the ancient Greeks and Romans used it for anything from beehives to sandals. And the cork oak itself is an extraordinary tree. Its bark grows up to 20 cm in thickness, insulating the tree like a coat wrapped around the trunk and branches and keeping the inside at a constant 20C all year round. Developed most probably as a defence against forest fires, the bark of the cork oak has a particular cellular structure - with about 40 million cells per cubic centimetre - that technology has never succeeded in replicating. The cells are filled with air, which is why cork is so buoyant. It also has an elasticity that means you can squash it and watch it spring back to its original size and shape when you release the pressure. Cork oaks grow in a number of Mediterranean countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Morocco. They flourish in warm, sunny climates where there is a minimum of 400 millimetres of rain per year, and not more than 800 millimetres. Like grape vines, the trees thrive in poor soil, putting down deep roots in search of moisture and nutrients. Southern Portugal's Alentejo region meets all of these requirements, which explains why, by the early 20th century, this region had become the world's largest producer of cork, and why today it accounts for roughly half of all cork production around the world. Most cork forests are family-owned. Many of these family businesses, and indeed many of the trees themselves, are around 200 years old. Cork production is, above all, an exercise in patience. From the planting of a cork sapling to the first harvest takes 25 years, and a gap of approximately a decade must separate harvests from an individual tree. And for top-quality cork, it's necessary to wait a further 15 or 20 years. You even have to wait for the right kind of summer's day to harvest cork. If the bark is stripped on a day when it's too cold - or when the air is damp - the tree will be damaged. Cork harvesting is a very specialised profession. No mechanical means of stripping cork bark has been invented, so the job is done by teams of highly skilled workers. First, they make vertical cuts down the bark using small sharp axes, then lever it away in pieces as large as they can manage. The most skilful cork- strippers prise away a semi-circular husk that runs the length of the trunk from just above ground level to the first branches. It is then dried on the ground for about four months, before being taken to factories, where it is boiled to kill any insects that might remain in the cork. Over 60% of cork then goes on to be made into traditional bottle stoppers, with most of the remainder being used in the construction trade. Corkboard and cork tiles are ideal for thermal and acoustic insulation, while granules of cork are used in the manufacture of concrete. Recent years have seen the end of the virtual monopoly of cork as the material for bottle stoppers, due to concerns about the effect it may have on the contents of the bottle. This is caused by a chemical compound called 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), which forms through the interaction of plant phenols, chlorine and mould. The tiniest concentrations - as little as three or four parts to a trillion - can spoil the taste of the product contained in the bottle. The result has been a gradual yet steady move first towards plastic stoppers and, more recently, to aluminium screw caps. These substitutes are cheaper to manufacture and, in the case of screw caps, more convenient for the user. The classic cork stopper does have several advantages, however. Firstly, its traditional image is more in keeping with that of the type of high quality goods with which it has long been associated. Secondly - and very importantly - cork is a sustainable product that can be recycled without difficulty. Moreover, cork forests are a resource which support local biodiversity, and prevent desertification in the regions where they are planted. So, given the current concerns about environmental issues, the future of this ancient material once again looks promising. | The only way to remove the bark from cork oak trees is by hand. | e |
id_1845 | Cosmetics are big business. Statistics have shown that the most profitable company of 2011 was Loreal, who made a profit of 16.1 billion pounds. The second highest profit was reached by Estee Lauder, who made 13 billion. Such high profits are testament to the strength of this industry. In support of this, the top twenty leading cosmetic companies made a collective profit of just less than one hundred billion pounds globally. This suggests that such companies are able to achieve successful levels of profit even in times of consumer belt-tightening. | The twenty leading cosmetics companies profited over 100 billion in the USA. | c |
id_1846 | Cosmetics are big business. Statistics have shown that the most profitable company of 2011 was Loreal, who made a profit of 16.1 billion pounds. The second highest profit was reached by Estee Lauder, who made 13 billion. Such high profits are testament to the strength of this industry. In support of this, the top twenty leading cosmetic companies made a collective profit of just less than one hundred billion pounds globally. This suggests that such companies are able to achieve successful levels of profit even in times of consumer belt-tightening. | Estee Lauder reported the largest cosmetic company profit in 2011. | c |
id_1847 | Cosmetics are big business. Statistics have shown that the most profitable company of 2011 was Loreal, who made a profit of 16.1 billion pounds. The second highest profit was reached by Estee Lauder, who made 13 billion. Such high profits are testament to the strength of this industry. In support of this, the top twenty leading cosmetic companies made a collective profit of just less than one hundred billion pounds globally. This suggests that such companies are able to achieve successful levels of profit even in times of consumer belt-tightening. | Estee lauder reported the second largest cosmetic company profit in 2011. | e |
id_1848 | Cosmetics are big business. Statistics have shown that the most profitable company of 2011 was Loreal, who made a profit of 16.1 billion pounds. The second highest profit was reached by Estee Lauder, who made 13 billion. Such high profits are testament to the strength of this industry. In support of this, the top twenty leading cosmetic companies made a collective profit of just less than one hundred billion pounds globally. This suggests that such companies are able to achieve successful levels of profit even in times of consumer belt-tightening. | LOreal reported a profit of less than sixteen billion pounds in 2011. | c |
id_1849 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | In ancient Far East, fish fata woe used OS cream by women from poor households. | e |
id_1850 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | Long hair as a symbol of beauty was worn solely by women of ancient cultures | c |
id_1851 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | The teachings in the Bible were repeatedly against the use of kohl for painting the eye. | e |
id_1852 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | Since perfumes and spices woe luxury products, their use was exclusive to the noble and the wealthy. | c |
id_1853 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | The written record for cosmetics and perfumes dates back to the third millennium BG | n |
id_1854 | Cosmetics in Ancient Past Since cosmetics and perfumes are still in wide use today, it is interesting to compare the attitudes, customs and beliefs related to them in ancient times tothose of our own day and age. Cosmetics and perfumes have been popular since tile dawn of civilization; it is shown by the discovery of a great deal of pertinent archeological material, dating from the third millennium BC. Mosaics, glass perfume flasks, stone vessels, ovens, cooking-pots, clay jars, etc. , some inscribed by the hand of the artisan. Evidence also appears in the Bible and other classical writings, where it is written that spices and perfumes were prestigious products known throughout the ancient world and coveted by kings and princes. The written and pictorial descriptions, as well as archaeological findings, all show how important body care and aesthetic appearance were in the lives of the ancient people. The chain of evidence spans many centuries, detailing the usage of cosmetics in various cultures from the earliest period of recorded history. In antiquity, however, at least in the onset, cosmetics served in religious ceremonies and for healing purposes. Cosmetics were also connected with cultic worship and witchcraft: to appease the various gods, fragrant ointments were applied to the statuary images and even to their attendants. From this, in the course of time, developed the custom of personal use, to enhance the beauty of the face and the body, and to conceal defects. Perfumes and fragrant spices were precious commodities in antiquity, very much in demand, and at times even exceeded silver and gold in value. Therefore, they were luxury products, used mainly in the temples and in the homes of the noble and the wealthy. The Judean kings kept them in treasure houses (2 Kings 20:13). And the Queen of Sheba brought to Solomon "camels laden with spices, gold in great quantity and precious stones. (1 Kings 10:2,10). However, within time, the use of cosmetics became the custom of that period. The use of cosmetics became widespread among the lower classes as well as among the wealthy; in the same way they washed the body, 80 they used to care for the body with substances that softened the skin and anoint it with fragrant oils and ointments. Facial treatment was highly developed and women devoted many horns to it They used to spread various scented creams on the face and to apply makeupin vivid and contrasting colors. An Egyptian papyrus from the 16th century BC contains detailed recipes to remove blemishes, wrinkles, and other signs of age. Greek and Roman women would cover their faces in the evening with a beauty mask to remove blemishes, which consisted mainly of flour mixed with flagrant spices, leaving it on their face all night. The next morning they would wash it off with asses' milk. The very common creams used by women in the ancient Far East, particularly important in the hot climate and prevalent in that area of the globe, were made up of oils and aromatic scents. Sometimes the oil in these creams was extracted from olives, almonds, gourds, sesame, or from trees and plants; but, for those of limited means, scented animal and fish fete were commonly used. Women in the ancient past commonly put colors around their eyes. Besides beautification, its purpose was also medicinal as covering the sensitive skin of the lids with colored ointments that prevailed dryness and eye diseases: the eye- paint repelled the little flies that transmitted eye inflammations. Egyptian women colored tile upper eyelid black and the lower one green, and painted the space between the upper lid and the eyebrow gray or blue. The women of Mesopotamia favored yellows and reds. The use of kohl for painting the eyes is mentioned three times in the Bible, always with disapproval by the sages (2 Kings, 9:30; Jersniah 4:30; Ezekiel 23:40). In contrast. Job named one of his daughters "Kerai Happukh" "ham of eye paint" (Job 42:14). Great importance was attached to the care for hair in ancient times. Long hair was always considered a symbol of beauty, and kings, nobles and dignitaries grew their hair long and kept it well-groomed and cared for. Women devoted much time to the style of the hair; while not cutting, they would apply much care to it by arranging it skillfully in plaits and "building it up" sometimes with the help of wigs. Egyptian women generally wore their hair flowing down to their shoulders or even longer. In Mesopotamia, women cherished long hair as a part of their beauty, and hair flowing down their backs in a thick plait and tied with a ribbon is seen in art. Assyrian women wore their hair shorter, braiding and binding it in a bun at the back. In Ancient Israel, brides would wear their hair long on the wedding day as a sign of their virginity. Ordinary people and slaves, however, usually wore their hair short, mainly for hygienic reasons, since they could not afford to invest in the kind of treatment that long hair required. From the Bible and Egyptian and Assyrian sources, as well as the words of classical authors, it appears that the centers of the trade in aromatic resins and incense were located in the kingdoms of Southern Arabia, and even as far as India, where some of these precious aromatic plants were grown. "Dealers fromSheba and Rammah dealt with you, offering the choicest spices... " (Ezekiel 27:22). The Nabateans functioned as the important middlemen in this trade; Palestine also served as a very important component, as the trade routes crisscrossed the country. It is known that the Egyptian Queen Hatsheput (15th century BC) sent a royal expedition to the Land of Punt (Somalia) in order to bring back myrrh seedlings to plant in her temple. In Assyrian records of tribute and spoils of war, perfumes and resins are mentioned; the text from the time of Tukulti-Ninurta II (890-884 BC) refers to balls of myrrh as part of the tribute brought to the Assyrian king by the Aramaean kings. The trade in spices and perfumes is also mentioned in the Bible as written in Genesis (37:25-26), "Camels carrying gum tragacanth and balm and myrrh". | The Egyptian Queen Hataheput sent a royal expedition to Font to establish a trade route for myrrh | n |
id_1855 | Cotton acreage in India during the current year has fallen by 15% as cotton growers have moved on to cultivation of other cash crops. This is the result of the cotton glut in world markets in postSeptember 2008 and the consequent slowdown in the world economy. But this scenario brought with it benefits to one segment of the industry yarn manufacturers as they got higher prices for their produce. Some yarn manufacturers too had stuck up on low priced cotton last year. The combined effect of all this is evident in the rise in net profits and net margins of yarn manufacturers. Which of the following is an inference which can be made from the facts stated in the above paragraph? | Cotton production will surely grow in upcoming years. | c |
id_1856 | Cotton acreage in India during the current year has fallen by 15% as cotton growers have moved on to cultivation of other cash crops. This is the result of the cotton glut in world markets in postSeptember 2008 and the consequent slowdown in the world economy. But this scenario brought with it benefits to one segment of the industry yarn manufacturers as they got higher prices for their produce. Some yarn manufacturers too had stuck up on low priced cotton last year. The combined effect of all this is evident in the rise in net profits and net margins of yarn manufacturers. Which of the following is an inference which can be made from the facts stated in the above paragraph? | India was the largest cotton producer earlier. | c |
id_1857 | Cotton acreage in India during the current year has fallen by 15% as cotton growers have moved on to cultivation of other cash crops. This is the result of the cotton glut in world markets in postSeptember 2008 and the consequent slowdown in the world economy. But this scenario brought with it benefits to one segment of the industry yarn manufacturers as they got higher prices for their produce. Some yarn manufacturers too had stuck up on low priced cotton last year. The combined effect of all this is evident in the rise in net profits and net margins of yarn manufacturers. Which of the following is an inference which can be made from the facts stated in the above paragraph? | The yarn manufacturers have marginally suffered during post September 2008 period. | e |
id_1858 | Cotton acreage in India during the current year has fallen by 15% as cotton growers have moved on to cultivation of other cash crops. This is the result of the cotton glut in world markets in postSeptember 2008 and the consequent slowdown in the world economy. But this scenario brought with it benefits to one segment of the industry yarn manufacturers as they got higher prices for their produce. Some yarn manufacturers too had stuck up on low priced cotton last year. The combined effect of all this is evident in the rise in net profits and net margins of yarn manufacturers. Which of the following is an inference which can be made from the facts stated in the above paragraph? | The cotton industry grew tremendously post-September 2008. | c |
id_1859 | Could You Pass Me My Glasses, Please? The human eye was not designed for the years of intensive book learning that are now common in modern society. The result is eye strain and deterioration, often at an early age, but this same society has provided the obvious answer: corrective lensed eyeglasses. Ubiquitous and ever present, coming in all styles, colours, and designs, the optical correction of faulty vision with these devices is a phase which probably everyone will have to face at some stage in their lives. It is not surprising that the first eyeglasses were made by the Catholic monks dedicated to the writing, translation, and reproduction of finely written religious texts. In contrast to the general undereducation and illiteracy of the times, these monks were versed in many languages, and worked for years in badly-illuminated candle-lit scriptoriums an effort which took its toll on their eyesight. Thus, the earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses is a 1352 portrait of the Catholic cardinal, Hugh de Provence. However, the usefulness of glasses had already long been realised by the population at large, and by 1300 the trade of lens-grinding was widespread enough to require formal guilds and regulations. Although popular and effective, no one was quite sure of the mechanics of it all. The first detailed mathematical explanation would not come until Johannes Kepler published his work on optics in 1604. Basically, glasses modify the focal length of the eyes lens. There are two main focusing disorders: myopia and hyperopia. In the case of the first (near-sightedness, in which it is difficult to see objects at a distance), concave lenses are used, compensating for the eyes refractive error by pushing the focal point back, to the retina. Hyperopia (far-sightedness) uses convex lenses to do the opposite, bringing the focal point forward, to the retina. Yet, to accommodate the range of situations in which clear vision is needed, from reading books and computer monitors, to television watching and driving cars, some glasses are equipped with more than one lens type. The most common are bi-focal lenses, with two distinct horizontal viewing areas. A conscious effort is thus necessary to focus through the band of the lens necessary to solve the visual challenge faced. A variation which helps with this are lenses which allow progressive transitions, rather than distinct changes between viewing angles. The simplest system of all is to merely have several pairs of glasses, reserving them for specific tasks. These days, lenses are most commonly a plastic polycarbonate material, offering lower weight and higher scratch resistance, as well as the ability to screen out harmful ultraviolet and infrared rays from the sun. Similarly, the frames are flexible and lightweight, offering less friction and irritation for the skin. Nevertheless, glasses cannot be said to be convenient devices. Grease, dirt, sweat, and vapour can streak them when eating or cooking, or from natural condensation due to temperature changes (such as when exiting a heated building into the colder outdoors). Glasses are also awkward during fast-motion sports or labouring jobs, are rather easily broken, and not cheap to repair. Obviously then, contact lenses have considerable advantages. These are inserted directly over the pupil, and have the additional benefit of a perceived aesthetic appeal. Traditional glasses are sometimes seen as unfashionable, carrying associations of age or infirmity. The almost invisible contacts avoid this, which is perhaps one reason why most wearers are female. Having said that, by completely covering the pupil, contacts also offer better peripheral vision, and are more appropriate for certain less common vision impairments. Their disadvantage is the difficulty and discomfort involved in putting them on and taking them off. They can also result in dryness and irritation. Interestingly though, the modern era has seen eyeglasses become somewhat of a fashion accessory. The musicians Buddy Holly and John Lennon were so characterised by their glasses that their names have been given to the style they wore. Glasses can now even be bought off the shelf, without an eye examination, cashing in on the need for quick solutions that people want in a busy society. Although they are a source of much revenue, opticians advise people to first have proper eye examinations, not only to ensure the best results, but also for early detection of potential eye diseases, such as glaucoma, which might actually be the root cause of focusing problems. The lace of the future may well be laser eye surgery. In this process, laser beams are used, usually to alter the curvature of the cornea and thus provide long-term corrective benefits. Although straightforward enough and increasingly safe and affordable, given the delicacy of the eye, there remains a small risk of failure and resultant vision problems, such as ghosting or halos. It is an interesting fact, that, despite the growth of such surgery, and the use of contacts, traditional lenses remain as popular as ever. Nothing, it seems, can match the simple convenience of putting on a pair of glasses. | When glasses were invented, most people could read. | c |
id_1860 | Could You Pass Me My Glasses, Please? The human eye was not designed for the years of intensive book learning that are now common in modern society. The result is eye strain and deterioration, often at an early age, but this same society has provided the obvious answer: corrective lensed eyeglasses. Ubiquitous and ever present, coming in all styles, colours, and designs, the optical correction of faulty vision with these devices is a phase which probably everyone will have to face at some stage in their lives. It is not surprising that the first eyeglasses were made by the Catholic monks dedicated to the writing, translation, and reproduction of finely written religious texts. In contrast to the general undereducation and illiteracy of the times, these monks were versed in many languages, and worked for years in badly-illuminated candle-lit scriptoriums an effort which took its toll on their eyesight. Thus, the earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses is a 1352 portrait of the Catholic cardinal, Hugh de Provence. However, the usefulness of glasses had already long been realised by the population at large, and by 1300 the trade of lens-grinding was widespread enough to require formal guilds and regulations. Although popular and effective, no one was quite sure of the mechanics of it all. The first detailed mathematical explanation would not come until Johannes Kepler published his work on optics in 1604. Basically, glasses modify the focal length of the eyes lens. There are two main focusing disorders: myopia and hyperopia. In the case of the first (near-sightedness, in which it is difficult to see objects at a distance), concave lenses are used, compensating for the eyes refractive error by pushing the focal point back, to the retina. Hyperopia (far-sightedness) uses convex lenses to do the opposite, bringing the focal point forward, to the retina. Yet, to accommodate the range of situations in which clear vision is needed, from reading books and computer monitors, to television watching and driving cars, some glasses are equipped with more than one lens type. The most common are bi-focal lenses, with two distinct horizontal viewing areas. A conscious effort is thus necessary to focus through the band of the lens necessary to solve the visual challenge faced. A variation which helps with this are lenses which allow progressive transitions, rather than distinct changes between viewing angles. The simplest system of all is to merely have several pairs of glasses, reserving them for specific tasks. These days, lenses are most commonly a plastic polycarbonate material, offering lower weight and higher scratch resistance, as well as the ability to screen out harmful ultraviolet and infrared rays from the sun. Similarly, the frames are flexible and lightweight, offering less friction and irritation for the skin. Nevertheless, glasses cannot be said to be convenient devices. Grease, dirt, sweat, and vapour can streak them when eating or cooking, or from natural condensation due to temperature changes (such as when exiting a heated building into the colder outdoors). Glasses are also awkward during fast-motion sports or labouring jobs, are rather easily broken, and not cheap to repair. Obviously then, contact lenses have considerable advantages. These are inserted directly over the pupil, and have the additional benefit of a perceived aesthetic appeal. Traditional glasses are sometimes seen as unfashionable, carrying associations of age or infirmity. The almost invisible contacts avoid this, which is perhaps one reason why most wearers are female. Having said that, by completely covering the pupil, contacts also offer better peripheral vision, and are more appropriate for certain less common vision impairments. Their disadvantage is the difficulty and discomfort involved in putting them on and taking them off. They can also result in dryness and irritation. Interestingly though, the modern era has seen eyeglasses become somewhat of a fashion accessory. The musicians Buddy Holly and John Lennon were so characterised by their glasses that their names have been given to the style they wore. Glasses can now even be bought off the shelf, without an eye examination, cashing in on the need for quick solutions that people want in a busy society. Although they are a source of much revenue, opticians advise people to first have proper eye examinations, not only to ensure the best results, but also for early detection of potential eye diseases, such as glaucoma, which might actually be the root cause of focusing problems. The lace of the future may well be laser eye surgery. In this process, laser beams are used, usually to alter the curvature of the cornea and thus provide long-term corrective benefits. Although straightforward enough and increasingly safe and affordable, given the delicacy of the eye, there remains a small risk of failure and resultant vision problems, such as ghosting or halos. It is an interesting fact, that, despite the growth of such surgery, and the use of contacts, traditional lenses remain as popular as ever. Nothing, it seems, can match the simple convenience of putting on a pair of glasses. | Most monks suffered eye problems. | n |
id_1861 | Could You Pass Me My Glasses, Please? The human eye was not designed for the years of intensive book learning that are now common in modern society. The result is eye strain and deterioration, often at an early age, but this same society has provided the obvious answer: corrective lensed eyeglasses. Ubiquitous and ever present, coming in all styles, colours, and designs, the optical correction of faulty vision with these devices is a phase which probably everyone will have to face at some stage in their lives. It is not surprising that the first eyeglasses were made by the Catholic monks dedicated to the writing, translation, and reproduction of finely written religious texts. In contrast to the general undereducation and illiteracy of the times, these monks were versed in many languages, and worked for years in badly-illuminated candle-lit scriptoriums an effort which took its toll on their eyesight. Thus, the earliest pictorial evidence for the use of eyeglasses is a 1352 portrait of the Catholic cardinal, Hugh de Provence. However, the usefulness of glasses had already long been realised by the population at large, and by 1300 the trade of lens-grinding was widespread enough to require formal guilds and regulations. Although popular and effective, no one was quite sure of the mechanics of it all. The first detailed mathematical explanation would not come until Johannes Kepler published his work on optics in 1604. Basically, glasses modify the focal length of the eyes lens. There are two main focusing disorders: myopia and hyperopia. In the case of the first (near-sightedness, in which it is difficult to see objects at a distance), concave lenses are used, compensating for the eyes refractive error by pushing the focal point back, to the retina. Hyperopia (far-sightedness) uses convex lenses to do the opposite, bringing the focal point forward, to the retina. Yet, to accommodate the range of situations in which clear vision is needed, from reading books and computer monitors, to television watching and driving cars, some glasses are equipped with more than one lens type. The most common are bi-focal lenses, with two distinct horizontal viewing areas. A conscious effort is thus necessary to focus through the band of the lens necessary to solve the visual challenge faced. A variation which helps with this are lenses which allow progressive transitions, rather than distinct changes between viewing angles. The simplest system of all is to merely have several pairs of glasses, reserving them for specific tasks. These days, lenses are most commonly a plastic polycarbonate material, offering lower weight and higher scratch resistance, as well as the ability to screen out harmful ultraviolet and infrared rays from the sun. Similarly, the frames are flexible and lightweight, offering less friction and irritation for the skin. Nevertheless, glasses cannot be said to be convenient devices. Grease, dirt, sweat, and vapour can streak them when eating or cooking, or from natural condensation due to temperature changes (such as when exiting a heated building into the colder outdoors). Glasses are also awkward during fast-motion sports or labouring jobs, are rather easily broken, and not cheap to repair. Obviously then, contact lenses have considerable advantages. These are inserted directly over the pupil, and have the additional benefit of a perceived aesthetic appeal. Traditional glasses are sometimes seen as unfashionable, carrying associations of age or infirmity. The almost invisible contacts avoid this, which is perhaps one reason why most wearers are female. Having said that, by completely covering the pupil, contacts also offer better peripheral vision, and are more appropriate for certain less common vision impairments. Their disadvantage is the difficulty and discomfort involved in putting them on and taking them off. They can also result in dryness and irritation. Interestingly though, the modern era has seen eyeglasses become somewhat of a fashion accessory. The musicians Buddy Holly and John Lennon were so characterised by their glasses that their names have been given to the style they wore. Glasses can now even be bought off the shelf, without an eye examination, cashing in on the need for quick solutions that people want in a busy society. Although they are a source of much revenue, opticians advise people to first have proper eye examinations, not only to ensure the best results, but also for early detection of potential eye diseases, such as glaucoma, which might actually be the root cause of focusing problems. The lace of the future may well be laser eye surgery. In this process, laser beams are used, usually to alter the curvature of the cornea and thus provide long-term corrective benefits. Although straightforward enough and increasingly safe and affordable, given the delicacy of the eye, there remains a small risk of failure and resultant vision problems, such as ghosting or halos. It is an interesting fact, that, despite the growth of such surgery, and the use of contacts, traditional lenses remain as popular as ever. Nothing, it seems, can match the simple convenience of putting on a pair of glasses. | Most people study hard today. | e |
id_1862 | Councils are cracking down on tardy children, with parents who dont pay up facing prosecution. Families have been told they face fines if children are repeatedly late for school, with the threat of prosecution for those who do not pay. Councils and schools in the West Midlands, Hampshire and Essex are among those that have extended the 60 fixed penalties they issue for absenteeism, including holidays in term time, to cases of lateness. Warwickshire county council has issued guidance to say it can fine families if pupils are often late, defined as arriving more than 30 minutes after the register is taken. Winter Gardens Academy in Essex has told parents they can be fined 60 if their children consistently turn up after 9am, rising to 120 if not paid within 21 days. The governments behaviour tsar said sanctions to improve punctuality could include making children collect litter, remove chewing gum or mop classroom floors before school, a measure used in South Korea, often a leader in academic league tables. He said fines could be used as a last resort. Tom Bennet said parents whose teenage children were regularly late should walk with them. Most pupils would rather lose an arm than be seen walking up to school with their parents, he said. Bennet admits he was late for school every day when he was studying for his A-levels. Bennet believes that the increase in technology has had a role in increasing the number of students being late for school, because many are staying up late on their phones. | Most students would rather have their arm cut off than walk to school with their parents. | n |
id_1863 | Councils are cracking down on tardy children, with parents who dont pay up facing prosecution. Families have been told they face fines if children are repeatedly late for school, with the threat of prosecution for those who do not pay. Councils and schools in the West Midlands, Hampshire and Essex are among those that have extended the 60 fixed penalties they issue for absenteeism, including holidays in term time, to cases of lateness. Warwickshire county council has issued guidance to say it can fine families if pupils are often late, defined as arriving more than 30 minutes after the register is taken. Winter Gardens Academy in Essex has told parents they can be fined 60 if their children consistently turn up after 9am, rising to 120 if not paid within 21 days. The governments behaviour tsar said sanctions to improve punctuality could include making children collect litter, remove chewing gum or mop classroom floors before school, a measure used in South Korea, often a leader in academic league tables. He said fines could be used as a last resort. Tom Bennet said parents whose teenage children were regularly late should walk with them. Most pupils would rather lose an arm than be seen walking up to school with their parents, he said. Bennet admits he was late for school every day when he was studying for his A-levels. Bennet believes that the increase in technology has had a role in increasing the number of students being late for school, because many are staying up late on their phones. | The use of technology has led to students staying up longer. | n |
id_1864 | Crab fisheries capture or farm crabs, primarily for the production and sale of crab meat. True crabs constitute 20% of all crustaceans farmed or captured, allowing around 1.4 million tonnes of crab to be consumed globally per year. Currently, nearly 80% of commercial crab production is achieved through the use of live capture rather than through aquaculture farming, although the difference between the two figures decreases annually. If current trends continue, aquaculture output would be comparable to live capture output within 20 years. | At least 1.4 million tonnes of crab meat is produced annually. | e |
id_1865 | Crab fisheries capture or farm crabs, primarily for the production and sale of crab meat. True crabs constitute 20% of all crustaceans farmed or captured, allowing around 1.4 million tonnes of crab to be consumed globally per year. Currently, nearly 80% of commercial crab production is achieved through the use of live capture rather than through aquaculture farming, although the difference between the two figures decreases annually. If current trends continue, aquaculture output would be comparable to live capture output within 20 years. | True crab meat makes up a minority of all crustacean meat production. | e |
id_1866 | Crab fisheries capture or farm crabs, primarily for the production and sale of crab meat. True crabs constitute 20% of all crustaceans farmed or captured, allowing around 1.4 million tonnes of crab to be consumed globally per year. Currently, nearly 80% of commercial crab production is achieved through the use of live capture rather than through aquaculture farming, although the difference between the two figures decreases annually. If current trends continue, aquaculture output would be comparable to live capture output within 20 years. | The crab production from live capture decreases annually. | n |
id_1867 | Credit card fraud has reached 500 million despite the introduction of new controls. Figures show that losses to fraud rose by 20 per cent last year. Most frauds result from cards intercepted in the post. One hundred thousand cards were posted to customers every day last year. This represents rich pickings for fraudsters. The banks knew the year would be difficult because it was thought that fraudsters would try to commit as many crimes as possible before new controls were introduced. It is hoped that this time next year the effect of the new measures will be known and that the level of fraud will have fallen considerably. | The new measures are already in place. | c |
id_1868 | Credit card fraud has reached 500 million despite the introduction of new controls. Figures show that losses to fraud rose by 20 per cent last year. Most frauds result from cards intercepted in the post. One hundred thousand cards were posted to customers every day last year. This represents rich pickings for fraudsters. The banks knew the year would be difficult because it was thought that fraudsters would try to commit as many crimes as possible before new controls were introduced. It is hoped that this time next year the effect of the new measures will be known and that the level of fraud will have fallen considerably. | Top of the table of types of fraud are those committed with credit cards stolen from peoples post. | n |
id_1869 | Credit card fraud has reached 500 million despite the introduction of new controls. Figures show that losses to fraud rose by 20 per cent last year. Most frauds result from cards intercepted in the post. One hundred thousand cards were posted to customers every day last year. This represents rich pickings for fraudsters. The banks knew the year would be difficult because it was thought that fraudsters would try to commit as many crimes as possible before new controls were introduced. It is hoped that this time next year the effect of the new measures will be known and that the level of fraud will have fallen considerably. | The level of losses to overall credit card fraud rose by 20 per cent. | e |
id_1870 | Credit card fraud has reached 500 million despite the introduction of new controls. Figures show that losses to fraud rose by 20 per cent last year. Most frauds result from cards intercepted in the post. One hundred thousand cards were posted to customers every day last year. This represents rich pickings for fraudsters. The banks knew the year would be difficult because it was thought that fraudsters would try to commit as many crimes as possible before new controls were introduced. It is hoped that this time next year the effect of the new measures will be known and that the level of fraud will have fallen considerably. | The new measures are sophisticated anti-fraud strategies. | n |
id_1871 | Credit card fraud has reached 500 million despite the introduction of new controls. Figures show that losses to fraud rose by 20 per cent last year. Most frauds result from cards intercepted in the post. One hundred thousand cards were posted to customers every day last year. This represents rich pickings for fraudsters. The banks knew the year would be difficult because it was thought that fraudsters would try to commit as many crimes as possible before new controls were introduced. It is hoped that this time next year the effect of the new measures will be known and that the level of fraud will have fallen considerably. | Credit card fraud committed as a result of cards intercepted through the post has reached 500 million. | c |
id_1872 | Criminal Mischief occurs when a person intentionally orknowingly causes damage to or destroys another person's property without the owner's permission. | When Fred sees Angela's new boyfriend's car in her driveway, he walks up to the car, kicks a dent in the fender, and walks on. This is the best example of Criminal Mischief. | e |
id_1873 | Criminal Mischief occurs when a person intentionally orknowingly causes damage to or destroys another person's property without the owner's permission. | When Alistair sits down in a chair in a restaurant, the chair breaks underneath him. This is the best example of Criminal Mischief. | c |
id_1874 | Criminal Mischief occurs when a person intentionally orknowingly causes damage to or destroys another person's property without the owner's permission. | When Barry's car runs out of gas on the highway, he steps out of the vehicle and begins smashing out the windows. This is the best example of Criminal Mischief. | c |
id_1875 | Criminal Mischief occurs when a person intentionally orknowingly causes damage to or destroys another person's property without the owner's permission. | As Alec is helping Alice move into a new apartment, he drops her $500 lamp and shatters it. A man approaches Jason on the sidewalk and asks him if he has a quarter in exchange for five nickels. This is the best example of Criminal Mischief. | c |
id_1876 | Criminal Rehabilitation: A Difficult Issue When convicted criminals have served long terms of imprisonment, it is obvious that, upon their release, one cannot necessarily expect them to be reformed and able to reintegrate into society. In the potential ly rough and violent ganglands of prisons, quite the opposite may occur, which raises a difficult dilemma in the criminal justice system. To maintain social order, those who break the law are expected to be punished, yet that same maintenance of order means that rehabilitation must be given a high emphasis. The ethic of rehabilitation is based on the assumption that criminal tendencies are not necessarily permanent, and that former inmates can successfully lead lives in which they contribute positively to society. The ultimate goal is to prevent them from reoffending, an event technically known as criminal recidivism. Prisons therefore contain systems of education or therapy, as well as assessment to determine whether inmates have truly developed remorse for past misdeeds, an ability to reintegrate into society, and intentions to do so. Assessing this accurately is a difficult issue, and it must be accepted that there are some people who can never be rehabilitated, however much we try. The term psychopath is often used here, one of the key determiners of this condition being an inability to learn from past mistakes. Techniques towards improving their behaviour are thus unlikely to work. Obviously, recidivism is highly correlated with this condition, yet studies have shown that psychopathie prisoners are equally likely to be released from prisons as non-psychopathic ones. This is often explained by the fact that psychopathic individuals develop better strategies at disguising their intentions, and become more adept at tricking others. Treatment and therapy merely give them knowledge of penal and judicial procedures, which they can then twist to their advantage, colloquially known as system cracking. Cases such as these reveal the biggest problem with rehabilitation: the difficulty of reading the deepest intentions of human beings. Nevertheless, inmates will be released, and consequently need assistance for their reintegration into society. This is most commonly done through parole, which involves serving the remainder of a sentence outside of prison. This is different from probation, which is used instead of prison sentences, and consequently places greater restrictions upon the subject. A similar system is supervised release, where the subject faces the same restrictions as probation, but only after serving the entire prison sentence. Whatever the case, the parole officer will monitor the released inmate, offering support and assistance wherever possible. The decision about whether to grant parole usually lies with a parole board. Members may be judges, psychiatrists, criminologists, and appointed citizens from the local community. The common factor is that they all have a good education, and are judged to be of high moral standing. Yet again, trying to assess the inmates psychological state and what intentions lie within is problematic at best. Good conduct while inside the prison system is the most obvious prerequisite, but other factors based on the support networks existing outside also play a role. Having already established a permanent residence, and having gained employment, is usually mandatory. Upon being released on parole, there are still a variety of regulatory conditions to be met. These include the obvious, such as obeying the law, and contacting the parole officer at specified intervals, but may be more individual and specific, such as the non-use of drugs and alcohol, and return to the home residence before a certain time (known as a curfew). Upon ignoring any of these, an arrest warrant is issued, parole time is stopped, and there follows a parole violation hearing. The parole board then makes a decision about whether to revoke the parole (which sees the subject reincarcerated) or to allow parole to continue. As mentioned, such decisions are not a hard science, and mistakes can be made. it is this which can make parole a controversial and politically charged issue. It only takes one highly publicised crime from a person on parole to sway public opinion violently against this system. Thus, the political will is often lacking, which has seen, for example, some US states abolish the parole system completely, and others having done so for specific offences. This is often a response to public pressure, rather than a considered assessment of the pros and cons. As always, the same argument applies without parole as an intermediate step, released inmates may face an uphill battle to avoid recidivism, costing society much more in the longer term. A more innovative method to encourage rehabilitation is time off for good behaviour. For each year of imprisonment, it automatically allots inmates who exhibit good behaviour a certain number of days. This means that, year after year, the good time is accrued, resulting in an eventual release perhaps one third of the sentence earlier. However, if the inmates commit more than a certain number of infractions, or particularly serious ones, they then forfeit their time, and must complete the full, duration of their sentence. | The abolition of the parole system is usually done after much thought. | c |
id_1877 | Criminal Rehabilitation: A Difficult Issue When convicted criminals have served long terms of imprisonment, it is obvious that, upon their release, one cannot necessarily expect them to be reformed and able to reintegrate into society. In the potential ly rough and violent ganglands of prisons, quite the opposite may occur, which raises a difficult dilemma in the criminal justice system. To maintain social order, those who break the law are expected to be punished, yet that same maintenance of order means that rehabilitation must be given a high emphasis. The ethic of rehabilitation is based on the assumption that criminal tendencies are not necessarily permanent, and that former inmates can successfully lead lives in which they contribute positively to society. The ultimate goal is to prevent them from reoffending, an event technically known as criminal recidivism. Prisons therefore contain systems of education or therapy, as well as assessment to determine whether inmates have truly developed remorse for past misdeeds, an ability to reintegrate into society, and intentions to do so. Assessing this accurately is a difficult issue, and it must be accepted that there are some people who can never be rehabilitated, however much we try. The term psychopath is often used here, one of the key determiners of this condition being an inability to learn from past mistakes. Techniques towards improving their behaviour are thus unlikely to work. Obviously, recidivism is highly correlated with this condition, yet studies have shown that psychopathie prisoners are equally likely to be released from prisons as non-psychopathic ones. This is often explained by the fact that psychopathic individuals develop better strategies at disguising their intentions, and become more adept at tricking others. Treatment and therapy merely give them knowledge of penal and judicial procedures, which they can then twist to their advantage, colloquially known as system cracking. Cases such as these reveal the biggest problem with rehabilitation: the difficulty of reading the deepest intentions of human beings. Nevertheless, inmates will be released, and consequently need assistance for their reintegration into society. This is most commonly done through parole, which involves serving the remainder of a sentence outside of prison. This is different from probation, which is used instead of prison sentences, and consequently places greater restrictions upon the subject. A similar system is supervised release, where the subject faces the same restrictions as probation, but only after serving the entire prison sentence. Whatever the case, the parole officer will monitor the released inmate, offering support and assistance wherever possible. The decision about whether to grant parole usually lies with a parole board. Members may be judges, psychiatrists, criminologists, and appointed citizens from the local community. The common factor is that they all have a good education, and are judged to be of high moral standing. Yet again, trying to assess the inmates psychological state and what intentions lie within is problematic at best. Good conduct while inside the prison system is the most obvious prerequisite, but other factors based on the support networks existing outside also play a role. Having already established a permanent residence, and having gained employment, is usually mandatory. Upon being released on parole, there are still a variety of regulatory conditions to be met. These include the obvious, such as obeying the law, and contacting the parole officer at specified intervals, but may be more individual and specific, such as the non-use of drugs and alcohol, and return to the home residence before a certain time (known as a curfew). Upon ignoring any of these, an arrest warrant is issued, parole time is stopped, and there follows a parole violation hearing. The parole board then makes a decision about whether to revoke the parole (which sees the subject reincarcerated) or to allow parole to continue. As mentioned, such decisions are not a hard science, and mistakes can be made. it is this which can make parole a controversial and politically charged issue. It only takes one highly publicised crime from a person on parole to sway public opinion violently against this system. Thus, the political will is often lacking, which has seen, for example, some US states abolish the parole system completely, and others having done so for specific offences. This is often a response to public pressure, rather than a considered assessment of the pros and cons. As always, the same argument applies without parole as an intermediate step, released inmates may face an uphill battle to avoid recidivism, costing society much more in the longer term. A more innovative method to encourage rehabilitation is time off for good behaviour. For each year of imprisonment, it automatically allots inmates who exhibit good behaviour a certain number of days. This means that, year after year, the good time is accrued, resulting in an eventual release perhaps one third of the sentence earlier. However, if the inmates commit more than a certain number of infractions, or particularly serious ones, they then forfeit their time, and must complete the full, duration of their sentence. | Prisons usually have good education and therapy systems. | n |
id_1878 | Criminal Rehabilitation: A Difficult Issue When convicted criminals have served long terms of imprisonment, it is obvious that, upon their release, one cannot necessarily expect them to be reformed and able to reintegrate into society. In the potential ly rough and violent ganglands of prisons, quite the opposite may occur, which raises a difficult dilemma in the criminal justice system. To maintain social order, those who break the law are expected to be punished, yet that same maintenance of order means that rehabilitation must be given a high emphasis. The ethic of rehabilitation is based on the assumption that criminal tendencies are not necessarily permanent, and that former inmates can successfully lead lives in which they contribute positively to society. The ultimate goal is to prevent them from reoffending, an event technically known as criminal recidivism. Prisons therefore contain systems of education or therapy, as well as assessment to determine whether inmates have truly developed remorse for past misdeeds, an ability to reintegrate into society, and intentions to do so. Assessing this accurately is a difficult issue, and it must be accepted that there are some people who can never be rehabilitated, however much we try. The term psychopath is often used here, one of the key determiners of this condition being an inability to learn from past mistakes. Techniques towards improving their behaviour are thus unlikely to work. Obviously, recidivism is highly correlated with this condition, yet studies have shown that psychopathie prisoners are equally likely to be released from prisons as non-psychopathic ones. This is often explained by the fact that psychopathic individuals develop better strategies at disguising their intentions, and become more adept at tricking others. Treatment and therapy merely give them knowledge of penal and judicial procedures, which they can then twist to their advantage, colloquially known as system cracking. Cases such as these reveal the biggest problem with rehabilitation: the difficulty of reading the deepest intentions of human beings. Nevertheless, inmates will be released, and consequently need assistance for their reintegration into society. This is most commonly done through parole, which involves serving the remainder of a sentence outside of prison. This is different from probation, which is used instead of prison sentences, and consequently places greater restrictions upon the subject. A similar system is supervised release, where the subject faces the same restrictions as probation, but only after serving the entire prison sentence. Whatever the case, the parole officer will monitor the released inmate, offering support and assistance wherever possible. The decision about whether to grant parole usually lies with a parole board. Members may be judges, psychiatrists, criminologists, and appointed citizens from the local community. The common factor is that they all have a good education, and are judged to be of high moral standing. Yet again, trying to assess the inmates psychological state and what intentions lie within is problematic at best. Good conduct while inside the prison system is the most obvious prerequisite, but other factors based on the support networks existing outside also play a role. Having already established a permanent residence, and having gained employment, is usually mandatory. Upon being released on parole, there are still a variety of regulatory conditions to be met. These include the obvious, such as obeying the law, and contacting the parole officer at specified intervals, but may be more individual and specific, such as the non-use of drugs and alcohol, and return to the home residence before a certain time (known as a curfew). Upon ignoring any of these, an arrest warrant is issued, parole time is stopped, and there follows a parole violation hearing. The parole board then makes a decision about whether to revoke the parole (which sees the subject reincarcerated) or to allow parole to continue. As mentioned, such decisions are not a hard science, and mistakes can be made. it is this which can make parole a controversial and politically charged issue. It only takes one highly publicised crime from a person on parole to sway public opinion violently against this system. Thus, the political will is often lacking, which has seen, for example, some US states abolish the parole system completely, and others having done so for specific offences. This is often a response to public pressure, rather than a considered assessment of the pros and cons. As always, the same argument applies without parole as an intermediate step, released inmates may face an uphill battle to avoid recidivism, costing society much more in the longer term. A more innovative method to encourage rehabilitation is time off for good behaviour. For each year of imprisonment, it automatically allots inmates who exhibit good behaviour a certain number of days. This means that, year after year, the good time is accrued, resulting in an eventual release perhaps one third of the sentence earlier. However, if the inmates commit more than a certain number of infractions, or particularly serious ones, they then forfeit their time, and must complete the full, duration of their sentence. | Many prison inmates can become worse in prison. | e |
id_1879 | Criminal Rehabilitation: A Difficult Issue When convicted criminals have served long terms of imprisonment, it is obvious that, upon their release, one cannot necessarily expect them to be reformed and able to reintegrate into society. In the potential ly rough and violent ganglands of prisons, quite the opposite may occur, which raises a difficult dilemma in the criminal justice system. To maintain social order, those who break the law are expected to be punished, yet that same maintenance of order means that rehabilitation must be given a high emphasis. The ethic of rehabilitation is based on the assumption that criminal tendencies are not necessarily permanent, and that former inmates can successfully lead lives in which they contribute positively to society. The ultimate goal is to prevent them from reoffending, an event technically known as criminal recidivism. Prisons therefore contain systems of education or therapy, as well as assessment to determine whether inmates have truly developed remorse for past misdeeds, an ability to reintegrate into society, and intentions to do so. Assessing this accurately is a difficult issue, and it must be accepted that there are some people who can never be rehabilitated, however much we try. The term psychopath is often used here, one of the key determiners of this condition being an inability to learn from past mistakes. Techniques towards improving their behaviour are thus unlikely to work. Obviously, recidivism is highly correlated with this condition, yet studies have shown that psychopathie prisoners are equally likely to be released from prisons as non-psychopathic ones. This is often explained by the fact that psychopathic individuals develop better strategies at disguising their intentions, and become more adept at tricking others. Treatment and therapy merely give them knowledge of penal and judicial procedures, which they can then twist to their advantage, colloquially known as system cracking. Cases such as these reveal the biggest problem with rehabilitation: the difficulty of reading the deepest intentions of human beings. Nevertheless, inmates will be released, and consequently need assistance for their reintegration into society. This is most commonly done through parole, which involves serving the remainder of a sentence outside of prison. This is different from probation, which is used instead of prison sentences, and consequently places greater restrictions upon the subject. A similar system is supervised release, where the subject faces the same restrictions as probation, but only after serving the entire prison sentence. Whatever the case, the parole officer will monitor the released inmate, offering support and assistance wherever possible. The decision about whether to grant parole usually lies with a parole board. Members may be judges, psychiatrists, criminologists, and appointed citizens from the local community. The common factor is that they all have a good education, and are judged to be of high moral standing. Yet again, trying to assess the inmates psychological state and what intentions lie within is problematic at best. Good conduct while inside the prison system is the most obvious prerequisite, but other factors based on the support networks existing outside also play a role. Having already established a permanent residence, and having gained employment, is usually mandatory. Upon being released on parole, there are still a variety of regulatory conditions to be met. These include the obvious, such as obeying the law, and contacting the parole officer at specified intervals, but may be more individual and specific, such as the non-use of drugs and alcohol, and return to the home residence before a certain time (known as a curfew). Upon ignoring any of these, an arrest warrant is issued, parole time is stopped, and there follows a parole violation hearing. The parole board then makes a decision about whether to revoke the parole (which sees the subject reincarcerated) or to allow parole to continue. As mentioned, such decisions are not a hard science, and mistakes can be made. it is this which can make parole a controversial and politically charged issue. It only takes one highly publicised crime from a person on parole to sway public opinion violently against this system. Thus, the political will is often lacking, which has seen, for example, some US states abolish the parole system completely, and others having done so for specific offences. This is often a response to public pressure, rather than a considered assessment of the pros and cons. As always, the same argument applies without parole as an intermediate step, released inmates may face an uphill battle to avoid recidivism, costing society much more in the longer term. A more innovative method to encourage rehabilitation is time off for good behaviour. For each year of imprisonment, it automatically allots inmates who exhibit good behaviour a certain number of days. This means that, year after year, the good time is accrued, resulting in an eventual release perhaps one third of the sentence earlier. However, if the inmates commit more than a certain number of infractions, or particularly serious ones, they then forfeit their time, and must complete the full, duration of their sentence. | Supervised release is stricter than parole. | e |
id_1880 | Criminal Rehabilitation: A Difficult Issue When convicted criminals have served long terms of imprisonment, it is obvious that, upon their release, one cannot necessarily expect them to be reformed and able to reintegrate into society. In the potential ly rough and violent ganglands of prisons, quite the opposite may occur, which raises a difficult dilemma in the criminal justice system. To maintain social order, those who break the law are expected to be punished, yet that same maintenance of order means that rehabilitation must be given a high emphasis. The ethic of rehabilitation is based on the assumption that criminal tendencies are not necessarily permanent, and that former inmates can successfully lead lives in which they contribute positively to society. The ultimate goal is to prevent them from reoffending, an event technically known as criminal recidivism. Prisons therefore contain systems of education or therapy, as well as assessment to determine whether inmates have truly developed remorse for past misdeeds, an ability to reintegrate into society, and intentions to do so. Assessing this accurately is a difficult issue, and it must be accepted that there are some people who can never be rehabilitated, however much we try. The term psychopath is often used here, one of the key determiners of this condition being an inability to learn from past mistakes. Techniques towards improving their behaviour are thus unlikely to work. Obviously, recidivism is highly correlated with this condition, yet studies have shown that psychopathie prisoners are equally likely to be released from prisons as non-psychopathic ones. This is often explained by the fact that psychopathic individuals develop better strategies at disguising their intentions, and become more adept at tricking others. Treatment and therapy merely give them knowledge of penal and judicial procedures, which they can then twist to their advantage, colloquially known as system cracking. Cases such as these reveal the biggest problem with rehabilitation: the difficulty of reading the deepest intentions of human beings. Nevertheless, inmates will be released, and consequently need assistance for their reintegration into society. This is most commonly done through parole, which involves serving the remainder of a sentence outside of prison. This is different from probation, which is used instead of prison sentences, and consequently places greater restrictions upon the subject. A similar system is supervised release, where the subject faces the same restrictions as probation, but only after serving the entire prison sentence. Whatever the case, the parole officer will monitor the released inmate, offering support and assistance wherever possible. The decision about whether to grant parole usually lies with a parole board. Members may be judges, psychiatrists, criminologists, and appointed citizens from the local community. The common factor is that they all have a good education, and are judged to be of high moral standing. Yet again, trying to assess the inmates psychological state and what intentions lie within is problematic at best. Good conduct while inside the prison system is the most obvious prerequisite, but other factors based on the support networks existing outside also play a role. Having already established a permanent residence, and having gained employment, is usually mandatory. Upon being released on parole, there are still a variety of regulatory conditions to be met. These include the obvious, such as obeying the law, and contacting the parole officer at specified intervals, but may be more individual and specific, such as the non-use of drugs and alcohol, and return to the home residence before a certain time (known as a curfew). Upon ignoring any of these, an arrest warrant is issued, parole time is stopped, and there follows a parole violation hearing. The parole board then makes a decision about whether to revoke the parole (which sees the subject reincarcerated) or to allow parole to continue. As mentioned, such decisions are not a hard science, and mistakes can be made. it is this which can make parole a controversial and politically charged issue. It only takes one highly publicised crime from a person on parole to sway public opinion violently against this system. Thus, the political will is often lacking, which has seen, for example, some US states abolish the parole system completely, and others having done so for specific offences. This is often a response to public pressure, rather than a considered assessment of the pros and cons. As always, the same argument applies without parole as an intermediate step, released inmates may face an uphill battle to avoid recidivism, costing society much more in the longer term. A more innovative method to encourage rehabilitation is time off for good behaviour. For each year of imprisonment, it automatically allots inmates who exhibit good behaviour a certain number of days. This means that, year after year, the good time is accrued, resulting in an eventual release perhaps one third of the sentence earlier. However, if the inmates commit more than a certain number of infractions, or particularly serious ones, they then forfeit their time, and must complete the full, duration of their sentence. | Psychopathic prisoners often reoffend after being released. | e |
id_1881 | Criminal Simulation occurs when, with intent to defraud or harm another, a person alters an object so that it appears to have more worth than it has because of age, antiquity, rarity, or authorship. | Bess Rossburg sews an American flag from scratch and enters it in a contest using the name Betsy Ross. This situation is the best example of Criminal Simulation. | c |
id_1882 | Criminal Simulation occurs when, with intent to defraud or harm another, a person alters an object so that it appears to have more worth than it has because of age, antiquity, rarity, or authorship. | Wendell finds an old ship's bell in a navy surplus store and tells his friends he got it from one of the men who helped recover the Titanic a few years ago. This situation is the best example of Criminal Simulation. | c |
id_1883 | Criminal Simulation occurs when, with intent to defraud or harm another, a person alters an object so that it appears to have more worth than it has because of age, antiquity, rarity, or authorship. | Edith writes a poem onto a scrap of paper, has the paper stained to appear a few decades old, and then tries to sell it to an antique dealer as an Edna St. Vincent Millay original. This situation is the best example of Criminal Simulation. | e |
id_1884 | Criminal Simulation occurs when, with intent to defraud or harm another, a person alters an object so that it appears to have more worth than it has because of age, antiquity, rarity, or authorship. | On Elvis's birthday, Eric dresses up as an Elvis look-alike and sells blue velvet paintings of the singer on a street corner. This situation is the best example of Criminal Simulation. | c |
id_1885 | Critics of modern quas-non- governmental organisations pomt to their remoteness, lack of accountability and the difficulty of managing such bureaucratic organisations. Quangos, which are funded by the government but operate at an arms length, are often viewed by the public as mefficient and ineffective, spending more time talking about their goals than actually achieving them. Controversial though they may be, there is evidence of a nse in the number of quangos m the UK, though many of these state-run organssations use alternative names such as executive agency, board, council or commission. A recent report that the UKs quangos spent over one billion pounds last year on public relations and communications 1s not likely to improve these organisations popularity with taxpayers. | The terms executive agency and quango are interchangeable. | e |
id_1886 | Critics of modern quas-non- governmental organisations pomt to their remoteness, lack of accountability and the difficulty of managing such bureaucratic organisations. Quangos, which are funded by the government but operate at an arms length, are often viewed by the public as mefficient and ineffective, spending more time talking about their goals than actually achieving them. Controversial though they may be, there is evidence of a nse in the number of quangos m the UK, though many of these state-run organssations use alternative names such as executive agency, board, council or commission. A recent report that the UKs quangos spent over one billion pounds last year on public relations and communications 1s not likely to improve these organisations popularity with taxpayers. | The passage suggests that quangos are burcaucratt. | e |
id_1887 | Critics of modern quas-non- governmental organisations pomt to their remoteness, lack of accountability and the difficulty of managing such bureaucratic organisations. Quangos, which are funded by the government but operate at an arms length, are often viewed by the public as mefficient and ineffective, spending more time talking about their goals than actually achieving them. Controversial though they may be, there is evidence of a nse in the number of quangos m the UK, though many of these state-run organssations use alternative names such as executive agency, board, council or commission. A recent report that the UKs quangos spent over one billion pounds last year on public relations and communications 1s not likely to improve these organisations popularity with taxpayers. | The public perceive quangos as inefficient because of their marketing spend. | c |
id_1888 | Critics of modern quas-non- governmental organisations pomt to their remoteness, lack of accountability and the difficulty of managing such bureaucratic organisations. Quangos, which are funded by the government but operate at an arms length, are often viewed by the public as mefficient and ineffective, spending more time talking about their goals than actually achieving them. Controversial though they may be, there is evidence of a nse in the number of quangos m the UK, though many of these state-run organssations use alternative names such as executive agency, board, council or commission. A recent report that the UKs quangos spent over one billion pounds last year on public relations and communications 1s not likely to improve these organisations popularity with taxpayers. | Quangos are funded by the taxpayer. | e |
id_1889 | Critics of modern quas-non- governmental organisations pomt to their remoteness, lack of accountability and the difficulty of managing such bureaucratic organisations. Quangos, which are funded by the government but operate at an arms length, are often viewed by the public as mefficient and ineffective, spending more time talking about their goals than actually achieving them. Controversial though they may be, there is evidence of a nse in the number of quangos m the UK, though many of these state-run organssations use alternative names such as executive agency, board, council or commission. A recent report that the UKs quangos spent over one billion pounds last year on public relations and communications 1s not likely to improve these organisations popularity with taxpayers. | Modern quangos are entirely independent from government. | c |
id_1890 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | Human beings are responsible for some of the destruction to food-producing land. | e |
id_1891 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | Methods for predicting the Earths population have recently changed. | n |
id_1892 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | Vertical farming will make plants less likely to be affected by infectious diseases. | e |
id_1893 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | The crops produced in vertical farms will depend on the season. | c |
id_1894 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | Some damage to food crops is caused by climate change. | e |
id_1895 | Crop-growing skyscrapers. By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earths population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the worlds population to live on? The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the Vertical Farm. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming. It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food-bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops. The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting non-edible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping. A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future. One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light. Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops. | Fertilisers will be needed for certain crops in vertical farms. | c |
id_1896 | Crude oil from regions around the Dead Sea was used as early as 1000 BC for ancient Egyptian Mummification, but it wasnt until 1853 that the process of oil distillation was discovered and we saw the advent of the modern history of oil. The first oil mine was constructed the following year. Oil quickly took over from coal as the worlds principal fuel in the mid-1950s. Oil is now used to run the vast majority of vehicles and is a key ingredient in many chemicals used in industry. However, concerns have been raised that as oil is a limited resource, its usage as an economically viable energy source will eventually come to an end. There is also worry that using and treating oil has major impacts upon the environment, like the carbon dioxide released when it is burnt and the contribution of this to global warming. | The treatment and use of oil may be bad for the environment. | c |
id_1897 | Crude oil from regions around the Dead Sea was used as early as 1000 BC for ancient Egyptian Mummification, but it wasnt until 1853 that the process of oil distillation was discovered and we saw the advent of the modern history of oil. The first oil mine was constructed the following year. Oil quickly took over from coal as the worlds principal fuel in the mid-1950s. Oil is now used to run the vast majority of vehicles and is a key ingredient in many chemicals used in industry. However, concerns have been raised that as oil is a limited resource, its usage as an economically viable energy source will eventually come to an end. There is also worry that using and treating oil has major impacts upon the environment, like the carbon dioxide released when it is burnt and the contribution of this to global warming. | Oil is the only used as an energy source. | c |
id_1898 | Crude oil from regions around the Dead Sea was used as early as 1000 BC for ancient Egyptian Mummification, but it wasnt until 1853 that the process of oil distillation was discovered and we saw the advent of the modern history of oil. The first oil mine was constructed the following year. Oil quickly took over from coal as the worlds principal fuel in the mid-1950s. Oil is now used to run the vast majority of vehicles and is a key ingredient in many chemicals used in industry. However, concerns have been raised that as oil is a limited resource, its usage as an economically viable energy source will eventually come to an end. There is also worry that using and treating oil has major impacts upon the environment, like the carbon dioxide released when it is burnt and the contribution of this to global warming. | The process of oil distillation was used in ancient times. | c |
id_1899 | Crude oil from regions around the Dead Sea was used as early as 1000 BC for ancient Egyptian mummification, but it wasn't until 1853 that the process of oil distillation was discovered and we saw the advent of the modern history of oil. The first oil mine was constructed the following year. Oil quickly took over from coal as being the world's principal fuel in the mid 1950's. Oil is now used to run the vast majority of vehicles and is a key ingredient in many chemicals used in industry. However, concerns have been raised that as oil is a limited resource its usage as an economically viable energy source will eventually come to an end. There is also worry that using and treating oil has major impacts upon the environment, like the carbon dioxide released when it is burnt and the contribution of this to global warming. | Global warming has been linked to the burning of oil. | e |
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