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cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. Literature and rhetoric In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx'sclassic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel The Great Gatsby. Mathematical notation Mathematical notation is a helpful tool that eliminates a lot of misunderstandings associated with natural language in physics and other sciences. Nonetheless, there are still some inherent ambiguities due to Lexical semantics Names of functions The ambiguity in the style of writing a Function (mathematics) * Sinc function * Elliptic integral#Complete elliptic integral of the third kind * Exponential integral * Hermite polynomial A highly confusing term is gain. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. * It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. * It may mean that the ratio of the | Wikipedia:Ambiguity |
should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. * It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. * It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. * It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term intensity is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or Optical resolution The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to Virtuous circle and vicious circle Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity and impossible cube, an underdetermined and overdetermined object, respectively. In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of underdetermination for example, X Y leaves open what the value of X is while overdetermination, except when like X 1, X 1, X 1, is a Self-refuting idea Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher. Constructed language Some Constructed language Biology In structural biology, ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying Protein structure Christianity and Judaism Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto'sdescription of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery that fascinates humans. The apocryphal | Wikipedia:Ambiguity |
structure Christianity and Judaism Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto'sdescription of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery that fascinates humans. The apocryphal Book of Judith is noted for the "ingenious ambiguity" expressed by its heroine; for example, she says to the villain of the story, Holofernes, "my lord will not fail to achieve his purposes", without specifying whether my lord refers to the villain or to God. The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts that he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases: the title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy (1908), itself employed such a paradox. Music In music, pieces or sections that confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous metre Visual art in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. DRAM) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that metric prefix#Binary prefixes See also References External links * * * * * Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements * Leaving out ambiguities when writing Category:Ambiguity Category:Semantics Category:Mathematical notation Category:Concepts in epistemology Category:Formal semantics (natural language) | Wikipedia:Ambiguity |
(Continent#Area and population Asia ( , ) is the largest continent Other models consider Asia as part of a Eurasian or Afro-Eurasian continent (see ). in the world by both land area and population. was the site of many of the first civilisations. Its 4.7billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world'spopulation. Asia shares the landmass of Eurasia with Europe, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. In general terms, it is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a social constructionism Since the concept of Asia derives from the term for the eastern region from a European perspective, Asia is the remaining vast area of Eurasia minus Europe. Therefore, Asia is a region where various independent cultures coexist rather than sharing a single culture, and the boundary between Europe is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West dichotomy China and India traded places as the list of regions by past GDP (PPP) Asia varies greatly across and within Regions of Asia Etymology The term "Asia" is believed to originate in the Bronze Age toponym () which originally referred only to a portion of northwestern Anatolia. The term appears in Hittite texts within the Roman Empire Herodotus used the term in reference to Anatolia and the territory of the Achaemenid Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. He reports that Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus, but that Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" ( or ) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan (mythology) The term was later adopted by the Roman people Definition | Wikipedia:Asia |
son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" ( or ) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan (mythology) The term was later adopted by the Roman people Definition Asia–Europe boundary smostly fit with lines B and F given. The threefold division of the Old World into Africa, Asia, and Europe has been in use since the 6th centuryBCE, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peter'sdeath, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai Peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. Asia–Oceania boundary The border between Asia and Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Indonesian Archipelago, specifically in Eastern Indonesia. The Wallace Line separates the Asian and Wallacea biogeographical realms, a transition zone of deep water straits between the Asian and Australian continental shelves. Weber's Line split the region in two with regard to the balance of fauna between Asian origin or Australo-Papuan origin. The Maluku Islands (except the Aru Islands) are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, to the east of | Wikipedia:Asia |
the balance of fauna between Asian origin or Australo-Papuan origin. The Maluku Islands (except the Aru Islands) are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, to the east of the Lydekker's Line, being wholly part of Oceania, as both lie on the Australian continental plate. Culturally, the Wallacea region denoted the transition between Austronesian people Asia–North America boundary The Bering Strait and Bering Sea separate the landmasses of Asia and North America, as well as forming the international boundary between Russia and the United States. This National boundary St. Lawrence Island in the northern Bering Sea belongs to the US state of Alaska and may be associated with either continent but is almost always considered part of North America, as with the Rat Islands in the Aleutian chain. At their nearest points, Alaska and Russia are separated by only . Ongoing definition Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus, a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia". Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass Afro-Eurasia and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian Plate | Wikipedia:Asia |
the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass Afro-Eurasia and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian Plate History Ancient era connected civilisations across Asia.The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and West Asia. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world'searliest known civilisations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilisations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilisations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into West Asia, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum Desert Medieval era at its greatest extent. The gray area is the later Timurid Empire.The Islamic Caliphate'sdefeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and Northwestern South Asia The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road. | Wikipedia:Asia |
parts of Central Asia and Northwestern South Asia The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road. Modern era European involvement in Asia became more significant from the Age of Discovery onward, with Iberian-sponsored sailors such as Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama paving the way for new routes from Atlantic Europe to Pacific Asia and the Indian Ocean respectively in the late 15th century. The Russian Empire also began to expand into northwestern Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. Among non-European empires, the Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onward, while in the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire (preceded by the Delhi Sultanate of the 13th to early 16th century) and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. Western imperialism in Asia from the 18th to 20th centuries coincided with the Industrial Revolution in the West and the dethroning of India and China as the world'sforemost economies. The British Empire first became dominant in South Asia, with most of the region being Company rule in India Foreign domination of China was furthered by the Japanese colonial empire, which controlled some of East Asia and briefly much of Southeast Asia (which had earlier been European colonisation of Southeast Asia Contemporary era With the end of World War II in 1945 and the wartime ruination of Europe and imperial Japan, many countries in Asia were able to rapidly Decolonisation of Asia Some Arab countries took economic advantage of massive oil deposits that were discovered in | Wikipedia:Asia |
by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations | Wikipedia:Asia |
Main regions There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used, among others, by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories. * North Asia (Siberia) * Central Asia * West Asia (The Middle East or Near East and part of the Caucasus) * South Asia (Indian subcontinent) * East Asia (Far East) * Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina) Climate map for Asia Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from Arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. Climate change Politics for Asia The most Democracy in Asia List of states and territories Within the states mentioned above are several partially recognized countries with List of states with limited recognition Economy and is the world'sfourth-largest foreign exchange trading hub. Asia has the List of continents by GDP In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economy of China had an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. According to economic historian Angus Maddison, India had the world'slargest economy | Wikipedia:Asia |
Asia has the List of continents by GDP In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economy of China had an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. According to economic historian Angus Maddison, India had the world'slargest economy for much of the past three millennia prior to the 19th century, accounting for 25% of the world'sindustrial output. China was the Economic history of China According to Citigroup in 2011, 9 of 11 3G countries Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa Mombasa (see also: Indo-Pacific), from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean (see also: Indo-Mediterranean), there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via Cape Route In 2010, Asia had 3.3million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. In 2011, Asia topped Europe in number of millionaires. Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that the total wealth of people in Asia with over $100 million in assets exceeded that of their North American counterparts for the first time, as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with | Wikipedia:Asia |
as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people. Tourism in the Grand Palace is among Bangkok'smajor tourist attractions. With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 million international visitors. Demographics is provided by. East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report'sanalysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world'sfastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago. and Baháʼí Faith originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Jews Christianity is a widespread religion | Wikipedia:Asia |
just one in five 40 years ago. and Baháʼí Faith originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Jews Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia, with more than 286million adherents in 2010 according to Pew Research Center, and nearly 364million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. Christians constitute around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and Timor-Leste, Catholicism is the predominant religion; which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Vibrant indigenous minorities in West Asia are adhering to the Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodoxy. Significant Christian communities also found in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia. Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Holiest sites in Islam#Jerusalem The Druze originated in West Asia, is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of figures like Hamza ibn Ali and al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The number of Druze people worldwide is around one million. Around 45–50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora. The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been Persecution | Wikipedia:Asia |
mmunities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern | Wikipedia:Asia |
North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. Jainism is found mainly in India and in overseas Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities, Taoism is easily syncretised with Mahayana Buddhism, thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. File:Traditional wedding at Meji-jingu 72570539 f30636e2ef o.jpg File:A day of devotion – Thaipusam in Singapore (4316108409).jpg File:Bar Mitzvah Western Wall.jpg File:Feast of Black Nazarene, Quiapo, Manila.JPG File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Nebi Shueib Festival.jpg File:Echmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia (5047080550).jpg File:İstanbul 4258.jpg File:Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand.jpg Culture The culture of Asia is a diverse blend of customs and traditions that have been practiced by the various ethnic groups of the continent for centuries. The continent is divided into six geographic sub-regions: Central Asia, East Asian cultural sphere Nobel laureates , winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and Asia'sfirst Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali literature Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent | Wikipedia:Asia |
considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and ''The Mother (1934 novel) Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially | Wikipedia:Asia |
of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and ''The Mother (1934 novel) Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the Raman scattering Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen () is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society'spoorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada | Wikipedia:Asia |
economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society'spoorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, the Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus of was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women. He is known for the concept of micro credit which, allows poor and destitute people to borrow money. The borrowers pay back money within the specified period and defaulting is very low. Yunus also became the leader of an Yunus interim government See also * Asian Century * Asian Games * Asian Highway Network * Asian Monetary Unit * Asian Para Games * List of cities in Asia * Asian cuisine * Asian furniture * Eastern Mediterranean * Eastern world * Fauna of Asia * Flags of Asia * List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population * Trans-Asian Railway Notes References Bibliography * * Further reading * Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) ** vol. 1 online; vol 2 online; vol 3 online; vol 4 online * Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. * Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, * Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. * Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of | Wikipedia:Asia |
2004. * Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, * Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. * Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). * External links * * * Asia: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society * Asian Reading Room from the United States Library of Congress * * * * * Category:Asia Category:Continents | Wikipedia:Asia |
* Metaphysical voluntarism * Philosophical pessimism Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788– 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon Schopenhauer was among the first philosophers in the Western philosophy Early life Arthur Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788 in Gdańsk (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; later in the Kingdom of Prussia as Danzig) on Św. Ducha 47 (in Prussia Heiliggeistgasse), the son of and his wife Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener), both descendants of wealthy German Patrician (post-Roman Europe) In 1797, Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with the family of his father'sbusiness associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his two-year stay there, learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803, he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Netherlands Heinrich presented Arthur with a choice: he could either stay at home to begin preparations for university or travel with them to further his merchant education. Arthur chose to travel with them. He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending school in Wimbledon, London In 1805, Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide. He was prone to anxiety and Major depressive disorder Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father. There were other instances of serious mental health problems on his father'sside of the family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
father. There were other instances of serious mental health problems on his father'sside of the family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha, in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. While there, he also enjoyed a social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which deeply concerned his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed he left voluntarily, his mother'sletter indicates that he may have been expelled. Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father. During this time, he had doubts about being able to start a new life as a scholar. Most of his prior education was as a practical merchant and he had trouble learning Latin; a prerequisite for an academic career. His mother moved away, with her daughter Adele, to Weimar then the centre of German literature to enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother did not part on good terms. In one letter, she wrote: "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." His mother, Johanna, was generally described as vivacious and sociable. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur'snegative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur moved | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
propensity to pick holes in other people." His mother, Johanna, was generally described as vivacious and sociable. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur'snegative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur moved to Hamburg to live with his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. Education He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father'smemory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna'sfamous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being Johann Wolfgang von Goethe He left Weimar to become a student at the Georg August University of Göttingen He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow, which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, but quickly found many points of disagreement with his epistemology; he also found Fichte'slectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms seeing his philosophy as a lower-quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte'spoor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
also found Fichte'slectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms seeing his philosophy as a lower-quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte'spoor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher'slectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very Criticism of religion Early work Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the War of the Sixth Coalition Schopenhauer completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother'sinvitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and German nationalism Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), and commented In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death. As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to Dresden. He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt, Friedrich Laun, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt, Friedrich Laun, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer'sunattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. Schopenhauer'smain occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, The World as Will and Representation, which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in Italy. He visited Venice, Bologna, Florence, Naples and Milan, travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in Rome, where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Antico Caffè Greco He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found Humboldt University of Berlin Later life After his trying in academia, he continued to travel extensively, visiting Leipzig, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Schaffhausen, Vevey, Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found Humboldt University of Berlin Later life After his trying in academia, he continued to travel extensively, visiting Leipzig, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Schaffhausen, Vevey, Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he left for his three-year travel, Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for Munich and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, and especially Baltasar Gracián. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. A few attempts to revive his lectures again scheduled at the same time as Hegel's also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
at the same time as Hegel's also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygyny instead musing about a Polyamory Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a wikt:premonition Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna'swriting did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832, Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Ātman (Hinduism) Schopenhauer began to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt, who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer'sphilosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish Parerga and Paralipomena, believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer'swork. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer'swork. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848, Schopenhauer witnessed German revolutions of 1848–49 In 1851, Schopenhauer published Parerga and Paralipomena, which contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those of Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. He was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors. Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856, the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer'sphilosophy, which was won by Rudolf Seydel'svery critical essay. Schopenhauer'sfriend Jules Lunteschütz made the first of his four portraits of him which Schopenhauer did not particularly like which was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's Englischer Hof to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. in Frankfurt He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his Hearing loss Philosophy Theory of perception In November 1813 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Kant openly admitted that it was David Hume The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as the objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me? Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in On Vision and Colors, Schopenhauer did not deny that the external world existed and was known empirically, yet he followed Kant in claiming that our knowledge and experience of the world is always in some sense dependent on us. For Schopenhauer in particular, the spatiotemporal form and causal structure of the external world are contributed to our experiences of it by the mind as it renders perceptions. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation (Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung'')". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subject a 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers the world from this angle that is, insofar as it is representation. Kant had previously argued that we perceive reality as something spatial and temporal not because reality is inherently spatial and temporal, but because that is how our minds operate in perceiving an object. Therefore, understanding objects in space and time represents our 'contribution' to an experience. For Schopenhauer, Kant's 'greatest service' lay in the 'differentiation between phenomena and the thing-in-itself (noumena), based on the proof that between everything and us there | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
an object. Therefore, understanding objects in space and time represents our 'contribution' to an experience. For Schopenhauer, Kant's 'greatest service' lay in the 'differentiation between phenomena and the thing-in-itself (noumena), based on the proof that between everything and us there is always a perceiving mind.' In other words, Kant'sprimary achievement is to demonstrate that instead of being a blank slate where reality merely reveals its character, the mind, with sensory support, actively participates in constructing reality. Thus, Schopenhauer believed that Kant had shown that the everyday world of experience, and indeed the entire material world related to space and time, is merely 'appearance' or 'phenomena,' entirely distinct from the thing-in-itself.' World as will In Book Two of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to us that is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered "thing-in-itself According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will'sbeing "tranquillized" by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively "recognizes the whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. Asceticism Art and aesthetics , who "directed such purely objective perception to the most insignificant objects, and set up a lasting monument of their objectivity and spiritual peace in paintings of still life. The aesthetic beholder does not contemplate this without emotion." For Schopenhauer, human "willing" | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
desiring, craving, etc. is at the root of suffering. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic Ideas in other words, cognizance that is free | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
craving, etc. is at the root of suffering. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic Ideas in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one is separated; rather "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the Idea comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one'sindividual will but, rather, becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in the object. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation, since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, "Schopenhauer thought that philosophy of music Mathematics Schopenhauer's Mathematical realism Throughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid'sparallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid'saxioms. This follows Immanuel Kant Ethics Schopenhauer asserts | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid'sparallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid'saxioms. This follows Immanuel Kant Ethics Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given. According to Kant'stranscendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality thing-in-itself Appearances are entirely subordinated to the principle of sufficient reason. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support their needs instead of his own pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes less distinction between himself and others than is usually made. Regarding how things appear to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality. Eternal justice Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the principium individuationis. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others the will, as the | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
the principle through which multiplicity appears the principium individuationis. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented. Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing", Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt." Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death. us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man'spsyche (psychology) It has often been argued that Schopenhauer'sthoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the evolution Political and social thought Politics Schopenhauer'spolitics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (the two essays On the Freedom of the Will and On the | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Basis of Morality). In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality). In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals". Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage." By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect." Punishment The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined..." He claimed that this doctrine was | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined..." He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of Plato, Seneca the Younger Races and religions Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): The highest civilization and culture, apart from the History of Hinduism Schopenhauer was fervently Abolitionism Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedas [Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting theism. It amounts to this that the Kyrios Women In his 1851 essay "On Women", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (abgeschmackten Weiberveneration)". He wrote: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted; in a word, they are big children all their life long a kind of intermediate stage between the child and the full-grown man." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to monogamy. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments: "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
suffering of others. Schopenhauer'swritings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists, and continue to inspire Sexism When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture) Pederasty In the third, expanded | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer'swritings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists, and continue to inspire Sexism When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for Arthur Schopenhauer (sculpture) Pederasty In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and Representation (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the Metaphysics of Sexual Love. He wrote that pederasty has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils." Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty." Heredity and eugenics Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect as inherited. He quotes Horace'ssaying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (Odes, iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare'sline from Cymbeline, "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer'sview of love placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles. In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer'santi-egalitarianism Animal rights As a consequence of his Monism In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter. Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized Baruch Spinoza Issue 52 Philosophy Now Intellectual interests and affinities Indology Schopenhauer read the Latin translation of the Hindu texts Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron'stranslation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer'smother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Johann Gottfried Herder For Schopenhauer, will had ontology In Schopenhauer'sphilosophy, denial of the will is attained by: * personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or * knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. The book Oupnekhat (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West. Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer'swork, was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose Mahāvākyas Buddhism Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Mahāvākyas Buddhism Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer'sdoctrine of the will. In Buddhism, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the person as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person'scharacter. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions: If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism. Buddhist philosopher Keiji Nishitani sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer'sphilosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental: Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions. Also note: This | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
speculative or transcendental: Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions. Also note: This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration. The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer'sphilosophy more than any other Dharma Magic and occultism Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised animal magnetism as evidence for the reality of magic in his On the Will in Nature, and went so far as to accept the division of magic into Left-hand path and right-hand path Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley'ssystem of magic and its emphasis on human will. Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics". Neoplatonism, including the traditions of Plotinus and to a lesser extent Marsilio Ficino, has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer. Interests Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library. Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Johann Wolfgang von Goethe If Goethe had not | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
the operas of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Johann Wolfgang von Goethe If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity. In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, Plato and the Upanishads. Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in The World as Will and Representation: If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there. Thoughts on other philosophers Giordano Bruno and Spinoza Schopenhauer saw Giordano Bruno Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck, for the presentation of his philosophy, with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
other philosophers Giordano Bruno and Spinoza Schopenhauer saw Giordano Bruno Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck, for the presentation of his philosophy, with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato'spoetic and dramatic power of exposition. It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas as the key to Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione.Immanuel KantKant'sinfluence on Schopenhauer'sdevelopment, personally as well as in philosophy, was extensive. Kant'sphilosophy lies at the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the Critique of Pure Reason#Transcendental Aesthetic Schopenhauer writes about Kant'sinfluence on his work in the preface to the second edition of The World as Will and Representation: In his study room, one bust was of Gautama Buddha Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, The World as Will and Representation, to a detailed Critique of the Kantian philosophy Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing-in-itself, whereas the general consensus in German idealism was that this was the weakest spot of Kant'stheory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
.Post-Kantian school The leading figures of German idealism Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
leading figures of German idealism Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner. Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (Windbeutel), Hegel was a "commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan." The philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge agreed with this distinction. Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, not only "performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity." Influence and legacy by Elisabeth Ney Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen, Paul Deussen, Lazar von Hellenbach, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Ernst Otto Lindner, Philipp Mainländer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Olga Plümacher and Agnes Taubert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, neo-Kantianism and positivism, to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include Hans Vaihinger, Johannes Volkelt Schopenhauer | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
was well read by physicists, most notably Albert Einstein When Erwin Schrödinger discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
ations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer'sideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism, where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer'sideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism, where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer'smetaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. Schopenhauer'sphilosophy has made its way into a novel, The Schopenhauer Cure, by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry Irvin Yalom. Schopenhauer'sphilosophy, and the discussions on philosophical pessimism it has engendered, has been the focus of contemporary thinkers such as David Benatar, Thomas Ligotti, and Eugene Thacker. Their work also served as an inspiration for the popular HBO TV series True Detective as well as Life Is Beautiful. In this regard, Schopenhauer is sometimes considered the founding father of today'santinatalism. Advocates of metaphysical idealism Selected bibliography * On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde), 1813 * On Vision and Colors (Ueber das Sehn und die Farben), 1816 * Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum physiologica), 1830. * The World as Will and Representation (alternatively translated as The World as Will and Idea; original German is Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung): vol. 1, 1818–1819, vol. 2, 1844 Världen som vilja och föreställning ** Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ** Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ** Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ** Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) ** | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
The Longman Library of Primary Sources in Philosophy, vol. 1, 2008; vol. 2, 2010. Title translated as The World as Will and Presentation, rather than Representation. * The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten), 1831 * On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur), 1836 * On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1838 * On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral), | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Behalten), 1831 * On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur), 1836 * On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1838 * On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral), 1839 * Contains On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality. * Freely iarchive:diebeidengrundpr00scho/ * Parerga and Paralipomena (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne) ** Printings: *** 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN **** Vols. 1 and 2, , **** Vol. 1, ISBN **** Vol. 2, , *** 1974–1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, , *** 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, ** Essays and Aphorisms, being excerpts from Volume 2 of Parerga und Paralipomena, selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: * An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt), 1851 * Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains, Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., Online * * The Art of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten) . (bilingual) [The Art of Being Right] * Studies in Pessimism – audiobook from LibriVox * The World as Will and Idea at the Internet Archive: ** Volume I ** Volume II ** Volume III * "On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason" and "On the will in nature". Two essays: ** | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Internet Archive. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). ** Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections * Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer'smanuscripts in SchopenhauerSource * Essays of Schopenhauer See also * Antinatalism * Existential nihilism * Eye of a needle * God in Buddhism * Massacre of the Innocents (Reni) * Misotheism * Mortal coil * Nihilism * Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism References Sources * | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
Eine Biographie (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). * Wallace, William, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) * Zimmern, Helen, Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876) Other books * Urs App * App, Urs, Schopenhauers Kompass. Die Geburt einer Philosophie. UniversityMedia, Rorschach/ Kyoto 2011. * Atwell, John. Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will. * Atwell, John, Schopenhauer, The Human Character. * Edwards, Anthony. An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics. | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
ford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388) * Eugene Thacker External links * * * * * "Arthur Schopenhauer" an article by Mary Troxell in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011 * * Kant'sphilosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer * Timeline of German Philosophers * A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer * Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)". Two short essays, on Schopenhauer'slife and work, and on his dim view of academia. Category:Arthur Schopenhauer Category:1788 births Category:1860 deaths Category:19th-century atheists Category:19th-century German essayists Category:19th-century German male writers Category:19th-century German philosophers Category:19th-century German writers | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
L., 1998, "Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)". Two short essays, on Schopenhauer'slife and work, and on his dim view of academia. Category:Arthur Schopenhauer Category:1788 births Category:1860 deaths Category:19th-century atheists Category:19th-century German essayists Category:19th-century German male writers Category:19th-century German philosophers Category:19th-century German writers Category:German abolitionists Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin Category:German animal rights scholars Category:Anti-natalists Category:Aphorists Category:Atheist philosophers Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery Category:Critical theorists Category:Critics of Judaism Category:Critics of religions Category:German epistemologists Category:German writers on atheism Category:German atheists Category:German critics of Christianity Category:German ethicists Category:German eugenicists Category:German flautists Category:German logicians Category:German male essayists Category:German male non-fiction writers Category:German monarchists Category:German people of Dutch descent Category:German philologists Category:German scholars of Buddhism Category:Idealists Category:Kantian philosophers Category:Logicians Category:Metaphilosophers Category:Ontologists Category:Phenomenologists Category:German philosophers of art Category:German philosophers of culture Category:German philosophers of education Category:German philosophers of history Category:German philosophers of language Category:Philosophers of literature Category:Philosophers of logic Category:German philosophers of mind Category:Philosophers of pessimism Category:Philosophers of psychology Category:German philosophers of religion Category:German philosophers of science Category:German philosophy writers Category:German political philosophers Category:Simple living advocates Category:Theorists on Western civilization Category:University of Göttingen alumni Category:Writers from Gdańsk | Wikipedia:Arthur Schopenhauer |
An android is a humanoid robot or other artificial being, often made from a flesh-like material. Historically, androids existed only in the domain of science fiction and were frequently seen in film and television, but advances in robotics Terminology , 22 December 1795 The Oxford English Dictionary'' traces the earliest use (as "Androides") to Ephraim Chambers' 1728 Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences The term "android" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term android'' was used in a more modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in his work The Future Eve While the term "android" is used in reference to human-looking robots in general (not necessarily male-looking humanoid robots), a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a gynoid. Besides one can refer to robots without alluding to their sexual appearance by calling them anthrobots (a portmanteau of anthrōpos and robot; see anthrobotics) or anthropoids (short for anthropoid robots; the term humanoids is not appropriate because it is already commonly used to refer to human-like organic species in the context of science fiction, futurism and speculative astrobiology). Authors have used the term android in more diverse ways than robot or cyborg. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only superficial, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the first android, a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth. In 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans. The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University, and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture, Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro developed a new DER 2 android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The "air servosystem" which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice. The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called Saya, which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
has developed an android head called Saya, which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is working'' at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide. The Waseda University (Japan) and NTT docomo'smanufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot WD-2. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three degrees of freedom (mechanics) Singapore Prof Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's Siri or Microsoft's Cortana (software) Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics, creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user'sface and expressions displayed on the robot'sface in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements. South Korea , the first android that can sing KITECH researched and developed EveR-1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
The robot also mimics their upper body movements. South Korea , the first android that can sing KITECH researched and developed EveR-1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs , matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1'sname derives from the Eve United States Walt Disney and a staff of Imagineers created Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln that debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Dr. William Barry, an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning at the United States Military Academy, created an AI android character named "Maria Bot". This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria in the 1927 film Metropolis (1927 film) Resembling a human from the shoulders up, Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and engages in conversation about a variety of subjects. She uses AI to process and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk and engage. She collects data through conversations, direct data inputs such as books or articles, and through internet sources. Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty. Maria Bot is designed to create new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence. Barry also uses Maria Bot to demonstrate that programming a robot with life-affirming, ethical framework makes them more likely to help humans to do the same. Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology. David Hanson (robotics designer) China On April 19, 2025, 21 humanoid robots participated along with 12,000 human runners in a half-marathon in Beijing. While almost every robot | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
same. Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology. David Hanson (robotics designer) China On April 19, 2025, 21 humanoid robots participated along with 12,000 human runners in a half-marathon in Beijing. While almost every robot fell down and had overheating problems, and the robots were continuously being controlled by human handlers accompanying them, six of the robots did reach the finish line. Two of them, Tiangong Ultra by Chinese robotics company UBTech, and N2 by Chinese company Noetix Robotics, which took first and second place respectively among robots in the race, stood out for their consistent (albeit slow) pace. Use in fiction Androids are a staple of science fiction. Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series I, Robot. One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots such as the creation of artificial general intelligence Female androids, or "gynoids", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical "perfect woman". Examples include the Greek mythology The 2015 Japanese film Sayonara (2015 film) The 2023 Dutch film I%27m Not a Robot (film) See also References Further reading * Kerman, Judith B. (1991). Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. . * Perkowitz, Sidney (2004). Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids. Joseph Henry Press. . * Shelde, Per (1993). Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films. New York: New York University Press. . * Ishiguro, Hiroshi. "Android science." Cognitive Science Society. 2005. * Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "The Artificial Human" * TechCast Article | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
Science Fiction Films. New York: New York University Press. . * Ishiguro, Hiroshi. "Android science." Cognitive Science Society. 2005. * Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "The Artificial Human" * TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing" * Carpenter, J. (2009). Why send the Terminator to do R2D2s job?: Designing androids as rhetorical phenomena. Proceedings of HCI 2009: Beyond Gray Droids: Domestic Robot Design for the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK. 1 September. * Telotte, J.P. Replications: A Robotic History of the Science Fiction Film.'' University of Illinois Press, 1995. External links Category:Android (robot) Category:Japanese inventions Category:South Korean inventions Category:Osaka University research Category:Science fiction themes Category:Human–machine interaction Category:Robots | Wikipedia:Android (robot) |
* > * Max Planck Medal (1929) * Member of the National Academy of Sciences * Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century Albert Einstein, ; In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose–Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that ultimately proved unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory'sintroduction of fundamental randomness into science'spicture of the world, objecting that . Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from mainstream modern physics. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study electrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium'sregimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school'spolicy of strict rote learning was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold'sauthorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia. While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the Aether (classical element) At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy, Talmud introduced Einstein to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the ETH Zurich '' certificate from canton Aargau, 1896 At seventeen, he enrolled in the | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the ETH Zurich '' certificate from canton Aargau, 1896 At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in Olsberg, Aargau The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old Serbs Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein'sannus mirabilis publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas, When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zurich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her. 50] As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919. In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam. Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein'sletters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006 added some other women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal. After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal. After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901 was not followed by the usual sequel of conscription in Switzerland Academic career in Europe (1908–1933) Einstein'ssabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic electrodynamics that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zurich'sluring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship. in Zurich, 1913 In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater, the ETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centered on thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of Dahlem (Berlin) Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics. A Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics. A Solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor John Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions. He spoke several times at Columbia University and Princeton, and in Washington, he visited the White House with representatives of the National Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman Viscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at King's College London Einstein'sdecision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to Stockholm in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace. Touring South America (1925) In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina. Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935) with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. Touring the US (1930–1931) , 1931 In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
(Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. Touring the US (1930–1931) , 1931 In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, Manhattan at the Hollywood, Los Angeles Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was , as Millikan , where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech'sstudents, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Pictures Chaplin'sfilm City Lights was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein'sbiographer, described this as . Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was . Einstein and Chaplin were cheered at the premiere of the film. Chaplin said to Einstein, "They cheer me because they understand me, and they cheer you because no one understands you." Emigration to the | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
speculated that it was . Einstein and Chaplin were cheered at the premiere of the film. Chaplin said to Einstein, "They cheer me because they understand me, and they cheer you because no one understands you." Emigration to the US (1933) , ) In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazi Germany While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family'sapartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act of 1933 In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service A month later, Einstein'sworks were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the Copenhagen interpretation World War II and the Manhattan Project In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington, D.C. to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group'swarnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS), an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship certificate from judge Phillip Forman in 1940 Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the Civil rights movement (1896–1954) Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country'sdevelopment. He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine (region) In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the ProVeg Deutschland#History He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: ... I get most joy in life out of music. and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
get most joy in life out of music. and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newton's law of universal gravitation The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein'sunderstanding of Mach'sprinciple in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein'sstatic universe. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein'sapproach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow Geodesics in general relativity Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper, It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
falling bodies follow Geodesics in general relativity Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper, It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultracold atom Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck'sdistribution law if the emission of light into a mode with nphotons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie'swork and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization Quantum mechanics Einstein'sobjections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a Einstein'sthought experiments A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables Observable#Incompatibility of observables in quantum mechanics In 1964, John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated. Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox . Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated, that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the strong nuclear force Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center. In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials. Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect. Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (Spin polarization A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the Ampère Museum in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum'sholdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump, sound reproduction device, and several other household devices. Legacy Non-scientific , Einstein, Ole Colbjørnsen, Jørgen Vogt, and Ilse Einstein at a picnic in Oslo in 1920. While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986 Einstein'sright of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, In 1999, Einstein was named Time (magazine) Scientific In | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
death (she died in 1986 Einstein'sright of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, In 1999, Einstein was named Time (magazine) Scientific In 1999, a survey of the top 100 physicists voted for Einstein as the "greatest physicist ever", while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists gave the top spot to Isaac Newton, with Einstein second. Physicist Lev Landau ranked physicists from 0 to 5 on a Lev Landau#Landau'sranking of physicists Physicist Eugene Wigner noted that while John von Neumann had the quickest and acute mind he ever knew, the understanding of Einstein was deeper than von Neumann's, stating that: The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics declared 2005 the "World Year of Physics 2005 In popular culture in 1951, sitting in a car on his 74th birthday, having been asked to smile for the camera once again. Einstein became one of the most famous Scientific celebrity Publications Scientific : * * * * – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat– of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid * * * * * * * * * First of a series of papers on this topic. * * * * * * * * A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . * Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page. Popular * * * * The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. Political * * * * Einstein, Albert (September 1960). Foreword to Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories. Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v–vi. . Foreword originally written in | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
pages 48–51. Political * * * * Einstein, Albert (September 1960). Foreword to Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories. Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v–vi. . Foreword originally written in April 1953. See also * Bern Historical Museum (Einstein Museum) * Einstein notation * Frist Campus Center at Princeton University room 302 is associated with Einstein. The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory. * Heinrich Burkhardt * Heinrich Zangger * History of gravitational theory * List of coupled cousins * List of German inventors and discoverers * List of Jewish Nobel laureates * List of peace activists * Relativity priority dispute * Sticky bead argument Notes Grading systems by country#Switzerland References – Biography Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * * , or * * * * * External links * * * * * Home page of Albert Einstein at The Institute for Advanced Study * Einstein and his love of music (archived 2015), Physics World, Jan 2005 * including the Nobel Lecture 11 July 1923 Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity * Einstein'sdeclaration of intention for American citizenship (archived 2014) on the World Digital Library Archival materials collections * Albert Einstein Historical Letters, Documents & Papers from Shapell Manuscript Foundation * Albert Einstein in FBI Records: The Vault * Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents, currently offline) from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (MSNBC coverage in 19 March 2012) * The Albert Einstein Archives at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem * Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection (archived 2013) at Brandeis University | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
Online (80,000+ Documents, currently offline) from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (MSNBC coverage in 19 March 2012) * The Albert Einstein Archives at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem * Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection (archived 2013) at Brandeis University * Finding aid to Albert Einstein collection from Boston University * Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection in Harry Ransom Center of University of Texas at Austin * Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection from Center for Jewish History Digital collections * The Digital Einstein Papers An open-access site for The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, from Princeton University * Albert Einstein Digital Collection from Vassar College Digital Collections * * Albert – The Digital Repository of the IAS, which contains many digitized original documents and photographs Category:Albert Einstein Category:1879 births Category:1955 deaths Category:19th-century German Jews Category:20th-century American engineers Category:20th-century American inventors Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American physicists Category:20th-century Swiss inventors Category:Academic staff of Charles University Category:Academic staff of ETH Zurich Category:Academic staff of the University of Bern Category:Academic staff of the University of Zurich Category:American agnostics Category:American Ashkenazi Jews Category:American democratic socialists Category:American humanists Category:20th-century American letter writers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American Nobel laureates Category:American pacifists Category:American relativity theorists Category:American science writers Category:American Zionists Category:Anti-nationalists Category:Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm Category:Denaturalized citizens of Germany Category:Einstein family Category:ETH Zurich alumni Category:European democratic socialists Category:German agnostics Category:German Ashkenazi Jews Category:German emigrants to Switzerland Category:German humanists Category:German male non-fiction writers Category:German Nobel laureates Category:German relativity theorists Category:German Zionists Category:Institute for Advanced | Wikipedia:Albert Einstein |
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of number r and s In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of Rigour#Mathematics In contrast, a Heuristic (computer science) As an effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a Function (mathematics) Etymology Around 825 AD, Persian scientist and polymath Al-Khwarizmi Definition One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations", which would include all computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and any prescribed bureaucratic procedure or Cookbook Most algorithms are intended to be Implementation History Ancient algorithms Step-by-step procedures for solving mathematical problems have been recorded since antiquity. This includes in Babylonian mathematics (around 2500 BC), Egyptian mathematics (around 1550 BC), the Ifa Oracle (around 500 BC), Greek mathematics (around 240 BC), Chinese mathematics The earliest evidence of algorithms is found in ancient Mesopotamian mathematics. A Sumerian clay tablet found in Shuruppak near Baghdad and dated to describes the earliest division algorithm. Algorithms were also used in Babylonian astronomy. Babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events. Algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient Egyptian mathematics, dating back to the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus . producing the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine" led immediately to "mechanical automata theory Electromechanical relay Bell and Newell (1971) write that the Jacquard loom, a precursor to Hollerith cards (punch cards), and "telephone switching technologies" led to the development of the first computers. By the mid-19th century, the telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By the late 19th century, the ticker tape () was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then came the teleprinter () with its punched-paper use of Baudot | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world. By the late 19th century, the ticker tape () was in use, as were Hollerith cards (c. 1890). Then came the teleprinter () with its punched-paper use of Baudot code on tape. Telephone-switching networks of relays Formalization 'sdiagram from "Note G", the first published computer algorithm In 1928, a partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithms began with attempts to solve the Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem) posed by David Hilbert. Later formalizations were framed as attempts to define "effective calculability" or "effective method". Those formalizations included the Kurt Gödel Representations Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including natural languages, pseudocode, flowcharts, DRAKON Turing machines There are many possible representations and Turing machine programs can be expressed as a sequence of machine tables (see finite-state machine, state-transition table, and control table for more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see state diagram for more), as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called "sets of quadruples", and more. Algorithm representations can also be classified into three accepted levels of Turing machine description: high-level description, implementation description, and formal description. A high-level description describes the qualities of the algorithm itself, ignoring how it is implemented on the Turing machine. Execution efficiency To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to Fast Fourier transform Design Algorithm design is a method or mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as divide-and-conquer algorithm Structured programming Per the Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by any Turing complete model. Turing completeness only requires four instruction types conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code", a programmer can | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
any Turing complete model. Turing completeness only requires four instruction types conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "spaghetti code", a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language". Tausworthe augments the three Structured program theorem Legal status By themselves, algorithms are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in Gottschalk v. Benson). However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The Software patent debate Classification By implementation ; Recursion : A recursive algorithm invokes itself repeatedly until meeting a termination condition and is a common functional programming method. Iteration ; Serial, parallel or distributed : Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time on serial computers. Serial algorithms are designed for these environments, unlike parallel algorithm ; Deterministic or non-deterministic : Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decisions at every step; whereas non-deterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing. Guesses are typically made more accurate through the use of heuristics. ; Exact or approximate : While many algorithms reach an exact solution, approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is close to the true solution. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. For example, the Knapsack problem, where there is a set of items, and the goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
practical value for many hard problems. For example, the Knapsack problem, where there is a set of items, and the goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. The total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider the weights of items as well as their value. ; Quantum algorithm : Quantum algorithms run on a realistic model of quantum computation. The term is usually used for those algorithms that seem inherently quantum or use some essential feature of Quantum computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement. By design paradigm Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or algorithmic paradigm ; Brute-force search : Brute force is a problem-solving method of systematically trying every possible option until the optimal solution is found. This approach can be very time-consuming, testing every possible combination of variables. It is often used when other methods are unavailable or too complex. Brute force can solve a variety of problems, including finding the shortest path between two points and cracking passwords. ; Divide and conquer : A divide-and-conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces a problem to one or more smaller instances of itself (usually recursion ; Search and enumeration : Many problems (such as playing Chess ;Randomized algorithm : Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They find approximate solutions when finding exact solutions may be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some problems, the fastest approximations must involve some randomness. Whether randomized algorithms with P (complexity) # Monte Carlo algorithms return a correct answer with high probability. E.g. RP (complexity) # Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. Zero-error Probabilistic Polynomial time ; Reduction (complexity) : This technique transforms difficult problems into better-known problems solvable with (hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
# Las Vegas algorithms always return the correct answer, but their running time is only probabilistically bound, e.g. Zero-error Probabilistic Polynomial time ; Reduction (complexity) : This technique transforms difficult problems into better-known problems solvable with (hopefully) asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose Computational complexity theory ; Back tracking : In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution. Optimization problems For optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following: ; Linear programming : When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound by linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints can be used directly to produce optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular simplex algorithm. Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the maximum flow problem for directed graphs. If a problem also requires that any of the unknowns be integers, then it is classified in integer programming. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem. ; Dynamic programming : When a problem shows optimal substructures meaning the optimal solution can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems and overlapping subproblems, meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions. For example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path between a start and goal vertex in a weighted graph (discrete mathematics) ; The greedy method : Greedy | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions. For example, Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path between a start and goal vertex in a weighted graph (discrete mathematics) ; The greedy method : Greedy algorithms, similarly to a dynamic programming, work by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems, they always find the optimal solution but for others they may stop at local optimum ;The heuristic method :In optimization problems, heuristic algorithms find solutions close to the optimal solution when finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms get closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. They can ideally find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. These algorithms include local search (optimization) Examples One of the simplest algorithms finds the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be described in plain English as: High-level description: # If a set of numbers is empty, then there is no highest number. # Assume the first number in the set is the largest. # For each remaining number in the set: if this number is greater than the current largest, it becomes the new largest. # When there are no unchecked numbers left in the set, consider the current largest number to be the largest in the set. (Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code: Input: A list of numbers L. Output: | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
the set. (Quasi-)formal description: Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code: Input: A list of numbers L. Output: The largest number in the list L. if L.size 0 return null largest ← L[0] for each item in L, do if item > largest, then largest ← item return largest See also * Abstract machine * ALGOL * Algorithm aversion * Algorithm engineering * Algorithm characterizations * Algorithmic bias * Algorithmic composition * Algorithmic entities * Algorithmic synthesis * Algorithmic technique * Algorithmic topology * Computational mathematics * Garbage in, garbage out * Introduction to Algorithms (textbook) * Government by algorithm * List of algorithms * List of algorithm general topics * Medium is the message * Regulation of algorithms * Theory of computation ** Computability theory ** Computational complexity theory Notes Bibliography * * Bell, C. Gordon and Newell, Allen (1971), Computer Structures: Readings and Examples, McGraw–Hill Book Company, New York. . * Includes a bibliography of 56 references. * , * : cf. Chapter 3 Turing machines where they discuss "certain enumerable sets not effectively (mechanically) enumerable". * * Campagnolo, M.L., Cris Moore * Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.89ff. The first expression of "Church's Thesis". See in particular page 100 (The Undecidable) where he defines the notion of "effective calculability" in terms of "an algorithm", and he uses the word "terminates", etc. * Reprinted in The Undecidable, p.110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes. * * Davis gives commentary before each article. Papers of Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing * Davis offers concise biographies of Gottfried Leibniz * * * * , * Yuri Gurevich, Sequential Abstract State Machines Capture Sequential Algorithms, ACM Transactions on Computational Logic, Vol 1, no | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
mov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS .] * Minsky expands his "...idea of an algorithm – an effective procedure..." in chapter 5.1 Computability, Effective Procedures and Algorithms. Infinite machines. * Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp.289ff. Post defines a simple algorithmic-like process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
78-0-32129535-4 * Donald Knuth * Knuth, Donald E. (2010). Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms . Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * * External links * * * Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures – National Institute of Standards | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
* Knuth, Donald E. (2010). Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms . Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information. * * External links * * * Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures – National Institute of Standards and Technology ; Algorithm repositories * The Stony Brook Algorithm Repository – State University of New York at Stony Brook * Collected Algorithms of the ACM – Association for Computing Machinery * The Stanford GraphBase – Stanford University Category:Algorithms Category:Articles with example pseudocode Category:Mathematical logic Category:Theoretical computer science | Wikipedia:Algorithm |
Alexander Graham Bell (; born Alexander Bell; March 3, 1847 – August 2, 1922) was a Scottish-born Aside from Bell's own view of his citizenship, many, if not most Canadians considered him also as one of theirs as evidenced in an address by the Governor General of Canada. On October 24, 1917, in Brantford, Ontario, the Governor General spoke at the unveiling of the Bell Telephone Memorial to an audience numbering in the thousands, saying: "Dr. Bell is to be congratulated upon being able to receive the recognition of his fellow citizens and fellow countrymen". Alexander Melville Bell Many other inventions marked Bell'slater life, including ground-breaking work in Free-space optical communication Beyond his work in engineering, Bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity. His work in this area has been called "the soundest, and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenth-century America... Bell'smost notable contribution to basic science, as distinct from invention." The family home was on South Charlotte Street in Edinburgh, where a stone inscription marks it as Bell'sbirthplace. He had two brothers: Melville James Bell (1845–1870) and Edward Charles Bell (1848–1867), both who died of tuberculosis. He was born as just "Alexander Bell". At age 10, however, he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers. For his 11th birthday, his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name "Graham", chosen out of respect for Alexander Graham, a Canadians First invention As a child, Bell displayed a curiosity about his world; he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age. His best friend was Ben Herdman, a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
mill. At the age of 12, Bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes, creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years. In return, Ben'sfather John Herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to "invent". From his early years, Bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art, poetry, and music that his mother encouraged. With no formal training, he mastered the piano and became the family'spianist. Though normally quiet and introspective, he revelled in mimicry and "voice tricks" akin to ventriloquism that entertained family guests. Bell was also deeply affected by his mother'sgradual deafness (she began to lose her hearing when he was 12), and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour. He also developed a technique of speaking in clear, modulated tones directly into his mother'sforehead, whereby she would hear him with reasonable clarity. Bell'spreoccupation with his mother'sdeafness led him to study acoustics. His family was long associated with the teaching of elocution: his grandfather, Alexander Bell, in London, his uncle in Dublin, and his father, in Edinburgh, were all elocutionists. His father published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are still well known, especially The Standard Elocutionist (1860), which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. The Standard Elocutionist appeared in 168 British editions and sold over 250,000 copies in the United States alone. It explains methods to instruct deaf-mutes (as they were then known) to articulate words and read other people's lip movements to decipher meaning. Bell'sfather taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father'spublic demonstrations and astounded audiences with his | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
meaning. Bell'sfather taught him and his brothers not only to write Visible Speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound. Bell became so proficient that he became a part of his father'spublic demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities. He could decipher Visible Speech representing virtually every language, including Latin, Scottish Gaelic, and even Sanskrit, accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation. Education As a young child, Bell, like his brothers, was schooled at home by his father. At an early age, he was enrolled at the Royal High School (Edinburgh) First experiments with sound Bell'sfather encouraged his interest in speech and, in 1863, took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by Sir Charles Wheatstone based on the earlier work of Wolfgang von Kempelen Intrigued by the results of the automaton, Bell continued to experiment with a live subject, the family's Skye Terrier, Trouve. After he taught it to growl continuously, Bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dog'slips and vocal cords to produce a crude-sounding "Ow ah oo ga ma ma". With little convincing, visitors believed his dog could articulate "How are you, grandmama?" Indicative of his playful nature, his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a "talking dog". These initial forays into experimentation with sound led Bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound, using tuning forks to explore resonance. At age 19, Bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologist Alexander John Ellis Dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by Helmholtz, who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork "contraption", Bell pored over the book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition, Family tragedy In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London, Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
the book. Working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a French edition, Family tragedy In 1865, when the Bell family moved to London, Bell returned to Weston House as an assistant master and, in his spare hours, continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment. Bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in Somerset College to that of a friend. Throughout late 1867, his health faltered mainly through exhaustion. His brother Edward was similarly affected by tuberculosis. While Bell recovered (by then referring to himself in correspondence as "A. G. Bell") and served the next year as an instructor at Somerset College, Bath, Somerset Helping his father in Visible Speech demonstrations and lectures brought Bell to Susanna E. Hull'sprivate school for the deaf in South Kensington, London. His first two pupils were deaf-mute girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage. While Melville seemed to achieve success on many fronts, including opening his own elocution school, applying for a patent on an invention, and starting a family, Bell continued as a teacher. In May 1870, Melville died from complications of tuberculosis, causing a family crisis. His father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and been restored to health by convalescence in Newfoundland and Labrador Canada , the Bells' first home in North America, now a National Historic Sites of Canada In 1870, 23-year-old Bell travelled with his parents and his brother'swidow, Caroline Margaret Ottaway, to Paris, Ontario, to stay with Thomas Henderson, a Baptist minister and family friend. The Bells soon purchased a farm of at Tutelo Heights (now called Tutela Heights), near Brantford, Ontario. The property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River (Ontario) At the homestead, Bell set up a workshop in the converted carriage house near what he called his "dreaming place", | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
property consisted of an orchard, large farmhouse, stable, pigsty, hen-house, and a carriage house, which bordered the Grand River (Ontario) At the homestead, Bell set up a workshop in the converted carriage house near what he called his "dreaming place", a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river. Despite his frail condition upon arriving in Canada, Bell found the climate and environs to his liking and rapidly improved. He continued his interest in the study of the human voice, and when he discovered the Six Nations 40, Ontario After setting up his workshop, Bell continued experiments based on Helmholtz'swork with electricity and sound. He also modified a Pump organ Work with deaf people to teachers at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes, 1871; throughout his life, he referred to himself as "a teacher of the deaf" Bell'sfather was invited by Sarah Fuller (educator) Returning home to Brantford after six months abroad, Bell continued his experiments with his "harmonic telegraph". The basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each was transmitted at a different pitch, but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed. Unsure of his future, he contemplated returning to London to complete his studies, but decided to return to Boston as a teacher. His father helped him set up his private practice by contacting Gardiner Greene Hubbard, the president of the Clarke School for the Deaf for a recommendation. Teaching his father'ssystem, in October 1872, Alexander Bell opened his "School of Vocal Physiology and Mechanics of Speech" in Boston, which attracted a large number of deaf pupils, with his first class numbering 30 students. While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She later said that Bell dedicated his life to the | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
students. While he was working as a private tutor, one of his pupils was Helen Keller, who came to him as a young child unable to see, hear, or speak. She later said that Bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that "inhuman silence which separates and estranges". In 1893, Keller performed the sod-breaking ceremony for the construction of Bell's new Volta Bureau, dedicated to "the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf". Throughout his life, Bell sought to assimilate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world. He encouraged speech therapy and lip-reading over sign language. He outlined this in an 1898 paper detailing his belief that, with resources and effort, the deaf could be taught to Lip reading Continuing experimentation In 1872, Bell became professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at the Boston University School of Oratory. During this period, he alternated between Boston and Brantford, spending summers in his Canadian home. At Boston University, Bell was "swept up" by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors living in the city. He continued his research in sound and endeavoured to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech, but although absorbed by his experiments, he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation. With days and evenings occupied by his teaching and private classes, Bell began to stay awake late into the night, running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house. Keeping "night owl" hours, he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment. Bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover. His health deteriorated as he had severe headaches. Returning to Boston in autumn 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Giving up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
and equipment inside a locking cover. His health deteriorated as he had severe headaches. Returning to Boston in autumn 1873, Bell made a far-reaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound. Giving up his lucrative private Boston practice, Bell retained only two students, six-year-old "Georgie" Sanders, deaf from birth, and 15-year-old Mabel Gardiner Hubbard The telephone By 1874, Bell'sinitial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage, with progress made both at his new Boston "laboratory" (a rented facility) and at his family home in Canada a big success.: "Brantford is justified in calling herself 'The Telephone City' because the telephone originated there. It was invented in Brantford at Tutela Heights in the summer of 1874." In 1874, telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and, in the words of Western Union President William Orton (businessman) In March 1875, Bell and Pollok visited the scientist Joseph Henry, then the director of the Smithsonian Institution, to ask his advice on the electrical multi-reed apparatus that Bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph. Henry said Bell had "the germ of a great invention". When Bell said that he lacked the necessary knowledge, Henry replied, "Get it With financial support from Sanders and Hubbard, Bell hired Watson as his assistant, Bell was so short of funds at times that he had to borrow money from his own employee, Thomas A. Watson The race to the patent office In 1875, Bell developed an Acoustic Telegraph Meanwhile, Elisha Gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter. On February 14, 1876, Gray filed a Patent caveat On March 7, 1876, the United States Patent and Trademark Office On March 10, Bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work, using a liquid transmitter similar to Gray'sdesign. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water, varying the electrical resistance in | Wikipedia:Alexander Graham Bell |
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